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SOLUTIONS
Contents JULY 2007 I VOLUME 40 NUMBER 7
F E AT U R E S
INNOVATION
C H E C K O U T MING-LI SHIU, doctoral candidate and lecturer, department of industrial engineering, CYCU
The ASQ website! MAO-HSIUNG TU, president, D&N Business Consulting Co., Hsin-Chu City, Taiwan
VISIT
www.asq.org OPINION
• Web Watch.
• Author guidelines. 39 Conformity or Sustainability? That Is the Question
• Searchable database of ASQ A paradigm shift might be underway with the ISO 9004 draft, which envisions
abstracts. integrated, aligned and process based management systems.
• Index of back issues. DAVID K. WATKINS, executive vice president and director of international operations, Omnex Inc.,
Ann Arbor, MI
For ASQ members only:
• Salary surveys from 1995 to 2005.
• Complete feature articles since 1995. SIX SIGMA
• QP Discussion Board.
45 Six Sigma, Value and Competitive Strategy
To stay ahead of competitors and create value, a company should listen to
its customers and use Six Sigma to achieve its competitive strategy.
R. ERIC REIDENBACH and REGINALD W. GOEKE, principals and founding partners of Market Value
Solutions, State College, PA
Quality Progress (ISSN 0033-524X) is published monthly by the American Society for Quality, 600 N. Plankinton Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53203. List Rentals
Editorial and advertising offices: 414-272-8575. Periodicals postage paid at Milwaukee, WI, and at additional mailing offices. Institutional sub- Orders for ASQ’s member and nonmember
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Postmaster: Please send address changes to the American Society for Quality, PO Box 3005, Milwaukee, WI 53201-3005. Printed in USA.
Associate Editor
MARK EDMUND
things customers can’t tell you. The theme of this month’s issue is about an-
Assistant Editor
ticipating and catering to customer needs—before they even know what DAVE NELSEN
they want. It’s called innovation. Manuscript Coordinator
W. Edwards Deming believed in the power and VALERIE FUNK
Futurist Jim Carroll, who spoke at ASQ’s World Conference on Quality Advertising Production
BARBARA MITROVIC
and Improvement this spring, says there are 10 signs that you’ve got inno-
Digital Production Specialists
vation dysfunction within your organization: ERIC BERNA, LAURA FRANCESCHI
• People laugh at new ideas.
• Someone who identifies a problem is shunned. Account Executives
ANGELA M. MITCHELL
• Innovation is the privileged practice of a special group. MITCHELL PEZANOSKI
• The phrase, “You can’t do that because we’ve always done it this way”
Classified/Recruitment Advertising
follows every new idea. RAMONA GARCIA
• No one can remember the last time anyone did anything really cool. Marketing Administrator
• People think innovation is about R&D. MATT MEINHOLZ
• People have convinced themselves that competing on price is normal. Editorial and Advertising Offices
414-272-8575 fax 414-272-1734
• The organization is focused more on process than success.
• There are lots of baby boomers about, and few people younger than 25. ASQ ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
• After any type of surprise—product, market, industry or organizational PAUL E. BORAWSKI
change—everyone sits back and asks, “Wow, where did that come from?” Managing Directors
CHRISTOPHER D. BAUMAN
Look around you. Look at your company. If you read any one of the
BRIAN J. LEHOUILLIER
points above, and thought, “Boy, can I relate,” you must—really, for the sake MICHELLE MASON
of survival—ask yourself, “What are you going to do about it?” To promote discussion of issues in the field of quality and ensure
coverage of all responsible points of view, Quality Progress pub-
lishes articles representing conflicting and minority views.
Opinions expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily
of ASQ or Quality Progress. Use of the ASQ logo in advertisements
does not necessarily constitute endorsement of that particular
product or service by ASQ.
Seiche Sanders
Editor
totomo@comcast.net child gives them their own strict Michael D. Nichols, Nichols Quality Associates
DIRECTORS
M IKE M ASON Jochen Amelsberg, Juran Institute
chart,” but I believe they are syn- Grayline Inc. Belinda Chavez, United Space Alliance
onyms. Both are generic terms for Waukesha, WI Brenda M. Fisk, Software Quality Solutions
various ways to diagram a process. mikem@graylineinc.com Richard A. Gould, RG Management Solutions
According to one website, process Kamla P. Gupta, Continuous Improvement Technology
mapping “is also known as process Stephen K. Hacker, Transformation Systems International
Gary L. Johnson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
charting or flow charting” and “the Author’s Response
Kay A. Kendall, Sun Microsystems
original system [was] invented by Thank you for sharing your view- William H. LaFollette, Humana Inc.
Frank Gilbreth in the early 1900s” point. I didn’t mention it in the col- Lou Ann Lathrop, General Motors
(www.strategosinc.com/process_ umn, but my approach is based on David B. Levy, Levy Quality Consulting
map_example.htm). While that site is research and principles of behavior Richard A. Litts, Litts Quality Technologies
not necessarily a definitive authority, I management for children. Richard F. McKeever, D2 Quality Associates
For the Big Three to catch up, the culture has to change signif- AWARDS
icantly.”
Whatever automaker you’re behind, quality will no doubt Juran Center Names 2007
contribute to its future success.
Poris says, “Quality professionals should be constantly
Fellows, Award Winners
pushing quality issues upstream, being as noisy as possible The Joseph M. Juran Center for Leadership in Quality at
about it. This includes pushing sales and marketing to nail the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management
down customer requirements, pushing engineering to be recently named its 2007 Juran fellows. Six Juran fellows were
more involved up front in development of specifications, selected from 20 applicants and receive $10,000 to expand
and ensuring advanced product quality planning is actually their quality research and its applications after graduation.
used and reviewed by decision makers throughout the The fellows and their proposed research projects are:
design process.” • Wenny Chandra, Pennsylvania State University,
Wilkinson’s advice? “Think globally. Think like a customer.” “Improving Public Health System: Disease Surveillance
He says the key to taking back the lead in global sales will for Pandemic Preparedness and Response Planning.”
depend on GM’s ability to fit in to an expanding global market. • Aravind Chandrasekaran, University of Minnesota,
Japan, the United States and Western Europe, are “mature “Balancing Between Innovation and Improvement
markets,” Wilkinson says. GM leads in the United States, Projects in High Velocity Environments.”
Toyota leads in Japan, and it’s unlikely any of that will change. • Carla L. Fisher, Pennsylvania State University,
However, he points to China, India and Latin America as open “Competent Mother-Adult Daughter Communication:
markets. It’s up to the automakers to appeal to car buyers in Behavior Essential to the Quality of Life when Coping
those countries. With Breast Cancer Across the Life Span.”
“It’s a wide open market,” Wilkinson says. “The next few • Betty Harper, Pennsylvania State University, “An
years will be very interesting.” Investigation of the Role of Continuous Improvement in
“How much
do you make?”
We can help you avoid the awkward silence that most likely follows such a daring question—simply read
the 2007 Quality Progress Salary Survey. But first, we need your help.
Please spend 10 minutes taking our salary survey at www.asq.org/mr/qp-salary-survey-07.html.
Your participation will help ensure the best, most accurate results. Last year, we received a record number
of responses. This year, we’d like to break that record.
Results of the survey will appear in the December issue of Quality Progress. Expanded results will be posted
at www.asq.org/pub/qualityprogress.
will focus on the requirements and uses of AQIP’s sys- helps consumers make better healthcare decisions. For more
tems portfolio and systems appraisal process, which use information, go to www.nbch.org.
quality tools to describe and assess education systems.
Enrollment is limited to 50 people, and registrations will EFFECTIVE OUTSOURCING is based on partner-
be accepted until the workshop is full, or until Aug. 17, ship rather than procurement, according to
whichever comes first. For more information, go to PricewaterhouseCoopers’ new 2007 global outsourcing
www.aqip.org. survey. For more on the survey results, go to
www.pwc.com/extweb/ncpressrelease.nsf/docid/
THE NATIONAL BUSINESS COALITION ON FAB8BEF609FA5F48852572E30053BF92 (case sensitive).
HEALTH, the Leapfrog Group and Bridges to Excellence
recently presented their Driving Value in Health Care APICS, THE ASSOCIATION FOR OPERATIONS
Awards. Michigan based insurer Priority Health won an MANAGEMENT says it will address supply chain sus-
award for offering financial rewards to healthcare providers tainability and “going green” at the 2007 APICS
for high quality and cost effective care through its physician International Conference and Exposition, which will be
incentive program. The University of Michigan won an Oct. 21-23 in Denver. For more information or to register
award for its “focus on diabetes” initiative, a program that for the event, go to www.apicsconference.org.
Web Watch
AUTOMOTIVE Education Foundation created this site to inspire teens
www.sae.org and preteens to pursue careers in engineering and
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has manufacturing. It shows how engineers design and
more than 90,000 members. On SAE’s website, mem- produce things such as snacks, clothing, cars, cosmet-
bers and nonmembers can view the bookstore, job ics and cell phones. It also features video clips of teens
board, papers and related links, plus information on and preteens creating radio controlled airplanes and
magazines, conferences and exhibitions, seminars, building computers at SME’s Science, Technology and
training, collegiate chapters and volunteering opportu- Engineering Preview summer programs.
nities. Other features include free online specialized
newsletters and a search tool. SAE members can QUALITY RESOURCES
access discussion forums and a news briefing service. www.fmeainfocentre.com
The FMEA Info Centre claims to have “everything
INTERNATIONAL you want to know about failure mode and effect analy-
www.euskalit.net/new/indexenglish.php sis.” Features of the site include book lists, papers,
The Basque Foundation for Quality, known as presentations, news alerts, downloadable software,
EUSKALIT, is a not-for-profit organization that promotes implementation guides and information on standards.
total quality management in the region of Spain known
as Basque Country. Its website has free articles and More websites. Links to and descriptions of these sites
information on EUSKALIT, its 5S club, European Quality and past Web Watch sites can be found in the cumula-
Week and the Basque Quality Award. While this is the tive Web Watch listing online. Click on the
address of the English homepage, some of the links Quality Progress link at www.asq.org.
send users to pages in Spanish.
Found an interesting quality site? If you
MANUFACTURING come across a noncommercial site that
www.manufacturingiscool.com could be useful to other quality profession-
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) als, e-mail it to dnelsen@asq.org.
The Innovation
Process and
Quality Tools
by Justin Levesque and H. Fred Walker
A
s quality professionals, we work to
improve our organizations using special- service innovation is the actual source of competi-
ized knowledge, tools and techniques. tive advantage in a global market.
We call our work continuous improvement, which, Second, innovation consists of a series of steps,
historically, has primarily focused on reducing just like any other business or industrial process.
costs and waste while minimizing process variabil- Since innovation in and of itself is a process, specif-
ity to increase product or service quality. But are ic quality improvement tools can be used for its
cost reductions and quality improvements the improvement. Using quality improvement tools in
source of competitive advantage in a global mar- the innovation process will get higer quality prod-
ketplace? ucts to market faster and at a lower cost.
The intent of this article is to make two points.
First, cost control and product quality only sustain Why Should Firms Focus
On Innovation?
Manufacturing and service industries are contin-
In 50 Words uing the global trend of outsourcing, and this pres-
Or Less sures new vendors and suppliers to innovate if
they want to meet market demand. It is widely
known that manufacturing work continues to
• While cost control and product quality can sustain a
move to Asia. With global commerce, a new com-
competitive advantage, innovation creates it. pany with a great product can buy off-the-shelf
technology to become a first-rate manufacturer
• The innovation process can be compared to a manufac- quickly. Many Asian firms have done this. These
companies have become global competitors, with a
turing process, as both require a series of steps to
niche application in the use of automated manufac-
arrive at a final product. turing technology, on par with any U.S. or
European firm.
• The innovation process uses seven new quality tools. Education, when considered a service industry,
might also be experiencing a similar global shift—
unavailable; software programs using statistical 1. Vivek Wadhwa, “Where the Engineers Are,” Issues in
correlation methods are used to quantify the rela- Science and Technology, Spring 2007, pp. 73-84.
tionship between factors when data are available. 2. Andrew Graves, “Comparative Trends in Automotive
Due to the mathematical rigor involved, matrix Research and Development,” paper presented at the Science
data analysis is the most complex of the new tools. Policy Research Unit, Sussex University, Brighton, Sussex,
1987.
Considerations for Quality 3. ASQ, Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence
Professionals Certification, www.asq.org/certification/manager-of-quality/
bok.html.
Firms can structure the innovation process in 4. ASQ, Seven New Management and Planning Tools,
such a way that quality improvement methods www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/
with the new tools are not aligned with the model new-management-planning-tools/overview/overview.html.
we have illustrated. For the new quality tools to be 5. William Kolarik, Creating Quality: Concepts, Systems,
of use, we recommend readers evaluate the current Strategies, and Tools, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
state of the innovation process in their firms with 6. Nancy Tague, The Quality Toolbox, second edition, ASQ
other department stakeholders. Other stakeholders Quality Press, 2005.
can include marketing managers, R&D scientists
and managers, technology transfer officers, prod- JUSTIN LEVESQUE is a graduate student in the master’s
uct engineers and manufacturing managers. in manufacturing systems and MBA programs at the
When the existing state of the innovation process
University of Southern Maine. He has established and
is known, a phased-in approach of the new quality
operated a quality testing laboratory in the brewing indus-
tools can then be completed over time. A good
place for introduction of the new tools might be at try. Levesque has a bachelor’s degree in biology from Bates
the interdepartmental meetings that occur during College in Lewiston, ME, and works in process improve-
the innovation process. ment for a biotechnology company.
R&D personnel and other departments involved H. FRED WALKER is a professor, department chair and
in the innovation process might be hesitant to
graduate coordinator in the department of technology at
embrace quality tools, which is an issue of organi-
the University of Southern Maine. He has a doctorate in
zational culture and communication. But as quality
industrial education and technology from Iowa State
professionals, we all know quality impacts the ulti-
mate profitability of our firms. Most of us can prob- University. Walker recently co-authored two books pub-
ably think of a time when we have had difficulty lished by ASQ Quality Press, The Certified Quality
explaining to senior management that quality is an Engineer Handbook, second edition, and The Certified
investment, not a cost. Communicating this concept Quality Technician Handbook. He is vice chair of print
of quality to R&D managers, as well as to other initiatives for ASQ’s Quality Management Division and
innovation stakeholders, will be no different. We editor of its newsletter, Quality Management Forum.
must embrace the concept of quality not just in Walker is a senior member of ASQ and is a certified man-
engineering and manufacturing, but also through- ager of quality/organizational excellence, quality engineer,
out all stages of the innovation process. reliability engineer and quality auditor.
As quality practitioners, we historically have
Nanotechnology:
A Big Little Frontier
For Quality by Harriet Black Nembhard
H
ave you seen the Apple iPod nano? While to make about the same reduction as you would to
it is very thin, it is not really on the nano fit the diameter of the earth into your arms.
scale. The term nano denotes one-billionth Nanotechnology deals with arranging particles
in the metric measuring system. A particle with a on this extremely small scale, the atomic scale. It is a
nanometer diameter is therefore one-billionth of a field of applied science focused on the design, syn-
meter (10-9m) in size. thesis, characterization and application of materials
The thickness (or thinness, as Apple would have and devices on the nanoscale. The basic goal is to
it) of an iPod is approximately 7 million nanometers. engineer functional systems at the molecular level.
To reduce it to just one nanometer, you would have The United States’ National Nanotechnology
Initiative (NNI) website defines nanotechnology as
“the understanding and control of matter at dimen-
In 50 Words sions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers, where unique
Or Less phenomena enable novel applications.”1
Some contend nanotechnology is more impor-
• Nanotechnology deals with arranging particles on the tant than all previous scientific advances. To quote
the authors of one book:
atomic scale.
Nanotechnology is an anticipated manufactur-
ing technology that allows thorough, inexpen-
• The scope of nanotechnology is vast, global and critical sive control of the structure of matter by working
to future production. with atoms. It will allow many things to be man-
ufactured at low cost and with no pollution. It
will lead to the production of nanomachines,
• Quality practitioners and researchers can use design which are sometimes called nanodevices. It is
therefore an advancement as important as the
of experiments, statistical process control, Six Sigma discovery of the first tool. However, rather than
and ISO 9001 certification knowledge to make strong shape what nature offers, we can do it ourselves.
Unlike metallurgy, natural substances are not
contributions to nanotechnology. used as the starting materials, but atoms—the
ingredients of the universe.2
NNI, established in 2001, and the 21st Century nanotechnology, a patent was recently filed for
Nanotechnology Research and Development Act the Nucleic Acid Nanorobot that could perhaps
of 20033 have supported in the neighborhood of be used someday to deliver molecular medicine
$1 billion per year for nanotechnology research exactly where it is needed in the body.7
and development in the United States. With this If this sounds almost like science fiction, the case
investment, numerous centers and networks of can easily be made that the future of nanotechnolo-
excellence have been established under the gy is here. One of the recurring problems, however,
National Science Foundation (NSF), National is that this growing nanotech trade has been hit by
Institutes of Health, Department of Defense and questions regarding quality. One of the reasons the
NASA. use of nanotech is limited is because process con-
Most major universities now have laboratories trol, reliability and repeatability of the processes
and centers dedicated to nanotechnology, with and products have not been well established.
much of the work focused on the fundamental sci-
ence needed to advance research and development. Fundamental Characterization
Some elements that have been born out of this And Processing
research include nanoshells (5 to 20 nanometers in Laboratory operations for nanotechnology are
diameter—about the width of a blood cell) that can often concerned with systematically arranging
simultaneously detect and destroy cancer cells,4 nanoparticles into functional structures such as
and nanomotors (2 to 5 nanometers in diameter— films, lubricants and adhesives. At the nanoscale,
about the width of DNA) that can be used to rotate there are small-size dependent properties that do
microscale objects.5 However, even though proto- not necessarily correspond to macroscale proper-
types and samples of these devices have been cre- ties.
ated, nanotechnology is still in the precompetitive Therein lies the problem: In many cases, these
stage, meaning its applied use is limited. size dependent properties are only beginning to be
understood. It is critical, however, that this science is
How Will Nanotechnology Be Used? more fully understood to manipulate the nanoscale
Beyond the basic definitions and capabilities, building blocks into engineered nanoscale systems.
many people have grappled with the deeper ques- Statistically based design of experiments (DOEs) can
tions of what nanotechnology means, what it has be extremely helpful in comprehending the effects
the potential to offer society and how it will be of design factors on the particle or product charac-
used to create wealth. Indeed, nanotechnology is terization and process.
becoming an engine for making the food we eat, As an example of this point, consider the step
clothes we wear and medicine we take. More than and flash nanolithography (SFNL) process. This
1,700 companies in 47 nations are reportedly pur- SFNL process is used for nanoscale imprinting,
suing the promise of nanotechnology, according to which can create features of an imprinted pattern
the May 2007 issue of the International Nanotech- on the order of 50 to 100 nanometers. This capabili-
nology Companies Business Directory.6 ty can be applied, for example, to write very small
Many of these companies specialize in business- letters for library archival purposes.
to-business products, such as specialized nanopar- I was a part of a team that used DOE to improve
ticulates made of metals and ceramics, nanotubes, the operation of an SFNL process.8 The process own-
nanowires and nanocages made of these materials, ers established that the radio frequency power,
and imaging and tooling equipment designed for chamber pressure, gas flow and the magnetic flux
the nanoscale. were four important controllable process factors and
Some companies directly involved with busi- that the average amount and the uniformity of the
ness-to-consumer products are using nanotechnol- etching of the spin-on material were two important
ogy to improve the rain repelling capability of responses. A replicated full 24 factor design with
automotive glass, to enhance skin condition with three center point runs was carried out.
highly penetrating moisturizer, and to purify air The results showed significant interaction between
with supercharged oxidizing photons. pressure and gas flow that affected the preferred
According to TinyTech IP, a blog devoted to operating settings of the process. Furthermore, a
ability to scale up reliable materials will determine chip manufacturers to analyze the surface for
whether industry will support the development of defects using atomic force microscopy (AFM).27
nanoscale materials for specific applications.”19 There seems to be an immediate opportunity to use
The same issue is echoed by the Food and Drug SPC and AFM or other imaging technology in the
Administration (FDA): “The industrialization chal- production of nanowires, but in a current review of
lenges posed by the demands of physical product the literature, this has not been addressed.
design, characterization, scale-up and manufactur- If true process control could be established for
ing are often little understood outside of FDA and nanowires, and indeed other nanodevices and nan-
the pharmaceutical ... communities. It is crucial otechnologies, it would lay the foundation for
that ... improved methods for design, characteriza- process scale-up. An important consideration, how-
tion and product manufacture are available to ever, should be that the complexity and intricacy of
improve predictability in this area.”20 nanotechnology processes might in fact call for
The NSF, PNNL, FDA and other agencies and multivariate SPC (MSPC) methods such as multi-
private initiatives have helped support innovation variate exponentially weighted average principle
component analysis and profile monitoring.
With these methods, multivariate data is reduced
in dimension and correlated with final product
Certification has started quality. This information can then be used for fault
detection and coupled with engineering process
to become a priority with control. A recent example illustrates the application
of MSPC to a reactive ion etching process.28 There is
several organizations. certainly opportunity to explore the application of
other MSPC techniques to other nanotechnology
processes.
In fact, in the last several years, many traditional
and research to address the scale-up challenge. The companies have embraced the Six Sigma metric of
reports point out that key subproblems have been quality that aims for processes that produce prod-
low reliability and yield for nanoscale devices, lack ucts that are 99.99966% defect free. Think about it:
of repeatability and reproducibility in yielding a Out of 1,000 nanowires on a wafer, in many cases,
particular product, and lack of inherent robustness fewer than 10 will have the desired quality and
and control of the nanomanufacturing process. specification. Imagine now how the potential of the
These issues are intrinsically linked to quality field would change if nanotechnology production
and statistics. More specifically, statistical process processes met Six Sigma levels.
control (SPC) is an area in the quality domain that
could help tremendously. Product Certification and Standards
Consider, for example, the current research into As interest in nanotechnology has surged, the
the development of nanowires. Nanowires are gen- market has created buyers and sellers for special-
erally flexible and can be as slender as 50 nanome- ized nanoparticulates and nanodevices. On the
ters in width. The photo on p. 27 shows a nanowire commercial level, however, trade has been ham-
made of silicon that can guide a beam of light. pered by concerns about the quality and safety of
While it is not the intent of this article to exhaus- the products. For example, a survey of nanotech-
tively examine the literature on nanowires, they nology companies revealed problems with contam-
have been created from many materials, for many inated batches of nanoparticulates. Some of the
purposes, using many types of processes.21-26 In problems might have occurred during production,
many of these cases, however, the literature is others during shipping.29
reporting on the best one of just a few nanowires In response to these problems, certification has
that had the desired quality and specification. But started to become a priority with several organiza-
that one nanowire might have been produced in a tions:
batch of thousands. • In the textile industry, the Hohenstein Insti-
It has been reported that SPC has been used by tute (Bönnigheim, Germany) has launched the
Then read The Next Big Thing Is Really Small39 and high school and college levels.
Understanding Nanotechnology.40 These two books Quality practitioners should track the nanotech-
provide a good, basic introduction to the topic and nology food chain for their industry. Understand
can be read in an afternoon. For a more in-depth how it will potentially impact your organization.
overview, books that are sometimes used in higher- Then think strategically about how to position
education courses are Nanotechnology: Basic Science your business and your career for success in nan-
and Emerging Technologies,41 Nanoscale Science and otechnology using quality tools.
Technology42 and Nanoparticles: Building Blocks for Even if you are not directly involved in nanotech-
Nanotechnology.43 A somewhat prophetic treatment nology, it already impacts you and your business in
is given in Engines of Creation, the Coming Age of some way—or soon will.
Nanotechnology.44
REFERENCES
Researchers who are familiar with quality princi-
ples should collaborate with colleagues in chemical 1. National Nanotechnology Initiative, www.nano.gov.
engineering, mechanical engineering and material 2. Mick Wilson, Kannangara Kamali, Geoff Smith,
Michelle Simmons and Burkhard Ragues, Nanotechnology:
Basic Science and Emerging Technologies, Chapman &
Hall/CRC, 2002.
Teachers should become 3. “President Bush Signs Nanotechnology Research and
Development Act,” www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/
familiar with nanotechnology 2003/12/20031203-7.html.
4. Christopher Loo, Amanda Lowery, Naomi Halas,
courses being developed on Jennifer West and Rebekah Drezek, “Immunotargeted
Nanoshells for Integrated Cancer Imaging and Therapy,”
university campuses and help Nano Letters, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2005, pp. 709-711.
5. Rienk Eelkema, Michael M. Pollard, Javier Vicario,
shape the topic coverage to Nathalie Katsonis, Blanca Serrano, Ramon Cees, W. M.
Bastiaansen, Dirk J. Broer and Ben L. Feringa, “Molecular
QFD’s Evolution in
Japan and the West
by Jui-Chin Jiang, Ming-Li Shiu and Mao-Hsiung Tu
E
ven though the initial theory of quality as it developed many new products and changed
originated in the United States, early indus- models.
trial applications predominantly took place Yoji Akao conceived quality function deploy-
at Japanese companies. ment (QFD), a concept and method that served as a
At first, Japanese companies used quality control vital management tool for new product develop-
in manufacturing and inspection areas. But, the ment.1
Japanese automobile industry recognized the im- The ultimate benefits of QFD are lower product
portance of designing quality into new products in development costs, increased customer satisfaction
late 1960s, when it was in the midst of rapid growth and increased market share. It has been well docu-
mented that using QFD can result in the follow-
ing:2, 3, 4
• Reduction of development time by 50%.
In 50 Words • Reduction of the number of engineering
Or Less changes by 50%.
• Reduction of start-up and engineering costs
• The historical development of quality function by 30%.
deployment (QFD) in Japan and the West evolved • Reduction of warranty claims up to 50%.
• Increased customer satisfaction.
through three generations. • Systematic retention of product development
knowledge so it can be easily applied to simi-
• QFD will become an integral quality assurance lar future designs.
architecture that can be implemented concurrently
Definition
with product development processes, instead of QFD refers to the combination of quality deploy-
existing as a mere series of matrices. ment and narrowly defined QFD.5, 6 This definition
is depicted in Figure 1.
Quality deployment converts customer demands
Quality deployment
(deployment of the quality of a product itself)
• Optimal product
Quality of:
specifications
• Subsystems
• Optimal process
• Component
Customer’s condition
units
expressed Quality of a specifications
• Parts
and latent finished product • Supplier process
• Materials
requirements performance
• Production
requirements
process
• Key quality
design
assurance points
Product planning
Mass production
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
Specification xxx kg
values xxx° K
Unit parts
Quality
Subsystems characteristics of
component unit Quality data file
Processes
Process deployment system
Number Method A Method B Method C
Parts deployment
Component Final product Parts quality Precision
Number
parts characteristics characteristics
Cost
Vibration
Current
QFD’s Evolution
products with the quality
When QFD was conceived in Japan in the late that fulfills customer
1960s, the Japanese recognized that it was impor-
tant to design quality into new products. But they requirements.
lacked guidance on how this could be achieved.
Akao was the first person in Japan to propose
QFD to address the design situation.8 Akao’s origi-
nal QFD design, shown in Figure 2, represents the The first article that introduced QFD to the
first generation of QFD in Japan. He and Shigeru West was published in Quality Progress in 1983.10
Mizuno published the first book on the topic in In the same year, a comprehensive system of QFD,
1978.9 including technology, cost and reliability—which
reflects quality, technology, cost and reliability
considerations necessarily involved in product
development—was presented in Japan.11
Apart from the quality deployment, the system
FIGURE 3 House of Quality also includes:
• Ensuring that any bottleneck technology that
hinders the realization of design quality is
Co- extracted and solved at the earliest possible
relationships time.
How: • Preventing potential failures and their effects
technical through early prediction.
requirements • Achieving target costs balanced with quality.
Relationship This comprehensive QFD system represents the
What: second generation of QFD in Japan.
between Customer
customer In the meantime, Western authors introduced
hows and perceptions
requirements
whats the quality chart, or house of quality (HOQ), as the
main tool of QFD.12, 13
How much:
objectives/
The HOQ in Figure 3 illustrates how to use a
targets quality chart to convert customer demands (whats)
into quality characteristics (hows) and determine
their design targets (how much) in TABLE 1 QFD Evolution in Japan and the West
great detail.
But these Western writers used Evolution Japan The West
only a simple conceptual model of
linked houses of quality, as shown First generation Original quality function Four linked houses of quality
in Figure 4 (p. 35), to show how a deployment (QFD)
quality chart can be combined Second genera- Comprehensive system of 30-matrix model of QFD
tion QFD—including technolo-
with the other deployments, such
gy, cost and reliability
as subsystems, parts and process
deployments Third generation Real-time database QFD Critical parameter management
Although the linked houses of Evolutionary Toward adding value to Toward integrating various
quality tool is the earliest QFD direction every activity in the design tools and methods to
model made by Western re- product development competitively improve product
searchers (the first generation of process to competitively quality
QFD in the West) and the most improve product quality
recognized QFD form today in the
West, the tool was oversimplified
and left out much important information from the buy-in, implementation and compliance, the term
original QFD. QFD has been used to mean quality deployment in
Despite the passage of time since the comprehen- itself, and narrowly defined QFD has been com-
sive QFD system was introduced, few books and arti- pletely overlooked by most QFD practitioners out-
cles have been written on the topic in English. A side Japan.19
notable exception is Bob King’s 30-matrix model of
QFD.14 This model can be viewed as the most com- Different Directions
plete (including technology, cost and reliability) QFD In the past, although some misperceptions about
model made by Western researchers, and as the sec- the essence of QFD did exist, Western QFD basical-
ond generation of QFD in the West. ly developed following the model of Japanese QFD.
When QFD was spread internationally, some However, the difference between the current devel-
misunderstandings about the original QFD were opment of the so-called third generation of QFD in
gradually engendered and publicized. The com- Japan and the West can be considered a change in
mon misunderstandings include the following: which they have begun to develop QFD in different
Quality deployment is equivalent to a quality directions.
chart. Although QFD has been simplified in the The current Japanese QFD is based on narrowly
form of linked houses of quality in the West, the defined QFD. Also known as the deployment of a
majority of QFD applications stop with the com- new product development process for implemen-
pletion of the first matrix, the quality chart.15, 16, 17 tation, this version of QFD is known as real-time
C.A. Cox says no more than 5% of companies go database QFD (Rdb-QFD). Its original concept was
beyond the quality chart.18 However, most Japanese proposed by Tadashi Ohfuji, who says all quality
companies not only go beyond the quality chart to deployment charts should be retrievable in real
use the subsystems deployment chart, parts deploy- time from a computer database according to needs
ment chart and process deployment chart (all known during each stage of product development.
as quality deployment), but also implement technol- Western QFD has now combined with TRIZ, Kano
ogy deployment, cost deployment and reliability analysis and the Taguchi method and is used by Six
deployment. Sigma experts.
QFD is equivalent to quality deployment. As TRIZ is a Russian acronym for a theory of inven-
already noted, broadly defined QFD refers to the tive problem solving. Kano analysis stratifies the
combination of quality deployment and narrowly importance of demanded qualities based on cus-
defined QFD. Although narrowly defined QFD is tomer perception. Genichi Taguchi’s method has
the essential part for QFD to gaining long-term been further developed into a form of critical para-
characteristics
Key process
Engineering
operations
Customer
attributes
Parts
I. II. III. IV.
meter management by Six Sigma experts and is (narrowly defined QFD) in new product develop-
used in implementing design for Six Sigma activi- ment processes, various quality deployment charts
ties as the basis for the define, measure, analyze, are made and linked at each process stage, as in the
design and verify model. various sections of Figure 5 (p. 36):
The biggest difference between the latest devel- • I-1 and II-1 can be used to identify customer
opments of QFD in Japan and the West is that the needs and formulate advance technology
former’s QFD, in concept and method, points
toward how to add value to every activity in the
product development process to competitively
improve product quality. On the other hand, the Although QFD has been
latter’s QFD points toward how to integrate vari-
ous design tools and methods to competitively simplified in the form of
improve product quality. Table 1 summarizes these
differences. linked houses of quality in
Future of QFD the West, the majority of
QFD must become an integral quality assurance
architecture that can be concurrently implemented QFD applications stop with
within the product development process, not as
merely a series of matrices. The word “integral,” in the completion of the first
this context, means integrating both Japanese and
Western approaches to QFD, as shown in Figure 4, matrix, the quality chart.
by combining various design tools and methods
with QFD to strengthen the quality deployment
process itself, as in the following examples: development plans during the product and
• In deploying demanded qualities, Kano analy- technology development planning stage.
sis can be introduced to get a better under- • II-2 and III-1 can provide information on tech-
standing of the customer’s perception. nical feasibility evaluation and target costs
• In deploying finished product quality charac- needed for the system level design stage of
teristics and subsystems, TRIZ can be used to product development.
enhance creativity in design concept genera- • I-2, II-3 and IV-1 help to develop optimal prod-
tion and design problem solving. uct specifications and select key components.
• In deploying processes, the Taguchi method • I-2’ and II-3 can be used to choose materials,
can be adopted to determine optimal process tooling and product specifications and con-
conditions more effectively. duct their verification during the prototype-
When deploying the quality assurance activities design and detail-design stages.
FIGURE 5 QFD: Integral Quality Assurance Architecture for New Product Development
development
information
Demanded
Advance
roadmap
Product
product
Market
quality
• Customer needs
plan
I-1 II-1
identification
• Product portfolio
Finished Technology III. Cost deployment
product development
strategy formulation
Using Kano analysis to Own
specifications specify the demanded plan III-1 Competitors • Advance product/
company
qualities that are technology roadmapping
Market price
attractive for customers Sales volume
Market share
System level design
characteristics
specifications
Profit
Finished
product
Key components/
analysis (FMEA)
Subsystems/
specifications
Product failure
• Tooling specifications
material cost
parts
tooling specifications
Using Taguchi method qualification
to optimize process to
make product be minimally Production preparation
sensitive to
minimally factors to
sensitive Machine • Optimal process
Component unit causingcausing
factors variability fault tree conditions design
specifications variability analysis table • Manufacturability
Labor/equipment/
specifications
Key control
verification
Processes
Production
tooling cost
Process
FMEA
items
REFERENCES
1. Yoji Akao and Glenn H. Mazur, “The Leading Edge in JUI-CHIN JIANG is an associate professor
QFD: Past, Present and Future,” International Journal of Quality in the department of industrial engineer-
& Reliability Management, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2003, pp. 20-35. ing of Chung-Yuan Christian University
2. Don Clausing and Stuart Pugh, “Enhanced Quality
(CYCU), Taiwan, and a consultant to
Function Deployment,” Proceedings of the Design Productivity
International Conference, 1991, pp. 15-25.
Taiwanese industries. He received his doc-
3. Archie Lockamy III and Anil Khurana, “Quality torate in industrial engineering from
Function Deployment: Total Quality Management for New Cleveland State University in Ohio.
Product Design,” International Journal of Quality & Reliability
Management, Vol. 12, No. 6, 1995, pp. 73-84.
4. Mohamed Zairi and Mohamed A. Youssef, “Quality
Function Deployment,” International Journal of Quality & MING-LI SHUI is a doctoral candidate
Reliability Management, Vol. 12, No. 6, 1995, pp. 9-23. and lecturer in the department of indus-
5. Shigeru Mizuno and Yoji Akao, eds., Quality Function trial engineering of CYCU.
Deployment: A Companywide Quality Approach (in Japanese),
JUSE Press, 1978.
6. Akao, “The Leading Edge in QFD: Past, Present and
Future,” see reference 1.
7. Ibid.
8. Yoji Akao, “New Product Development and Quality MAO-HSIUNG TU is the president of
Assurance—Quality Deployment System” (in Japanese), D&N Business Consulting Co. in Hsin-
Standardization and Quality Control, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1972, pp. 7-14. Chu City, Taiwan. He received his MBA
9. Mizuno, Quality Function Deployment: A Companywide from City University, Seattle. He was
Quality Approach, see reference 5.
formerly the corporate chief consultant of
10. Masao Kogure and Yoji Akao, “Quality Function
Deployment and CWQC in Japan,” Quality Progress, Vol. 16,
the companywide quality improvement
No. 10, 1983, pp. 25-29. office of Philips Taiwan and won the
11. Yoji Akao, Tadatoshi Ono, Akira Harada, Hodecharu Deming Application Prize in 1991 and the Japan Quality
Tanaka and Kazuo Iwasawa, “Quality Deployment Medal (Nihon Quality Control Prize) in 1997.
Including Cost, Reliability and Technology (Part I)—Design
of Quality, Cost and Reliability” (in Japanese), Quality, Vol.
13, No. 1, 1983, pp. 61-70.
12. L.P. Sullivan, “Quality Function Deployment,” Quality
Progress, Vol. 19, No. 6, 1986, pp. 39-50.
Please
comment
13. John R. Hauser and Don Clausing, “The House of
Quality,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 66, No. 3, 1988, pp. 63-73. If you would like to comment on this article,
14. Bob King, Better Designs in Half the Time: Implementing please post your remarks on the Quality Progress
Quality Function Deployment in America, GOAL/QPC, 1989.
Discussion Board at www.asq.org, or e-mail
15. Lou Cohen, Quality Function Deployment: How to Make
them to editor@asq.org.
QFD Work for You, Addison-Wesley, 1995.
16. Vivianne Bouchereau and Hefin Rowlands, “Methods
MBNMN97
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OPINION
Conformity or
Sustainability? That
Is the Question
by David K. Watkins
“I
’m sorry, but whoever purchased the tickets tor attempted to select seating at the time she pur-
online must have neglected to make a seat chased the tickets, your website indicated no
selection,” offered the so-called elite cus- assignments were available at that time. Not only
tomer service representative I had contacted when I dis- that,” I added, “but even today my repeated
covered I had no seat assignments for my round trip to attempts to select seats online have all been
Mumbai, India, departing the next day. blocked by the system.”
“Well, no,” I responded. “When my travel coordina- With some frustration, the agent told me that she
could not determine what had gone wrong with
the initial ticketing process, nor could she pinpoint
why the system was still blocking me. Nonetheless,
In 50 Words after a number of calls and by dogged, persistent
Or Less
effort, she finally managed to get reasonable seat
assignments for me.
• An enterprise’s ability to survive and prosper, not Realizing I was a bit put out, she politely asked if
conformance, is what matters in today’s economy. I wished to file a formal complaint. I knew from
long experience with this airline that this would just
• The ISO 9004 revision draft says sustainability result in a politely apologetic form letter, explaining
how important I am to the airline and gifting me
requires continual identification and understanding with some air miles. Instead, I asked whether a for-
of present and future expectations and needs of all mal customer complaint would be necessary for the
problem to be addressed. Receiving a somewhat
stakeholders.
guarded response, I pressed on.
“You know there has been a fundamental failure
• This approach envisions integrated, aligned and in your ticketing process, right? You know it affect-
process based management systems. ed a customer who has flown over 2 million miles
on your airline and probably affected others in a
similar way. And you yourself have had to work of popular talks intended to edify and entertain,
hard and involve several other people to resolve improve the mind and bring culture and enlighten-
the immediate problem, right?” ment” to its audience.
She agreed, politely if not somewhat impatiently. While this description somewhat overstates my
“Is there a way for you to pursue this problem or purposes and, definitely, my capabilities, it seems
elevate it to the attention of management so it is for- this is what I am engaged in when writing this type
mally investigated, understood and prevented from of article. While it might not serve to enlighten or
ever recurring?” I asked. “Not really,” she replied, edify, it might further the discussion regarding
“Not without a formal complaint, anyway.” QMSs, the purpose of developing and implement-
Rather a long tale to illustrate what is, in many ing them, and our understanding of their potential
organizations, a typical response to a failure: First, for enhancing value, organizational effectiveness
blame it on the customer (or, better yet, a vendor); and sustainability.
second, try to fix the immediate problem (rework);
third, offer an apology and, if absolutely necessary, Are International Standards
some sort of modest compensation. If possible, par- The Answer?
ticularly in service industries, automate the latter There is good—if somewhat limited and inconsis-
so it involves minimal effort and cost. tent—empirical evidence that for some organizations
Fourth? Well, often, there is no fourth: Seek out, by the development of QMSs based on international
a disciplined process, the systemic cause and sure standards has provided at least part of the solution
prevention of a recurrence; learn from this investiga- to critical and chronic enterprise performance fail-
tive process; and use it to continually improve perfor- ures. Whether or not this success has been sustain-
mance to the competitive advantage of the enterprise. able is less well documented.
With time and subsequent iterations, the initial
Bankruptcy Result basic systems have been enhanced—becoming cus-
Not surprisingly, this is one of the airlines cur- tomer oriented, process based, quantitatively mea-
rently in bankruptcy. They all cite high fuel costs, sured (in some instances, at least) and designed to
wages and benefits as the primary causes—even drive continual improvement based on the plan-
though they all use the same fuel from the same do-check-act (PDCA) model.
sources and employ people from essentially the Subsequent efforts have endeavored to make
same labor markets as do those airlines not in QMSs more relevant and comprehensible by:
bankruptcy. • Adopting and deploying sector specific ver-
Bankruptcy raises the issue of sustainability—an sions (such as ISO/TS 16949 for the automo-
enterprise’s ability to survive and prosper in a tive industry, TL 9000 for telecommunications
rapidly evolving environment. Other airlines are and ISO 13485 for medical devices).
not only surviving but are prospering in the same • Disseminating industry specific guidelines—
environment. for example, International Organization for
More on this later because, based on a number of Standardization (ISO) guidelines for sectors
years of dealing with business operating systems such as construction, healthcare providers and
(called quality operating systems in the automotive educational institutions.
world), I have found myself constantly advising • Defining customer specific requirements.
clients that, in the end, sustainability of the enter- • Morphing into replicate systems that address
prise must be both the subject and object of quality other strategically critical areas of performance
management systems (QMSs). such as environment, health and safety, and
In Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance1 social and fiduciary responsibility, complete
(subtitled, aptly, “An Inquiry Into Values”), Robert with systems standards or regulations for each
Pirsig describes his discussion of quality and val- (ISO 14001, OHSAS 18001, SA 8000 and Sar-
ues as “a sort of Chautauqua …an old-time series banes-Oxley, respectively).
or operate in various regions, cultures and political involve conformance, nor does it prescribe specific
systems. processes, outcomes or evidence. Rather, it articu-
4. Vendors of goods and services, the supply lates “shoulds” deemed essential to developing and
chains they comprise and their own competi- continually improving a sustainable enterprise in a
tive environment. rapidly evolving environment by implementing
5. Governmental, regulatory and political sys- system based solutions, focusing on approaches to
tems. continually assessing the organization’s maturity
This brings us back to sustainability—which on a scale of values associated with sustainability,
turns out to be the focus of an ISO technical com- and continually assessing the organization’s envi-
mittee 176 committee draft (CD), ISO/CD 9004, ronment.
Managing for Sustainability—A Quality Management
Approach,2 currently in circulation for comment. ISO 9004’s Organizational Vision
I am introducing the draft at this point not to Where ISO 9001 requires determining and
report on it but to explore the way it seems to meeting customer requirements and continually
address the relationship between management improving customer satisfaction, the ISO 9004
systems and enterprise sustainability. draft envisions the enterprise employing mecha-
In its introduction, the draft asserts—without nisms that identify and understand “present and
much argument, I think—that organizations are future expectations and needs of defined stake-
increasingly accountable to: holders (including shareholders, managers,
• More environmentally and socially aware employees, customers, partners and society).”
shareholders. In part, according to the draft, these mechanisms
• Civil society in general. should assess competitive threats; threats and
• Employees. opportunities of emerging markets and products;
• Customers. and trends in customer needs and expectations.
• A variety of other stakeholders. In addition, according to the draft, the focus on
In this specific context, the document defines the organization environment should extend to the
sustainability as the “ability of an organization or following:
activity to maintain or develop its performance in • Current and changing legal and regulatory
the long term.” requirements.
Like ISO 9001, it describes a system based solu- • Evolving labor market conditions and issues.
tion incorporating the dynamic of the PDCA cycle, • Socio-economic and cultural trends that might
in which: come to bear on the organization.
• Plan addresses intent (mission, vision, strate- • Current and needed organizational capabilities.
gies and objectives, and the processes, structure • Practices to acquire learning and knowledge
and resources to ensure desired outcomes). from external organizations (for example, best
• Do involves the implementation of strategies, practices, products, technologies and system
processes and resources that are cohesively solutions).
linked and aligned with desired outcomes. While ISO 9001 speaks to analysis of data, the
• Check envisions monitoring and measurement ISO 9004 draft places enormous emphasis and
that assesses outcomes and provides information focus on application of and the learning to be
to enhance knowledge and decision making. achieved by sustained and disciplined analysis of
• Act involves corrections to achieve objectives; all recommended areas of monitoring and mea-
improvements to processes, products, struc- surement—internal and, in particular, external.
tures and systems; and (most particularly, Taken in its entirety, 9004 CD seems to me to
based on its emphasis throughout) innovation. aim for a systemic solution to the grail of the
Unlike ISO 9001, the ISO 9004 draft does not knowledge organization, (more honored in the
REFERENCE
The approach also provides constant and struc- 1. Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance,
tured self-assessment of and actions to improve William Morrow and Co., 1974.
enterprise sustainability in terms of: 2. ISO/CD 9004; ISO/TC 176/SC 2 N 787-1, International
Organization for Standardization, 2007.
• Monitoring and analyzing the organization’s
environment.
• Strategies, objectives, planning and communi- DAVID K. WATKINS is executive vice
cations. president and director of international
• Resources. operations for Omnex Inc., Ann Arbor,
• Processes. MI. He earned a bachelor’s degree in
• Measurements and analysis.
liberal arts from Widener University,
• Learning, improvement and innovation.
Chester, PA. His previous experience
Whether adopted as is or not, the draft points
includes general management, manu-
clearly to a paradigm shift in the essential nature
and purposes of QMSs, with a resultant seismic facturing, production, HR and distribution management in
shift in the fundamentals of QMS architecture and a variety of industries.
organizational ownership.
It’s arguable that with the comprehensive
nature—the maturity, if you will—of the assess-
ment envisioned in the ISO 9004 revision draft and Please
its focus on the culture and capability of the organi- comment
zation as a whole, ISO 9001 certification takes on a
If you would like to comment on this article,
very different cast, one more consistent with the
please post your remarks on the Quality Progress
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award or
Discussion Board at www.asq.org, or e-mail
European Foundation for Quality Management
examination and award approach than with the them to editor@asq.org.
present conformance and effectiveness in practice
O
rganizations usually tell their Six Sigma advo-
cates to make sure their Six Sigma deployment Sigma can be most effectively applied.
is congruent with the organization’s strategy. This article outlines a framework and approach for
On the surface, this makes a lot of sense. However, aligning an organization’s Six Sigma initiatives with the
achieving congruency is often more complicated than it organization’s competitive strategy. First, however, we’ll
initially seems. review the three levels of strategy development in most
The key problem is that in many organizations there multilevel organizations to clarify why Six Sigma align-
are three levels of strategy: corporate, strategic business ment at the competitive level is most important.
unit (SBU) and competitive. The competitive strategy
level is where organizational strategy and Six Sigma Corporate Strategy Level
At the corporate strategy level, the key question fac-
ing planners is, “How do we, as an organization, grow?”
There are four basic options:
In 50 Words 1. Market penetration: selling current products to
Or Less current markets.
2. Market development: selling current products to
• Most organizations have three levels of strategy: new markets.
corporate, strategic business unit and competitive. 3. Product development: selling new products to cur-
rent markets.
• Six Sigma initiatives are the most useful at the 4. Diversification: selling new products to new mar-
kets.
competitive level. Six Sigma applied at this level lacks focus. Two things
are missing: the ability to clearly understand the voice of
• Listening to customers to determine what attributes the market and the ability to identify what products or ser-
contribute to value, then directing projects toward vices the customers are reacting to.
But when organizations understand they are com- expanded view of targeted marketing must also
peting for a value advantage, the real question include processes such as those addressed by Six
becomes, “Where does the organization focus its Sigma initiatives. When focused on an organiza-
resources to enhance its value offering?” tion’s value creation and delivery processes, Six
Each SBU will have one or more product lines Sigma has the power to increase an organization’s
and serve one or more market segments. A good market share and profitability.1
way to look at this is to develop a product/market Organizations have a choice as to where and
(P/M) matrix, such as Figure 1. how they bring products or services to the market.
The vertical axis shows the SBU’s different prod- Each P/M has different competitors and success
uct lines—three in this case. Across the top of the criteria. It is incumbent on the organization to
matrix are the market segments that buy the prod- understand these competitors and success criteria
uct lines—four in this example. This means there better than any of its competitors do. These success
are 12 potential P/M combinations the SBU can criteria, generated from the voice of the market,
serve. If the organization is unable to serve all 12 become the critical to quality (CTQ) factors that
with equal effectiveness, the strategic challenge at will direct the organization’s Six Sigma initiatives
the SBU level is deciding which of these P/Ms to to achieve the desired strategic outcomes.
focus resources on.
To answer this question, the SBU must identify Competitive Strategy Level
strategic criteria to evaluate and prioritize the dif- The value an organization brings to the market-
ferent business opportunities each P/M offers. place is the best leading indicator of market share
These criteria might include: and profitability.2 An organization’s competitive
• Market share. strategy is its plan for enhancing its capacity to deliv-
• Margins. er value, thus increasing market share. Competitive
• Competitive intensity. strategy that focuses on value enhancement address-
• Market growth rate. es key questions such as:
• Size of market. • Where are the organization’s best opportuni-
Ideally, the organization would focus on a P/M ties for widening a value advantage or closing
with high margins, a mid to high range market a disadvantage?
share, a high market growth rate and low competi- • On what basis does the organization widen or
tive intensity. Each P/M represents a different close the value gap?
opportunity for the organization, and some will be • How does the organization get its best return
better than others. Many organizations that begin on investment for these efforts?
using P/M matrices discover they have been invest- Within this strategic realm, Six Sigma also is all
ing in P/Ms that will actually lose money for them. about value—either widening a value advantage
The investment decision about which P/Ms get over a competitor or closing a value disadvantage
which resources—a Six Sigma initiative being one to increase market share. Competitive strategy can
of those resources—depends on the quality of the detail a plan of where and how to deploy Six Sigma
opportunity as determined by the strategic crite- in its value enhancing role. This cannot be articulat-
ria. There’s no point in using Six Sigma resources ed clearly at the corporate or SBU strategy level—
in P/Ms that offer little, if any, economic value to only at the P/M, or competitive, level.
the organization. However, many organizations Value is also a strong predictor of loyalty,3 the dri-
waste valuable resources simply because they fail ver of repeat purchasing, recommendation and
to understand that the organization’s Six Sigma lower cost revenues. And, if strategy and Six Sigma
initiatives should be congruent with its strategy are to be responsive to the competitive nature of the
and that this is the level and point in the planning market, it is important to understand how the mar-
process in which the competitive strategy begins ket defines value and to use this information to
to take shape. If the strategy is flawed, so too will drive both competitive strategy and Six Sigma ini-
be the Six Sigma initiatives. tiatives.
This is the essence of expanded targeted market- Strategy concocted within the confines of the
ing. Traditionally, targeted marketing has focused boardroom is not strategic planning, but strategic
on price, promotion, product and distribution. An guessing. Competitive strategy, like Six Sigma, must
proposition stacks up against its competitors’. This XYZ is the clear leader in value, making it also
is yet another aspect of the strategy question. the market share leader, and will want to maintain
Figure 3 shows the competitive value matrix for this overall leadership. Many managers would
this P/M. The competitive value matrix identifies simply congratulate themselves on this value
the value propositions for each of the major com- advantage and continue to monitor XYZ’s position.
petitors within the P/M and the value gaps among While keeping an eye on competitors is always
them. The two main drivers of value—CQI and advised, XYZ should leverage its strengths to actu-
price—form the two axes of the matrix. The four ally widen the value and market share gaps
quadrants of the matrix are formed by the inter- between itself and its competitors.
section of the market means on these two drivers. The quality drivers at the left of the value model
This information is taken directly from ratings on in Figure 2 (p. 47), such as dealer service and
the drivers identified in Figure 1 (p. 47). machine operation, represent the CTQs that drive
Competitors in the outstanding value quadrant, Six Sigma initiatives. These CTQs come from cus-
in this case XYZ, are those the market has identified tomers (focus groups) and are empirically derived
as providing superior quality at a highly satisfactory from ratings of competitors by end users in the
price—the definition of value. Their scores on CQI marketplace (surveys). Six Sigma initiatives should
and price are both above the market means. Out- identify and target links between the CTQs and
standing value competitors will have the greatest organizational processes for the explicit purpose of
market share, customers who are more likely to pur- enhancing their effectiveness and efficiency.6 These
chase tractors from the same manufacturer and links are required for aligning Six Sigma with com-
dealer, and customers who are most likely to recom- petitive strategy.
mend both the dealer and manufacturer to other In this case, XYZ identified an opportunity for
farmers. These customers are the least likely to enhancing value by improving its repair and ser-
switch to another brand when offered a lower price.4 vice processes for tractors. The strategy articulated
Competitors in the poor value quadrant—in this an action program for mapping three processes:
case competitors one, two and three—are those the the repair scheduling process, the process of parts
market has identified as providing inferior quality delivery to the service bays in the workshop and
in tractors and related services at highly unsatisfac- the repair process itself. After mapping those
tory prices. Their CQI scores and prices are below processes within the overall repair value stream,
the market averages. These competitors are market the team identified a number of ways to speed up
share laggards and cannot sustain their poor value one type of major tractor repair from an average of
positions without further loss of market share and seven days to three days. Costs per repair were
declining profitability. Customers of these compa- also reduced by 30%, and the savings were driven
nies are significantly less likely to recommend the to the organization’s bottom line. Market share for
dealer or manufacturer and less likely to buy again XYZ has also improved by 4% over two years.
from either.5 If your organization is either competitor one or
Companies in the discount relationship quad- two, you would more than likely choose challeng-
rant (none in this example) are judged by the mar- ing XYZ as your strategy. Challengers are typically
ket to be inferior in quality but with satisfactory closer to the leader and in a position to draw even
prices. The expensive relationship quadrant is with it or take the lead. In this case, the question
home to competitors (again, none in this example) facing a Six Sigma Black Belt is, “How does the
offering higher quality tractors at unsatisfactory organization address its weaknesses on the key
prices. The image scores for each competitor are quality drivers?”
listed just outside the matrix, accounting for the Competitor three is most likely in a position to
third dimension of value. follow XYZ. Followers realize that, because the
value gap is too large, they cannot challenge. They
Six Sigma and Value Gaps will instead choose to emulate XYZ and follow its
From a competitive strategy standpoint, organi- lead, making sure the value gap does not widen in
zations can do one of four things: lead, challenge, the short term. Here again, Six Sigma will focus on
follow or target a niche. the question, “How does the organization address
From One-Man
Show to Baldrige
Recipient
by Susan E. Daniels, editor at large
eceiving the Malcolm Baldrige National When the recipient starts out as a one-man service
Based on ISO 9000 were lacking. The marketing value was relatively
Mesa’s performance improvement system is insignificant,” May says. “We upgraded to ISO
embedded and managed through its quality man- 9001 in 2003.”
agement system (QMS), primarily through ISO The ISO 9001 based QMS combines with the
9001 certification. The company uses several Baldrige criteria at Mesa to bind business processes
improvement processes built around methods in an integrated, aligned direction, resulting in
such as the plan-do-check-act
(PDCA) cycle, lean and Six Sigma’s
define, measure, analyze, improve FIGURE 1 Mesa’s Quality Management System
and control strategy.
Initially, Mesa registered to ISO Lean
ISO 9001 Baldrige
9002, the former version of ISO 9000 ACT
for service organizations, to show cus-
PDCA
tomers its quality focus. May says Manufacturing
Value creation
But Mesa was learning. “After Accounting, HR, supply chain management,
becoming registered, we quickly real- management information services
ized that the real value from ISO 9002
certification was internal, specifically
ACT = accurate, continuous improvement and timely
in developing the discipline that we
PDCA = plan-do-check-act
performance excellence (see Figure 1, p. 51). The Crisis” was published in Materials Performance, a
quality policy called ACT, for accurate, continuous major publication of the corrosion control industry,
improvement and timely, describes Mesa’s approach in January 2004, and was presented at four major
to customer satisfaction. industry conferences and meetings.
The awareness campaign resulted in competitor
Dealing With a Threat benchmarking, through which Mesa demonstrated
Mesa’s quality processes came into play in a big significant quality variations among its five com-
way in December 2000 when a management review petitors. After user awareness had increased a year
revealed a key quality problem related to magne- later, the benchmarking was repeated and demon-
sium anode production. Magnesium anode accounts strated overall quality improvement (see Table 1).
for 30% of Mesa’s material revenues. Mesa’s actions were a key driver in improving
Quality problems with international raw materi- quality—not only its own quality but also that of
al sources were recognized. This culminated in the the entire industry, a factor that undoubtedly
development of a comprehensive quality assurance played a role when Baldrige examiners studied the
specification used as the basis for product acceptance. firm’s award application.
The program includes quarantine of truckload
purchases for about four weeks while lab tests are Baldrige Criteria
performed on randomly selected anodes. If a test Baldrige applicants are judged on seven business
anode fails, the entire truckload is rejected. criteria:
Over a 12-month period, more than 10,000 anode 1. Leadership.
deliveries were rejected and returned to suppliers. 2. Strategic planning.
Mesa worked successfully with its key supplier 3. Customer and market focus.
during this time to improve performance. 4. Measurement, analysis and knowledge man-
Unfortunately, the net result was an increasingly agement.
noncompetitive position, primarily because Mesa 5. HR management.
was incurring significant additional costs to ensure 6. Process management.
quality, while its end users were unaware of the 7. Business results.
quality problem and its significance.
To turn the threat into an opportunity, Mesa man- 1. Leadership: Because the cathodic protection
agement embarked on an industry awareness cam- industry is a relatively small, mature market, May
paign. An article titled “Magnesium Anode Quality says retention and growth of existing customer and
Mesa minimum
50.0% 50.0%
requirement
80
A 49.3% 55.6%
B 41.6% 29.1%*
70
C 12.1%* 57.1%
D 11.0%* 16.2%* 60
E 4.8%* 55.4% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Mesa Best competitor ACSI energy utilities
F NA 55.1%
* denotes poor quality ACSI = American Customer Satisfaction Index
here is often a pattern to one’s three-year financial training program Stamford, CT, chapter.
RUSSELL T. WEST-
COTT is president of
R.T. Westcott and Asso-
ciates and the Offerjost-
Westcott Group in Old
Saybrook, CT. He is an
ASQ fellow and a certi-
fied quality auditor and
L
ean Six Sigma is a powerful ing related to the restructuring or modeling in the strategic planning
method for improving existing divestiture of existing business step, an analysis likely will have
products, processes and services. lines, as well as the addition of identified where the line of business
Six Sigma was developed by Motorola new business lines. (LOB) falls with respect to market
in 1987. Motorola’s Six Sigma yielded • Performance audit: Perform an growth and competitive position. The
significant financial results and assessment of the organization in intent is to determine an effective
became popular with many other terms of capabilities and financial strategy for a particular LOB based on
companies, even though Six Sigma strength. the rate of market growth and the
was practiced without the benefit of competitive position for the LOB.
the define, measure, analyze, improve For example, if a particular LOB has
and control (DMAIC) strategy, Black Success is often based a strong competitive position in a fast
Belts (BBs), or a defined project selec- growing market, the management
tion process. on completing four team for the LOB might emphasize
In the mid-1990s, consultants intro- product development over operations
duced the method to Allied Signal prerequisites. improvement. On the other hand, a
and General Electric (GE), tying particular LOB with a weak competi-
improvement to bottom-line financial tive position in a slow market might
performance. GE and other organiza- • Gap analysis: Compare the cur- require extensive focus on improving
tions refined the Six Sigma method rent performance with the desired the cost structure through lean Six
and focused on identifying and select- state to create a list of gaps. Sigma. For other scenarios, the im-
ing key projects, as well as adapting • Integrating action plans: Create provement strategy should be suited
operations-based Six Sigma to service and implement a detailed plan to to the optimization of each specific
and transactional processes. accomplish the strategies of the LOB relative to its strategic goals.
One way to improve the deployment organization and close any gaps.
of lean Six Sigma is to improve how • Contingency planning: Develop Prerequisite Three: Understand
lean Six Sigma projects are identified contingency plans to account for The Policy Deployment System
and selected. The typical approach to potential market changes, compet- The third step is to integrate the
lean Six Sigma project identification itive pressures and other scenarios action plans into the policy deploy-
and selection is heavy on selection tech- that might affect the strategic plan ment system. Policy deployment is a
niques but light on identification tech- and the organization’s ability to general reference to goal based plans
niques. There are four prerequisites to a execute it. cascaded throughout the various lev-
well executed lean Six Sigma project • Implementation: Deploy the plan els of the organization. Hoshin plan-
identification and selection process. throughout the organization via ning, management by objective and
cascaded goals, quantifiable per- other terms are varied implementa-
Prerequisite One: Understand formance measures and clearly tions of policy deployment.
The Strategic Plan identified owners and timeframes. Successful implementation of policy
The first step in understanding how As part of action planning, organiza- deployment involves:
to identify and select lean Six Sigma tions should launch strategic thrusts to • Setting high-level goals, targets,
projects is to ensure you are complete- close perceived gaps. Typically, strate- timeframes and owners based on
ly familiar with your organization’s gic thrusts are initiatives with clear the action plans from the strategic
strategic plan. A typical strategic charters and budgets, led by senior plan.
planning process will involve the fol- executives and involve clear account- • Setting functional and departmen-
lowing steps: ability. Strategic thrusts might be broad tal goals, targets, timeframes and
• Planning to plan: Create a or specific, depending on the perceived owners based on cascading the
roadmap to accomplish the strate- gaps. Lean Six Sigma, Six Sigma, high-level goals to the local level.
gic plan. design for Six Sigma and their various • Integrating the local goals into
• Values scan: Assess the interests permutations are all strategic thrusts. performance plans for individuals
of the stakeholders. and teams.
• Mission formulation: Use the Prerequisite Two: Align, • Doing regular performance re-
stakeholders’ input to formulate a Improve Efforts With Strategy views for high-level and local goal
mission statement. The second step is to understand achievement.
• Business modeling: Create a how improvement activities should be • Integrating performance to goals
viable business model, including aligned with the action plans found in in the bonus structure for man-
cultural considerations and fund- the strategic plan. As part of business agement.
Work steps
• External factors. Champion responsibilities do not should not only look back at preceding
• Dependencies among projects. end after projects have been selected. activities, but also look ahead for the
Most of these risks can be addressed— The Champion is also responsible for successful execution of upcoming
and possibly alleviated—by having a ensuring that each lean Six Sigma pro- phases.
well-run project identification process, ject has a solid plan, buy-in for the A well-trained MBB should assist the
communicating the priorities of the required resources, and effective man- Champion before and during the pro-
organization, communicating the agement. The Champion is also re- ject reviews. The BB will be well
potential lean Six Sigma projects, and sponsible for running effective project versed in the technical tools, but it is
building consensus among the key reviews at the end of each phase of the the responsibility of the Champion to
stakeholders. DMAIC process. Project reviews enable sufficient resources and remove
organizational roadblocks that might
stall the project.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A
s companies become leaner summarized my own thoughts along part of and understand an organiza-
and the workforce becomes with extractions from insights shared tion’s culture. This connects them
older, it seems the use of high- by others, and now I seem to have with other employees in ways that
ly qualified quality assurance consul- arrived at a better understanding of can make their ability to complete
tants would be an attractive the considerations. necessary tasks more effective and
alternative to hiring full-time regular efficient as well as less invasive than
quality managers. Full-Time Quality Managers that of a temporary or part-time con-
In fact, in 2005 surveys of business There are several reasons an organi- sultant.
leaders, more than 50% of respondents zation might favor hiring a full-time Internal accountability. Full-time
reported using consultants as perfor- quality manager: employees must live with the long-
mance management resources.1 Unquestioned obedience. Hiring term, in-house consequences of their
But, according to the participation actions and generally cannot behave
in Quality Progress’ annual salary sur- in ways that would be considered
vey from 2001 through 2006, the per- inappropriate by their co-workers
centage of consultants that makes up without jeopardizing their liveli-
the quality workforce appears essen- Which is best for hoods.
tially unchanged at about 3% while your organization On-site presence. If the need to
the percentage of participants who are quickly perform a task (such as pro-
quality managers is also unchanged at and why? vide support for an unannounced on-
about 25%.2 site audit by a customer or regulatory
This lack of increased quality con- representative) arises unexpectedly, the
sultant representation does not seem immediate on-site presence of a full-
to make much sense, so I am inclined managers could believe they have time employee could be a significant
to let my personal experience trump more leverage over a full-time quality advantage over an off-site, part-time
the statistics a bit. manager because of perceived exclu- consultant, who might take additional
Two years ago, I decided it might be sive control over the regular employ- time to respond or arrive on site.
a good time to build a private quality ee’s livelihood. This can be especially Shared liability. Organizational
consulting practice. It was not a light- important when unquestioned obedi- insurance will typically cover liability
ly made decision, but the outcome has ence is an essential factor for a hiring expenses incurred by employee deci-
been disappointing. manager’s success. sions but not those incurred as a result
I could take it personally, but I have Acceptance of nonquality related of decisions made by consultants or
enough evidence to believe the issue tasks. Full-time employees can be contractors. Consultants or contractors
is not personal. It would be reason- asked to perform tasks outside of might not have adequate insurance to
able to assume a technical profession- their basic job descriptions, while con- cover their own decisions. This could
al’s marketing skills might be lacking, sultants are limited to tasks described require a leap of faith in a hiring man-
but I have checked off everything on within their contracts. ager’s signing off on documented out-
my carefully prepared list of “guerril- Youthful enthusiasm. Entry-level, puts from a consultant on behalf of the
la” marketing tactics,3 participated in full-time quality managers tend to organization (consultants typically
Institute of Management Consultants4 bring youthful enthusiasm to the table will not sign internal documentation).
meetings and effectively completed and can be a great match for a start-up
the SCORE5 course on starting one’s operation’s culture. Part-Time Quality Consultants
own business. I also assertively Tribal knowledge. Entry-level, full- There are also many good reasons
tapped SCORE mentors and fellow time employees can grow with a com- to hire a part-time quality consultant:
owners of quality consulting firms for pany and its products, providing Independent objectivity. Hiring
guidance. continuity. They can also serve as a managers usually do not have ex-
Most recently, I asked for help in repository for undocumented archival clusive control over a consultant’s
understanding what might be going company and product history. livelihood. This can be especially
on from those in my online profes- Insider intelligence. Full-time helpful when the consultant’s objec-
sional network. 6 I’ve combined and employees tend to learn, become a tivity and independence from poten-
tial manipulation by a senior manager the ability of the consultant to secure specific reason, the low probability of
is perceived as essential to satisfying a new clients. success should be clearly acknowl-
business need. External credibility. The mutual edged in the contract and a provision
Focused effort. Part-time consul- respect established through a consul- made for the consultant to be paid
tants are much less susceptible to tant’s long-term working relation- regardless of outcome.
becoming distracted by tasks other ships with major customers or Trial by fire. This is the “try before
than those described in their contracts regulators can be advantageous when you buy” concept of hiring a quality
and are better able to stay focused on the consultant is brought in to sup- consultant. Short-term use of quality
completing critical objectives. If there port tasks involving those customers consultants willing to consider
are effective incentives for providing or regulators. becoming regular employees could be
agreed on deliverables ahead of Proven decision maker. Consul- a method of screening candidates for
schedule and under budget, a consul- tants must be highly vigilant about the that elusive right fit. This beats the
tant could be the key to more timely risks associated with decisions they potential expense of recruiter commis-
and cost-effective completion of criti- are recommending. Consultants rely sions, competitive salaries, relocation
cal projects. and build on a track record of effective costs and separation expenses when
Entrepreneurialism. Seasoned qual- past decisions to gain and maintain untried quality managers don’t work
ity consultants are entrepreneurs who the confidence of those acting on their out after being hired.
have had to learn to effectively man- recommendations.
age risk to survive. They can be a great Cost management. When budget What’s Really Happening
match for a bureaucratic organization constraints prevent the addition of reg- Because there are advantages both
striving to reconnect with entrepre- ular employees, consultants can be to hiring a full-time quality manager
neurialism by better managing risk brought in under a separate profes- and hiring a part-time quality consul-
within its own culture. sional services budget. Consultants can tant, I would have to conclude that,
Change agent. The value of a con- be contracted with on a project basis or all things being equal, there should be
sultant’s ability to be objective and on the basis of specific deliverables. equal demand for both types of pro-
free of inappropriate influence by a Stress relief. The documentation fessionals. But, this is not the case, so
senior executive has already been required to establish an effective qual- all things are not equal.
noted. Add to this the natural detach- ity management system (QMS) or to From my experience, I suspect reg-
ment of a consultant from the influ- periodically audit it comprehensively ular full-time senior quality managers
ence of informal or pre-existing can be far beyond that required to with recent work histories indicating
cultural biases. Consultants can work support a QMS on a day-to-day basis. organizational changes every year or
to overcome complacency and resis- A quality consultant can be the best two are actually performing as quali-
tance to change without the burden of short-term solution. ty consultants without being recog-
having to maintain pre-existing rela- Body of knowledge expertise. nized as such—by either themselves
tionships with employees who might Adding or bringing new bodies of or others.
otherwise be obstacles. knowledge or skill sets into an organi- It would certainly be difficult for a
Troubleshooter. Unlike regular zation can require comprehensive small or even medium-size organiza-
employees, consultants cannot rely on expertise or training tailored for many tion to justify the ongoing expense of
tribal or archival knowledge for their levels. Expert quality consultants in a high performing quality practition-
success. So, consultants are generally areas such as auditing, process er after all its QMSs are humming
quick to identify and recommend improvement, problem solving, regu- along on near autopilot, the work-
solutions for situations in which an latory affairs or risk management are force is trained and competent, con-
organization has become vulnerable typically the best resources for achiev- tinual improvement has become a
due to missing or inadequate proce- ing effective initial training and self-maintaining way of doing busi-
dures, ineffective training, or business implementation. Expert consultants ness, and the customers are pretty
requirements that have changed but can also ensure continuity of new con- much delighted.
have not yet been properly assimilat- cepts by training future in-house What used to be termed quality
ed into the organization’s way of trainers and performing periodic management “job hoppers” might
doing business. retraining to keep the knowledge base actually be members of a new breed
External accountability. Consul- state-of-the-art. of transient, quasi-consultant, quality
tants rely on endorsements from pre- Blame bearer. If a project has a low practitioner “special forces” who go
vious and existing clients to attract probability of success, you can better where they are most needed, do what
new ones. Consequences for inappro- ensure potential project success and most needs doing and then move on
priate behavior by a consultant almost have somebody else to blame if the to the next organization in crisis.
immediately extend beyond the orga- project fails by hiring a qualified con- The cause of hiring decisions over-
nization for which the consultant is sultant. Out of fairness to the consul- whelmingly in favor of full-time qual-
working and can significantly impact tant, when one is hired for this ity managers might be as simple as a
Contribute to
MIT Lincoln Laboratory is a premier employer applying
science and advanced technology to critical, real-world
“Quality IN THE problems of national interest.
S
TABLE 2 Likert Scale
measure quality. For example, cal tests (based on the central limit Example
surveys might be used to gauge theorem) are more powerful than
customer perception of product quali- nonparametric alternatives. Also, con- Compared to face-to-face learning, outcomes
ty or quality performance in service clusions and interpretations of para- from online learning are currently:
delivery. metric tests might be considered
2003 2004 2006
Likert scales are a common ratings
format for surveys. Respondents rank Superior 0.6% 1% 1.8%
quality from high to low or best to Somewhat superior 11.5% 10% 15.1%
worst using five or seven levels. Can this method
Statisticians have generally grouped Same 50.6% 50.6% 45%
data collected from these surveys into be used as interval Somewhat inferior 28.4% 28.4% 30.3%
a hierarchy of four levels of measure- measures? Inferior 10.1% 10.1% 7.8%
ment:
1. Nominal data: The weakest level Source: I. Elaine Allen and J.R. Seaman, “Making
the Grade: Online Education in the United States,”
of measurement representing www.sloan-c.org, 2006.
categories without numerical easier to interpret and provide more
representation. information than nonparametric alter-
2. Ordinal data: Data in which an natives.
ordering or ranking of responses However, treating ordinal data as tant consideration is to include at least
is possible but no measure of interval (or even ratio) data without five response categories. Some exam-
distance is possible. examining the values of the dataset ples of category groups appear in
3. Interval data: Generally integer and the objectives of the analysis can Table 1.
data in which ordering and dis- both mislead and misrepresent the The ends of the scale often are
tance measurement are possible. findings of a survey. To examine the increased to create a seven-point scale
4. Ratio data: Data in which mean- appropriate analyses of scalar data by adding “very” to the respective top
ingful ordering, distance, deci- and when its preferable to treat ordi- and bottom of the five-point scales.
mals and fractions between nal data as interval data, we will con- The seven-point scale has been shown
variables are possible. centrate on Likert scales. to reach the upper limits of the scale’s
Data analyses using nominal, inter- reliability.4 As a general rule, Likert
val and ratio data are generally Basics of Likert Scales and others recommend that it is best
straightforward and transparent. Likert scales were developed in to use as wide a scale as possible. You
Analyses of ordinal data, particularly 1932 as the familiar five-point bipolar can always collapse the responses into
as it relates to Likert or other scales in response that most people are familiar condensed categories, if appropriate,
surveys, are not. This is not a new with today.3 These scales range from a for analysis.
issue. The adequacy of treating ordi- group of categories—least to most— With that in mind, scales are some-
nal data as interval data continues to asking people to indicate how much times truncated to an even number of
be controversial in survey analyses in they agree or disagree, approve or categories (typically four) to eliminate
a variety of applied fields.1, 2 disapprove, or believe to be true or the “neutral” option in a “forced
An underlying reason for analyzing false. There’s really no wrong way to choice” survey scale. Rensis Likert’s
ordinal data as interval data might be build a Likert scale. The most impor- original paper clearly identifies there
might be an underlying continuous
variable whose value characterizes
the respondents’ opinions or attitudes
TABLE 1 Likert Scale Response Categories and this underlying variable is inter-
val level, at best.5
Scale 1 2 3 4 5
Analysis, Generalization
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
To Continuous Indexes
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree As a general rule, mean and stan-
Most Important Important Neutral Unimportant Not important at all dard deviation are invalid parameters
for descriptive statistics whenever
and not the means of the responses. 1. Gideon Vigderhous, “The Level of
Sources: Measurement and ‘Permissible’ Statistical
Given these scales are representative Analysis in Social Research,” Pacific Sociological
MSDN, http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.
of an underlying continuous measure, asp?url=/library/en-us/shellcc/platform/commctls/ Review, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1977, pp. 61-72.
one recommendation is to analyze 2. Ulf Jakobsson, “Statistical Presentation and
trackbar/trackbar.asp
Analysis of Ordinal Data in Nursing Research,”
them as interval data as a pilot prior DevX, http://archive.devx.com/dhtml/articles/ Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, Vol. 18,
to gathering the continuous measure. nm061102/Hand.html 2004, pp. 437-440.
3. Rensis Likert, “A Technique for the
Table 2 includes an example of mis- Measurement of Attitudes,” Archives of
leading conclusions, showing the Psychology, 1932, Vol. 140, No. 55.
results from the annual Alfred P. Sloan 4. Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory,
McGraw Hill, 1978.
Foundation survey of the quality and 5. Dennis L. Clasen and Thomas J. Dormody,
extent of online learning in the United combined to form indexes. However, “Analyzing Data Measured by Individual Likert-
States. Respondents used a Likert scale there is a strong caveat to this Type Items,” Journal of Agricultural Education,
Vol. 35, No. 4, 1994.
to evaluate the quality of online learn- approach: Most researchers insist such
ing compared to face-to-face learning. combinations of scales pass the
While 60%-plus of the respondents Cronbach’s alpha or the Kappa test of
perceived online learning as equal to intercorrelation and validity. BIBLIOGRAPHY
or better than face-to-face, there is a Also, the combination of scales to Jacoby, Jacob, and Michael S. Matell,
persistent minority that perceived form an interval level index assumes “Three-Point Likert Scales Are Good
online learning as at least somewhat this combination forms an underlying Enough,” Journal of Marketing Research,
inferior. If these data were analyzed characteristic or variable. Vol. 8, No. 4, 1971, pp. 495-500.
Jamieson, Susan, “Likert Scales: How to
using means, with a scale from 1 to 5
Alternative Continuous (Ab)use Them,” Medical Education, Vol.
from inferior to superior, this separa- 38, No. 12), 2004, pp. 1,217-1,218.
Measures for Scales
tion would be lost, giving means of
2.7, 2.6 and 2.7 for these three years, Alternatives to using a formal
respectively. This would indicate a Likert scale can be the use of a contin-
slightly lower than average agreement uous line or track bar. For pain mea- I. ELAINE ALLEN is an associate professor of
rather than the actual distribution of surement, a 100 mm line can be used statistics and entrepreneurship at Babson
the responses. on a paper survey to measure from College in Babson Park, MA. She has a doctor-
A more extreme example would be worst ever to best ever, yielding a con- ate in statistics from Cornell University in
to place all the respondents at the tinuous interval measure. Ithaca, NY. Allen is a senior member of ASQ.
extremes of the scale, yielding a In the advent of many online sur-
veys, this can be done with track bars CHRISTOPHER A. SEAMAN is a doctoral
mean of “same” but a completely
similar to those illustrated in Figure 1. student in mathematics at the Graduate Center
different interpretation from the ac-
of City University of New York.
tual responses. The respondents here can calibrate
Under what circumstances might their responses to continuous inter-
Likert scales be used with interval pro- vals that can be captured by survey
cedures? Suppose the rank data software as continuous values.
included a survey of income measur-
Conclusion
ing $0, $25,000, $50,000, $75,000 or Please
$100,000 exactly, and these were mea- Your initial analysis of Likert scalar comment
sured as “low,” “medium” and “high.” data should not involve parametric
The “intervalness” here is an statistics but should rely on the ordi- If you would like to comment on this
attribute of the data, not of the labels. nal nature of the data. While Likert article, please post your remarks on
Also, the scale item should be at least scale variables usually represent an the Quality Progress Discussion
five and preferably seven categories. underlying continuous measure, Board at www.asq.org, or e-mail
Another example of analyzing analysis of individual items should them to editor@asq.org.
Likert scales as interval values is use parametric procedures only as a
when the sets of Likert items can be pilot analysis.
he International Aerospace version of ISO 9001 as its foundation, dard is published as AS9100 in the
Background
Prior to the adoption of the interna- FIGURE 1 Number of Certified Suppliers in OASIS by Region
tionally harmonized aerospace stan-
dards, the industry was not efficient 8,000
in the flowdown of quality require-
ments to suppliers. Each aerospace Total
manufacturer levied company specific 7,000 Europe
requirements, processes and forms on Americas
its supplier base. 6,000
Number of certified suppliers
Feb 05
Ap . ’06
Jun ’06
Au ’06
Oc 06
De ’06
Feb 06
7
De ’05
. ’0
g. ’
c. ’
ril ’
g. ’
c. ’
g. ’
c. ’
g. ’
c. ’
t.
t.
t.
t.
ril
Au
Asia- Total
Standard Americas Europe
Pacific (4/19/07)
IAQG 9100: QMS—
3,947 2,700 312 6,959
Aerospace Requirements
IAQG 9110: QMS—
Aerospace—Requirements for 7 86 4 97
ving an update of IAQG 9100. This Maintenance Organizations
update started in 2005 at an interna- IAQG 9120: QMS—
tional planning meeting where a mile- Aerospace—Requirements 103 211 4 318
stone plan and schedule were created, for Stockist Distributors
stakeholders identified and design Total (4/19/07) 4,057 2,997 320 7,374
specification drafted.
The objectives for the 2009 revision
of IAQG 9100 include improving sup-
plier performance and customer satis-
faction by focusing on product quality quent review process resolved nearly completed for other-party audits. The
and on-time delivery, allowing its 400 comments received from the checklist has come under some criti-
common interpretation for auditors stakeholders. Some of the significant cism because it does not easily lend
and organizations and taking into topics addressed included: risk man- itself to a process based system.
account newly identified stakeholder agement, key/critical characteristics, An international IAQG 9101 team
requirements. configuration management, project was formed to develop a robust assess-
The IAQG 9100 team provided a management, positive recall, test ment process that will reinforce the on-
mechanism to receive feedback and report validation, statistical sampling, quality and on-schedule goals of IAQG.
performed data mining from the fol- first article inspection and key perfor- The team’s membership includes repre-
lowing stakeholder segments: mance indicators. sentatives from both the IAQG member
• Certification/registration bodies. The next steps will include comple- companies and from certification bodies
• Civil aviation authorities. tion of subteam activities and prepa- that use the checklist.
• Defense organizations, including ration of a first draft later this year. The IAQG 9101 team was chal-
the U.S. Department of Defense The IAQG 9100 revision will be offi- lenged to ensure the new version has
and NATO. cially balloted to voting members in three features:
• IAQG member companies. 2008 and 2009 and is expected to be 1. Performance to certification link-
• Space sector organizations, includ- released in mid-2009, depending on age.
ing NASA. the ISO 9001 revision publication 2. Process orientation rather than
• IAQG 9100 certified suppliers. schedule. clauses.
The IAQG 9100 team used a disci- 3. Efficiency and effectiveness.
plined process to consider proposed Upcoming IAQG 9110 At a kickoff meeting this January,
changes or additions to the standard. And IAQG 9120 Revision the team benchmarked certification/
Changes/additions being considered The IAQG 9110 2 and IAQG 9120 3 registration processes used by other
are those that: QMS standards are undergoing a revi- industries and assigned research and
• Constitute QMS requirements that sion process similar to that of IAQG review tasks to subteams: design spec-
are not contractual or do not con- 9100. Each has a team that has identi- ification, ISO 9001 audit practice
tain product specific requirements. fied its stakeholders and is perform- group5 materials, process audit meth-
• Enhance clarity of requirements or ing data mining. The next step will be ods, report content and format, and
address stakeholder needs. to process comments received from information sharing and customer
• Satisfy the needs of the broad data mining. performance.
IAQG 9100 user community The IAQG 9110 and IAQG 9120 The IAQG 9101 team envisions an
through requirements that are revisions are dependent on IAQG end state in which there will be one
suitable for use by all sizes and 9100 in that they use IAQG 9100 as a IAQG audit process standard used for
types of organizations in the avia- baseline. Their revisions are trailing IAQG 9100, 9110 and 9120; a more
tion, space and defense sectors. the IAQG 9100 revision process by process oriented assessment tool
• Provide benefits that outweigh the about six months and are expected to based on the plan-do-check-act model;
impact of implementation. be released by the end of 2009. and a complete description of the
• Are not prescriptive (establish audit process.
“what” but not “how”) and can be Upcoming IAQG 9101 The first draft of IAQG 9101 is
audited. Checklist Revision expected in late 2007. The revision
The data mining activities, which The IAQG 9100 series includes will be introduced into the other-
ended in March 2007, and the subse- IAQG 9101,4 a checklist that must be party audit process as organizations
?
transition to the 2009 versions of
IAQG 9100, 9110 and 9120.
Updates on AS9003
Questions About Standards
There is another standard for
inspection and testing that gets little
publicity. AS90036 is a U.S. standard Send your general questions about quality and environmental
that is not harmonized internationally
or endorsed by IAQG. AS9003 is cur- management system standards and their derivatives to
rently being rewritten by the space
industry and its customers, including standardsquestions@asq.org. Include your daytime phone
NASA, to be more consistent with
number and e-mail address. The questions will be submitted
IAQG 9100 and ISO 9001.
AS9003 is targeted to organizations to one of QP’s regular “Standards Outlook” columnists.
that process aerospace products (for
example, heat treat, plating, coatings Look for answers to appear in future issues of QP.
or other special processes) or for very
small organizations that make prod-
uct following customer design and
have simple processes.
AS9003 is not intended for use in Systems—Aerospace—Requirements for Stockist
Programs (this standard will be re-
organizations that design or manufac- Distributors, IAQG, 2002.
numbered as 9104-1 in the next 4. IAQG (AS/EN/JIS-Q) 9101—Quality Manage-
ture complex aerospace components
revision). ment System Assessment, IAQG, 2006.
or critical items or for medium-size or 5. ISO 9001 Audit Practice Group, http://
2. 9104/2—Requirements for Oversight
larger organizations. www.tc176.org.
of Aerospace QMS Registration/ 6. SAE AS9003—Inspection and Test Quality
There is currently no assessment
Certifications Programs. System, SAQ International, 2001.
checklist for AS9003, although a third- 7. Online Aerospace Supplier Information
3. 9104/3—Requirements for Aerospace System, www.iaqg.org/oasis.
party AS9003 certification scheme is
Auditor Competency and Training
offered by some certification bodies.
Courses.
The revised AS9003 will be published
To manage the other-party certifica- L.L. “BUDDY” CRESSIONNIE is the
in late 2007 by SAE International.
tion scheme for the IAQG 9100 series, Americas’ lead for the IAQG 9100 team and
Other-Party Management Team IAQG developed the Online Aero- participates on the U.S. technical advisory
space Supplier Information System group to ISO/TC 176. He
IAQG has strengthened the existing
(OASIS) in 2003.7 This system includes represents Lockheed Mar-
third-party certification scheme by tin Aeronautics as the
information about IAQG member
developing an industry controlled company management
companies, national aerospace indus-
other-party process for certification of system integration man-
try associations, national accreditation
organizations to the IAQG 9100 ager. Cressionnie is an
bodies, approved certification/regis-
series. The IAQG other-party man- ASQ senior member with
tration bodies, aerospace experienced
agement team (OPMT) facilitates the quality manager and
auditors and certified suppliers. quality auditor certifica-
industry management of other-party
The certified supplier information tions. He is also a certi-
certifications.
includes certificate status (including fied RABQSA aerospace experienced auditor
OPMT is an IAQG oversight com-
scope of certification and copy of cer- and International Register of Certified
mittee chartered to manage the other-
tificate) and assessment results. OASIS Auditors lead auditor for ISO 9001 and ISO
party quality management schemes 14001. Cressionnie has a bachelor’s degree in
is useful for managing suppliers and
and assessment results performed by industrial and systems engineering from the
finding trend information for manag-
each of the global sector management University of Florida and an MBA from Texas
ing the IAQG 9100 scheme.
schemes. OPMT provides oversight of Christian University.
If you have questions about the
the accreditation bodies, certification
standards, e-mail them to the appro-
bodies and auditor authentication. In
priate leader through the IAQG
the Americas Aerospace Quality
Group (AAQG), the sector manage-
website at www.iaqg.sae.org/iaqg/ Please
publications/SDRs_listing.pdf. comment
ment scheme is the registration man-
agement committee. If you would like to comment on this
REFERENCES AND NOTES
The other-party certification scheme article, please post your remarks on
1. IAQG (AS/EN/JIS-Q) 9100—Quality Manage-
and OPMT adhere to a trio of IAQG ment Systems—Aerospace—Requirements, IAQG, the Quality Progress Discussion
9104 standards, often called the trilo- 2004. Board at www.asq.org, or e-mail
gy of standards: 2. IAQG (AS/EN) 9110—Quality Management
Systems—Aerospace—Requirements for Mainte- them to editor@asq.org.
1. 9104—Requirements for Aerospace nance Organizations, IAQG, 2003.
QMS Certification/Registration 3. IAQG (AS/EN) 9120—Quality Management
H
umans are innovators. We are Multifunction instruments are only a To visualize the basic concepts, a
always inventing new materi- little more complex to use and have a measuring instrument can be viewed
als, methods, devices or ideas. larger set of parameters to be calibrat- as a series of interconnected blocks.
From time to time, certain innovations ed but still are relatively simple. Many There is a signal conditioner that
cause major, unforeseen shifts in theo- measuring instruments now have receives, scales and standardizes the
ry and practice. microprocessors and are controlled by input; an analog-to-digital converter;
A few examples in my own lifetime permanent software. That software a user interface system and an opera-
and professional specialty include the does not add much to the calibration tion control system.
inventions of the integrated circuit and Traditionally, all of these are physi-
general purpose microprocessor, and cally in one unit, as shown in Figure 1.
the discoveries of the Josephson effect Synthetic instruments An instrument that produces an out-
and the quantum Hall effect. put is similar in concept, except that
A more recent innovation is the are the latest innova- the signal flow is in the opposite
development of synthetic instruments. tion in measurement direction. In both cases, the instru-
While this is certainly not as funda- ment manufacturer defines the hard-
mental as the other examples, it does science. ware and software features and
have important implications for quali- functions.
ty management and measurement sci- For the past 20 years or so, many
ence. effort, as it is tested by implication dur- ATE systems have used special instru-
ing the performance verification; if the ments that plug into a system rack
Instruments Until Now instrument responds properly to the and are only controlled through a
Until recently, measuring instru- input, the software has to be correct. computer program. The principal dif-
ments—however complex they might Even in large automated test equip- ference between these and conven-
appear—have been essentially single ment (ATE) systems, in which a num- tional instruments is that there are no
purpose tools. Such an instrument is ber of different instruments might be controls on the instrument itself—
relatively easy to understand, use and combined to perform a complex suite only inputs or outputs. Because they
calibrate. Measuring instruments of tests under external computer con- are software controlled, they have
might be built to perform multiple trol, each instrument is individually often been called virtual instruments,
functions, as with a digital multimeter understandable and calibratable. even though there is a real device at
that can measure voltage, current, An ATE system as a whole is more the other end of the computer inter-
resistance and maybe a few other complex because the operation of the face.
parameters. But that digital multime- system must be validated somehow
ter cannot be used as, for example, a after the individual instruments are The Rise of Synthetic
spectrum analyzer. calibrated. In the last several years, the innova-
tive idea of a synthetic instru-
ment has risen. This came out
of a Department of Defense
FIGURE 1 A Conventional Measuring Instrument initiative started in the mid-
Is Self-Contained 1990s to improve performance
and reduce costs of ATE sys-
tems.
Synthetic instruments go
Signal Analog to digital Measurement beyond conventional instru-
Input User interface
conditioning conversion system ments in an innovative way.
Each component of a synthetic
instrument—each functional
block—is a separate device. A
synthetic instrument is defined
Control as a reconfigurable system of
External control hardware and software ele-
system
ments, linked by standardized
(IEE-488, RS-232, Fieldbus, USB, LAN, etc.)
interfaces, to make measure-
Conventional measuring instrument ments or generate signals.
Figure 2 (p. 70) shows the
▼
discontinuities. It also helps to verify uni- external vibrations disturb sensitive
form coverage and proper film thickness. Kinetic Systems has introduced the equipment.
Duraplate is available as a single or multi MK26, an ultra low natural frequency vibra-
coat application. With the single coat appli- tion isolation workstation. The MK26 uses and mildew and an optional zipper door
cation, pinholes, holidays and improper the Minus K stiff spring and negative stiff- allows access to equipment in storage.
film thickness will appear black in contrast ness mechanism to achieve a low net verti- Shrinkwrap is available in three colors
to the fluoresce coating when viewed cal stiffness without affecting the static load to suit the climate. Blue absorbs heat,
under ultraviolet light. The opposite is true supporting capability. Horizontal isolation is which allows ice and snow to slide off.
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with OAP is used and the topcoat does not series with the vertical motion isolator. it reflects heat. Clear shrinkwrap allows
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Call: 216-781-2400; e-mail: wschweiger@ due to external vibrations can adversely er ventilation in cooler temperatures.
edwardhoward.com. affect the operation of sensitive equip- Call: 800-968-5147; e-mail: drshrink@
ment. The MK26 is suitable for applications dr-shrink.com.
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GMP Visually Reports confocal microscopes, patch clamping,
Real-Time Trouble optical microscopes, wafer probing, sensor Stainless Steel Replaces
calibration and atomic force microscopes. Glass in Line of Syringes
Lyons Information Systems has added Call: 617-522-8700; e-mail: sales@
the Global Performance Monitor (GPM) to kineticsystems.com. KD Scientific’s line of stainless steel
its Lyons quality audit tracking system syringes is designed to be used instead of
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ers to view worldwide quality performance Penetrating Solvent Aids are high, eliminating syringe breakage. The
on one screen in real-time using any web syringes offer good resistance to most
browser.
In Routine Maintenance
aggressive liquids. Wetted parts are #316
LQATS manages garment and fabric CRC Industries has introduced Knock’er stainless steel and Viton featuring electron
quality audit and inspection information Loose Plus penetrating solvent, an indus- beam welding.
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manufacturing and distribution centers perature of the area in contact with the 50, 100 and 200 ml sizes and have remov-
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view this information prior to suppliers’ scale, gum, grease and corrosion with a patible with KD Scientific’s line of
shipments. GPM can help companies low surface tension formula that gets into automated syringe pumps.
identify real-time trouble spots visually as cracks, seams, threads and joints. It aids in Call: 508-429-6809; e-mail: info@
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Call: 866-351-4287; visit: www. and emergency repairs.
lyonsinfo.com. Knock’er Loose Plus loosens rusted and Borescopes Check
corroded nuts, bolts, couplings, fittings, For Defects in Deep Bores
hinges and frozen components. It is also
Membrane Enhances NSF H2 registered for use in meat and The Hawkeye Pro and Classic Slim
Pressure Compensation Seals poultry plants. borescopes from Gradient Lens check for
E-mail: cbrown@crcindustries.com; defects in parts and products with very
Schreiner ProTech’s polytetrafluoroethyl- visit: www.crcindustries.com. deep bores. The scopes are appropriate for
ene (PTFE) membrane is an air permeable inspecting metal machined parts, firearms,
and waterproof material designed for tubing and other products. The scopes’ lens
ventilation of equipment housings. Shrinkwrap Available systems allow for relaying images at a long
Schreiner developed the PTFE membrane to For Three Climates distance while maintaining the quality of
enhance the effectiveness of its self-adhe- the image. Users can see defects and sur-
sive and nonadhesive pressure compensa- Dr. Shrink provides shrinkwrap as a way face finish in deep bores and crossholes.
tion seals (PCS), allowing air molecules to to protect equipment from dirt and the Available in 22 in. lengths, the scopes
pass through the PCS while restricting pas- damage that can happen on a factory floor feature a 0° direction-of-view and 42° field-
sage of water, oil and dirt particles. or job site. It covers a range of materials of-view and offer a rotating 90° direction-
The enhanced seals protect sensitive from backhoes and machinery to spare of-view with a mirror tube attachment.
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Bill Baker
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The Department of Engineering Management and Systems Engineering (EMSE) at the University
of Missouri-Rolla is seeking candidates with expertise in one or more of the areas of Manufacturing
Engineering, Financial Engineering, Packaging Engineering, and Quality Engineering for tenure-track
faculty positions. The department has a wide range of successful research and instructional programs.
WORLD CLASS The EMSE department has 17 full-time faculty and an enrollment of 140 undergraduates, 40 on-
campus M.S. students, 200 distance M.S. graduate students, and 20 Ph.D. students.
TRAINING INSTITUTE Successful candidates must hold at least one degree in engineering or science and a Ph.D. in an
Quality – Six Sigma – Lean engineering management related field. Industrial experience is desired but not required. Candidates
must demonstrate the potential for scholarly research and professional development. The applicant
Training And Consulting must have the ability to initiate research programs and a dedication to undergraduate and graduate
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• Implementation Procedures programs in computer integrated manufacturing and flexible manufacturing systems, new product
development, quality engineering including six sigma, financial forecasting and derivative price
• Audits
modeling, and packaging. The appointment is anticipated to be at the tenure-track assistant professor
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Philadelphia France Philippines The search and screening committee will review applications and the search will remain open until the
Chicago China Indonesia positions are filled. Please submit an application consisting of a current curriculum vitae, a statement
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WWW.WCTI.BIZ University of Missouri-Rolla • 113 University Center East • 1870 Miner Circle • Rolla, MO USA 65409
877-WCTI-4PA UMR is an AA/EEO employer. • Females, minorities, and persons with disabilities are encouraged to apply.
uality function deployment departments, the roof would be made Auditing interactions would require
Accounting
perhaps replicate. You can audit HR on Cooperrider, David, and Suresh Srivastva,
Sales
Perhaps you would find that HR goes Development, Vol. 1, 1987, pp. 129-169.
(+) = positive interaction between departments
(–) = negative interaction between departments to observe the actual work environ-
ment. You can audit RONALD L. SEDLOCK is
the principal consultant
how the production
and trainer at the quality
FIGURE 2 Supplier Output, Customer Input department’s new
Catalyst in Melrose, FL. He
hires perform. Per- earned a bachelor’s degree
haps you would in science from Cleveland
discover that HR State University. Sedlock is
Supplier Output = Input Customer receives feedback a senior member of ASQ
one month later on and past chair of ASQ sec-
how a new hire is tions 1313 in Boulder, CO and of 1506
working out. Jacksonville-Northeastern Florida.
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