New Leadership January 2017

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LEADERSHIP
STUDY GUIDE
Copyright © 2016
MANAGEMENT COLLEGE OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
All rights reserved; no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying machines,
without the written permission of the publisher. Please report all errors and omissions to the following email address:
chapterfeedback@mancosa.co.za
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Table of Contents
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF LEADERSHIP ......................................................5
CHAPTER 2: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT ................................................................................12
CHAPTER 3: LEADERSHIP THEORIES ................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 4: LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR .............................................................................................27
CHAPTER 5: EMPOWERING LEADERSHIP .........................................................................................33
CHAPTER 6: KNOWLEDGE AND AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP .............................................................40
CHAPTER 7: STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP ..............................................................................................48
CHAPTER 8: LEADERSHIP AND ETHICS ............................................................................................56
CHAPTER 9: CHANGE LEADERSHIP ...................................................................................................67
CHAPTER 10: TEAM LEADERSHIP ......................................................................................................76
CHAPTER 11: CROSS CULTURAL LEADERSHIP AND DIVERSITY ...................................................87
CHAPTER 12: DYADIC THEORIES AND FOLLOWERSHIP .................................................................92
CHAPTER 13: LEADERSHIP IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT ...............................................................103
CHAPTER 14: LEADERSHIP IN EMERGING MARKETS ....................................................................110
CHAPTER 15: LEADERSHIP IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT .................................................................117
CHAPTER 16: GENDER LEADERSHIP ...............................................................................................125
CHAPTER 17: APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT ...................................................140
CASE STUDIES & QUESTIONS ..........................................................................................................152
VIDEO LINKS........................................................................................................................................153
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................154
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INTRODUCTION TO THE LEADERSHIP STUDY GUIDE
1. INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Leadership Module.
This chapter is one the elective chapters which is a part of the Master of Business Administration
programme (MBA). On successful completion of this chapter you will be able to competently and
strategically support and apply leadership practices in your role as a manager. You will also have a
thorough understanding of how the application of leadership differs within advanced markets and
emerging markets.
Understanding how management/leadership practices differ in Africa and other emerging markets is a
theme which underpins the Masters programme, and is just as applicable to leadership as it is to other
disciplines.
“Everything we hear is an option, NOT A FACT.

Everything we see is a perspective, NOT THE TRUTH.”
Marcus Aurelius
“When the rate of change on the outside exceeds the rate of change on the inside,the end is
insight.”
JackWelch
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2. STRUCTURE OF THIS STUDY GUIDE

This Study Guide is structured as follows:
Provides an overview of the

Introduction to Leadership Study Guide
Leadership Study Guide and how to
use it.
1. Introduction and Overview of Leadership
2. Leadership and Management This part of the Study Guide details

what you are required to learn.
3. Leadership Theories
4. Leadership Behaviour
5. Empowering Leadership
Each section details:
6. Knowledge and Authentic Leadership
• Specific learning outcomes
7. Strategic Leadership • Essential reading
Leadership and Ethics (textbooks and journal

8.
articles)
9. Change Leadership
• An overview of relevant
10. Team Leadership theory
11. Cross Cultural Leadership and Diversity • Questions for reflection
12. Dyadic Theories and Followership
13. Leadership in the African Context
14. Leadership in Emerging Markets
15. Leadership in the Global Context
16. Gender Leadership
17. Approaches to Leadership Development
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1. Structure of Each Section

Each section is structured as follows:
• Specific Learning Outcomes.
• Essential Reading.
• Brief Overview of Relevant Theory.
• Questions for Reflection.
2. Specific Learning Outcomes
These are listed at the beginning of each section. They detail the specific outcomes that you will be
able to competently demonstrate on successful completion of the learning that each particular section
requires.
3. Essential (Prescribed) Reading
Your prescribed reading comprises the following:
• International Textbook
Yukl, G., (2013) Leadership in Organisations. Pearson.
This textbook will provide you with a strategic understanding of leadership within a global context.
• South African Textbook
Dailgish, C, Du Plessis, M, Lues, L & Pieterson, E. (2013). Leadership in the Africa Context. Juta
This textbook will provide you with an understanding of HRM within the South African context.
• Journal Articles
Journal articles have been prescribed for each section. They are available from the EBSCO, Emerald
and Sabinet and Proquest databases that are accessible through the http://mymancosa.com website.
These journal articles will provide you with an understanding of leadership within emerging markets,
with particular focus on countries in Africa and Asia. It is imperative that you acquire and read these
journal articles, as they form a key part of the curriculum.
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4. Brief Overview of Relevant Theory
Each section contains a very brief overview of theory relevant to the particular leadership topic. The
purpose of the overview is to introduce you to some of the general and emerging market issues
regarding each leadership topic. Once you have read the overview, you need to explore the leadership
topic further by reading the prescribed textbooks and journal articles.
5. Questions for Reflection
At the end of every section there are questions for reflection. You need to attempt these on completion
of your study of the entire section. The questions are designed to enable you to reflect on what you
have learnt and consider how this knowledge should be applied in practice.
6. Case Studies
Case studies form an integral part of developing competence in Leadership. A listing of case studies
can be found at the end of the guide with relevant question.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF LEADERSHIP
Specific Learning Outcomes
The overall outcomes for this section is that, on its completion, the student should be able to
demonstrate a broad understanding of the field of Leadership within both advanced economies and
emerging economies. This overall outcome will be achieved through the student’s mastery of the
following specific outcomes, in that he/she will be able to:
• Grasp the background to leadership.

• Understand the different ways leadership is defined.
• Significance of Leadership in the Organisation.
• Understand the difficulty in how to assess leadership effectiveness.
• Understand the different indicators used to assess leadership effectiveness.
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ESSENTIAL READING
Learners are required to read ALL of the textbook chapters and journal articles
listed below.
Textbooks:
• Yukl, G., (2013) Leadership in Organisations. Ninth Edition Pearson Education: Prentice.
• Dalgish, C.,du Pleassis, M., Lues. & Pietersen, E., (2009). Leadership in the African Context.
Juta.
Journal Articles & Reports

• April, K. & Macdonald, R. (1998a) “New Science & Leadership: The Shift in Thinking.” People
Dynamics. June, 16 (6), pp 15 – 18.
• Goleman, D. (2000) “Leadership That Gets Results.” Harvard Business Review. March, 78 (2),
pp 78 – 90.
• Graeff, C.L. (1983) “The Situational Leadership Theory: A Critical Review.” Academy of
Management Review. April, pp 285 – 291.
• Hofstede, G. (1980) “Motivation, Leadership, and Organisation: Do American Theories Apply
Abroad?” Organizational Dynamics. Summer, p. 5.
• Kotter, J.P. (1990) “What Leaders Really Do.” Harvard Business Review. May – June, pp 103 –
111.
• Kotter, J.P. (1990) “What Leaders Really Do.” Harvard Business Review. May – June, pp 103 –
111.
• McClelland, D.C. & Burnham, D.H. (1995) “Power is a Great Motivator.” Harvard Business
Review. 73, January – February, pp 126 – 139.
• Mintzberg, H. (1998) “Covert Leadership: Notes on Managing Professionals.” Harvard Business
Review. November – December, pp 140 – 147.
• Ulrich, D. & Allen, J. (2009) “Grow Your Own.” People Management. 15 (25), pp 32 – 34
(available from EBSCO).
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INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF LEADERSHIP
1. UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP
1.1 Introduction
There are many ways of looking at leadership and there are many interpretations of its meaning.
Leadership might be interpreted in simple terms such as “getting others to follow or getting others to do
things willingly.” Leadership has been defined in terms of traits, behaviours, influence, interaction
patterns, role relationships and occupation of and administration position.
Leadership has been a subject of interest to academics, organisational thinkers and researchers for
many centuries. We usually attribute the success or failure of the organisation to its leaders. Leadership
has been defined in many ways, but most of the definitions emphasise the concept of influence.
Organisational leadership is concerned with integrating needs of people with the overall goals of the
organisation. A major controversy involves issues the issue of whether leadership should be viewed as
a specialised role or a shared influence process.
1.2. Context of Leadership
The following important definitions put the concept of leadership into context:
Leadership*is*the*process*of*influencing*the*activities*of*an*individual*or*a*group*in*effort*towards*
goal*attainment*in*a*given*situation.!–!Hersey&and&Blanchard&
Leadership*is*the*imitation*and*maintenance*of*structure*in*expectation*and*interaction.*–*Stogdill&
Leadership*is*“the*influential*increment*over*and*above*mechanical*compliance*with*the*routine*
directives*of*the*organisation.*–*Katz&and&Khan&
Leadership*is*a*set*of*interpersonal*behaviours*designed*to*influence*employees*to*co<operate*in*the*
achievement*of*objectives.*–*Glueck*
Source: Sarma (2008)
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1.3 Definitions of Leadership

An overview of leadership definitions is provided below. Definition of Leadership (2013: p.19)
Leadership Author
Leadership is “the behaviour of an individual directing the activities of a Hemphill & Coons,
group toward a share goal.” 19957, p.7
Leadership is “the influential increment over and above mechanical Katz & Kahn, 1978, p.
compliance with routine directives of the organisation.” 528
Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organised Rauch & Behling, 1984,
group toward goal achievement.” p. 46
Leadership is “about articulating visions, embodying values, and crating the Richards & Engle,
environment within which things can be accomplished.” 1986, p. 206
“Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to Jacobs & Jaques, 1990,
collective effort and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve p. 281
purpose.”
Leadership “is the ability to step outside the culture …. to start evolutionary Schein, 1992, p. 2
change processes that are more adaptive.”
“Leadership is the process of making sense of what people are doing Drath & Palus, 1994,
together so that people well understand and be committed.” p. 4
Leadership is “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable House et al., 1999,
others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the p. 184
organisation.”
Source: (Yukl: 2013)
Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done
and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared
objective (Yukl, 2013).
The above definitions include efforts not only to influence and facilitate the current work of groups or
organisations, but also to ensure that it is prepared to meet future challenges.
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Table 1.1 identifies a variety of ways leaders can influence the effectiveness of a group or organisation.
Table 1.1: What leaders influence
Leaders can influence

• The choice off objectives and strategies to pursue
• The motivation of members to achieve the objectives
• The mutual trust and cooperation of members
• The organisation and coordination of work activities
• The allocation of resources to activities and objectives
• The development of member skills and confidence
• The learning and sharing of new knowledge by members
• The enlistment of support and cooperation from outsiders
• The design of formal structure, programmes and systems
• The shared beliefs and values of members
Source: (Yukl, 2013: 24)
1.4 The Characteristics of Leadership:
• Directs the energy of followers towards goals using the process of communication.
• Creates and communicates a vision of what the organisation should be.
• Exercises interpersonal influence. This signifies that the leader and followers have mutual
understanding.
• Persists in the desired direction even under bad conditions.
• Motivates followers, and initiates them into action.
• Creates the appropriate culture and obtaining the desired results.
• Attempts to bring about a permanent change in behaviour.
• Use situations to accomplish goals effectively (Sarma & Veluri, 2010).
1.5 Functions of Leadership:
Leadership is also an essential element in successful attainment of organisational objectives. The

leader is seen as a good planner, decision-maker, innovator, controller, effective communication and a
skilled trainer. The important functions of leadership in an organisation:
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a) Planning: a leader determines the course of action, and communicates it to subordinates, for
execution. A leader makes decisions and organises various aspects of work in the
organisation.
b) Developing teamwork: a leader clarifies the roles of each individual subordinate and links the
multifarious activities into a unified whole. Thus, a leader develops teamwork to successfully
attain the goals.
c) Motivation: a leader motivates people, guides and directs their potential energy to elicit the
desired contribution towards accomplishment of goals.
d) Managing conflict: conflicts are omnipresent in the everyday workings of an organisation and
mediation is necessary to achieve cooperation.
e) Counselling: a leader plays a role of advisor and counsellor in the organisational tasks.
f) Maintaining interpersonal relationships: an effective leader creates a two-way exchange of
ideas.
g) Managing change: a leader initiates all necessary changes in an organisation and implements
them by effectively overcoming any resistance to change.
h) Training and development: a leader trains and develops employees into future managers by
using personal experience to teach subordinates about the various techniques of management,
thereby assisting in career development.
1.6. Leadership Traits and Skills
Personal characteristics of the leader relate to leadership traits and skills. Leadership traits have been
defined in two ways:
1) Traits used to differentiate the leaders from non-leaders or followers.

2) Traits that differentiate effective from ineffective leaders.
Apart from traits, it has been assumed that the acquisition of certain skills on the part of the leader has
almost become a necessity for successful performance of his tasks (Dwivedi: 2012).
Technical!
Conceptual!
Leadership!
Skills!
Decision7making! Information!
Human!
Figure 1.1. Leadership Skills
Source: Sarma:2012
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Leadership is a personal ability of an individual. Ability is a function of personal skills in handling a

variety of tasks. An effective leader appears to rest on personal and basic developable skills.
As illustrated in figure 1.1, basic skills needed for effective leadership:
1) Technical skill, which is used for proficiency and understanding of a specific kind of activity
involving method, process, procedure or technique.
2) Human skill is the manager’s ability to work with others and to build a cooperative effort with
group he/she manages.
3) Conceptual skill, which implies the ability to visualise the organisation as a whole.
4) Information skill, which involved collating, editing, processing and disseminating the necessary
information to subordinates.
5) Decision-making, which involves the adoption of the best method to reach a goal.
SUMMARY
Every organisation needs effective leadership, therefore it is a widely discussed concept. A leader may
adopt one or more styles. In today’s complex environment a number of factors influence a leader’s
effectiveness. There are various characteristics that need to be considered in order to be an effective
leader. Effective leaders play a significant role in building modern organisations. In order to be effective
they need to empower, be great visionaries and lead with confidence.
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the functions of leadership in the organisational process.
2. ‘Leadership is the personal ability of an individual. Ability to influence is a function of personal skill in
handling a variety of tasks’. Examine the skills of leadership.
3. Distinguish between production-centred and employee-centred leadership behaviour.
4. Visit any organisation, and examine the leadership behaviour of the superiors and document
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CHAPTER 2: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Specific learning outcomes:
The overall outcome for this section is that, on its completion, the student should be able to
! Understand the differences between management and leadership

! Understand the difficulties on how to manage and lead effectively
! Understand the different indicators used to ass,ess leadership effectives
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal articles
• Fred C. Lunenburg; Leadership versus Management: A Key Distinction-At Least in Theory
• International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration Volume 14, Number 1,
2011.
• Lee G. Bolman and Terre Ence; Leadership and management effectiveness: A multi-frame,
multi-sector analysis, Deal Article first published online: 2 Nov 2006;
DOI:10.1002/hrm.3930300406.
• Ernie DiMattia; Leadership vs. Management; Focus on Leadership and Management; January
14, 2013 @ library journal.
• Mitch McCrimmon; Reinventing Leadership and Management; May / June 2010. – Ivy Business
Journal.
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• Akbar Ali; How to differentiate between ‘Leadership’ and ‘Management’ Function in

Organization: A Review of Scholarly Thoughts; International Journal of Economics Business
and Management Studies – IJEBMS ISSN: 2226-4809; EISSN: 2304- 6945, Vol. 2, No.1
(January, 2013) 38-44.
• Dr. Ali Algahtani. Are Leadership and Management Different? A Review by: Journal of
Management Policies and Practices, September 2014, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 71-82. ISSN: 2333-
6048 (Print), 2333-6056 (Online).
• The Guardian. (2013). What’s the difference between leadership and management? Available
at http://careers.theguardian.com/difference-between-leadership-management.
• Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Leadership versus Management: A Key Distinction-At Least in
• Theory. International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, 14 (1), 1-4.
2. UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Leadership and management must go hand-in-hand. They are not the same thing but they are
necessarily linked, and complementary. Any effort to separate the two is likely to cause more problems
than it solves. The two terms are often interchangeable and management is seen as getting things
done through people. Adapted from “The Wall Street Journal Guide to Management” by Alan Murray,
published by Harper Business.
Definition Leadership means “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others
to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they
are members.”
Definition Management comprises directing and controlling a group of one or more people or entities
for the purpose of coordinating and harmonizing that group towards accomplishing a goal.
Still, much ink has been spent delineating the differences. The manager’s job is to plan, organise and
coordinate. The leader’s job is to inspire and motivate. In his 1989 book “On Becoming a Leader,”
Warren Bennis composed a list of the differences:
• The manager administers; the leader innovates.

• The manager is a copy; the leader is an original.
• The manager maintains; the leader develops.
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• The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people.
• The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.
• The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective.
• The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why.
• The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader’s eye is on the horizon.
• The manager imitates; the leader originates.
• The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it.
• The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person.
• The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing.
Perhaps there was a time when the nature of a manager and a leader were separate. A foreman in an
industrial-era factory probably did not have to give much thought to what he was producing or to the
people who were producing it. His or her job was to follow orders, organise the work, assign the right
people to the necessary tasks, coordinate the results, and ensure the job got done as ordered. The
focus was on efficiency.
However in the new economy, where value is increasingly derived from the knowledge of people, and
where workers are no longer undifferentiated cogs in an industrial machine, management and
leadership are not easily separated. People look to their managers, not just to assign them a task, but
to define for them a purpose; and managers must organise workers, not just to maximize efficiency, but
to nurture skills, develop talent and inspire results.
The late management guru Peter Drucker was one of the first to recognise this truth, among many
other management truths. He identified the emergence of the “knowledge worker,” and the profound
differences he/she would cause in the way a business was organised.
With the rise of the knowledge worker, “one does not ‘manage’ people,” Drucker wrote. “The task is to
lead people. And the goal is to make productive the specific strengths and knowledge of every
individual.”
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Table: 2.1
Subject Leader Manager
Essence Change Stability

Focus Leading people Managing work
Have Followers Subordinates
Horizon Long-term Short-term
Seeks Vision Objectives
Approach Sets direction Plans detail
Decision Facilitates Makes
Power Personal charisma Formal authority
Appeal to Heart Head
Energy Passion Control
Culture Shapes Enacts
Dynamic Proactive Reactive
Persuasion Sell Tell
Style Transformational Transactional
Exchange Excitement for work Money for work
Likes Striving Action
Wants Achievement Results
Risk Takes Minimizes
Rules Breaks Makes
Conflict Uses Avoids
Direction New roads Existing roads
Truth Seeks Establishes

Concern What is right Being right
Credit Gives Takes
Blame Takes Blames
Source: changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/articles/manager_leader.html
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Table 2.2 Difference between leadership and management

Management Leadership
Managers value stability, order, efficiency, they Leaders value flexibility, innovation, adaptation,
are impersonal, risk averse and focus on short- they care about people as well as economic
term results. outcomes. Al they have a long term perspective
with regards to objectives and strategies.
Managers are concerned about how things get Leaders are with what things mean to people and
done and try to get people to perform better. try to get people to about the most important
things to be done.
Managers are people who do things right. Leaders are people who do the right thing.
Kotter (1990) propose that managing seeks to Leading seeks to produce organisational change.
produce predictability and order.
Managing is important when an organisation Leading is critical when the external environment
becomes large and complex. is dynamic and uncertain.
Source: Dwivedi: 2012
Leaders can do many things to provide direction and influence people. These activities include
providing information, resolving conflicts, motivating followers, anticipating problems, developing mutual
respect among members. Effective leaders are concerned with “doing the right things” rather than
“doing things right”.
SUMMARY
Leadership has been defined in many different ways, but most definitions share the assumption that it
involves an influence process for facilitating the performance of a collective task.
Managing and leading are two different ways of organizing people. Leadership is setting a new
direction or vision for a group that they follow - i.e. a leader is the spearhead for that new direction. On
the other hand, management controls or directs people/resources in a group according to principles or
values that have already been established. The manager uses a formal, rational method whilst the
leader uses passion and stirs emotions.
QUESTIONS
1. Identify the similarities and differences in the way leadership has been defined.
2. Describe why it is difficult to measure leadership effectiveness.
3. Compare the universal and contingency theories and advise how these theories contribute to
the effectiveness of leadership.
4. Why is it important to establish the distinction between managers and leaders?
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CHAPTER 3: LEADERSHIP THEORIES
• Understand the different types of leadership theories.

• Understand the different approaches and attributes of leaders.
• Establish which theories applies to current organisations.
• Understand the use of these leadership traits in order to meet the goals of the organisations.
• Understand effective ways to use tactics.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal articles
• Bruce J. Avolio, Fred O. Walumbwa, and Todd J. Weber; Leadership: Current Theories,
Research, and Future Directions, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 60: 421-449 (Volume
publication date January 2009); DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621.
• Bruce E. Winston; An Integrative Definition of Leadership, International journal of Leadership
studies.
• D. Scott Derue; Jennifer D. Nahrgang, Ned Wellman; Stephen E. Humphrey;
• Trait and Behavioural Theories Of Leadership: An Integration and
• Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity; Personnel Psychology, 2011, 64, 7–52
• David A. Van Seters, Richard H.G. Field, The Evolution of Leadership Theory,
• Journal of Organizational Change Management, Volume: 3 Issue: 3.
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3 INTRODUCTION
3.1 LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Consistent with leadership literature, the theories and research reviewed are classified into the five
approaches, namely, (1) the trait approach, (2) the behaviour approach, (3) the power influence
approach, (4) the situational approach, and (5) the integrative approach.
TRAIT!THEORY!
BEHAVIOUR!THEORY!
LEADERSHIP!
SITUATIONAL!
THEORIES! APPROACH!
INTEGRATIVE!
APPROACH!
POWER!7!INFLUENCE!
Figure: 3.1
Source: Naidoo (2015)
3.2 TRAIT APPROACH

This approach emphasises attributes of leaders such as personality, motives, values, and skills. This
approach examines how managers spend their time, their typical patterns of activities, responsibilities
and functions. It looks at how they cope with demands, constraints, challenges and conflicts, as some
people are natural leaders endowed with certain traits that others do not possess. Lussier, R. & Achua,
C. (2012: 45).
The trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality traits and characteristics that
are linked to successful leadership across a variety of situations. This line of research emerged as one
of the earliest types of investigations into the nature of the effectiveness.
Carlyle believed that this ability to lead was something that people were simply born with, and not
something that could be developed.
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Carlyle’s ideas inspired early research on leadership, which almost entirely focused on inheritable traits.
Some of the implications of the trait theory of leadership are that:
•Certain traits produce certain patterns of behaviour
•These patterns are consistent across different situations
•People are born with these leadership traits
“The trait theory of leadership, generally considered the first modern theory of leadership, became
popular during the second half of the twentieth century and, despite scholarly criticism, has continued to
be popular. Shriberg and Shriberg (2011: 45)
3.3 BEHAVOURIAL APPROACH

This approach examines how managers spend their time and the typical patterns of activities,
responsibilities, functions, and how they cope with demands, constraints and role conflicts. When it
became evident that effective leaders do not seem to have a particular set of distinguishing traits,
researchers tried to isolate the behaviour characteristics that made leaders effective. In other words,
rather than try to figure out who effective leaders are, researchers attempted to determine what
effective leaders do, how they delegate tasks, how they communicate with and try motivate their
followers or employees, how they carry out their tasks, and so on. Behaviours, unlike traits, can be
learned so it followed that individuals trained in appropriate leadership behaviours would be able to lead
more effectively. The researchers focused on two aspects of leadership behaviour: leadership functions
and leadership styles have some form of shared leadership one person (usually the managers or formal
leader) performs the task function while another member performs the social function.
http://www.citeman.com
3.4 SITUATIONAL APPROACH

This approach emphasises contextual factors, such as characteristics of the followers, the nature of the
work performed, the type of organisation and the nature of the external environment. The assumption is
that different attributes will be effective in different situations and that the same attribute is not optimal
in all situations. Theories describing this relationship are sometimes called “contingency theories” of
leadership.
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The fundamental underpinning of the situational leadership theory is that there is no single “best” style
of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most successful leaders are those who
adapt their leadership style to the maturity (“the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness
and ability to take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of an individual
or a group for the task”) of the individual or group they are attempting to lead or influence. Effective
leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is being influenced, but also on the task, job or
function that needs to be accomplished.
A situation, within this context, is a “set of values and attitudes with which the individual or group has to
deal in a process of activity and with regard to which this activity is planned and its results appreciated.
Every concrete activity is the solution of a situation.” Situations can be complicated affairs and generally
have five elements:
• The structure of interpersonal relationships within the group;
• The characteristics of the group as a whole;
• The characteristics of the group’s environment from which members come;
• Physical constraints on the group; and
• The perceptual representation, within the group and among its members, of these elements and the
“attitudes and values engendered by them”.
Situational influences thus constrain the leader who must adapt his or her style of leadership to the
situation at hand. Situational leadership, according to Northouse, has both a directive and a supportive
dynamic. A situationally motivated leader realises that the skills and motivation of any group member
are not static, and the mix of the leader’s supportive and directive activities must likewise change with
the situation.
The situational approach has been refined and revised several times since its inception and it has been
used extensively in organisational leadership training and development (Northouse, 2007, p.91).
3.5 INTEGRATIVE APPROACH

An integrative approach involves more than one type of leadership variable. The integrative approach
to analysing a leader could be most effective in this review. The integrative approach uses parts of
several other analysis types such as; behavioural, traits, situational, outcome and influential. The
strength of using integrative approach is the diversity of choosing what qualities to highlight and where
those qualities fit into the analysis. The weakness is that in picking and choosing the areas to focus
some important information can be overlooked (Yukl, 2011).
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3.6 POWER – INFLUENCE APPROACH

Influence is the essence of leadership. To be an effective leader, it is necessary to influence people to
carry out requests, support proposals and implement decisions. The nature of power, authority and
influence inextricably are linked to each other and they partly determine each other. The following
definitions aim to give a concise understanding of these features within the organisation:
! Power is a person’s ability to do or act;
! Influence is the process of exercising power;
! Authority is a person’s legitimate right to influence others.
3.6.1 Authority
Authority involves the rights, prerogatives, obligations and duties associated with particular positions in
an organisation or social system. A leader’s authority usually includes the right to make particular types
of decisions for the organisation.
3.6.2 Power and influence concepts

Power, authority and influence are terms that have been used in different ways by different writers. The
terms will be defined below.
3.6.3 Power
The concept of power is useful in understanding how people are able to influence each other in
organisations (Mintzberg, 1983, Pfeffer, 19681, 1992). Power involves the capacity of one party (the
“agent”) to influence another party (the “target”), but this influence has been described and measured in
several different ways.
3.7 INFLUENCE PROCESS

The psychological explanation for interpersonal influence involves the motives and perceptions of the
target person in relation to the actions of the agent and the context in which the interaction occurs.
Kelman (1958) proposed three different types of influence processes, called instrumental compliance,
internalisation and personal identification.
• Instrumental compliance – the target person carries out a requested action for the purpose of
obtaining a reward or avoiding a punishment.
• Internalisation – the target person becomes committed to support and implement proposals
espoused by the agent because they appear to be intrinsically desirable and correct in relation to
the target’s values, beliefs and self-image.
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• Personal identification – the target person imitates the agent’s behaviour or adopts the same
attitudes to please the agent and to be liked by the agent.
3.8 GENERAL TYPES OF INFLUENCE TACTICS

Three types of influence tactics can be diffused according to their primary purpose:
3.8.1 Impression management tactics

These tactics are intended to influence people to like the agent or have a favourable evaluation of the
agent (self-promotion). Impression management tactics can be used by leaders to influence followers,
or by followers to influence a leader.
3.8.2 Political tactics

One type of political tactic involves an attempt to influence how important decisions are made and who
makes them. Political tactics are also used to defend against opponents and to silence critics. Some
political tactics involve deception, manipulation, and abuse of power.
3.8.3 Proactive Tactics

These tactics have an immediate task objective, such as getting the target person to carry out a new
task, change the procedures used for a current task, provide assistance on a project, or support a
proposed change.
3.9 INFLUENCE OUTCOMES

There are three types of influence outcomes:
Commitment – the target person makes a concerted effort to carry out the request or implement the
decision effectively.
Compliance – the target person is willing to carry out a request but is apathetic rather than enthusiastic
about it and will make a minimal effort.
Resistance – the target person is opposed to the proposal or request, rather than merely indifferent
about it. Resistance can take various different forms:
(1) refuse to carry out the request
(2) explain why it is impossible to carry out the request
(3) try to persuade the agent to withdraw or change the request
(4) ask higher authorities to overrule
(5) delay acting in the hope that the agent will forget about the request and (6) make a pretence of
complying but try to sabotage the task.
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3.10 POWER SOURCES

Leaders may wield various kinds and various degrees of power. Initially five sources of power were
identified, namely, expert power, legitimate power, referent power, reward power, and coercive power.
Later the taxonomy was extended to include information power and ecological power.
These types of power include:
• Legitimate Power: where a person is afforded power by virtue of the position she or he holds in
the organisation’s hierarchy (Robbins, 2009). The amount of legitimate power is also related to
one’s scope of authority. A manager’s scope of authority is usually delineated by documents such
as an organisation charter, a written job description, or an employment contract.
• Reward Power: where a person is afforded power due to his/her ability to give or withhold rewards
(Jones et al., 2011). Reward power depends not only on a manager’s actual control over resources
and rewards but also on the target person’s perception of agent reward. An authority relationship is
an important determinant of reward power.
• Coercive Power: this refers to the capacity of a manager to punish others (Jones et al., 2011).
Lateral relations provide few opportunities for using coercion. If the peer is dependent on the
manager for assistance in performing important tasks, the manager may threaten to withhold
cooperation if the peer fails to carry out a request.
• Expert Power: this is wielded as a result of a person’s knowledge, competence or expertise
(Robbins, 2009). Unique knowledge about the best way to perform a task or solve an important
problem provides potential influence over subordinates, peers and superiors. It is not enough to
possess expertise; the target person must recognise this expertise and perceive the leader to be a
reliable source of information and advice.
• Referent Power: this is rather informal and involves “influence based on possession by an
individual of desirable resources or traits” (Robbins, 2009). Referent power is derived from the
desire of others to please an agent towards whom they have strong feelings of affection,
admiration, and loyalty.
• Information Power: this involves both the access to vital information and control over its
distribution to others. Managerial positions often provide opportunities to obtain information that is
not directly available to subordinates or peers.
• Ecological Power: this involves control over the physical environment, technology, and
organisation of the work provides an opportunity for indirect influence over other people. This form
of influence is sometimes called situational engineering or ecological control (Cartwright, 1965).
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3.11 WAYS TO MAINTAIN EXPERT POWER

The guidelines for maintaining expert power are listed below.
Table 3.1: Ways to use and maintain expert power
• Explain the reasons for a request or proposal and why it is important

• Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful
• Do not make rash, careless, or inconsistent statements
• Do not lie, exaggerate, or misrepresent the facts
• Listen seriously to the person’s concerns and suggestions
• Act confident and decisive in a crisis
3.12 Ways to Gain and Use Referent Power
The guidelines for maintaining referent power are listed below.
Table 3.2: Ways to gain and use referent power
• Show acceptance and positive regard

• Be supportive and helpful
• Use sincere forms of ingratiation
• Keep promises and commitments
• Make self-sacrifices to benefit others
• Lead by example (use role modelling
• Explain the personal importance of a request
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The following are guidelines for the use of coercive power to maintain discipline
Table 3.3: Guidelines for the use of coercive power to maintain discipline
• Explain rules and requirements, and ensure that people understand the serious consequences of
violations.
• Respond to infractions promptly and consistently without showing any favouritism to particular
individuals.
• Investigate to get the facts before using reprimands or punishments, and avoid jumping to
conclusions or making hasty accusations.
• Except for the serious infractions, provide sufficient oral and written warnings before resorting to
punishment.
• Administer warning and reprimands in private, and avoid making rash threats.
• Stay calm and avoid the appearance of hostility or personal rejection.
• Express a sincere desire to help the person comply with role expectations and thereby avoid
punishment.
• Invite the person to suggest ways to correct the problem, and seek agreement on a concrete plan.
• Maintain credibility by administering punishment if noncompliance continues after threats and
warnings have been made.
• Use punishment that are legitimate, fair and commensurate with the seriousness of the infraction
3.13 Ways to maintain expert power
The guidelines for maintaining expert power are listed below.
Table 3.4: Ways to use and maintain expert power

• Explain the reasons for a request or proposal and why it is important
• Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful
• Do not make rash, careless, or inconsistent statements
• Do not lie, exaggerate, or misrepresent the facts
• Listen seriously to the person’s concerns and suggestions
• Act confident and decisive in a crisis
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3.13.1 Ways to gain and use referent power
The guidelines for maintaining referent power are listed below.

Table 3.5: Ways to gain and use referent power
• Show acceptance and positive regard

• Be supportive and helpful
• Use sincere forms of ingratiation
• Keep promises and commitments
• Make self-sacrifices to benefit others
• Lead by example (use role modelling
• Explain the personal importance of a request
3.14 SUMMARY
Successful modern-day leaders express their need for power and influence ways that benefit everyone
within the organisation. Successful leaders possess the ability to use their need for power to influence
others to achieve goals that will be to the benefit of their subordinates, the organisation and
themselves.
An interactive link is to be found between a leader’s power base and the influence strategies that
he/she may employ in order to enable leadership impact. Effective leaders are able to evaluate the
complexity of situations and to employ a variety or combination of influencing tactics, grounded in their
power bases to mobilise support and productivity (Carol, Maarten, liezel and Emmie,216:2012).
QUESTIONS
1. Describe, in your own words, how the integration of power and influence impacts on organisational
effectiveness.
2. Discuss the key factors impacting on the effective application of influencing tactics.
3. Identify a leader in your organisation or reflect on yourself with regard to exercising influence
effectively and highlight the influence strategies being used to achieve the outcomes.
4. Describe what you believe is the significance of information power in the corporate world today.
5. Identify and discuss which influencing strategies you apply most effectively. Using examples, explain
why you regard this to be most effective.
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CHAPTER 4: LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

1. Distinguish between transactional and transformational behaviour of leaders.

2. Distinguish between charismatic and non-charismatic leadership.
3. Understand the articulation of vision to build an organisation.
4. Appreciate the need of adapting leadership behaviour to manage organisation;
5. Understand the trends in the styles of leadership in organisations.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal Articles
• Transformational-Transactional Leadership Styles and Followers’ Regulatory Focus: Journal of
Personnel Psychology (2011), 10, pp. 182-186. DOI: 10.1027/1866-5888/a000043. © 2011
Hogrefe Publishing. Distributed under the Hogrefe OpenMind License
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/a000001].
• Addae, H.M., Parboteeah, K.P., & Velinor, N. (2008). Role stressors and organisational
commitment: public sector employment in St Lucia. International Journal of Manpower, 29,
567−582. doi:10.1108/01437720810904220.
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• Avey, J.B., Hughes, L.W., Norman, S.M., & Luthans, K. W. (2008). Using positivity,
transformational leadership and empowerment to combat employee negativity. Leadership and
Organisation Development Journal, 29, 110−126. doi:10.1108/01437730810852470.
• Bakker, A.B., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2008). Positive organisational behaviour: Engaged employees
in flourishing organisations. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 29, 147−154.
doi:10.1002/job.515
• Jessica E. Dinh, Robert G. Lord, William L. Gardner, Jeremy D. Meuser ,Robert C. Liden, Jinyu
Hu, Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: current theoretical trends and
changing perspectives, Feb,2014
4. INTRODUCTION
Leadership is a catalyst in the process of organisational development. The changing face of
organisations is demanding new vistas in leadership for managing in turbulent times. Global dynamics
require organisations to be more competitive, effective, oriented towards development and to be
adaptive. Leadership plays a significant role in shaping the human element to the dynamics of the
organisation. In the 21st century, organisation needs leaders who have charisma, morality, vision and
emotional balance. The emerging dimensions of leadership need to be understood, and this is
necessary in organisations of the future.
Table 4.1: Leadership styles and characteristics
LEADERSHIP STYLE CHARACTERISTICS
Centre of decision-making and focus on power.
There is limited employee participation in the decision-making
process, which is unilateral (without much involvement of others).
The autocratic leader prefers to make all the decisions.
The leader usually directs the work methods and there isn’t much
AUTOCRATIC
delegation.
The flow of communication is usually one-way.
Only mention mistakes without any emphasis on employee
development. A typical expression in this type of work environment
is, “no news is good news.
PRESCRIPTIVE Leaders impose strict and systematic discipline on the followers and
(BUREAUCRATIC) LEADER demand business-like conduct in the workplace.
Leaders are empowered via the office they hold - position power.
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Followers are promoted based on their ability to conform to the rules

of the office.
Followers should obey leaders because authority is bestowed upon
the leader as part of their position in the company.
The primary behaviour of these leaders is to forge consensus
through collaboration.
The key to this style is communication - seeking the opinions of
others, and letting your opinion be known.
The style produces a work environment that employees can feel
PARTICIPATIVE
good about.
(DEMOCRATIC) LEADER
Workers feel that their opinion counts, and because of that feeling
they are more committed to achieving the goals and objectives of
the organisation.
Facilitators deliberate abstention from directing and planning.
COLLEGIALITY (ABDICATIVE Little or no influence on individual members or the group.
OR LAISSEZ-FAIRE) Attitude leads to role overload and other conflicts.
LEADERSHIP Neither authoritarian nor permissive.
Encourages team effort.
Leads to narcissistic, pre-occupation, excessive expression of
emotion.
Craving for activity and excitement.
ANARCHY LEADERSHIP Exploitation of others.
Unclear organisational structures or processes.
Climate for ambiguity.
High risk taker.
People who have an ability to inspire by their words
Attractive personality – inspire people
CHARISMATIC LEADERS
Good-looking and well-built
Big, exciting visions
Practical and realistic vision for change and improvement.
TRANSACTIONAL LEADER Inspiring communications, integrity and competence to lead
Sometimes lacking: Caring
Caring via a commitment to meeting people’s self-interest and
TRANSFORMATIONAL
needs Integrity and competence
LEADER
Lacking: Leadership competence
Source: Naidoo (2014)
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The different types of leadership behaviour are explained below.
4.1. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transactional leadership behaviour is associated with the attainment of goals by identifying the
transactions providing resources, rewards and directing the followers, efforts to the objectives. The
characteristics of transactional leadership behaviour are:
1. Providing direction to followers by establishing goals;

2. Motivating followers
3. Designing the order of work and task relationships
4. Developing a relationship with followers or subordinates;
5. Laying emphasis on the performance and efforts of followers.
Most of the earlier leadership theories and models placed emphasis on transactional leadership
behaviour. The authoritarian theory, democratic theory, Fiedler’s contingency model and the path-goal
model are amongst the earlier theories.
The convergence between organisational and individual goals: If individual goals and those of the
organisation are not analogous, human nature is such that people usually look after their self-interests.
A leader should be able to inspire behaviour in his subordinates that transcend self-interest.
4.2 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transformational leadership is believed to be the leadership behaviour most relevant to the 21st
century. This type of leadership behaviour emphasises the inspirational and developmental needs of
followers. Such leaders create and indelible impression on their followers. They motivate and inspire
followers to make additional efforts to achieve goals. The following characteristic features describe a
transformational leader:
1. Bring about change

2. Courage
3. Belief in people
4. Value driven
5. Life-long learners
6. Ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity and uncertainty
7. Visionary
Transformational leadership has improved productivity and job satisfaction and has helped to reduce
staff turnover.
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Table 4.2: Salient features of a transactional and transformational leadership behaviour

Characteristics Transactional leaders
Contingent reward Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good
performance, recognises accomplishments.
MBE (active) Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes
corrective action.
MBE (passive) Intervenes only if standards are not met.
Laissez-faire Abdicates responsibilities, and avoid making decisions.
Characteristics Transformational leaders.
Charisma Provides vision and a sense of mission, instils pride, gains respect and trust.
Inspiration Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses
important purposes in simple ways.
Intellectual Promotes intelligence, rationality and care in solving problems.
stimulation
Individual Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches,
consideration advises.
Source: Carr (2010)
4.3 Charismatic Leadership

A good leader influences his sub-ordinates so that they direct their energy towards the realisation of
goals. The influence is not physical but psychological. Psychological influence depends on the kind of
behaviour a leader establishes with his subordinates. This type of leader has not become a leader by
virtue of authority but due to their personal power to influence, because of their charisma. Charismatic
leaders are those “who by force of their personal abilities are capable of having profound and
extraordinary effects on followers.
Table 4.3: Personal abilities of a Charismatic leader
Characteristics Charismatic leaders

Vision Ability to foresee the trends of the future.
Risk orientated Will always look beyond the conventional ways and means, and will even
be willing to take personal risks in directing their subordinates.
Sensitivity Refers to the perception of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats. They make an effort to understand threats to the environment
realistically.
Different behaviour The actions and reactions in different situations may go against the
conventional norms of behaviour followed in an organisation or group.
Source: Ladkon & Taylor (2010)
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Attributes of charisma are the result of an interactive process between leader, followers and the
situation. Charismatic leaders arouse enthusiasm and commitment in followers by articulating a
compelling vision and increasing follower confidence about achieving it.
Transformational leaders make followers more aware of the importance and value of the work and
induce followers to transcend self-interest for the sake of the organisation. The theories of charisma
and transformation emphasise that the emotional processes are as important as rational processes,
and symbolic actions are as important as instrumental behaviour. To understand how these theories
influence organisational processes and outcomes, it is necessary to include aspects of strategic
management which can explicitly describe the success of organisations. (Yukl: 2013, 327)
SUMMARY
Over a period of more than three decades, hundreds of studies were conducted to see how the
different types of behaviour correlate with the criteria of leadership effectiveness. Effective leaders have
a high concern for task objectives and interpersonal relationships as they use different types of
behaviour that are relevant to the leadership situation. Specific task and relations orientated behaviours
include a certain level of planning, clarifying and monitoring.
In any business setting, employees need guidance and motivation to perform at their best. The
behaviours you display affect how they view you and the workplace in general. Your goal is to develop
leadership behaviours that have a positive impact your employees. Because there are so many
leadership styles to draw from, choosing the right one can be confusing. The key to establishing
effective leadership behaviours is to determine which ones will give you the desired effect and apply
them according.
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss why behaviour taxonomies are seen as important for effective leadership.
2. As a leader, reflect on why it is necessary to ensure there are efficiencies in relation to tasks
and relations.
3. Discuss the guidelines for planning, clarifying and monitoring.
4. Identify what type of behaviour is used to influence innovation, collective learning and
successful implementation of major changes in the organisation.
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CHAPTER 5: EMPOWERING LEADERSHIP
1. Distinguish between different forms of participative leadership and empowerment.

2. Understand the situations in which participative leadership is most likely to be effective.
3. Understand when and how to use consultation.
4. Understand the potential benefit and risks of delegation.
5. Understand when and how to use delegation.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal articles
• Natalia M. Lorinkova, McDonough, Rafik B, When Is Empowerment Effective? The Role of
Leader-Leader Exchange in Empowering Leadership, Journal of Management.
• Xiaomeng Zhang and Kathryn M. Bartol, Linking Empowering Leadership and Employee
Creativity: The Influence of Psychological Empowerment, Intrinsic Motivation, and Creative
Process Engagement, Academy of Management Journal,February 2010 53:1 107-128;
doi:10.5465/AMJ.2010.48037118.
• Scott B. Dust1,*, Christian J. Resick2 and Mary Bardes Mawritz, Transformational leadership,
psychological empowerment, and the moderating role of mechanistic–organic contexts, Article
first published online: 25 OCT 2013, DOI: 10.1002/job.1904.
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Rice University, Managers can boost creativity by ‘empowering leadership’ and earning employees’
trust, October 8, 2014.
Ning Li, Dan S Chaiburu, Bradley.L.Kirkman, Cross-Level Influences of Empowering Leadership on

Citizenship Behavior Organizational Support Climate as a Double-Edged Sword, Journal of
Management.
Priyanko Guchait, Karthik Namasivayam, The influence of leader empowering behaviours and
employee psychological empowerment on customer satisfaction International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management, 02/2014; 26(1). DOI: 10.1108/IJCHM-11-2012-0218
5. INTRODUCTION
Participative leadership involves efforts by a leader to enlist the aid of others in making important
decisions. Vroom and Yetton developed a model of participative leadership to help managers identify
the appropriate decision procedures in different situations. (Yukl, 140)
5.1 NATURE OF PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP

Participative leadership involves the use of various decision procedures that allow other people some
influence over the leader’s decision. Participative leadership is also referred to as consultation, joint
decision-making, power sharing, decentralisation, empowerment, and democratic management.
Four decision procedures can be ordered along a continuum ranging from no influence by other people
to high influence.
a) Autocratic decision – the manager makes a decision alone without asking for the opinions or
suggestions of others and these people have not direct influence on the decision; there is no
participation.
b) Consultation – the manager asks other people for their opinions and ideas and then makes the
decision alone after seriously considering their suggestions and concerns.
c) Joint decisions – the manager meets with others to discuss the decision problem and makes
decisions together; the manager has no more influence over the final decision than any other
participant.
d) Delegation – The manager gives an individual or group the authority and responsibility for making a
decision; the manager usually specifies limits within which the final choice must fall and prior approval
may or may not be required before the decision can be implemented.
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5.2 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP

5.2.1 Decision quality
Involving other people in making a decision is likely to increase the quality of a decision when
participants have information and knowledge lacked by the leader and are willing to cooperate in
finding a good solution to a decision problem.
5.2.2 Decision acceptance

People who have considerable influence in making a decision tend to identify with it and perceive it to
be their decision. The feeling of ownership increases their motivation to implement it successfully.
Participants gain a better understanding of how they will be affected by a decision, which is likely to
reduce fear and anxiety.
5.2.3 Satisfaction with the decision process

People are more likely to perceive that they are being treated with dignity and respect when they have
an opportunity to express opinions and preferences about a decision that will affect them.
5.2.4 Development of participant skills

The experience of helping to make a complex decision can result in the development of more skill and
confidence by participants.
5.2.5 Objectives of different participants

Downward consultation may be used to increase the quality of decisions by drawing on the knowledge
and problem solving expertise of subordinates. Lateral consultation with people in different units may
be used to increase decision quality when peers have relevant knowledge about the cause of a
problem and likely solution. Upward consultation allows a manager to draw on the expertise of the boss
and find out how the boss feels about the problem.
5.3 GUIDELINES FOR PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP

Read Yukl, 2013: 124-127 to gain an understanding of the guidelines for participative leadership. A
summary of the guidelines are presented in Table 5.1.
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Table 5.1: Guidelines for Participative Leadership

How to diagnose decision situation:
• Evaluate how important the decision is
• Identify people with relevant knowledge or expertise
• Evaluate likely cooperation by participants
• Evaluate likely acceptance without participation
• Evaluate whether it is feasible to hold a meeting
How to encourage participation:
• Encourage people to express their concerns
• Describe a proposal as tentative
• Record ideas and suggestions
• Looks for ways to build on ideas and suggestions
• Be tactful in expressing concern about a suggestion
• Listen to dissenting views without getting defensive
• Try to utilise suggestions and deal with concerns
• Show appreciation for suggestions
a) Delegation
Delegation often involves the shifting of primary responsibility for a particular type of decision to an
individual or group.
i) Potential benefits from delegation

There are many different reasons for delegating. Below is a study by Yukl & Fu, 1999 that provides
some of these benefits.
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Table 5.2: Guidelines for Implementing a Major Change

• Develop subordinates skills and confidence
• Enable subordinates to deal with problems quickly
• Improve decision by moving them close to the action
• Increase subordinate commitment to a task
• Make the job more interesting for subordinates
• Reduce your workload to manage time better
• Satisfy superiors who want you to delegate more
• Get rid of tedious tasks you don’t want to do
ii) Guidelines for delegating

Read Yukl, 2013: 131-133 to gain an understanding of the guidelines for delegating. A summary of the
guidelines are presented in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Guidelines for what to delegate

• Tasks that can be done better by a subordinate
• Tasks that are urgent but not high priority
• Tasks relevant to a subordinate’s career
• Tasks of appropriate difficulty
• Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks
• Tasks not central to the manager’s role
iii) How to delegate

The success of delegation depends as much on how it is carried out as on what is delegated.
Read Yukl, 2013: 133-135 to gain an understanding of the guidelines for implementing major change. A
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Table 5.4: Guidelines for how to delegate

• Specify responsibilities clearly
• Provide adequate authority and specify limits of discretion
• Specify reporting requirements
• Ensure subordinates acceptance of responsibilities
• Inform others that need to know
• Monitor progress in appropriate ways
• Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary information
• Provide support and assistance, but avoid reverse delegation
• Make mistakes a learning experience
5.4 PERCEIVED EMPOWERMENT

5.4.1 Nature of psychological empowerment
The term “psychological empowerment” describes how the intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy of
people are influenced by leadership behaviour, job characteristics, organisation structure and their own
needs and values. Participative practices and employee involvement programmes do not necessarily
reduce feelings of powerlessness.
5.4.2 How leaders can increase empowerment

Ways to empower subordinates are summarised in Table 5.5 and the behaviours are explained in more
detail.
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Table 5.5: Guidelines for empowering

• Involve people in making decisions that affect them
• Delegate responsibility and authority for important activities
• Provide access to relevant information
• Provide resources needed to carry out responsibilities
• Change management systems to be consistent with empowerment
• Remove bureaucratic constraints and unnecessary controls
• Express confidence and trust in people
• Provide coaching and advice when requested
• Encourage and support initiatives and problem solving
• Recognise important contributions and achievements
• Ensure that rewards are commensurate with responsibilities and contributions
• Ensure accountability for the ethical use of power
SUMMARY
Participative leadership involves efforts by a manager to encourage and facilitate participation by
others making decisions that would otherwise be made by the manager alone. Participation can take
many forms.
Delegation involves the assignment of new responsibilities and additional authority individuals,
subordinates or to a team. This can result in informed decisions, increased subordinate motivation,
more satisfying jobs, development of skills and a reduction of workloads.
Empowerment results in the combination of meaningful work, high self-efficacy, self-determination and
the ability to influence employees.
QUESTIONS
1. As a leader can you give reasons why it is so difficult to delegate and share power within the
organisation?
2. Identify some guidelines which encourage participation of the workforce.
3. What determines success in any organisation?
4. Examine the leadership models that exist and outline their benefits within an organisation.
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CHAPTER 6: KNOWLEDGE AND AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP
following specific outcomes, in that he/she will be able to
• Understand the importance of knowledge management.

• Understand the situations in which authentic leadership is most likely to be effective.
• Link the effects of knowledge management with that of authentic leadership.
• Understand the potential benefits of practising and implementing authentic leadership.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal articles
• Hua Jiang, Rita Linjuan Men, Creating an Engaged Workforce.
• The Impact of Authentic Leadership, Transparent Organizational Communication, and Work-
Life Enrichment,Published online before print November 2, 2015, doi:
10.1177/0093650215613137,Communication Research November 2, 2015
0093650215613137.
• James Prewitt, Developing Leadership in Global and Multi-cultural Organizations. International
Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 13 [Special Issue - July 2011].
• Debra M. Amidon & Banff, Leadership Acumen, Executive Leadership Inc, 2010.
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6. INTRODUCTION
6.1. KNOWLEDGE LEADERSHIP
In Knowledge Leadership, Cavaleri and Seivert describe the dawning of a new era in which individuals
are “leading” rather than “managing” knowledge. In the past, many knowledge-based initiatives have
failed because leaders underestimated the powerful link between knowledge and performance
improvement – and also because they mistakenly thought that “information” was the same as
knowledge. Cavaleri and Seivert claim that, while information is a necessary precursor to knowledge, it
is not sufficient in itself for improving business performance.
The authors describe notable organisations that use the pragmatic knowledge strategies they describe
to gain competitive advantage. Pragmatic knowledge is the result of individuals’ developing a deeper
understanding of how (and why) things work best in practice. The process of creating pragmatic
knowledge transforms key lessons from systems thinking, total quality management, and organisation
learning into a powerful new business strategy.
The 21st century has brought much of the world firmly into the throes of a knowledge economy.
Advances in computing technology, the internet, e-commerce and more recently m-commerce are
firmly taking root in much of the world today. (C.Laksham, 2008: 02).
Humanity’s collective knowledge of executive and managerial leadership has not kept pace with this
change in the business context. Leadership skills development programs still predominantly focus on
behavioural, interpersonal and communication issues. Although these are still relevant they are hardly
sufficient in today’s e-economy contexts.
The world has moved from and agrarian economy to an industrial and further to a knowledge and
information economy. The huge upheaval and shift in managerial practises in the transition has resulted
in many organisations becoming obsolete.
6.1.1 The role of Leadership in Knowledge Management

Leadership is seen as a key variable in the relationship between knowledge management and
organisational effectiveness. Knowledge leadership should be seen as an ongoing process doing
business and thus should not be limited to discrete steps using specific applications but institutionalised
as a continuous and ongoing. The role of leaders in information and knowledge management is
accomplished through the new broad routes, namely technology and social networks.
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There are five simple lessons that need to be considered by leadership executives:
1) Realise the value and significance of knowledge leadership.
2) Focus on use of social and technological means to manage knowledge in an organisation.
3) Knowledge leadership has to have an intense customer focused approach.
4) Establish channels of information and knowledge flow thus resulting in opportunities for
managers to engage in higher levels of knowledge creation, transfer, leverage and
dissemination.
5) Focus on making knowledge leadership leveraging on practises and being more effective within
the organisation.
Most astute executive managers have seen beyond the limitations of an information society,
technology-enamoured strategies and the dot.com phenomenon. Modern leaders do not fear the speed
of change; they embrace an agenda of learning. They know that effective management is not a matter
of having the most knowledge; it is about knowing how to use it. It is not enough to know modern
management concepts, you must show ability in how they get implemented (i.e. put into action)
Leadership is more an art than a science, but that doesn’t excuse us for searching for appropriate
metrics for a return-on-leadership (ROL). We must develop an innovation competence and learn how to
measure the performance thereof.
At the heart of the current transformation is the human being within whom knowledge resides. And the
path to a sustainable future is an ability to innovate - create knowledge, convert it into viable products
and services, and apply it for the profitable growth of an enterprise, the vitality of a nation’s economy
and the advancement of society.
21st century leadership demands more vision and visibility. It is not only a function of learned
behaviours, but also how those behaviours demonstrate impact. With global communications, there will
be a perceived levelling of competence. Knowledge obsolesce will accelerate. The ‘Digital Divide’ could
exacerbate the gap between the haves and have nots; but the human (vs. the information or
technology) agenda will place the emphasis on all people and all cultures - where it belongs! Real-time
learning will become the critical success factor for prosperity in both the public and private sectors.
Leaders used to focus on ‘leading’ the organisation. Tomorrow’s leaders will be perceived more of local,
national, regional and international statesmen (and women) who are able to effectively balance
economics, education and the environment.
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6.1.2 Model on Knowledge Leadership

The diagram below illustrates the factors that need to be considered when applying knowledge
leadership in an organisation. This serves as a guide when an effective leader has to respond to
situation within the work environment.
Figure 6.1: Illustration of factors used in Knowledge leadership
Source: Cavaleri and Seivert: 2013
6.2 GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE LEADERSHIP

Globalisation has seemingly overwhelmed many organisations and leaders. This is due to its rapid
pace and the fact that many leaders have not had adequate training to deal with globalisation. This
includes a lack of understanding of the various communities across the globe.!
Many organisations spend more time and resources training employees on new equipment and
software than developing managerial and leadership skills. This occurs many times in spite of the
discussion that visionary leadership is what is needed to compete, succeed, and to continue to grow as
an organisation in our global world. Furthermore, until very recently, global business was considered
the purview of a few large businesses and as a side-line for the few others that participated in this area.
Globalisation is the biggest phenomenon to affect businesses and their leaders. It is no longer sufficient
to operate in and find strength in one’s own domestic market. The past 30 years or so is replete with
failures of businesses that have tried the one country approach.
With the rampant growth in cross-border mergers and acquisitions, the globalisation trend is more acute
than ever. This, together with the economic transition from an industrial age to the information age, has
made lives of business leaders around the world more complex.
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It is the unquestioned conviction of global leaders that knowledge-sharing, leveraging and the broader,
management knowledge are the essence of successful transnational corporations. Corporations such
as Hewlett-Packard (HP), McDonalds, and Caterpillar, would attest their experiences of knowledge
generation and sharing, from locations that have traditionally been a source of knowledge. An
increasing number of global corporations are joining the respectable list of companies that are
establishing knowledge centres around the world to feed all their markets.
Figure 6.2
Source: Prewitt: 2011
The GLM model has the following three dimensions integrated by the learning process:
a) Orientation: which is a way of being that includes elements of openness, collaboration, awareness,
mindfulness, appreciation, flexibility and cosmopolitanism;
b) Knowledge: defined as a cognitive structure consisting of sense-making, systems thinking,
integration, selection, analysis, imagination, reasoning, intuition, perception and judgment; and
c) Behaviour: an enactment of orientation and knowledge, which includes a propensity to engage, be
curious, have the ability to build emotional connections, demonstrate global business savvy, exhibit
cultural awareness and appreciation, balance tensions, evidence visioning, and cope with the speed of
changing events and technologies. Learning is understood as the process that fully integrates the three
components of GLM, as they are embedded in one’s environment.
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6.3 AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP

Authentic leadership is an approach to leadership that emphasises building the leader’s legitimacy
through honest relationships with followers. This approach values followers’ input and is built on an
ethical foundation.!
Generally, authentic leaders are positive people with truthful self-concepts who promote openness. By
building trust and generating enthusiastic support from their subordinates, authentic leaders are able to
improve individual and team performance. This approach has been fully embraced by many leaders
and leadership coaches who view authentic leadership as an alternative to leaders who emphasize
profit and share price over people and ethics. Authentic leadership is a growing area of study in
academic research on leadership which has recently grown from obscurity to the beginnings of a fully
mature concept.
6.3.1 Five marks of Authentic Leadership
a) Authentic leaders have insight. Sometimes we refer to this as vision, but that usually has exclusive
reference to the future. While leaders must have vision, they need more. They need wisdom and
discernment.
They need to be able to look at complex situations, gain clarity, and determine a course of action. In the
Bible, “[The] men of Issachar … understood the times and knew what Israel should do” (1 Chronicles
12:32). This is what I mean by insight.
b) Authentic leaders demonstrate initiative. They go first. They don’t sit on the side-line. They don’t
ask others to do what they are unwilling to do themselves. Instead, they lead by example. Lt. Col. Hal
Moore is a great example of this. Famously depicted by Mel Gibson in the movie, We Were Soldiers,
Lt. Moore told his troops, before leaving for Vietnam: “We are going into battle against a tough and
determined enemy. I can’t promise you that I will bring you all home alive. But this I swear, before you
and before Almighty God, that when we go into battle, I will be the first to set foot on the field, and I’ll be
the last to step off. And I will leave no one behind. Dead or alive, we will all come home together.”
c) Authentic leaders exert influence. It’s no coincidence that influence and influenza (the flu) come
from the same root word. Real leaders are contagious. People “catch” what they have. People are
drawn to their vision and their values. They are able to gather a following and move people to act. To
change metaphors, they are like human wave pools, creating a ripple effect wherever they go.
d) Authentic leaders have impact. At the end of the day, leaders make a difference. The world is
changed because of their leadership. They are able to create real and lasting change. Unless
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something has shifted, they aren’t leaders. They are only entertainers. There is a big difference. The
measure of leadership cannot be found in the leader; it is found in the impact the leader has on his or
her followers.
e) Authentic leaders exercise integrity. Not every leader is benevolent. Adolf Hitler was a leader, as
was Mao Zedong and Josef Stalin. They had insight, initiative, influence, and impact. Yet their lives
were not integrated with the highest values. Integrity - or the lack thereof - ultimately determines the
quality of a person’s impact. In a sense, this is the foundation of authentic leadership.
Leaders must be deliberate and intentional if they are to be successful. These five qualities can guide
us as we grow in our ability to lead.
An authentic leader is more interested in empowering employees than he/she is in money or personal
power, and is guided by compassion and heart in everything they do. While many authentic leaders
may have natural abilities, it is emphasized that anyone can become an authentic leader through hard
work and developing their leadership qualities. Authentic leaders are dedicated to continued personal
growth and committed to building lasting relationships and strong organistions.
Authentic leaders draw their inspiration from their own lives. Starbucks’ founder Howard Schultz for
example was inspired by his fathers’ struggles with poor health to make Starbucks the first American
company to provide health care options to part-time employees. Schultz consciously used his life
experiences to build a company that was a reflection of his personal values.
SUMMARY
Leaders understand the nature of complex context - how to make sense of it and how to convey it (with
magnetic vision) to others. Leaders know that competencies are based in experience and are more
dynamic than static attributes. Leaders know the relationship between the motivation (Psychology) of
an individual and the culture (Sociology) of an organisation.
Leaders understand the value of the collective - the teams and communities who get the work done and
realise the vision. Leaders know how to evolve a common language and that there is more power in the
dialogue than what gets documented in a particular planning process. Leaders value the
communications process - both technical and human - but not as much for what gets conveyed as what
might be learned. Leaders coach and are coached by people of similar values and vision. Trust is
placed in those able to care more about leveraging the competencies of one another
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QUESTIONS
1. What are some of the guiding principles that encourage participation?

2. Identify the guidelines for good delegation within a diverse workforce.
3. State some of the essential elements of psychological empowerment.
4. Why is knowledge management seen as a new dimension to leadership and why should it be
implemented in organisations of today?
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CHAPTER 7: STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP
• Understand what organisational processes determine a company’s performance.

• Understand how top executives can influence organisational processes and performance.
• Understand constraints on strategic leadership and conditions that make it more important.
• Understand the potential advantages of executive teams and how to use them effectively.
• Understand why it is important to monitor the external environment and how to do it.
• Understand the procedures that can be used to formulate a good competitive strategy.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal articles
• Suzanne M Carter, Charles R Greer, Strategic Leadership: Values, Styles, and Organizational
Performance, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies November 2013 20: 375-393,
first published on January 15, 2013.
• W. Glenn Rowe, Creating wealth in organizations: The role of strategic leadership, Academy of
Management, doi: 10.5465/AME.2001.4251395 Acad Manage Perspect February 1, vol. 15 no.
1 81-94
• Paul J. H. SchoemakerSteve Krupp Samantha Howland, Strategic Leadership: The Essential
Skills, January–February 2013 Issue, Harvard Business review.
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• LaRue Tone Hosmer, (1982) “The Importance Of Strategic Leadership”, Journal of Business
Strategy, Vol. 3 Iss: 2, pp.47 – 57.
• Mona Pazireh, Esmaeel Malek Akhlagh, Mohsen Akbari, Evaluation the Role of Strategic
Leadership in Organizational Performance, Universal Journal of Management and Social
Sciences Vol. 4, No. 9; September 2014
• N.Poursadegh, B.khatami, M.siahatkhah,”The role of strategic leadership in success and
implementation of strategies”, presented at the 2012 international conference. Strategic
management, Tehran, 2012
7. UNDERSTANDING STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP
7.1. INTRODUCTION
Strategic leadership reflects an increased interest in understanding how executives can transform their
organisations to cope with globalisation, increased international competition, and rapid technological
and social change.
It is also seen as a process of using well thought-out tactics to communicate a vision for an
organisation or one of its parts. Strategic leadership typically manages, motivates and persuades staff
to share that same vision, and can be an important tool for implementing change or creating
organisational structure within an organisation.
The most important aspects of strategic leadership are shared values and a clear vision, both of which
will enable and allow employees to make decisions with minimal formal and controlling mechanisms.
With this accomplished, a leader will have more time and greater capacity to focus on other adhoc
issues, such as adapting the vision to a changing business environment. In addition, strategic
leadership will incorporate visionary and managerial leadership by simultaneously allowing the risk-
taking rationally.
7.2. DETERMINANTS OF ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Organisational effectiveness is the long-term prosperity and survival of an organisation. To be

successful, an organisation must adapt to its environment, acquire necessary resources, and conduct
operations in efficient ways (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Leaders can influence organisational performance in
several ways, including decisions about competitive strategy, human resources and management
programmes, systems and organisational structure.
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a) Adaptation to the environment
The effectiveness of an organisation depends on how it appropriately responds to external threats and
opportunities. Adaptation is more important when the external environment is volatile and uncertain,
which is likely in situations of rapid technological change, political and economic turmoil, or new threats
from competitors or external enemies. An organisation is more likely to successfully adapt to its
environment if it has a relevant competitive strategy specifying the types of products or services to offer
and ways to influence potential customers or clients. Successful adaptation sometime requires major
changes in the organisation’s products and services, or the procedures for marketing and supplying
them.
Adaptation is enhanced by accurate interpretation of information about the environment; collective

learning by members, and accurate mental models about the determinants of performance, effective
knowledge management (retention and diffusion of new knowledge within the organisation); flexibility of
work process (capacity to change them quickly as needed); innovation in products, services or
processes; and availability of discretionary resources (to support new initiatives and crisis
management).
b) Efficiency and process reliability
Efficiency is the use of people and resources to carry out essential operations in a way that minimizes
costs and avoids wasted effort and resources. Efficiency is especially important when the organisation’s
competitive strategy is to offer its products and services at a lower price than competitors, or when a
financial crisis occurs and there are insufficient funds to support essential operations. The performance
determinant is less important when an organisation is able to pass along the cost increases to
customers, or the organisation is highly subsidised by the government or private investors. Efficiency
can be increased by redesigning work processes, using new technology, and coordinating unit activities
to avoid unnecessary activities and wasted resources.
Process reliability means avoiding the unnecessary delays, errors, quality defects, or accidents. It is an
important component of efficiency when defective products or unreliable processes increase costs.
Process reliability can be improved by using extra resources to ensure that quality and safety standards
are maintained, products and services are delivered on time, and accidents are avoided.
c) Human resources and relations
The term human capital is sometimes used to describe the quality of an organisation’s human
resources, which include the relevant skills and experience of members (Hitt & Ireland, 2002).
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Performance also depends on member motivation and the quality of their social relationships and
networks (social capital). Collective work is performed more effectively by people who have strong
skills, strong commitment to task objectives, confidence in their ability to achieve challenging
objectives, a high level of mutual trust, and strong identification with the organisation and its mission.
Talented, dedicated employees are often instrumental for the achievement of both efficiency and
innovative adaptation.
At the organisational level, human capital is more important when the organisation is heavily dependent
on people who have unique talents, require extensive training, and would be difficult to replace if they
left. Human capital is less important for an organisation with highly automated processes and few
employees for a virtual organisation that has outsourced most activities or for an organisation with
mostly unskilled jobs and an ample supply of people willing to work for low wages.
d) Competitive Strategy
Competitive strategy includes decisions about the type of products and services to offer, the basis for
appealing to potential customers (e.g. price, quality, customer service, uniqueness, patriotism) and the
methods used to influence potential customer or clients (e.g advertising, discounts and promotions).
The strategy may also involve ways to obtain necessary financial resources (e.g. stock, bonds, loans,
donations) and ways to grow the organisation and expand into new markets (e.g. acquisitions, mergers,
joint ventures, strategic alliances and franchises). Competitive strategy is important determinant of the
financial performance and survival of organisations.
e) Management Programs, Systems and Structures
Many different types of improvement programs, management systems, and structural forms can be
used to influence organisational effectiveness. Several types of management programs or initiatives
have been used to improve efficiency and process reliability. Examples include cost reduction programs
(downsizing, outsourcing and just-in-time inventory), process and quality improvement programs (total
quality management, Six Sigma, business process re-engineering); performance management and goal
setting programs (e.g. management by objective, zero defects); and appraisal, recognition, and reward
systems that emphasise efficiency and reliability. Another type of improvement program involves the
use of new technology to automate work processes and reduce labour costs. Efficiency is also affected
by aspects of an organisation’s formal structure such formalisation, standardisation and the use of
functionally specialised subunits.
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Several types of programs have been used to improve innovation and adaptation, namely programs
that improve understanding of customer preferences and computer actions (e.g. market surveys, focus
groups, customer panels, comparative product testing, and benchmarking of competitor product and
processes). Structural forms that can increase innovation and adaptation include research and
development departments, cross functional product development teams, product managers, and semi-
autonomous divisions based on products, market segments or different types of customers.
Employee skills can be improved with recruiting and selection programs, talent management,
succession planning program, and employee development programs (e.g. training, mentoring
programs, 360 feedbacks and education subsidies). Identification with the organisation can be
improved with quality of work life programs (e.g. flexitime, job sharing, child care and fitness centres),
employee benefit programs (compensation, health care, retirement and sabbatical), socialisation
programs (orientation sessions, celebrations, rituals and ceremonies), employee empowerment
programs (employee stock options and industrial democracy) and recognition and reward programs
based on loyalty, service, skills acquisition.
Figure 7.1: How Strategic Leadership is demonstrated
Source: Sarma V.S. Veluri: 2012
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7.3 STRATEGIC, VISIONARY, AND MANAGERIAL LEADERSHIP
7.3 1 Strategic Leaders
• Have a synergistic combination of managerial and visionary leadership.
• Emphasise ethical behavior and value-based decisions.
• Oversee operating (day-to-day) and strategic (long-term) responsibilities.
• Formulate and implement strategies for immediate impact and preservation of long-term goals to
enhance organisational survival, growth, and long-term viability.
•Have strong, positive expectations of the performance they expect from their superiors, peers,
subordinates, and themselves.
•Use strategic controls and financial controls, with emphasis on strategic controls.
•Use, and interchange, tacit and explicit knowledge on individual and organisational levels.
•Use linear and nonlinear thinking patterns.
•Believe in strategic choice, that is, their choices make a difference in their organisation and
environment.
7.3.2 Visionary Leaders
•Are proactive, shape ideas, change the way people think about what is desirable, possible, and
necessary.
• Work to develop choices, fresh approaches to long-standing problems; work from high-risk
positions.
• Are concerned with ideas, relate to people in intuitive and empathetic ways.
• Feel separate from their environment; work in, but do not belong to, organisations; sense of
who they are does not depend on work.
• Influence attitudes and opinions of others within the organisation.
• Concerned with insuring future of organisation, especially through development and
management of people.
• Are more embedded in complexity, ambiguity and information overload; engage in
multifunctional, integrative tasks.
• Know less than their functional area experts.
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• More likely to make decisions based on values.

• More willing to invest in innovation, human capital, and creating and maintaining an effective
culture to ensure long-term viability.
• Focus on tacit knowledge and develop strategies as communal forms of tacit knowledge that
promote enactment of a vision.
• Utilize nonlinear thinking.
• Believe in strategic choice, that is, their choices make a difference in their organisations and
environment.
7.3.3 Managerial Leaders
•Are reactive; adopt passive attitude towards goals; goals arise out of necessities, not desires and
dreams; goals based on past.
•View work as an enabling process involving some combination of ideas and people interacting to
establish strategies.
•Relate to people according to their roles in the decision-making process.
•See themselves as conservators and regulators of existing order; sense of who they are depends on
their role in organisation.
•Influence actions and decisions of those with whom they work.
•Are involved in situations and contexts characteristic of day-to-day activities.
•Are concerned with, and more comfortable in, functional areas of responsibilities.
•Are experts in their functional area.
•Are less likely to make value-based decisions.
•Engage in, and support, short-term, least-cost behavior to enhance financial performance figures.
•Focus on managing the exchange and combination of explicit knowledge and ensuring compliance to
standard operating procedures.
•Utilize linear thinking.
•Believe in determinism, that is, the choices they make are determined by their internal and external
environments.
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SUMMARY
The prosperity and survival of organisations depends on timely adaption to threats and opportunities.
The relative importance of these performance determinants for organisations and the potential trade-off
among them must be considered. Flexible, adaptive leadership is essential to successfully deal with the
trade-offs, competing objectives and changing situations. The organisation’s culture can facilitate or
hinder efforts to make major changes.
QUESTIONS
1. Identify and discuss how leaders can influence each type of performance determinants.
2. Determine what organisational culture is and identify how a leader can influence this.
3. State how shared leadership, relational relationship, and complexity theories increase our
understanding of leadership in organisations.
4. Strategy formulation is an important aspect of the organisation. Discuss the guidelines that
need to be considered in order to implement the strategy effectively.
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CHAPTER 8: LEADERSHIP AND ETHICS
• Understand ethics and morality.

• Understand ethics in a business context.
• Describe ethical dilemmas in the work environment.
• Understand the impact of ethics and leadership effectiveness.
• Process for ethical decision-making.
• Understand ethics in an African context.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta.
Journal articles
• Jeroen Stouten,Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Marius van Dijke,David De CremerR; Ethical

Leadership: Journal of Personnel Psychology (2012), 11, pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1027/1866-
5888/a000059. 2012 Hogrefe Publishing. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000059
• Katarina Katja Mihelič, Msc,Bogdan Lipičnik, Metka Tekavčič, Ethical Leadership, International
Journal of Management & Information Systems – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 14, Number 5
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• Trevino, L. K., Hartman, L. P., & Brown, M. E. (2012). Moral person and moral manager: How
executives develop a reputation for ethical leadership. California Management Review, 42(4),
128-142.
• Bazerman, M. H. (2011). Evaluating Your Business Ethics: A Harvard professor explains why
good people do unethical things, Gallup Management Journal Online (pp. 1-5): Gallup Poll
News Service. Enderle, G. (2013). Some perspectives of managerial ethical leadership. Journal
of Business Ethics, 6(8), 657-663.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Ethics are the principles, values and beliefs that define what is right and wrong behaviour. Leadership
is the process of influencing others to achieve goals. Thus, we can define ethical leadership as the
process of influencing people through principles, values and beliefs that embrace what we have defined
as right behaviour.
It should be clear by now that leaders set the moral tone for an organisation. Leaders are the ones who
uphold the shared values of the organisation and set the cultural tone. Of course, people vary in their
capacity for moral judgment-in their ability to recognise and analyse moral issues, in their capacity for
moral behaviour and in the priority that they place on moral values.
Organisations make their ethical priorities evident in multiple ways, including through policy; the criteria
for hiring, promotion, and compensation; and the fairness and respect with which they treat their
employees. People care deeply about “organisational justice” and perform better when they believe that
their workplace is treating them with dignity and is rewarding ethical conduct.
Issues that organisations are grappling with most are fraud and theft, security of information, financial
management procedures, racial discrimination and workplace safety. Other challenges include
corporate governance, employee client privacy and competitive practises ( Robbins, Judge, Odendaal
and Roodt, 2012).
8.2 THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF LEADERSHIP
Ethics begin personally but ultimately provide empowerment. Practising ethical leadership requires
three major interrelated activities: knowing (awareness of own and others’ values); feeling (creating
awareness of or sensing values and dilemmas); and acting (behaviour). Ethical leadership is tested
through ethical dilemmas, and practicing it requires role modelling and courage (MSE).
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Behaving ethically is fundamental to good leadership. If a leader is unethical, they are unlikely to be
seen as a good leader. A leader’s ethics is traced back to their own values and morals. Leaders should
set an example for others, as they influence the followers of the organisation. Leadership is more than
achieving performance targets.
“Successful leadership is about achieving them through ethical and socially responsible means
(Schermerhorn 2002) that enhance and develop all the people involved (Burns 1978, Gardner 1990).”
(Dubrin, Daglish & Miller, 2006, p.126).
The leader’s own personal values and morals are important to ethics and leadership. It is also vital to
look at how ethical leadership is linked to the servant leadership style, and how there are different
models of ethical decision-making a leader can use. Also how leading ethically can affect the
organisation and the leader.
8.3 VALUES AND MORALS

Values are the foundation of ethics and morals. Dubrin, Daglish & Miller (2006) define values as
‘constructs representing generalised behaviours or states of affairs that are considered by the individual
to be important’. (Dubrin, Daglish & Miller, 2006, p.127) Values are established throughout childhood
and they guide personal behaviour and decision-making. The influences on the development of values
are shown in the diagram below. (Taken from Dubrin, Daglish & Miller, 2006, p.127) Dubrin, A., Daglish,
C. and Miller, P. (2006). Leadership 2nd Asia-Pacific Edition. John Wiley and Sons: Australia.
Leadership is dealing with people. In the millennium, organisations’ moral leadership is required to
understand organisational matters. The words “moral” and “ethics” are used interchangeably. Moral
behaviour is linked directly with ethics. The moral dimensions of leadership on an organisation are
presented below:
Employees
Customer Government
Moral!
Society
Leadership
p! Investors
Suppliers Shareholders
Stakeholders
Figure 8.1 Ethical dimensions of leadership

Source: Sarma: 2012
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What can leaders do to create an ethical culture? A strong organisational culture that supports high
ethical standards will have tremendous influence both in the community and on employee behaviour.
Although there are no guarantees, leaders can take several steps to create a strong ethical
organisational culture:
1. Be a visible role model. Employees take their cues about appropriate behaviour from those at
the top.
2. Communicate ethical expectations. Organisations can create a “code of ethics.” This should
outline the organisation’s primary values and the ethical rules that employees are expected to
follow. If widely accepted and enforced, codes can also reinforce core values, deter
misconduct, promote trust, and reduce the organisation’s risks of conflicting interests and legal
liability.
3. Promote effective financial management. Use resources in a socially responsible way and
strive to be cost-effective without sacrificing long-term institutional capacity. Ensure that the
organisation is using generally accepted accounting practices, and is transparent with donors
and grantors.
4. Provide ethical trainings to employees; use these training sessions to reinforce the
organisation’s standards of conduct, to clarify what practices are and are not permissible, and
to address possible ethical dilemmas.
5. Institutionalize an ethical culture by measuring employee performance and organisational
performance against your code of ethics. Make sure the organisation pays as much attention to
what you are doing, as it is to where you end up.
6. Provide protective mechanisms. The organisation needs to provide formal mechanisms so that
employees can discuss ethical dilemmas and report unethical behaviour without fear of
reprimand. This might include creation of ethical officers, counsellors or ombudsmen.
In conclusion, remember that any leader can behave ethically and create an ethical organisation. It
takes time, staff involvement and a commitment to put in place policies and procedures that
institutionalize ethical expectations and practice.
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8.4 ETHICS IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT
The African continent is largely diverse in a political and social composition. Many countries have
established democracies, others are experimenting with it, yet in others chaos, genocide and terror are
predominant. This diversity makes it difficult to describe a context for ethical leadership. Carol Dalgish,
Maarten du Plessis, Liezal Lues and Emmie Piertersen: p 151: 2012.
In Africa many organisations tend to be plagued by high levels of competition, the effects of corruption
are insidious and they go well beyond requests for bribes and favours. Economic implications for
companies are significant when your competition can get away paying odd officials to wing major
contracts. A seminar was held in East Africa and the following insights were revealed:
1) No country in Africa legitimises or legalises corruption. In fact, sufficient laws exist to deal with
cases of corruption;
2) Corruption across the board is systemic in many African countries, arising from corruption of
leadership and collapse of institutions that were designed to contain corruption.
3) Nepotism is rife in business;
4) There is also a continued prevalence of human rights abuse in corruption.
Africa calls for leaders who are ethically grounded, self-denying and thoroughly understand the concept
of common good (Olojele: 2006). African leaders are called to act from a foundation of ethical and
moral strength in a continent awakening to ethical reform and demonstrate enterprise leadership
underpinned by value and executed within the context of “Ubuntu” or “ukama” which relates to our
interdependence of our existence. The goal of morality according to the ethical vision is fullness of
humanity; the moral is seen as a process of moral growth.
The following can be considered in order to promote ethical behaviour:
1) Provide role models of honest persons with integrity to young, at school, in families and
communities;
2) Empower individuals and communities to take up the role as the vanguard of civil society;
3) Empower African women in their traditional role as a caretaker to critically establish and
promote integrity, honesty and leadership within communities.
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8.5 ETHICS IN BUSINESS TODAY

Business ethics can be defined as an application and examination of morality by individuals with
respect to management of business decisions. The term business ethics was once regarded as an
oxymoron or contradiction but with the ethical collapse of major corporate companies early in the
century, ethics and corporate governance have become critical components of good ethics practise
internationally.
More managers of today are alert to ways in which positive values contribute to a company’s effective
day-to-day functioning as well as its reputation and long-term sustainability. The focus on corporate
governance and corporate social responsibility poses to management a new demand to develop more
robust ethical reasoning skills.
In the world of business, organisations are now expected to behave as moral actors that conform to
their activities to certain ethical requirements, employing strategies that make both ethical and financial
sense (Tishler, 2002).
8.6 UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS
Unethical behaviour among organisational members can take many forms. The judgement of unethical
behaviour is subjective and very difficult to measure. Cardy & Selvarajan (2004) defined various forms
of unethical behaviour as follows:
Table: 8.1. Forms of Unethical Behaviour
Dimension Definitions
Bribery Giving and accepting gift/favours in exchange for preferential treatment.
Deception Indulging in cheating and fraudulent and deceitful conduct towards customers.
Falsification Misrepresenting/lying indulging in falsehood in company matters vis-à-vis
organisation rules, policies and company records.
Unethical Being dishonest/unethical about dealing with co-workers, taking credit for co-
dealings with workers efforts and passing blame on co-workers for one’s mistakes.
co-workers
Padding Being dishonest about statements related to expense accounts submitted by
expense business trips.
accounts
Personal use Misusing company resources, using them for personal use.
Source: Cardy & Selvarajan: 2004
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According to the Ethic Research Resource Centre (ERC) in the US, findings amongst the employees
regarding misconduct in the workplace included:
• Unrealistic business objectives and deadlines;

• The desire to further one’s career;
• The desire to preserve one’s livelihood;
• Working in an environment of cynicism and diminished morale;
• The lack of consequences for unethical behaviour;
• Need to follow superior orders;
• Peer pressure;
• Desire to harm the organisation;
• Wanting to help the organisation survive
8.7 PROCESS FOR ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING
Ethical decision-making refers to the process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a
manner consistent with ethical principles. In making ethical decisions, it is necessary to perceive and
eliminate unethical options and select the best ethical alternative.
The process of making ethical decisions requires:
a) Commitment: The desire to do the right thing regardless of the cost.
b) Consciousness: The awareness to act consistently and apply moral convictions to daily behaviour.
c) Competency: The ability to collect and evaluate information, develop alternatives, and for see
potential consequences and risks. Good decisions are both ethical and effective.
Ethical decisions generate and sustain trust; demonstrate respect, responsibility, fairness and caring;
and are consistent with good citizenship. These behaviours provide a foundation for making better
decisions by setting the ground rules for our behaviour.
Decisions are effective if they accomplish what we want accomplished and if they advance our
purposes. A choice that produces unintended and undesirable results is ineffective. The key to making
effective decisions is to think about choices in terms of their ability to accomplish our most important
goals. This means we have to understand the difference between immediate and short-term goals and
longer-range goals.
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8.8 EIGHT STEPS IN MAKING ETHICAL DECISIONS
Ethical decision-making should be a collaborative process between client and counsellor, rather than a
counsellor making decisions for the client. Below are the steps, with suggested questions, to assist you
in thinking through an ethical dilemma. This is one of several decision-making models which can be
utilised. The steps taken may not always follow the same order shown and steps may be repeated
several times in the process.
1. Identify the problem or dilemma.
! Does a problem or dilemma actually exist?

! Is this an ethical, legal, moral, professional, or clinical problem?
! Is it a combination of more than one of these?
! How can you know the nature of the problem?
! Would you consult at this early stage as you are identifying the problem?
! How might you begin the process of consultation with your client about the nature of the
problem?
2. Identify the potential issues involved.
How might you best evaluate the rights, responsibilities, and welfare of all those involved and those
who are affected by the decision, including your own welfare as a practitioner?
• How can you best promote your client’s independence and self-determination?
• What actions have the least chance of bringing harm to your client?
• What decision will best safeguard the client’s welfare?
• How can you create a trusting and collaborative climate where your clients can find their own
answers?
• What principles can you use in prioritizing the potential issues involved in this situation?
• Are there any ways to encourage the client to participate in identifying and determining
potential ethical issues?
• Review the relevant ethical codes.
• What guidance can you find on the specific problem under review by consulting with the
professional codes?
• Are your values in agreement with the specific ethical code in question?
• How clear and specific are the codes on the specific area under consideration?
• Are the codes consistent with applicable state laws?
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• Know the applicable laws and regulations.

• Are there any laws or regulations that have a bearing on the situation under consideration?
• What are the specific and relevant state and federal laws that apply to the ethical dilemma?
• What are the rules, regulations, and policies of the agency or institution where you work?
3. Obtain consultation
Do you know where to go to obtain consultation with professionals who are knowledgeable about
ethical issues?
• Assuming that you will consult with a colleague or a supervisor, what would you expect from
this consultation?
• What kinds of questions do you want to ask of those with whom you consult?
• With whom do you seek consultation? Do you consult only with those who share your
orientation, or do you look for consultants with different perspectives?
• How can you use the consultation process as an opportunity to test the justification of a course
of action you are inclined to take?
• What kinds of information do you document when you consult?
• When you do make use of a consultation process, do you inform your client about this? Are
there any ways you might include the client in this consultation process?
4 Consider possible and probable courses of action.
• What are some ways that you can brainstorm many possible courses of action?
• Do you have a systematic method for analysing ethical obligations and possible courses of
action?
• Are you willing to involve your client in the discussion of the various courses of action?
• What might you document pertaining to discussions with your client about probable courses of
action?
5. Enumerate the consequences of various decisions.
• How can you best evaluate the potential consequences of each course of action, before
implementing a particular action plan?
• Are you willing to involve your client in the discussion of the implications of each course of
action for the client?
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• What ethical principles can you use as a framework for evaluating the consequences of a given
course of action?
• Examine the consequences of various decisions for your client, for you as counsellor, and for
the profession in general.
6. Decide on what appears to be the best course of action.
• After carefully considering all the information you have gathered, how do you know what seems
to be the best action to take?
• Do you solicit the input of your client in making this decision at this phase?
• Once you have formulated a plan of action, do you ask for feedback from a colleague or
supervisor?
• Once the course of action has been implemented, what are some ways that you might evaluate
the course of action?
• Are you willing to follow up to determine the outcomes and see if further action is necessary?
EXAMPLE
Here is an example: Susan is the director of an organisation that provides services to people who are
homeless. One day several boxes of stylish new sweaters are donated to the organisation from a
popular clothing store. Staff members are very excited and start sorting through the clothes and trying
on different sweaters. An unethical leader will allow herself and her staff to select what they want from
the boxes before making them available to clients. An ethical leader reminds everyone, including
herself, that the donations were intended for clients and makes the sweaters immediately available to
the people they serve.
SUMMARY
Africa has developed a reputation for unethical behaviour in both government and business sectors
hence it is a difficult context in which to establish ethical leadership behaviour. The international
demand for corporate governance and morality has however rubbed off on Africa and various national
codes on ethical behaviour and good corporate governance have seen the light in recent years.
Ethics is the tool that we use to examine our morals and assist us in making better decisions. Ethical
leadership is a personal choice made by leaders daily as they face personal challenges and
complexities daily. Making the right decision between right and wrong is not clear cut. This in effect
results in leaders finding themselves sacrificing values and beliefs – acting with corporate precision and
focus.
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QUESTIONS
1. Give reasons why it is difficult to evaluate ethics and morality for individual leaders.
2. From your experiences, identify with examples types of ethical and unethical behaviour.
3. In organisations today there are situational activities that require leaders to be ethical. Identify these
activities and what should an effective leader do?
4. Can unethical behaviour occur for a leader who has proper values and intentions?
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CHAPTER 9: CHANGE LEADERSHIP

demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of organisational change. This overall outcome will be
achieved through the student’s mastery of the following specific outcomes, where the student will be
able to:
1. Identify and critically discuss the impact of forces of change.

2. Critically discuss the management of planned change.
3. Critically discuss the management of unplanned change.
4. Identify and critically discuss the reasons for both individual and organisational resistance to
change.
5. Devise strategies to address and overcome resistance to organisational change.
6. Critically discuss and apply the principles and activities involved in creating a learning organisation.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
• Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2001) Organizational Behaviour 5th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp 656
– 690.
• Pettigrew, A.M., Ferlie, E., & McKee, I. (1992) Shaping strategic change in large organisations:
The case of the National Health Service. London: Sage
Juta
Journal Articles:
• Roger Gill, Change management--or change leadership?, Journal of Change Management
Volume 3, Issue 4, 2012, DOI:10.1080/714023845
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• Dean Anderson and Linda Ackerman Anderson, Conscious change leadership: Achieving
breakthrough results, Leader to Leader , 2011.
• Mark J Ahn, John S Adamson, Daniel Dornbusch, From Leaders to Leadership: Managing
Change, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies Spring 2011 vol. 10 no. 4 112-123.
• Thomas J. Hurley and Juanita Brown, Conversational Leadership: Thinking Together for a
Change, Oxford leadership Journal, March 2010 • Volume 1, Issue 2.
9. INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on Organisational Change, and explores the forces of change in organisations and
teams, managing change, resistance to change and creating a learning organisation.
9.1 TYPES OF CHANGE IN TEAMS AND ORGANISATIONS

9.1.1 Role or Attitudes
The attitude-centred approach involves changing attitudes and values with persuasive appeals, training
programmes team-building activities and a culture change programme. The underlying assumption is
that new attitudes and skills will cause behaviour to change in a beneficial way.
The role-centred approach involves changing work roles by reorganising the work flow, redesigning
jobs to include different activities and responsibilities, modifying authority relationship, changing the
criteria and procedures for evaluation of work and changing the reward system.
9.1.2 Technology
Increasingly organisations use technology to improve performance by implementing new information
and decision support system. Examples include networked work stations, human resource information
system, inventory and order processing systems, sales tracking system or intranet.
9.1.3. Strategy
Strategy changes for a company include introduction of new products and services, entering new
markets, use of new forms of marketing, forming alliances and joint ventures and modifying
relationships with suppliers.
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9.1.4 Economics or People

Internal changes in an organisation may emphasise economics or people (Beer & Nohria, 2000). The
first approach seeks to improve financial performance with changes such as downsizing, restructuring,
and adjustments in compensation and incentives. The second approach improve human capability,
commitment, and creativity by increasing individual and organisational learning, strengthening cultural
values that support flexibility and innovation.
9.2 MANAGING CHANGE
The nature of change influences the level of complexity, cost and uncertainty which an organisation has
to experience in addressing the change (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001). A typology of the change, which
provides an indication of the influence of different types of change on an organisation’s experience is
provided in Figure 9.1.
ADAPTIVE INNOVATIVE RADICALLY
CHANGE CHANGE INNOVATIVE

(Reintroducing (Introducing a CHANGE
a familiar practice new to
practice) the (Introducing a
organisation) practice new to
the industry)
Low Degree of: High

• Complexity
• Cost
• Uncertainty
• Resistance to Change!!
Figure 9.1: A Typology of Change

Source: Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001:663
9.3 STAGES IN THE CHANGE PROCESS

9.3.1 Planned Change
Planned change refers to transformation activities which are planned, intentional and goal oriented.
One of the most popular models of planned change is Kurt Lewin’s three stage model of unfreezing,
movement and refreezing:
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• Stage 1: Unfreezing
This stage focuses on creating the motivation to change and minimising resistance to change
amongst employees. People realise that the old way of doing things is no longer adequate.
• Stage 2: Changing
This stage involves a transitional stage where employees let go of their ‘old’ work and take on ‘new
work’. People and groups as well as task, structures and technology are changed during this
phase.
• Stage 3: Refreezing
On completion of the movement stage, stabilisation of the changed aspects of the organisation
takes place. Coaching and modelling may be used during this stage to reinforce changes as well.
9.4 REASONS FOR ACCEPTING OR REJECTING CHANGE

9.4.1 Proposed change is not necessary
A change is likely to be resisted if there is no clear evidence of a serious problem or opportunity that
would justify major change.
9.4.2 Proposed change is not feasible

A reason for resistance is a belief that a proposed change cannot be implemented successfully. Making
a change that is radically different from anything done previously will appear difficult if not impossible. If
previous programmes imitated by the same people were unsuccessful, it creates cynicism and makes it
doubtful if the next one will be better.
9.4.3 Change is not cost effective

A change may be rejected because the benefits would not justify the costs necessary to implement the
change. More resistance is likely when it is not possible to accurately estimate costs in relation to
benefits and people are pessimistic about the benefits.
9.4.4 Change would costs personal losses

Even if change would benefit the organisation, it may be resisted by people who would suffer personal
loss of income, benefits or job security. Major changes in organisations invariably result in some shifts
in power and status for individuals and work units.
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9.4.5 Proposed change is inconsistent with values

The proposed change is inconsistent with an individual’s values and ideals. If a proposed change is
viewed as unethical, illegal, or inconsistent with strong beliefs and proper behaviour, it is more likely to
be resisted.
9.4.6 Leaders not trusted

Change is resisted because the leaders who propose it are distrusted, and this distrust magnifies the
effect of other sources of resistance. People can resent leaders who are viewed as having legitimate
authority to make them, or who are seen as using the changes to further personal ambitions and desire
for more power.
9.5 GUIDELINES FOR IMPLEMENTING CHANGE

Successful implementation of change in organisations requires a wide a range of leadership
behaviours. Some behaviour involves political and administrative aspects, and others involve
motivating, supporting and guiding people. The guidelines below are based on theory, research findings
and practitioner insights (Beer, 1988; Connorr, 1995; Jick, 1993; Kotter, 1996; Nadler, et al, 1995;
Pettigrew & Whip, 1991; Rubin, Dierdordd, Bommer & Baldwin, 2009; Self & Schraeder, 2009; Tichy &
Devanna, 1986).
summary of the guidelines are presented in Table 9.1 below.
• Create a sense of urgency about the need for change.
• Communicate a clear vision of the benefits to be gained.
• Identify likely supporters, opponents, and reasons for resistance.
• Build a broad coalition to support the change.
• Fill key positions with competent change agents.
• Use task forces to guide the implementation of changes.
• Empower competent people to help plan and implement change.
• Make dramatic, symbolic changes that affect the work.
• Prepare people for change by explaining how it will affect them.
• Help people deal with the stress and difficulties of major change.
• Provide opportunities for early successes to build confidence.
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• Monitor the progress of change and make necessary adjustments.

• Keep people informed about the progress of change.
• Demonstrate continued optimism and commitment to the change.
9.6 HOW VISIONS INFLUENCE CHANGE

The success of the change will depend to a great extent on how well leaders communicate the reasons
why proposed change is necessary and beneficial. Success is more likely if leaders articulate a vision
of a better future that is attractive enough to justify the sacrifices and hardships the change will require.
The vision should appeal to the values, hopes and ideals of the organisation’s members and other
stakeholders whose support is needed. The mission statement usually describes the purpose of the
organisation in terms of the type of activities to be performed for constituents and customers. In
contrast an effective vision tells us what these activities mean to people. A values statement is a list of
key values or ideological themes. The values usually pertain to treatment of customers, treatment of
organisation members, core competencies and standards of excellence.
Common themes include satisfying customer, achieving excellence in products and services, providing
innovative product or service, developing and empowering employees and making important
contributions to society. Slogans are statements used to summarise and communicate values in simple
terms. For example, all the news people want to read, partners in making dreams come true etc.
Strategic objectives are tangible outcomes that need to be achieved by a specific deadline. A
performance objective may be stated as an absolute level of performance (e.g. profit, sales and ROI)
and relative level of performance (becoming number one in the industry or region etc). Project
objectives are defined as successful completion of a complex activity (developing a new type of
product, establishing a subsidiary in China etc)
9.7 GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A VISION

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• Involve key stakeholders
• Identify shared values and ideals
• Identify strategic objectives with ideal appeal
• Identify relevant elements in the old ideology
• Link the vision to core competencies and prior achievement
• Continually assess and refine the vision
9.8 COLLECTIVE LEARNING AND INNOVATION
The environment of most organisations is becoming increasing dynamic and competitive. Competition
is becoming more intense, customer expectations are rising, less time is available to develop and
market new products and services, and they become obsolete sooner. To succeed in this turbulent
environment, organisations need to have people at every level who are oriented toward learning and
continuous improvement. Organisational learning involves acquiring and using new knowledge.
9.8.1 Internal creation of new knowledge

Many organisations have formal units with primary responsibility for research and development for new
products and services, and some organisations also have units with the responsibility for continually
assessing and improving work processes. Many important innovations are developed informally by
employees apart from their regular job activities. Many good ideas may be generated and discoveries
made approval is not given or achievements are not recognised. It is important to have an impartial but
systematic process for reviewing and assessing new ideas (venture teams or innovation teams).
9.8.2 External acquisition of new knowledge

New ideas and knowledge also be acquired from a variety of outside sources including publications on
results of applied research, books, articles describing practitioner experience, and observation of best
practice used elsewhere. Other sources include purchasing the right to use specific knowledge from
another organisation, getting advice from consultants who have relevant expertise, hiring outsiders with
special expertise, entering joint ventures with another organisation to increase learning opportunities
and acquiring another organisation that has relevant expertise or patents. The process of examining
best practice used in successful organisations is sometimes called benchmarking. Imitating the best
practice of others can be beneficial but it is essential to evaluate the relevance before adopting them.
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9.8.3 Exploration and exploitation

Exploration involves finding innovative new products, services, processes, or technology, whereas
exploitation involves learning how to make incremental improvements in existing products, services, or
processes. Too much emphasis on exploration may result in excessive costs for acquiring new
knowledge (e.g. for R & D), but too much emphasis on exploitation can reduce flexibility and discourage
development of new products services. Effective leaders also recognise opportunities for combining the
two types of learning.
9.8.4 Knowledge diffusion and application

New knowledge is of little value unless it is made available to people who need to and is used. An
increasing number of companies have sophisticated information systems to facilitate easy access by
employees to relevant information. An employee with a difficult task can discover how other people in
the organisation handled a similar task in the past, and employees can interact with each other to get
advice and support about common problems.
Another approach for diffusing new knowledge in an organisation is a special purpose conference to
facilitate sharing of new knowledge and ideas among units of an organisation. Seminar and workshops
can be used to teach people how to perform new activities or use new technology. Or alternatively a
team of experts can be dispatched to different work sites to show people how to use new procedures.
9.9. LEARNING ORGANISATION

All organisations learn things, but some do it much better than others. In these organisations, the
values of learning, innovation, experimentation, flexibility, and initiative are firmly embedded in the
culture of the organisation.
9.10 GUIDELINES FOR ENHANCING LEARNING AND INNOVATION

Read Yukl, 2013: 109-112 to gain an understanding of the guidelines for enhancing learning and
innovation. A summary of the guidelines are presented in Table 9.3.
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Table 9.3: Guidelines for enhancing learning and innovation

• Recruit talented, creative people and empower them to be innovative
• Encourage appreciation for flexibility and innovation
• Encourage and facilitate learning by individuals and teams
• Help people improve their mental models
• Evaluate new ideas with small scale experiments
• Leverage learning from surprises and failures
• Encourage and facilitate sharing of knowledge and ideas
• Preserve past learning and ensure continued use of relevant knowledge
• Set innovation goals
• Reward entrepreneurial behaviour
SUMMARY
One of the most important and difficult leadership responsibilities is to guide and facilitate the process
of making a major change in an organisation. This involves a variety of different objectives, including
attitudes, roles, technology, competitive strategy, economics and people. The change process can be
described as having different stages as discussed in this chapter. Moving too quickly through the
stages can endanger the success of the change effort.
A leader can do many things to facilitate the successful implementation of change. It is important for
leaders to influence the acquisition, retention and application of relevant knowledge that can provide a
competitive advantage. Leaders can help to create the conditions favourable to organisational learning
and an appropriate balance of exploration and exploitation. New knowledge and innovation ideas can
be discussed through reflection, research and systematic learning activities.
QUESTIONS
1) Consider your experience within organisations and as a leader. In your opinion what
approaches should leaders adopt to bring about change and effectively management the
change process?
2) In your experience, using an example, what has been the major reason for resistance to a
change effort?
3) What has been your biggest insight in being part of a change process or in implementing a
change process?
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CHAPTER 10: TEAM LEADERSHIP
following specific outcomes, in that thestudent will be able to:
• Understand the processes that determine group performance.
• Understand how leaders can influence group processes and improve performance.
• Understand leadership challenges for different types of teams.
• Understand effective procedures for leading teams.
• Understand the primary leadership functions to decision groups.
ESSENTIAL READING
Learners are required to read ALL of the textbook chapters and journal articles listed
below.
Textbooks:
• Yukl, G., (2013) Leadership in Organisations. Ninth Edition Pearson Education: Prentice
• Dalgish, C., du Pleassis, M., Lues. & Pietersen, E., (2009). Leadership in the African Context.
Juta
Journal Articles:
• Frederick P. Morgeson, D. Scott DeRue, Elizabeth P. Karam, Leadership in Teams: A
Functional Approach to Understanding Leadership Structures and Processes, Journal of
Management, Vol. 36 No. 1, January 2010 5-39 DOI: 10.1177/0149206309347376.
• Chen, G., Kirkman, B. L., Kanfer, R., Allen, D., & Rosen, B. 2012. A multilevel study of
leadership, empowerment, and performance in teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 331-
346.
• Dahlin, K. B., Weingart, L. R., & Hinds, P. J. 2011. Team diversity and information use.
Academy of Management Journal, 48: 1107-1123.
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• Hiller, N. J., Day, D. V., & Vance, R. J. 2013. Collective enactment of leadership roles and team
effectiveness: A field study. Leadership Quarterly, 17: 387-397.
• Horwitz, S. K., & Horwitz, I. B. 2010. The effects of team diversity on team outcomes: A meta-
analytic review of team demography. Journal of Management, 33: 987-1015.
10. INTRODUCTION
The word “team” is correctly used to describe an interacting group that is small and has members with a
common purpose, interdependent roles, and complementary skills. A growing trend in organisations is
to give more responsibility for important activities to teams. In some cases, teams are empowered to
make decisions formerly made by individual managers. Several distinct types of teams can be found in
organisations, including functional work teams, cross functional teams, self-managed teams and top
executive teams.
10.1 DETERMINANTS OF TEAM PERFORMANCE

Theoretical explanations for team performance have been proposed by many scholars as outlined in
Table 10.1 below.
Table 10.1: Determinants of team performance
• Commitment to task objectives and strategies
• Member skills and role clarity
• Internal organisation and coordination
• External coordination
• Resources and political support
• Mutual trust, cohesiveness and cooperation
• Collective efficacy and potency
• Accurate, shared mental models
• Collective bargaining
• Mentoring diversity
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10.2 FUNCTION WORK TEAMS

In a functional operating team the members are likely to have jobs that are somewhat specialised but
still part of the same basic function. Effective leadership in functional work teams may require many
specific types of leadership behaviour. Examples of specific behaviours that can be used to influence
each type of performance determinant are listed in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Leader behaviours influencing performance determinants for teams
Leadership Behaviour Performance determinant
Visionary, expressing confidence, celebrating Task commitment, collective efficacy
progress
Recruiting and selecting competent team Member skills, collective efficacy
members
Coaching, training and clarifying role expectations Member skills and role clarity, individual and
and priorities collective efficacy
Planning and organising team activities and Efficiency and internal coordination
projects
Facilitating collective bargaining by the team Adaptation to change, performance quality (e.g.
strategies , collective efficacy)
Team building and constructive resolution of Mutual trust and cooperation, member
conflict identification with the team
Networking, monitoring\scanning of the external Adaptation to change, external coordination,
environment quality of performance strategies
Representing, promoting, lobbying, negotiating Resources and political support, external
coordination
10.3 CROSS FUNCTIONAL TEAMS

Cross functional teams are increasingly being used in organisations to improve coordination of
interdependent activities amongst specialised subunits. The team usually includes representatives from
outside organisations such as suppliers, clients, and joint venture parties. The team is given
responsibility for planning and conducting a complex activity that requires considerable coordination,
cooperation, and joint problem solving among parties (Ford & Randolph, 1992).
Examples of these activities include developing a new product and bringing it into production,
implementing a new information system, identifying ways to improve product quality, planning an ad
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campaign for the client of an advertising agency or carrying out a consulting project and developing a
new learning programme. Some cross functional teams may be permanent addition to the formal
structure of the organisation but most teams are temporary and only exist until they complete their task
or mission.
10.4 BENEFITS AND LIMITATION OF CROSS FUNCTIONAL TEAM

Cross functional teams offer many potential benefits to an organisation. The teams allow flexible,
efficient deployment of personnel and resources to solve problems as they are discovered. Functional
expertise is preserved because team members maintain close contact with their respective functional
areas. Coordination is improved and many problems are avoided when people from different functions
come together to work on a project at the same time, rather than working on it sequentially. The
diversity of member backgrounds fosters communication with external sources of ideas and
information, and it increases creativity in the generation of ideas and problem solutions (Keller, 2001).
Working on a cross functional team helps members learn to view a problem or challenge from different
perspectives, rather than from only a narrow functional viewpoint. Members can learn new skills that will
be carried back to their functional jobs and subsequent teams.
Many organisations have reported great success with cross functional teams. For example, a cross
functional team at Chrysler developed innovative new subcomponent (the Neon) in a record time of
only 42 months and at a fraction of the costs of developing new models at other car companies.
Members of cross functional teams usually have conflicting loyalties to the team and their home
department. Members may also be concerned about the protecting their functional turf than about
accomplishing team objectives. Decisions can become difficult and time-consuming if members need to
get approval from their functional superiors before agreeing to a major change. The team usually has
tight deadlines to meet for completing its work, which puts additional pressure on the leader to resolve
disagreements and maintain steady progress.
a) Leadership in cross functional teams

The research suggests that team leaders need technical expertise, cognitive skills, interpersonal and
political skills, and administrative skills relevant for project management Creativity is an important
requirement for the success of most functional project teams. Mumford et al (2002) found three themes
that described essential processes (1) idea generation, (2) idea structuring and (3) idea promotion.
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Table 10.3: Skills required for leading cross functional project teams
• Technical expertise: the leader must be able to communicate about technical matters with team
members from diverse technical backgrounds.
• Project management skills: the leader must be able to plan and organise the project activities,
select qualified member of the team, and handle budgeting and financial responsibilities.
• Interpersonal skills: the leader must be able to understand the needs and values of team
members to influence them, resolve conflicts and build cohesiveness.
• Cognitive skills: the leader must be able to solve complex problems that require creativity and
systems thinking and must understand how the different functions are relevant to the success of the
project.
• Political skills: the leader must be able to develop coalitions and gain resources, assistance and
approach from the top management and other relevant.
From research studies Barry (1991) identified four leadership roles that appear to be essential for
teams that solve problems, manage projects, or develop policies for an organisation. The roles include
(1) envisioning, (2) organising, (3) social integrating, and (4) external spanning. Envisioning provides a
shared objective, organising helps the team decide how to attain it, social integrating helps to maintain
internal cohesiveness and external spanning helps to keep group decisions compatible with the needs
of stakeholders outside the team. Table 10.4 below shows a modified version of the four role taxonomy
that incorporates other findings in team leadership.
The relative importance of the different leadership roles varies somewhat depending on the stage of
group development. For example, envisioning is especially important when the group is forming,
whereas organising is more important organising is more important after the group has agreed on an
objective.
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Table 10.4: Leadership behaviours needed in cross functional teams

Envisioning
• Articulating strategic objectives or a vision that inspires commitment by team members.
• Helping the team understand and improve their assumptions and mental models regarding the
relationships among task variables.
• Suggesting creative ideas and encouraging the team to consider innovative performance.
Organising
• Planning and scheduling team activities to achieve coordination and meet project deadlines.
• Helping the team establish standards and methods for assessing progress and performance.
• Arranging and conducting meetings to solve problems and make decisions in a systematic way.
Social integrating
• Encouraging mutual trust, acceptance, and cooperation among team members.
• Facilitating open communication, equal participation and tolerance of dissenting views.
• Mediating conflicts among members and helping them find integrative solutions.
External spanning
• Monitoring the external environment of the team to identify client needs, emerging problems, and
political processes that will affect the team.
• Promoting a favourable image of the team among outsiders.
• Influencing people outside the team to provide adequate resources, approvals, assistance and
cooperation.
10.5 Self-managed work teams

Most self-managed work teams are responsible for producing a distinct product or service. Members of
self-managed work teams typically have similar functional background (e.g. maintenance technicians,
production operators). The members often take turns performing the various tasks for which the team is
responsible. When members learn to perform multiple tasks, it increases team flexibility, makes the
work more interesting and provides an opportunity to learn new skills.
The use of self-managed work teams is becoming more common in manufacturing and service industry.
Examples of companies that have used self-managed teams include, AT & T, Colgate-Palmolive
Company, Cummins Engine Company, Digital Equipment corporation, General Electric, General Foods,
Goodyear Tire and Rubber, Motorola, Procter and Gamble, TRW Volvo, Xerox and General Motors
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The parent organisation usually determines the mission, scope of operations, and the budget for self-
managed teams. The amount of authority for other types of decisions varies greatly from one
organisation to another.
Each team is usually given authority and responsibility for operating decisions such as setting
performance goals and quality standards, assigning work, determining work schedules, determining
work procedures, making purchases of necessary supplies and materials, dealing with customers and
suppliers and evaluating performance.
10.6. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF SELF-MANAGED TEAMS

Self- managed work teams offer a number of potential benefits, including stronger commitment of team
members to the work, more effective management of work-related problems, improved efficiency, and
more job satisfaction, less turnover and less absenteeism. Having team members cross-trained to do
different jobs makes the work more interesting for members and increases flexibility of the team in
dealing with personnel shortages resulting from illness or turnover. The extensive knowledge of work
process helps team members solve problems and suggest improvements.
Self-managed teams are difficult to implement, and they can be a dismal failure when used in
inappropriate situations or without competent leadership and support (Hackman, 1986 & Lawler, 1986).
Table 10.5: Facilitating conditions for self-managed teams
• Clearly defined, shared objectives
• Complex and meaningful tasks
• Small size and stable membership
• Members can determine work processes
• Members have relevant skills
• Members access to relevant information
• Appropriate recognition and rewards
• Strong support by top management
• Competent external leader
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10.7 LEADERSHIP IN SELF-MANAGED TEAMS

When describing leadership in self-managed teams, it is helpful to differentiate between internal and
external leadership roles. The internal leadership involves management responsibilities assigned to the
team and shared by group members. It is typically for self-managed teams to have an internal team
leader who is elected by the members, and the person may be rotated among different members on a
regular basis. The primary responsibility of the internal leader is to coordinate and facilitate the process
of making and implementing team decisions. Internal leadership can be in the form of rotation or shared
leadership. One form of shared leadership is when members meet to discuss important matters and
make a group decision. A member with relevant expertise may assume responsibility for providing
coordination and direction on specific team activities.
The role of an external leader involves managerial responsibilities not delegated to the team. The
external leaders may be middle managers or special facilitators. The external leader will provide
coaching. The coaching involves helping members learn how to plan and organise the work, make
group decisions, resolve conflicts and work effectively. Another important role is to obtain necessary
information, resources and political support from the organisation.
10.8 VIRTUAL TEAMS

In virtual teams, the members are geographically separated and they seldom if ever meet face to face.
Most of the communication among members relies on computer and telecommunications technology
(e.g. e-mail, videoconferencing, groupware and cellular phones). There has been a rapid increase in
the use of virtual teams in organisations and will continue to revolutionise the workplace of the future.
There are several reasons for increased use of virtual teams, including the rapid pace of globalisation,
increased use of joint ventures, employee desire for more flexibility in work arrangements (e.g.
telecommuting), and so forth.
The most common form is a cross-functional team. A virtual team can be a temporary arrangement to
carry out a specific task, or a more durable arrangement to carry out on-going responsibilities such as
solving technical problems, coordinating activities amongst dispersed units and maintaining external
coordination with suppliers and clients.
10.9 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF VIRTUAL TEAMS

With virtual teams it is possible to involve the most qualified persons who are available to work on a
project or make a decision, regardless of where they are located.
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The membership of virtual teams is often fluid because the technology makes it easy for people to
participate in different ways only when they are needed. A virtual team is more likely to have members
from different cultures, time zones and organisations.
Having a diverse, fluid membership creates additional problems and unique leadership challenges that
may prevent the team from realising the potential benefits. The lack of frequent face-to-face contact
makes it more difficult to monitor the performance of members, to influence members, and to develop
mutual trust and collective identification. Coordination problems may be more difficult to resolve in a
virtual team than in a co-located team, especially when the roles are interdependent roles and the
environment is dynamic and unpredictable.
10.10 GUIDELINES FOR LEADING TEAMS

A variety of different ways have been identified for leaders to improve member cohesiveness,
cooperation, team identification, collective efficacy, and collective learning. The following guidelines in
Table 10.6 based on research, theory and practitioner insights describe team-building procedures that
can be used alone or in various combinations when relevant for the situations.
Table 10.6: Guidelines for leading teams
• Emphasise common interest and values
• Use ceremonies, rituals and symbols to develop collective identification
• Encourage and facilitate social interaction
• Tell people about group activities and achievements
• Conduct process analysis sessions
• Increase incentives for mutual cooperation
• Hold practice sessions under realistic conditions
• Use after-activity reviews to facilitate collective learning by the team.
10.11 Leading group decision

Groups are used frequently to solve problems and make decisions in organisations. Groups have more
relevant knowledge and ideas that can be pooled to improve decision quality and active participation
will increase member understanding of decisions and member commitment to implement them. On the
negative side, decisions usually take longer, the members may be unable to reach agreement if they
have incompatible objectives, and process problems may undermine the quality of decisions.
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The quality of a group decision depends on the contribution of information and ideas by group
members, the clarity of the communication, the accuracy of prediction and judgment, the extent to
which the discussion is focused on the problem, and the manner in which disagreement is resolved.
Table 10.7
Table 10.7: Major types of leadership behaviour in decision groups

Task Function Specific Objective
1.Process structuring Guide and sequence discussion

2.Stimualting communication Increase information exchange
3.Clarifying communication Increase comprehension
4.Summarising Check on understanding and assess progress
5.Consensus testing Check on agreement
Group Maintenance Specific Objective

1.Gatekeeping Increase and equalise participation
2.Harmonising Reduce tension and hostility
3.Supporting Prevent withdrawal, reduce tension
4.Standard setting Regular behaviour
5. Process analysing Discover and resolve process problems
Guidelines for leading meetings

This section describes specific procedures that leaders can use to improve group effectiveness in
solving problems and making decisions. Below in Table 10.8 are guidelines for leading meetings.
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Table 10.8: Guidelines for leading decision group meetings

• Inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting
• Share essential information with group members
• Describe the problem without implying the cause or solution
• Allow ample time for idea generation from idea evaluation
• Separate idea generation from idea evaluation
• Encourage and facilitate participation
• Encourage positive restatement and idea building
• Use systematic procedures for solution evaluation
• Encourage members to look for an integrative solution
• Encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible
• Clarify responsibilities for implementation
SUMMARY
Organisations increasingly rely on teams to improve quality, efficiency and adaptive change. Several
teams are used within the organisation. Effective leadership in teams usually requires specific types of
leadership behaviour. The appropriate patterns of behaviour will depend on the type of team and the
relative importance of the performance determinants. Leadership is provided in somewhat different
ways in different types of teams.
Organisations are also moving towards virtual teams that are proving to be effective amongst a diverse
workforce. Leadership functions require skill and a sense of proper timing to be effective. Research on
leadership in teams has increased in recent years, but continues to lag behind changes in the use of
teams effectively within the organisations.
QUESTIONS
1. Consider the work practices of the teams in the company for which you currently work. To what
extent do the team work practices facilitate the performance towards the attainment of organisational
objectives?
2 Evaluate the effectiveness of self-managed teams? In what context are self-managed teams most
applicable and appropriate?
3 Virtual teams are less effective? What is the effectiveness of virtual teams and why is this so?
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CHAPTER 11: CROSS CULTURAL LEADERSHIP AND

DIVERSITY
Specific learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand why cross-cultural research on leadership is important.

• Understand the difficulties of studying cross-cultural leadership.
• Understand how cultural values are related to leader behaviour.
• Understand how gender issues have been studied and the limitations of this research.
• Understand the findings in research on gender differences in leadership.
• Understand how to manage diversity and provide equal opportunities.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal articles:
• Szu-Fang Chuang, Essential Skills for Leadership Effectiveness in Diverse Workplace

Development, Journal for Workforce Education and Development Volume 6 Issue 1, 2013.
• Caligiuri, P., & Tarique, I. (2012). Dynamic cross-cultural competencies and global leadership
effectiveness. Journal of World Business, 47(4), 612-622. doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2012.01.014.
• Gutierrez, B., Spencer, S.M., & Zhu, G. (2012). Thinking globally, leading locally: Chinese,
Indian, and Western leadership. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 19(1),
67-89. doi:10.1108/13527601211195637.
• Lovvorn, A. S. & Chen, J.-S. (2011). Developing a global mindset: The relationship between an
international assignment and cultural intelligence. International Journal of Business and Social
Science, 2(9), 275-282.
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• Okoro, E. (2012). Cross-cultural etiquette and communication in global business: Toward a

strategic framework for managing corporate expansion. International Journal of Business and
Management, 7(16), 130-138. doi:10.5539/ijbm.v7n16p130.
11. INTRODUCTION
With the increasing pace of globalisation, the world is becoming a “global village.” The number of
multinational corporations has increased in all countries and people are taking up jobs in all over the
world. The culture of the native land, along with other personal and situational variables has profound
influence on the specific leadership style adopted. The millennium leadership needs to be more
adaptable to cross cultures in managing the employees. Sarma & Vellusi (2012)
Cross-cultural psychology attempts to understand how individuals of different cultures interact with each
other. Along these lines, cross-cultural leadership has developed as a way to understand leaders who
work in the newly globalised market. Today’s international organisations require leaders who can adjust
to different environments quickly and work with partners and employees of other cultures.
Different styles of leadership receive varying amounts of respect depending on the cultural norms of the
people who are being led. A directive model, for example, works well with people who are primed to
accept a strong and benevolent leader, whereas people who favour pluralism and consensus tend to
shun dictators. Knowing how to manage people, and how to adapt leadership styles to fit the situation,
is the key to being an effective leader.
Cultural leadership is creative leadership. Globalisation and changing demographic patterns are making
it more important for leaders to understand how to influence and manage people with different values,
beliefs and expectations.
The diversity of people in leadership positions is also increasing. Cultural values are reflected in social
norms about the way people relate to on another. Cultural norms specify acceptable forms of
leadership behaviour. Leadership can also be influenced by other situational variables. Some
situational variables may parallel effects across national cultures and other variables may interact with
national culture. The cultural values are affected by many types of changes. Cultural values and beliefs
about determinants of effective leadership are likely to change in consistent ways.
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Table: 11.1 Cultural Beliefs about the Ideal Leader
Rated Effective in most Cultures Rating varied across Cultures

Visionary Ambitious
Decisive Cautious
Dynamic Compassionate
Dependable Domineering
Encouraging and positive Formal
Excellence-orientated Humble (self- effacing)
Honest and trustworthy Independent
Skilled administrator Risk-taker
Team Integrator Self-sacrificing
Source: Dorfman, Hnages and Brodbeck (2004).
11.1 Managing Diversity
Diversity in the workplace means bringing together people of different ethnic backgrounds, religions
and age groups into a cohesive and productive unit. Advances in communication technology, such as
the Internet and cellular phones, have made the marketplace a more global concept. In order to
survive, a company needs to be able to manage and utilize its diverse workplace effectively. Managing
diversity in the workplace should be a part of the culture of the entire organisation.
Diversity also means to create inclusion — creating an atmosphere in which all people feel valued,
respected and have the same opportunities as others.Thus, you might say that diversity is creating
opportunity, value, and respect for all, while inclusion is ensuring they actually feel it.
11.2 Benefits of Workplace Diversity
An organisation’s success and competitiveness depends upon its ability to embrace diversity and
realize the benefits. When organisations actively assess their handling of workplace diversity issues,
develop and implement diversity plans, multiple benefits are reported such as:
11.3 Increased adaptability
Organisations employing a diverse workforce can supply a greater variety of solutions to problems in
service, sourcing, and allocation of resources. Employees from diverse backgrounds bring individual
talents and experiences in suggesting ideas that are flexible in adapting to fluctuating markets and
customer demands.
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a) Broader service range
A diverse collection of skills and experiences (e.g. languages, cultural understanding) allows a
company to provide service to customers on a global basis.
b) Variety of viewpoints
A diverse workforce that feels comfortable communicating varying points of view provides a larger pool
of ideas and experiences. The organisation can draw from that pool to meet business strategy needs
and the needs of customers more effectively.
c) More effective execution
Companies that encourage diversity in the workplace inspire all of their employees to perform to their
highest ability. Company-wide strategies can then be executed, resulting in higher productivity, profit,
and return on investment.
11.4 Challenges of Diversity in the Workplace
Taking full advantage of the benefits of diversity in the workplace is not without its challenges. Some of
those challenges are:
a) Communication - Perceptual, cultural and language barriers need to be overcome for diversity
programs to succeed. Ineffective communication of key objectives results in confusion, lack of
teamwork, and low morale.
b) Resistance to change - There are always employees who will refuse to accept the fact that the
social and cultural makeup of their workplace is changing. The “we’ve always done it this way” mentality
silences new ideas and inhibits progress.
c) Implementation of diversity in the workplace policies - This can be the overriding challenge to all
diversity advocates. Armed with the results of employee assessments and research data, they must
build and implement a customised strategy to maximise the effects of diversity in the workplace for their
particular organisation.
d) Successful Management of Diversity in the Workplace - Diversity training alone is not sufficient
for your organisation’s diversity management plan. A strategy must be created and implemented to
create a culture of diversity that permeates every department and function of the organisation.
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Recommended diversity in the workplace solutions include:

Ward off change resistance with inclusion. - Involve every employee possible in formulating and
executing diversity initiatives in your workplace.
Foster an attitude of openness in your organisation. - Encourage employees to express their ideas and
opinions and attribute a sense of equal value to all.
Promote diversity in leadership positions. - This practice provides visibility and realizes the benefits of
diversity in the workplace.
Utilize diversity training. - Use it as a tool to shape your diversity policy.
Launch a customizable employee satisfaction survey that provides comprehensive reporting. - Use the
results to build and implement successful diversity in the workplace policies.
As the economy becomes increasingly global, our workforce becomes increasingly diverse.
Organisational success and competitiveness will depend on the ability to manage diversity in the
workplace effectively. Evaluate your organisation’s diversity policies and plan for the future, starting
today.
SUMMARY
With the rapid pace of globalisation and economic development, cross-cultural leadership has become
an important topic. Some leader attributes are considered important for effective leadership in all
cultures. Other attributes vary from one culture to another.
Cultural values and beliefs are likely to influence actual leader behaviour, especially when they are also
consistent with core values of the organisation. An important responsibility for leaders in this new
century is the management of diversity which can take many forms. Leaders can do many things to
encourage tolerance and appreciation for diversity in organisations. All leaders in the organisation
should share the responsibility for improving diversity and ensuring equal opportunity.
QUESTIONS
1. As a leader identify the challenges of implementing cross cultural interventions within
organisations.
2. How are cross cultural dimensions related to effective leadership?
3. What are some of the interventions of managing diversity in an organisation with a diverse
workforce?
4. What types of leadership attributes are universally viewed as effective?
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CHAPTER 12: DYADIC THEORIES AND FOLLOWERSHIP

demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of dyadic theories within South Africa and other emerging
markets. This overall outcome will be achieved through the student’s mastery of the following specific
outcomes:
• Understand the different dyadic relationships develop between a leader and subordinates.
• Understand how leaders are influenced by attributions about subordinates.
• Understand appropriate ways to manage a subordinate with performance deficiencies.
• Understand how leaders and followers attempt to manage impressions.
• Understand how attributions and implicit theories influence follower perception of a leader.
• Understand how followers can have a more effective relationship with their leaders.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal Articles:
• Branine, M., Fekkar, A.F., Fekkar, O. & Mellahi, K. (2008) “Employee Relations in Algeria:
A Historical Appraisal.” Employee Relations. 30 (4), pp 404 – 421. (available from
Emerald).
• Wendelin Küpers, Perspectives on Integrating Leadership and Followership, International
Journal of Leadership, Volume 2, Issue 3 / 2012.
• Hanges, P., Offerman, L., & Day, D. (2011). Leaders, followers and values: Progress and
prospects for theory and research. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 129-131.
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• Howell, J. M., & Shamir, B. (2012). The role of followers in the charismatic leadership
process: Relationships and their consequences. Academy of Management Review, 30(1),
96-112.
• Zaccaro, S. J., & Horn, Z. N. J. (2013). Leadership theory and practice: Fostering an
effective symbiosis. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 769-806.
12. INTRODUCTION
A unique exchange relationship is developed with each subordinate. In addition, attribution serves to
discover how leaders interpret subordinate performance and decide how to react to it. This chapter also
covers followers based approaches to leadership.
12.1 Leader-member Exchange Theory

The basic premise of the theory is that leaders develop an exchange relationship with each subordinate
as the two parties mutually define the subordinate’s role. The exchange relationships are formed on the
basis of personal compatibility and subordinate competence and dependability. According to the theory,
most leaders develop a high exchange relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates who
function as assistant, lieutenants or advisors.
The basis for establishing a high exchange relationship is the leader’s control over outcomes that are
desirable to a subordinate. The outcomes include, interesting assignments and desirable tasks,
delegation of greater responsibility and authority, more sharing of information, involvement in some
decision making, pay increases, special benefits (better work schedule, bigger office), personal support
and facilitation of the subordinate’s career.
12.2. Evaluation of the LMX Theory

LMX theory still has a number of conceptual weaknesses that limit its utility. The limitations and
deficiencies need to be addressed. In particular the following issues require improvement:
• The theory needs more elaboration about the way exchange relationships evolve over time;
• Little is known about how the role-making process actually occurs;
• The theory implies that exchange relationships evolve in a continuous, smooth manner yet
studies show that they typically progress through a series of ups and downs. In addition, this is
accompanied by shifts in attitudes and behaviours as the two parties reconcile their desire for
autonomy and closer involvement.
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• Longitudinal studies are needed to resolve some of these issues that can record the pattern of
interactions over time.
• There has been little research on the situational conditions that affect the development of
exchange relationships. Some of the situational conditions that can be considered are,
demographic characteristics, job characteristics, work unit characteristics, (size, function,
stability of membership) and the type of organisation.
12.3 Leader attribution about subordinates

How the leader acts towards a subordinate varies depending on whether the subordinate is perceived
as competent and loyal, or incompetent and untrustworthy. Attribution theory describes the cognitive
process used by leaders to determine the reasons for effective or ineffective performance and the
appropriate reactions.
12.4 Two-stage attribution model

Green and Mitchell (1979) described the reaction of a manager to poor performance as a two-stage
process. In the first stage, the manager tries to determine the cause of the poor performance; in the
second stage, the manager tries to select an appropriate response to correct the problem. Several
studies confirm the major propositions of the model.
Managers attribute the major cause of poor performance either to something internal to the subordinate
(for example, a lack of ability) or to external problems beyond the subordinate’s control (for example,
the task had inherent obstacles, resources were inadequate, information was insufficient, and other
people failed to provide necessary support.
12.5 Other determinants of Leader Attributions

Attributions about subordinates and the leader’s reactions are affected by a leader’s position power
(Kipnis, Schmidt, price & Stitt, 1981). The more position power a leader has, the more likely the leader
will attribute effective performance and acceptable behaviour by a subordinate to extrinsic factors rather
than to intrinsic motivation.
Research on attributions also found that the exchange relationship influences the manager’s perception
of a subordinate’s performance (Duarte, Goodson & Klich, 1994). Leaders appear to be less critical in
evaluating the performance of subordinates when there is a high-exchange relationship. Effective
performance is more likely to be attributed to internal causes for a high-exchange member and to
internal causes for a low-exchange member.
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The leader’s behaviour towards the subordinate is consistent with the attribution about performance.
For example, effective behaviour by a high-exchange subordinate is more likely to be praised, and
mistakes by a low-exchange subordinate are more likely to be criticised. Low-exchange subordinates
get less support, coaching and resources, yet when they make mistakes or have performance
difficulties, the manager blames them rather than recognising situational causes and his or her
contribution to the problem.
A major implication of the attribution research is the need to help managers become more careful,
aware of the many options available for dealing with different causes of performance problems and the
importance of selecting an appropriate one.
12.6 Guidelines for correcting performance deficiencies

Correcting performance deficiencies is an important but difficult managerial responsibility. People tend
to be defensive about criticism, because it threatens their self-esteem and may imply personal
rejection.
Corrective feedback may be necessary to help a subordinate improve, but it should be done in a way
that preserves a favourable relationship or improves a relationship that is already strained.
The following guidelines in Table 12.1 show how to improve communication and problem solving while
reducing defensiveness and resentment.
Table 12.1: Guidelines for correcting performance deficiencies
• Gather information about the performance problem
• Tray to avoid attribution biases
• Provide corrective feedback promptly
• Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms
• Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behaviour
• Stay calm and professional
• Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance
• Ask the person to suggest remedies
• Express confidence that the person can improve
• Reach agreement on specific action steps
• Summarise the discussion and verify agreement
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12.7 Follower attributions and implicit theories

Followers use information about leader’s actions, changes in the performance of the team or
organisation, and external conditions to reach conclusions about responsibility for success and failure.
12.8 Determinants of followers’ attributions about leaders

Several interrelated factors determine how followers assess leader effectiveness. One factor is the
extent to which clear, timely indicators of performance are available for the leader’s team and
organisation. A leader is judged as more competent if his or her unit is successful than if it is
unsuccessful.
Followers also consider the leader’s action. A leader who has done something that could explain a
change in performance will be attributed more responsibility for it. Leaders who take direct actions that
appear relevant get more credit for performance improvements than leaders who do not. A leader who
acts decisively to resolve an obvious crisis is considered highly competent whereas a leader who fails
to take direct action in a crisis is likely to be judged as incompetent. Leaders who make innovative
changes in the strategy (what is done or how it is done) get more credit for success and more blame for
failure than leaders who stick with a traditional strategy.
Followers judge leader intentions as well as leader competence. A leader who appears to be more
concerned about followers and the mission than about personal benefit or career advancement will gain
more follower approval. Credibility is increased when the leader expresses strong and consistent
convictions about a programme or change and explains why it is necessary without exaggerating the
benefits or ignoring the costs. Dedication to the organisation is indicated when the leader takes
personal risks to accomplish important objectives and does not benefit materially from them. A leader
who makes visible self-sacrifices in the service of the organisation will be viewed as more sincere and
committed.
The mood of followers can also affect attributions about leader intentions. Leaders are more likely to be
seen as manipulative and self-serving if followers are in a negative mood. Followers also consider the
extent to which the leaders appear to be similar to them in terms of values, beliefs, and other qualities
they consider important (e.g. religion, gender, ethnic background etc). Followers who identify strongly
with groups or organisations are likely to have more trust in a leader who appears to be “one of them.”
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12.9 Implications of follower attribution about leaders

Leaders perceived to be competent are likely to retain their position or be advanced to a higher
position. Leaders who are judged to competent gain more power and have more discretion to make
changes.
12.10 Implicit leadership theories

How leaders are evaluated is affected by implicit leadership theories, which are beliefs and
assumptions about the characteristics of effective leaders. The implicit theories involve stereotypes and
prototypes about the traits, skills, or behaviours that are relevant for a particular type of position (e.g.
executive manager versus low-level leader, manager etc), context (crisis or non-crisis), and individual
(male or female, experienced or new manager). The implicit theories are influenced by individual
beliefs, values and personality traits, as well as shared beliefs and values about leaders in the
organisational culture and the national culture.
Some differences in implicit theories are likely among countries and diverse cultures. Leaders who do
things that are relevant for the situation but inconsistent with follower expectations, may be evaluated
less favourably than leaders who conform to role expectation. Follower’s beliefs about desirable leader
qualities are influenced by gender role expectations, ethnic stereotypes, and cultural values. The same
type of leader behaviour may be evaluated more or less favourably depending on the identity of the
leader.
12.11 Impression Management by Leaders and Followers

Impression management is the process of influencing how others perceive you. Tactics such as
excuses and apologies are used as a defensive way to avoid blame for weak performance or seek
forgiveness for a mistake.
a) Exemplification
The tactic involves behaviours intended to demonstrate dedication and loyalty to the mission to the
organisation, or to the followers. Exemplification tactics used to influence bosses include arriving early
and staying late to work extra hours, demonstrating effective behaviours when you know the person is
watching, and doing voluntary tasks that are highly visible (organisational citizenship behaviours).
Exemplification tactics used to influence subordinates or peers include acting in a way that is consistent
with espoused values (“walking the talk”) and making self-sacrifices to achieve a proposed objective,
change or vision.
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b) Ingratiation
This tactic involves behaviour intended to influence the target person to like the agent and perceive the
agent as someone who has desirable social qualities (friendly, considerate, caring, charming,
interesting and attractive). Ingratiating behaviour can take many forms (like providing praise, agreeing
with the target person’s opinions, showing appreciation for the target’s accomplishments, laughing at
the target’s jokes, showing an interest in the target’s personal life and showing deference and respect
for the target person.
c) Self promotion
This tactic involves behaviour intended to influence favourable impressions about competence and
value to the organisation. The behaviour may take the form of informing people about your
achievements and talking about your skills. A more subtle form of self-promotion is to display diplomas,
awards, and trophies in the office or workplace for others to see.
12.12 Impression management by followers

Wayne and Ferris (1990) developed a self-report agent questionnaire to measure how subordinates
use impression management tactics for upward influence in organisations. The study found a three-
factor model – supervisor-focused tactics, job-focused tactics and self-focused tactics.
Ingratiation can increase how much a subordinate is liked by the boss and may also improve appraisals
of subordinate performance. Self-promotion is a more difficult form of impression management to pull
off because if not done subtly it is likely to be seen as bragging.
12.13 Impression management by leaders

Many leaders create the impression that they are important, competent, and in control of events
(Pfeffer, 1977 & 1981). Successes are announced and celebrated, and failures are covered up and
downplayed. Highly visible symbolic actions are one way to create the impression that a leader is
dealing with problems and making progress towards attaining organisational objectives. For example,
visiting a disaster site to demonstrate active involvement and personal interest, replacing people who
are blamed for a failure, creating a commission to study a problem and make recommendations,
implementing a new policy and creating a new position and portfolio for solving problems and improving
performance.
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Impression management is also used by leaders to avoid the appearance of failure, or shift the blame
for it to other people or uncontrollable events. Some leaders seek to distort or cover up evidence that
their strategy is not succeeding. In the early stages of a developing crisis, many leaders discount the
seriousness of the problem and continue with incremental approaches for dealing with it rather than
proposing bold and innovative remedies.
12.14 Follower contributions to effective leadership

The tendency to credit successful events to leaders obscures the significant contributions of followers
(Baker, 2007). Motivated, competent followers are necessary for the successful performance of work
carried out by the leader’s unit. Followers can contribute to the effectiveness of a group by maintaining
cooperative working relationships, providing constructive dissent, sharing leadership functions, and
supporting leadership development.
Follower identities and behaviour

The follower identities are complex and not necessarily consistent. The self-identity of a loyal member
who conforms to norms and policies prescribed by the organisation may be inconsistent with the self-
identity of a courageous follower who challenges bad decisions and unethical practices. Deference,
passivity and obedience will reflect the personality traits of followers. Chaleff (1995) agrees that the
follower is characterised by conformity, weakness and passivity.
This negative conception is strongly influenced by early childhood experiences at home and in school.
Chaleff argues that it is essential to replace this negative conception of followers with a positive
conception. In short, effective followers are courageous, responsible and proactive.
To be effective as a follower, it is necessary to find a way to integrate different follower roles namely, to
implement decisions that are not misguided or unethical. Followers must be willing to risk the leader’s
displeasure, but the risk can be reduced by developing a high level of mutual trust and respect. In such
a relationship, a leader is likely to view criticism and dissent as an honest effort to facilitate attainment
of shared objectives and values, rather than as an expression of personal rejection or disloyalty.
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12.15 Self-Management
Self-management is a set of strategies used to influence and improve an individual’s own behaviour.
Self-management is based primarily on control theory. After comparing one’s current condition to the
desired condition, a person can make any necessary corrections in behaviour. When a person
determines what tasks need to be done, this process is called self-leadership. By taking more
responsibility for their own lives, followers do not need to depend so much on leaders to direct and
motivate them.
12.15.1 Self-management strategies

Self-management includes both behavioural and cognitive strategies (Sims & Lorenzi, 1992). The
behavioural strategies include self-goal setting, self-monitoring, manipulation of cues, self-reward (or
criticism), and rehearsal of planned actions. The cognitive strategies include positive self-talk and
mental imagery.
Behavioural self-management strategies are useful when you are reluctant to do a necessary task or
want to change your behaviour. For example set realistic goals to accomplish a task or change
behaviour, and include sub-goals that can be achieved quickly. Then, monitor your own behaviour to
note what you did and how others reacted (e.g. noticing each time you say something that annoys
others; trying different ways of communicating ideas to which people respond most favourably).
Compliment yourself for doing something correctly, and reward yourself when you complete a difficult
task or accomplish a goal or sub-goal. Use self-criticism or self-punishment after acting in an
inappropriate way or relapsing into behaviour you want to change. Rehearse a difficult behaviour by
yourself to improve skill and build confidence you can do it (practice a presentation in front of a mirror).
Cognitive self-management strategies help you to build self-confidence and optimism about doing a
difficult task.. One cognitive strategy is positive self-talk, which means emphasising positive, optimistic
thoughts and avoiding negative pessimistic thoughts.
Increasing positive self-talk involves the identification and suppression of destructive thinking patterns,
exaggerating the significance of a mistake or setback, stereotyping yourself negatively, dismissing
positive feedback as irrelevant. A more constructive pattern of thinking is to view performance as a
continuum rather than a dichotomy, understand the process involved in learning a complex activity, look
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for and celebrate signs of progress, accept positive feedback and be careful of attributing responsibility
for failure.
Another cognitive strategy for self-management is mental imagery which can be used instead of
actually practising a difficult task. First visualise, yourself doing the task. Then, you imagine how it
would feel to experience the satisfaction of performing it successfully.
Guidelines for followers
Table 12.2: Guidelines for followers

• Find out what you are expected to do
• Take initiative to deal with problems
• Keep the boss informed about your decisions
• Verify the accuracy of information you give your boss
• Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to you
• Support efforts to make necessary changes
• Show appreciation and provide recognition when appropriate
• Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by bosses
• Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the boss
• Provide upward coaching and counselling when appropriate
• Learn to use self-management strategies
SUMMARY
A leader’s upward influence is an important determinant of the potential for establishing a favourable
exchange relationship with subordinates. The exchange relationships with subordinates have
implications for leadership. Subordinate satisfaction, commitment and performance are usually higher
when relationships are favourable. Leaders generally use impression management tactics in an effort to
appear more decisive, competent, powerful and trustworthy. One way for a leader to empower
subordinates is to encourage and facilitate their self-management tactics.
All leaders are followers and in order to be effective in both roles, it is essential to find a way to
integrate them. It is also essential to find appropriate ways to share leadership functions within teams
and to integrate them seamlessly. It is essential to find appropriate ways to share leadership functions
within teams, across authority levels, and between interdependent subunits of the organisation.
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QUESTIONS
1. What are some possible benefits and costs of developing different exchange relationships?
2. Use the attribution theory to explain how leaders interpret the reasons for poor performance.
3. Using your organisation as an example, explain how a subordinate influences a leader’s
perception about them.
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CHAPTER 13: LEADERSHIP IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT
following specific outcomes, in that the student will be able to:
Objectives
• Understand the meaning of leadership and its significance in Africa in the 21st century.
• Explore leadership roles in a range of different contexts.
• Identify the major challenges confronting leaders in Africa.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta.
Journal Articles:
• Maake Masango, Leadership in the African context, The Ecumenical Review, Volume 55,
Issue 4, pages 313–321, October 2013, DOI: 10.1111/j.1758-6623.2003.tb00466.x.
• Ms Shokane, Kj Stanz,Ja Slabbert, Description Of Leadership In South Africa: Organisational
Context Perspective, SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 2004, 2 (3), 1-6.
• Sarros, C. J. & Santora C. J. (2011). The transformation and transactional leadership model in
practice. Leadership and organisation Development Journal, 22 (08), 383-393.
• Wright, D. T. & Burns N.D. (1998). New organisation structures for global business.
International journal of operations and production management, 18 (9), 896-923.
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13. INTRODUCTION
Stories of leaders exist in the earliest human writings. Leaders have existed throughout the history of
mankind. All societies have leaders. Some inherit leadership; other acquire it acts of war. In modern
society, leaders can arise through political process, through career progression to head to the business
organisation Carol Dalgish, Maarten du Plessis, Liezel Lues and Emmie Pietersen (2012).
Leadership effectiveness can be influenced by what followers expect of leaders. If leaders behave in
the way expected of them, chances are the followers will be more satisfied and will respond in a
positive way.
The Western world and its values affected Africans deeply. Developed countries have always viewed
our continent as a place plagued by corruption, dictatorship, military coups, rebellious leaders,
greediness, misuse of power, incompetent leadership, politically as well as economically ineffective and
suspicious leaders who undermine their own democracies(M Masango).
African countries are already threatened with cleavages. ‘The haves’ on the one side, and ‘the have
nots’, on the other. There are these who control political and economic machinery as opposed to those
who are marginalized. There are those who can speak and those who are silent. There are those who
work to transform their societies and those who keep the status quo. There are those who are well-
informed and others who are ill-informed. Guidance is needed and experienced leaders are in a good
position to provide leadership.
The term “leader” has a positive connotation for most people. There are different connotations applied
to business leaders, political leaders or community leaders. African leaders have a wide range of
challenges. Whether leaders are in apolitical, business or community sectors, they are faced with a
range of challenges which include:
1) Operating in a socially and environmentally responsible way;

2) Confronting long-standing poverty and disadvantage;
3) Limited health and education infrastructure;
4) Great disparity in access to technological innovation and sophisticated communication
systems;
5) Cultural diversity; and
6) History of colonisation which often means that people are looking back to blame rather than
looking forward to achieve.
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13.1 Benefits and advantages of leadership
The type of satisfaction that you can get from being in a formal leadership position obviously varies
depending on the situation. There are, however, a number of benefits an effective leader can enjoy.
Carol Dalgish, 2011: 11). Each satisfaction has a fair amount of challenges:
Table 13.1. Leadership challenges and benefits in Africa
Satisfaction Description
A feeling of power and prestige Leadership is about the use of power, and power
often brings prestige. However there is always a
possibility of power being abused, and the attitude
of being different and better than others can lead
to poor decision-making.
The chance to help others grow and develop A leader works directly with people.This provides
an opportunity to help others develop skills and
grow as individuals.
High Income Leadership can bring with it a high income.
Respect and status An effective, fair leader receives respect from
group members. He or she enjoys a higher status
than people that are not in leadership positions.
A feeling of “being in” on things As a leader you are likely to be central to a whole
range of activities and decisions from which those
not in leadership positions would be excluded.
Being able to bring about or achieve a goal There can be great satisfaction in achieving an
objective, bringing about envisaged change or
solving a problem. The intrinsic satisfaction in
being a leader and knowing that you are
successful.
Source: Eben van Zyl (2012)
13.2. Africa leadership and management
In order to understand African leadership and management, we first need to understand the changing
African context. The African cultural value system and Ubuntu needs to be understood.
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13.3 The Changing African context
The distinctive focus is on handling the challenges prevalent in Africa’s present day business
environment. This has resulted in companies on the continent being able to weave an entirely new
economic tapestry.
The new environment has the following characteristics are: (Eben van Zyl)
! There is an emerging new class of management with adaptable style of leadership that allows
for integration of cultures.
! The economic landscape is different from that of the past, demanding sensitivity and
understanding cultural nuances.
! Homegrown management styles are developed that differ from those of multi-national
companies.
! The impact of culture and value systems shape managerial responses to similar business
stimuli.
! Prevailing political and Economic imperatives dictate the respective management
competencies required in a particular situation.
! Organisations today have new critical success factors which effects leadership and managerial
effectiveness.
13.4 Transformational Leadership in the African context
In Africa, leaders are often faced with a situation whereby they lead organisations with first world
technology, and that most people in middle, senior and executive positions are highly skilled in and are
as competent to first world countries.
Employees in third world countries may find it difficult to follow the culture and this can result in conflict.
Leaders in Africa often see their role as being transformational and often adopt first world theories,
including leadership styles, business methodologies and other. This results in failure due to cultural
beliefs, value systems and composition of the workforce. Maarten du Plessis (2012:68).
Transformational leadership is certainly one of the most encompassing leadership styles. It is about
developing a relationship between leaders and followers, and focus is placed on the development of
followers to enable them to achieve high levels with regards to personal growth and satisfaction.
This type of leadership includes charisma but it ultimately depends on the relationship that exists.
Transformational leaders are seen as masters of change and serve as good role models who empower
their workforce to meet goals, objectives, vision, values and standards of the organisations.
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Transformational leaders in Africa rely heavily on the values, norms and ethics of the leader. This type
of leadership will classify the leader as being true transformational or a pseudo transformational leader.
13.5 Emotional intelligence and African leadership
Intelligence is a universal concept and different areas of emotional intelligence exist in third world
countries irrespective. Africa has many examples of leaders with high levels of emotional intelligence.
The leadership principles identified needs to distinguish Africa from the rest of the world based on the
culture and value systems. Martin du Plessis, 2012:192.
The African paradigm is the worldview - This places the emphasis on people and their dignity; collective
brotherhood of mankind, or Ubuntu. Ubuntu simply means “I am because we are. I can only be a
person through others”.Figure 13.1 The key values of African leadership are listed below:
Respect!the!
dignity!of!
others!
Group!
Interdependence! soladarity!
Service!to!
others! Teamwork!
Source: Mbigi, 2005
There is a deliberate emphasis on solidarity and inter-dependence, which are the key characteristics of
African communities (Mbigi, 2005).
Group solidarity simply means that injury to one is injury to all. The issue of interdependence simple
means that each of us needs all of us. Service is referred to as being in the spirit of harmony with
others. Teamwork is none of us are greater than all of us.
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13.6 African leadership paradigm
African leaders are also represented because an African leadership paradigm relies more on skills and
wisdom than on techniques and specific knowledge. Some of these skills include: listening, empathy,
persuasion, healing, self-discipline and consciousness. Explaining this paradigm therefore has to be
done through presenting real experience, not through a list of principles.
The African leadership paradigm is described as an appropriate approach that would help realise that
there is a shift. It emphasises collaboration, open lines of communication throughout the company, and
advocates creativity and innovation.!
Furthermore, the organisational structure advocated by the African leadership paradigm is seen as a
means to achieve objectives, not an end in itself.
International boundaries have faded as business takes on a more global perspective. The technology of
the information age has reduced the time it takes to communicate and make decisions. The African
leadership paradigm takes a panoramic view of this change and finds its place in it.
It is also argued that an African leadership paradigm should not be regarded as something extreme
over and above the duties of leaders, but rather as a way of leadership; a way of improving the way
things are currently done. It is an approach to increase the effectiveness of the business and to fully
utlise human resources in solving work problems. Forces of change such as globalisation and smart
partnerships and how they transform the way business is done, must be implemented.
This is because the world is increasingly becoming a global market where integration across traditional
borders is evident in almost every dimension of life. Therefore the focus should be on getting beyond
organisational boundaries to more profitable, desirable relationships such as smart partnerships. These
partnerships cast the net wider allowing each party to emerge the winner. The emphasis should be on
motivation, communication, personal effectiveness, collaboration, decision-making and coordination of
functions.
An African leadership paradigm: The missing link for productivity and empowerment in business.
Emotional intelligence is an integral part of personality and does not function in isolation. This simply
means that emotional intelligence and leadership behaviour (good leadership and principles) are
directly linked through these aspects of leadership traits.
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SUMMARY
African leaders have rediscovered the power of unity and dialogue, which has opened a door to
examine African problems. The second discovery is that of building an infrastructure of new leaders,
where older leaders share their wisdom and pass on good African values to the next generation. Good
leadership in Africa always shares life to others. This sharing of life can be gathered from medicine
people. Medicine people always teach other about their wisdom and healing powers before they die.
They share their healing wisdom with others. There is an African idiom that reminds adults or senior
citizens to “share their herbs and healing powers with the young ones, so that when they die, the young
ones will continue the work of healing among their people” (Mbiti 1977:164). In short, sharing of
knowledge gives power.
QUESTIONS
1) Which transformational /charismatic leadership capabilities are most difficult to apply within
the African context?
2) What combination of charismatic/transformational leadership capabilities would be most
effective within the African context?
3) Identify a few African leaders who stand out in their countries as charismatic leaders.
4) Identify an African leader whom you believe has (or had) core leadership characteristics
required for success, but who lacks emotional intelligence. Discuss.
5) If you are the Education Minister in your country, will you recommend that emotional
intelligence and leadership training be provided to schools?
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CHAPTER 14: LEADERSHIP IN EMERGING MARKETS
Specific learning Outcomes:
• Understand the nature and importance of leadership in an African context.
• Understand how leadership in multi-cultural context.
• Understand leadership challenges experienced by African leaders in emerging markets.
• Understand the ethical dilemmas in Africa in relation to emerging markets.
• Understand how to adopt effective strategies in emerging markets.
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta.
Journal Articles:
• James Eyring, Building Leadership Talent in Emerging Markets, This white paper is based, in
part, on research from Organisation Solutions’ 2009. Talent Management in Emerging Markets
Study.
• Neil Amato, Nurturing future leaders a challenge for emerging-market companies, CGMA
Magazine, March 31 2015.
• Pankaj Ghemawat, Developing global leaders, Companies must cultivate leaders for global
markets. Dispelling five common myths about globalization is a good place to start McKinsey
Quarterly, June 2012.
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• Tom Verghese, Leadership Challenges in Emerging Markets.

• Michael Maccoby, Managing in Emerging Markets, Research Technology Management; Vol.
54, No. 4 July-August 2011 pp. 53-55.
• William A. Fischer, Dealing with Innovation from Emerging Markets, Driving strategic markets
for wining performance.
14. INTRODUCTION
A nation’s economy that is progressing toward becoming advanced is shown by some liquidity in local
debt and equity markets and the existence of some form of market exchange and regulatory body. The
realities of globalisation, with increasing emphasis on emerging markets, present corporate leaders with
enormous challenges in developing the leaders required to run global organisations (Bill George, 2012).
Emerging markets generally do not have the level of market efficiency and strict standards in
accounting and securities regulation to be on par with advanced economies (such as the United States,
Europe and Japan), but emerging markets will typically have a physical financial infrastructure including
banks, a stock exchange and a unified currency
As emerging economies have experienced rapid expansion, they are now coming up against
succession planning challenges that are demanding the attention that they deserve. Organisations
working in these markets need to take stock and focus on the long-term goals and changing business
models by investing in human capital to ensure their competitive advantages.
Businesses are rapidly looking to the emerging markets as centres for growth. So how do we
successfully lead the “new” workforce? How do we prepare leaders to face workforce challenges that
are still being defined? How can we best understand the context of leadership and prepare leaders
accordingly?
14.1 Topics to be considered:
• Who is tomorrow’s employee? (knowing the employees)

• How do you prepare yourselves as leaders for the Emerging Markets? (adapting your
approach)
Markets are very different, people are different and they lead differently. Some of the highlights
include:
• What are the demographic factors shaping the workforce?
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• What are the cultural factors shaping the workforce?

• What are the social factors shaping the workforce?
• What are the motivating factors behind their ambitions?
• What shaped their understanding of how an organisation functions?
Hence what do you need to adapt in your leadership approach? To discover who the “new” workforce is
and why they are unique. Emerging markets have 8 key people trends:
• Collectivism over Individualism

• Family vs Corporate mentality
• Younger population
• Informal vs Formal learning
• Educational experiences of recent generations
• Leader hierarchy
• City life vs Rural life
• Diversity in classes of people
In order to adapt to local cultures and market needs, companies must shift to decentralised,
collaborative decision-making. That requires developing many leaders capable of working in:
• The diversity of top leadership should reflect the diversity of the firm’s customers.
• Global leaders must be effective in aligning employees around the company’s mission and values,
empowering people to lead, and collaborating horizontally rather than managing vertically.
• Rather than concentrating on the top 50 leaders, global companies need to develop hundreds,
even thousands, of leaders comfortable with operating in a variety of cultures.
• Developing global leaders with cultural sensitivities and collaborative skills requires greater focus
on emotional intelligence, self-awareness, and empowerment than on traditional management
skills.
To understand these approaches, let’s examine what leading global companies are doing to create
diversity among senior leadership. To make sound decisions, companies need a diverse set of leaders
who have deep understanding of their local customers, especially those in emerging.
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Focus on values, not hierarchy. The characteristics of successful global leaders today are quite
different than traditional hierarchical managers. They need high levels of emotional intelligence and
self-awareness to unite people of different cultures (many of whom are new to the enterprise), around
the organisation’s mission and its values and empower them to make decisions without waiting for
higher-level directions.
Broaden the reach of leadership development. Collaborative organisations like IBM’s require far more
leaders than the traditional focus on a select group of top leaders. With flatter organisations and
decentralisation of power, corporations must develop savvy global leaders capable of operating locally
and globally simultaneously.
Unilever has more than half of its business in Asia, and that percentage will continue to increase. The
company has undertaken a major initiative to develop 500 global leaders in intensive leadership
development programs to prepare them for expanded roles. According to CEO Paul Polman,
“Unilever’s Leadership Development Programme prepares our future leaders for an increasingly volatile
and uncertain world where the only true differentiation is the quality of leadership.”
New methods for developing global leaders: Developing global leaders necessitates a shift from
focusing on management skills to helping leaders be effective in different cultures by increasing their
self-awareness, emotional intelligence, and resilience.
To process and learn from their experiences, individuals should utilise introspective practices. This
enables them to consult confidentially with people they trust about important decisions and have honest
conversations about their dilemmas, mistakes, and challenges. These experiences enable leaders to
develop the self-mastery and appreciation and acceptance of people from diverse backgrounds
required to become effective global leaders.
These methods of developing global leaders for the future are still in their nascent phase, but there is
little doubt that they will have a profound impact on developing global leaders in the years ahead. To
address these needs, new approaches for developing global leaders are required:
The 8 Key People Trends
1 Collectivism over Individualism - Strong, cohesive groups; protect each other with unquestioning
loyalty.
2 Family vs Corporate Mentality - Businesses traditionally run by families; typically paternalistic and
autocratic; based on informal social network and family connections and needs to evolve into a culture
of performance based on merit.
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3 Younger Population - Emerging markets - the youngest populations in the world; tendency of young
workforce to put self over work – immediate gratification is the order of the day; need to keep them
constantly engaged, motivated and harness their energy and insatiable appetite for learning.
4 Informal vs Formal Learning - Historically - informal learning, family discussions and social
interactions; current trends – online courses, seminars, webcasts; provide coaching on current learning
trends – linking learning to attainment of career aspirations and create a culture of individual ownership
for learning and career development.
5 Educational Experiences of Recent Generations - Literacy rates and educational standards have
risen; ensure equal support systems, promotional and global opportunities are provided and recognise
local contributions and achievements regardless of language barrier.
6 Leader Hierarchy- Due to historical reasons, tendency towards direction-centric leadership mentality;
local leaders to be more open towards delegation of authority and empowerment as well as inclusion of
workforce in decisions and critical to re-condition workforce to embrace ownership and accountability.
7 City Life vs Rural Life - massive development of new cities led to an influx of workers into the cities.
Leaders have to understand the source and motivate workers to attract and retain them. Strategise
locations to be near source of talents.
8 Diversity in Classes of People - A new middle class is rising from poverty; objectivity and
transparency in leading a well-heeled workforce who will not hesitate to assert their rights and need to
reflect on what it means for talent attraction, recruitment, retention and development.
14.2 THE AFRICAN CULTURE VALUE SYSTEM
The effective cross cultural manager should clearly have an in-depth understanding of the African
cultural value system which determines behaviour. This system can be summarised as follows.
• The African prefers spiritual collectivism to individualism. Spiritual guidance is expected and
respected.
• There is an inclination towards consensus in problem-solving, rather than dissension.
• Humility and helpfulness are expected, instead of wanton criticism. The spirit of Ubuntu (the
concept of fellowship, loosely translated as “you are who you are through other people”) is greatly
valued.
• There is inherent trust and belief in fairness of those in leadership, hence a lack of criticism.
• African moral standards are based on ancestral precedents; history plays a prominent role in
guiding future conduct.
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• Society is a structure in which an inclusive system of hierarchy plays a role. This inspires
orderliness and acceptance of authority.
• Perpetual optimism and a belief in superior forces underlie the African sense of being and attitude
to life.
• There is a tacit expectation that those in a supervisory position will display sound leadership and
not let their subordinates down.
14.3 A few suggestions on how African managers can manage\lead

Shonhiwa (2006: 37) conducted research in eleven countries across sub-Saharan Africa on how
African managers can manage/lead to achieve success.
• Have respect for seniority and elders
• Ensure consultation on all issues
• Exercise patience backed by cultural knowledge
• Have compassion and respect the concept of Ubuntu
• Consider that the community takes precedence over personal wishes
• Nurture a sense of equality and objectivity
• Be generous and helpful
• Use a people-oriented approach to all problems
• Be eager to learn new things
• Be decisive and assertive
• Have knowledge and understanding of life circumstances in the broader society
• Show a desire for justice
• Demonstrate genuine concern for others and abundant goodwill
• Be a visionary
• Practice open communication and maintain transparency
• Be adaptable and have the courage to take unpopular decisions
• Separate business and personal problems
• Recognise diversity
• Maintain accountability
• Strive to drive unity
• Be charismatic
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SUMMARY
Sharing of knowledge gives power, not only to the one who knows, but also to the one who on the
receiving end. One who shares knowledge with the villagers or community is the best leader. This
concept moulds future leaders through learning experiences. As a new and developing community, we
expect good governance from the new leaders, especially in the area of interpersonal care and service
to others. Good governance requires that African leaders should lead and give direction for the benefit
of the community/villagers.
This kind of leadership will lead others back to the basics of African Renaissance. It should be rooted in
the moral African virtues that produce lasting benefits for the continent. Finally, if Africa is to produce
leaders who are honest, competent and committed, the continent needs to embark on educational
processes that will nuture their leaders. This process will ensure that they continue addressing the
interest of African people as they engage in the global life.
QUESTIONS
1. What comes to your mind when you think of African leaders?
2. Comment on African issues such as poverty, mineral wealth, prosperity and corruption and
highlight how African leaders will deal with these issues.
3. Indicate where your ideas about Africa come from e.g. media coverage, views of people etc.
How do African leaders ensure leadership effectives despite the several ideas.
4. Give reasons why transformational leadership needs to consider culture, value systems and
workforce in an African context.
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CHAPTER 15: LEADERSHIP IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT

following specific outcomes, in that the student will be able to
• Understand the leadership in a global context.

• Understand how leaders can influence group with a global perspective.
• Understand leadership challenges in a global perspective.
•ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal Articles:
• Richard M Steers, Carlos Sanchez Runda, Luciaro Nardon, Leadership in a global context:
New directions in research and theory development, Journal of World Business, Volume 47,
Issue 4, October 2012, Pages 479–482.
• Jean Brittain Leslie, Maxine Dalton, Chris Ernst and ,Jennifer Deal, Managerial Effectiveness in
A Global Context, Center for Creative Leadership.
• Joana S. P. Story, A Developmental Approach To Global Leadership, International Journal of
Leadership Studies, Vol. 6 Iss. 3, 2011.
• Murtha, T. P., Lenway, S. A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (20011). Global mind-sets and cognitive shift in
a complex multinational corporation. Strategic Management Journal, 19, 97-114.
• Youssef, C. M. & Luthans, F. (2007). Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The
impact of hope, optimism, and resilience. Journal of Management, 33(5), 774-800.
• Murtha, T. P., Lenway, S. A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012). Global mind-sets and cognitive shift in a
complex multinational corporation. Strategic Management Journal, 19, 97-114.
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15 INTRODUCTION
15.1 GLOBALISATION
Douglas (Stackhouse 2000:202) explains globalisation as “an act of making something global,
worldwide in scope and application.” When dealing with globalisation in a secular world, it is important
to note that the process of making something worldwide often refers to the spread of economic and
cultural realities generally associated with the capitalist and free market forces of the industrialised
West. Globalisation is directed by leaders who have a vision that goes far beyond their borders. Today
the new world order has opened greater participation of Africans in a global village. New leaders are
sharing, discussing and working for his new order, even though they are not equal, because of
economies.
What is a global mind set? But, what then exactly is a global mind set and how does it impact the way
organisations lead? One definition offered suggests it is the ability to influence individuals, groups,
organisations, and systems that have different intellectual, social, and psychological knowledge or
intelligence from your own. But, more than the old adage, “think globally and act locally,” it is now “think
and act both globally and locally” at the same time. This means not only recognise when it is beneficial
to create a consistent global standard, but also deepen the understanding of local and cultural
differences, crossing cultures and changing contexts.
It requires simultaneously recognising situations in which demands from both global and local elements
are compelling, while combining an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and
markets with a willingness and ability to synthesize across this diversity. Stephen L. Cohen
15.2 WHAT IS GLOBAL LEADERSHIP?
A study by Goldsmith et al. (2003) interviewed an age- and gender-diverse group of HRD officers in 200
global organisations. They were asked to pinopoint the most important leadership skills required for
effectiveness in the past, present and future.Not surprisingly, the top three items mentioned for past
and present leaders included none remotely suggesting global considerations. However, when asked
what will be important for the future, the third most highly rated item was “makes decisions that reflect
global considerations.”
While global considerations were not that important jusix years ago, there was sufficient foresight to
recognise that they would indeed become critical in the future. Five overall global skills were identified:
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1. Thinking globally;
2. Appreciating cultural diversity;
3. Developing technological savvy;
4. Building partnerships and alliances; and
5. Sharing leadership.
It can also be stated that additional skills are required in relation to those typically associated with
overall general leadership skills, among them, managing change, strategic thinking, and decision-
making, enabling teams and managing results.
So, while it is likely that general leadership skills are easily transferred into a global leadership context,
this does not mean a leader who is effective in a domestic setting will necessarily be effective in a
foreign setting.
Having defined global mind set and global leadership, how do the two combine to create a global
leadership mind set? A global leadership mind set involves carefully balancing three overall
dichotomies:
1. Global formalization versus local flexibility – wherein formal approaches unify an organisation in
the customer’s eyes so they know what to expect from the global brand, but the manifestation of this
brand locally may look different. For example, organisations may create different packaging of products
more familiar to local customs and expectations while never changing their brand image.
2. Global standardization versus local customization – wherein minimally standard protocols and
processes are needed to create one company “way”, but there needs to be flexibility in how these are
implemented at the local level based on local requirements.
3. Global dictate versus local delegation – wherein ways of doing business need to be uniform but
local implementation must be delegated according to existing customs. For example, local customs
might dictate how business is conducted but never violate defined corporate values. One excellent
example, according to Fortune magazine, of managing these polarities on a global stage is McDonalds,
which allows countries to invent their own buns, bags, and business practices, while catering to local
tastes (Gumbel, 2008). Without this balanced approach, organisations will not be able to address local
market needs effectively. In short, a global leadership mind set is the ability to take a global rather than
country specific view of business and people, and be able to apply this perspective to a country, taking
into account its culture.
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15.3 GLOBAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
Many who have studied global leadership, as well as leadership development in general, have
concluded that a multi-dimensional approach is the most effective way to develop effective global
leadership. These methods reduce to four overall approaches:
1. Examination;
2. Education;
3. Experience; and
4. Exposure.
Examination
Examination involves introspection and self-awareness. It is the first step in developing global leaders
so that they can get an accurate perspective of their interest, concerns, and current level of cultural
literacy. They need to know where they are on the continuum of both knowledge and beliefs in order to
focus their development areas on their relative deficiencies.
Education
Education involves thinking about the subject of globalisation, cultures and leadership. It focuses on the
content and knowledge required to be effective in a global setting. Leaders need to understand the
facts about different countries and cultures, business procedures, and local information about customs
and practices, both from a social and business perspective. They need to be educated on these and be
able to readily transport this information across borders.
Experience
Experience involves acting or doing. It focuses on the organisation and context. It is said to be the best
teacher but only if guided and intentional, that is, learning from experiences that are meaningful,
relevant and applied. It is about learning how the organisation does business in other parts of the world.
Exposure
Exposure involves interacting by focusing on people and roles. It means having reference points of
people and mentors who have “been there, done that” which is critical to assimilating this interaction
properly and quickly. There is no question, however, that cultural lessons are most likely to be learned
from actually experiencing the culture.
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That’s why expatriate experiences are rated as the most useful – in fact almost four times more than
simply international experiences and 15 times more than domestic experiences (see McCall et al.,
2008).
What, then, can both leaders and organisations do to acquire a global mind set? It is definitely a two-
way street in which both the leader and the organisation must work together to enable an effective
global leadership mind set. Either one alone will not be yield successful global leaders. Certainly the
most important thing the leader can do, as noted above, is to learn from experience, whether this
involves participation in task forces or start-ups, or interaction with bosses, peers and mentors.
A leader must develop his/her global leadership capability. It is also up to the organisation to set the
strategic global agenda; that is, to communicate to all employees the strategic intent and interest of
being a truly global company. They can also provide clarity on what kinds of global executives with
what kinds of skills are needed strategically and break the country-based barriers
The organisation can also facilitate this cultural assimilation by providing employees with baseline
cross-cultural information, appropriate levels of oversight, support and feedback, creating opportunities
for reflection, fostering an open culture built on personal relationships, small group loyalty and diverse
leadership teams, and providing access to internationally experienced coaches, mentors, and role
models.
Valuing differences, sensitivity to context, and creating new alternatives are the areas of competence
for those who had not lived abroad were distinctly different, illustrated by such things as inner purpose,
focus on goals, coping, clarity of communication, and exposing intentions – all admirable but falling
short of those more likely to be valuable for a global assignment.
Global leadership challenges
Organisations must complement their business growth strategies with sensible leadership development
plans to ensure they have a talent pipeline ready when required (John R Ryan, 2013).
The life of modern-day leaders is more demanding than ever. They need to motivate a diverse group of
women and men within their organisations, work across organisational boundaries, improve efficiency
and achieve growth. Externally, they face a complex and globalised environment. They have to manage
the requirements of government, keep ahead of competitors, and exceed the expectations of other
stakeholders. And within this global environment, there are many cultural considerations leaders must
navigate to be effective. They must work across cultural boundaries and alongside others who, at
times, are very different from them and have different ways of getting work done.
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Developing leaders faced with these difficult challenges, require a comprehensive response to deal with
them.!
Of course, some training needs and content can be derived from organisational strategy and planned
change initiatives. Yet other needs and challenges arise that strategy or change initiatives do not
anticipate. So how can a company ensure that training is actually designed to meet the development
needs of a specific leader?
A survey conducted at the Centre for Creative Leadership involving 763 leaders, revealed six
leadership challenges across seven countries (India, China/Hong Kong, Egypt, Singapore, Spain,
United Kingdom and United States).
To be more effective at work one has to develop managerial effectiveness and the coping with the
challenge of developing the relevant skills and as such time management, prioritisation, strategic
thinking, decision-making, and getting up to speed with the job.
•Inspiring Others: The challenge of inspiring or motivating others to ensure they are satisfied with their
jobs and motivated to work smarter.
•Developing Employees: The challenge of developing others, especially through mentoring and
coaching.
•Leading a team: The challenge of team-building, team development, and team management.
•Guiding change: The challenge of managing, mobilising, understanding, and leading change,
including mitigating the impact of change, overcoming resistance to it, and dealing with employees’
reaction to change.
•Managing internal stakeholders and politics: The challenge of managing relationships, politics, and
image, such as gaining managerial support and managing up and getting buy-in from other
departments, groups, or individuals.
Table 15.1 describes the findings on leadership challenges encountered
THE BIG HEADACHE

Challenges China Egypt India Singapore Spain UK US
Developing managerial
effectiveness 26.3 18.9 23.0 15.2 13.8 20.8 26.0
Inspiring others 22.2 16.0 15.0 23.2 20.2 16.0 15.1 Source: John Ryan
Developing employees 20.2 20.8 19.0 18.8 17.0 17.0 15.1
Leading a team 10.1 17.0 13.0 17.9 40.4 20.8 11.6 (2013)
Guiding change 10.1 17.0 17.0 15.2 17.0 33.0 22.6
Managing internal
stakeholders and politics 17.2 10.4 13.0 20.5 10.6 16.0 24.0
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15.5 21st Century Leaders
Organisations need creative, innovative and pioneering leaders to stay ahead in the race. These
leaders must have the insight to anticipate what is going to happen next and understand subtleties of
the marketplace. Business leaders or CEOs must have the necessary expertise to counter risks that are
part and parcel of innovation process and change. Most importantly, they should have the courage to
make tough decisions, strong teams to implement them and some luck to achieve success.
Clear and decisive leadership has become extremely important considering the fact that almost two-
thirds of CEOs are disrupted by market regulations, new competitors, technological advancements and
inability of their senior management to make decisions. Most CEOs do want to embrace change but are
offended by difficulties to handle it, creating more problems for themselves and their organisations.
15.6. Leadership: Change Is Important
Leaders have no choice but to evolve or get eliminated because a business must change in order to
survive. Modern leaders find it challenging to create an innovation culture that is bottom-up and top-
down at the same time with the ability to draw on the best possible talent pool available within
business’s ecosystem.
It is necessary for CEOs to promote innovation. They need to have leaders who support change and
encourage staff to experiment with new things. However, it is also imperative for business leaders to
maintain a balance between giving free reign to staff and providing them with a clear framework for
governance.
Business leaders also struggle to keep abreast with changes occurring due to latest technological
advancements. In fact, most are still “rooted in the past” and have a conservative approach when it
comes to practising those changes in their workplace, making it challenging and difficult for them to
embrace change successfully.
15.7 Leadership Development: Apparent Gap in Skill Levels
Business leaders have apparent skill shortages to handle technology. Many accept the fact that it is
necessary for the senior management of their organisations to have better understanding of the
technology for sustainable future growth. Unfortunately, there are some leaders who build technology
skills as a requirement for recruitment or succession planning, not as a part of leadership development
process. (Ngunjiri, F. W., & Madsen, S. R, 2015).
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Business leaders need to realise that challenges they face in 21st century are starker than ever before.
Many CEOs perform their duties in extremely harsh and constantly changing markets while others
simply cannot meet the ambitious requirements of the top post. To make matters more complex, the
change will become an integral part of CEOs’ everyday life and therefore, they need to evolve and
develop as there is not short or secret formula for success Ali Jafri (2013: 89).
SUMMARY
What does this all mean for both global organisations and their global leaders? First, a company’s
vision and values must show global consistency. However, its workplace practices, which translate
policy guidelines into day-to-day procedures, should be locally determined. A need for global
consistency would favour policies that accentuate formalisation, standardisation and global dictates,
whereas a need for local responsiveness would favour flexibility, customisation and delegation. A global
mind set can be the new competitive advantage in the marketplace, so a global corporation needs a
high stock of global mind set!
Business and public service leaders who are fully prepared to run global organisations are in short
supply and in demand as never before. Strategies to prepare today’s managers for future leadership
roles must be crafted carefully and cannot be left to chance. Organisations are pursuing fast-paced,
global growth to improve their profitability.
They are aided by breakthroughs in telecommunication technologies that enable interconnectivity and
make it easier to create a global footprint. However, to succeed on a continually evolving, volatile and
complex global stage, organisations must complement their ambitious business growth strategies with
sensible leadership development strategies that ensure they have the talent ready to implement their
plans.The context for business is changing so fast that new, carefully crafted strategies are needed
based on the best knowledge available. Leadership development cannot be left to chance.
QUESTIONS
1. What is your understanding of global mind-set and leadership and what are the dichotomies
that influence this?
2. Discuss the four approaches that need to be considered for leadership development.
3. To what extent does culture and business complexity impact on global leadership?
4. What are some of the characteristics of 21st century leaders who are expected to lead globally?
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CHAPTER 16: GENDER LEADERSHIP
• Understand the complexities of leadership from a gender perspective.
• Understand how leaders of different gender can influence the workforce.
• Understand the leadership challenges associated with gender in the workplace.
• Compare leadership styles which exists in modern day organisations.
• Examine the leadership paradigms – old vs new.
•ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
Juta
Journal Articles:
• Samantha C. Paustian-Underdahl, Lisa Slattery Walker and David J. Woehr, Gender and
Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of Contextual Moderators, Journal of
Applied Psychology © 2014 American Psychological Association,2014, Vol. 99, No. 6, 1129 –
1145
• Antonaros, M. E. (2010). Gender differences in leadership style: A study of leader effectiveness
in higher education (Doctoral dissertation). Universityof Michigan, Ann Arbor
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• Burns, G., & Martin, B. N. (2010). Examination of the effectiveness of male and female
educational leaders who made use of the invitational leadership style of leadership. Journal of
Invitational Theory and Practice, 16, 29 –55.
• Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes
masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 616 –
642. doi:10.1037/a0023557.
• Williams, R. (2012, December 15). Why women may be better leaders than men. Psychology
Today. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201212/why-
women-may-be-better-leadersmen.
16. INTRODUCTION
We are all familiar with the phrase “Men are from Mars and women are from Venus.” In the business
world, this has had unfortunate consequences for male and female leaders.
Male leaders were typecast as dominant competitors who played politics inside hierarchies and were
great at leading with power, while female leaders were expected to understand connection and
communication and lead people and teams better.
With this lens, the business world developed a whole theory of pre-conceived notions and biases about
what to expect from men and women leaders. And like most assumptions, these supposed differences
took on a life of their own. Over time, we became experts at typecasting people and, ultimately,
shackling men and women to these stereotypes (Bob Rosen: 2013).
GENDERED LEADERSHIP
There are differences between men and women. Not all men exhibit what we have come to
acknowledge as male leadership, and not all women exhibit what we have come to see as female
leadership. A whole new group of strong, competitive, and powerful women and evolved, collaborative
and humane men walk the hallways of organisations every day across industries, sectors, and
countries and they come from every generation.
In 1996, a book called Leading People, described “male” leaders (both men and women) as having
certain strengths and weaknesses. Their strengths included setting strong boundaries, assigning clear
responsibilities and accountabilities, weeding out poor performers, and keeping sensitive information
confidential. Like all leaders, they also had vulnerabilities:
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They would isolate employees and departments; deter teamwork and collaboration; be stubborn,
inflexible, and overly competitive; and discourage diversity, risk taking, and innovation.
On the other hand, what we considered “female” leadership was increasingly praised as the leadership
style of choice, and for good reason. Its strengths included enhancing teamwork, fostering
accountability through peer pressure, encouraging innovation through collaboration, and promoting
open communication, networking and learning. But this style of leadership had its challenges too: It
blurred boundaries between people, was weak on accountability, encouraged complacency through
lack of competition, and was pre-occupied with process at the expense of results.
When you look closely at the differences between “male” and “female” leadership styles, you can
understand why people might think this way, especially in a world of complexity, increased
transparency, and social networking.
Grounded Leadership
If we look back 20 years and reflect on the evolution of both men and women, we can see that both
“male leaders” and “female leaders” had a piece of the solution necessary for today’s workplace. Each
brought a specific strength and vulnerability to our current understanding of great leadership.
Today, we really do not have a good word for this powerful combination of “male” and “female”
leadership styles, though these leaders can be refrred to as “grounded leaders” who are masters at
cultivating six personal forces:
Physical, Emotional, Intellectual, Social, Vocational and Spiritual
To grounded leaders, leadership is personal, and they understand that who you are drives what you do.
They are simply grounded human beings. It has taken us 20 years to observe this continuing evolution
among men and women. To borrow another often-used phrase, both men and women are “leaning in”
to their new, more integrated selves. Today, we find the most effective leaders bring out the best
qualities, which we’ve traditionally associated with either men or women. We now know these qualities
need not be mutually exclusive.
Imagine if we could develop more men and women who are truly grounded in their leadership roles.
They would be more self-aware and emotionally mature, collaborative and communicative, and
comfortable assuming and sharing their power. More people would be inspired, organisations would be
healthier and higher performing, and the world of business would be a much better place to spend time
(Jossey-Bass, 2013).
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Women in Leadership
Northouse makes it clear that women are still under-represented in major leadership positions. There is
an undeniable gender gap, but for what reason? Northouse says, “Women are no less effective in
leadership roles, committed to their work, or motivated to attain roles.” The only explanation he offers is
that women are less likely to self-promote, and are less likely to initiate negotiation. This can ultimately
impact on a woman’s leadership ability. However, it is still argued that there are women out there who
are relentless self-promoters, and surely able of negotiating.
Women have been assuming leadership roles in nearly every industry. From Martha Stewart to Oprah
Winfrey, from Nancy Pelosi to Meg Whitman (the CEO of eBay), women are making incredible strides.
While I was researching female CEO’s, I came across an interesting case, that of Barbara Barnes. She
left her job of twenty-two years with PepsiCo to raise her children. After her six-year leave, Barnes
returned to work and became the CEO of Sara Lee. Therefore, she is an exemplary example of
someone who was a successful business leader and a successful parent.
Gender cannot be a tool for measuring someone’s ability to lead. There is no guarantee that because
someone is either male or female that they will be a good leader. Society needs to learn to look at a
person; their accomplishments, their qualities, their beliefs etc. – not their gender.
Smart leaders have understood for a while now that gender balance delivers better and
more sustainable performance; that companies with more gender-balanced leadership teams out-
perform those with fewer such teams. While the skeptics will spend another decade resisting this fact
with demands to prove causality, the best leaders prefer leading the charge to following it. So it would
now make sense to focus on the leadership competencies that enable certain leaders to build gender-
balanced organisations (Avivah Wittenberg-Cox: 2014).
Building a gender-balanced organisation takes skill, determination, and courage. It can be taught,
encouraged, and rewarded. This is what the best companies do. They put the focus and the
accountability where change happens: on the front lines. As with other change management initiatives,
the responsibility ultimately falls to leaders.
International Women’s Day 2015 was celebrated and thousands of women’s groups around the world
created events to celebrate the positive steps taken this last year globally for all women. Some focused
on gender equality, some on positive action and others chose independent themes that affect a
woman’s life in specific areas.
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Global trends and changes
The primary facet of this global change is that women are encouraged to take steps into leadership
roles; roles that they have shied away from.
One of the most important sets of skills required in a changing world is the skills of leadership. This has
become increasingly evident as we have attempted to adapt to the escalating changes in our society
and workplaces over the past century.
As women try to take command of their own destiny and guide the destinies of families, communities
and organisations, the necessity of effective leadership ability has become increasingly obvious.
Effective leadership is one of the keys to our future success.
But what is leadership, and who has it? Can you develop leadership ability, or is it something you
must be born with? Some say leadership has to be learned and earned.
Others say leadership is a gift that cannot be taught.
Much of the literature on leadership focuses on “characteristics” of good leaders. These characteristics,
however, are often too general to be of much practical value to someone trying to become a better
leader. For instance, to say that good leaders are “gifted optimists” or are “honest” and “inspiring”
provides little practical basis for specific skill development or improvement. These are typically
judgments about our behaviour made by others.
Frequently, descriptions of effective leadership emphasise what has been effective in a particular
business, culture or environment. However, the actions, style or characteristics that make a leader
“good” in one context may be ineffective or devastating in another.
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Some studies of leadership focus on the outcomes of effective leadership; pointing out that good
leaders “create vision,” “mobilise commitment,” “recognize needs” etc. However, simply knowing about
these goals is not enough. The key to actually achieving them involves having the mental and
behavioural skills required to put them into practice.
In defining what effective “leadership” is, it is important to distinguish between:

(a) “leader,”
(b) “leadership” and
(c) “leading.” The position of “leader” is a role in a particular system. A person in the formal role of a
leader may or may not possess leadership skills and be capable of leading.
“Leadership” is essentially related to a person’s skills, abilities and degree of influence. A good deal of
leadership can come from people who are not formal “leaders.” “Leading” is the result of using one’s
role and leadership ability to influence others in some way. In its broadest sense, leadership can be
defined as the ability to influence others toward the accomplishment of some goal. That is, a leader
leads a collaborator or group of collaborators towards some end.
In businesses and organisations, ‘leadership’ is often contrasted with ‘management’. Management is

typically defined as “getting things done through others.” In comparison, leadership is defined as,
“getting others to do things.” Thus, leadership is intimately tied up with motivating and influencing
others.
In the emerging views of leadership, however, leaders do not have influence simply because they are
‘bosses’ or ‘commanders’. Rather, leaders are people who are committed to “creating a world to which
people want to belong.” This commitment demands a special set of models and abilities in order to
effectively and ecologically manifest the visions which guide those committed to change. It involves
communicating, interacting and managing relationships within an organisation, network or social system
to move toward one’s highest aspirations.
Leadership has been described as “a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid
and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task”. For example, some understand a
leader simply as someone whom people follow or as someone who guides or directs others, while
others define leadership as “organising a group of people to achieve a common goal”. Studies of
leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behaviour, power,
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vision and values, charisma, and intelligence, among others. The search for the characteristics or traits
of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato’s Republic to Plutarch’s Lives
have explored the question: ”What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?”
Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption
that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership
is based on individual attributes is known as the “trait theory of leadership”.
Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterised as an enduring individual trait, as situational

approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in
certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation
of the leader behaviours that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory
and research for the next few decades.
Re- emergence of trait theory
Key Differences
OLD PARADIGM NEW PARADIGM

Dominance and control Cooperation and trust
Centralized, hierarchal Decentralized, flat organisations
Carrot and stick motivation Inspirational management
Rigid bidgets & timetables Continuous adaptation
Short-term solutions Long-range optimization
Top-down goal-setting People participate in setting goals
People selected to fit jobs Jobs selected to fit peaople
Aggressive internal competition Cooperation and teamwork
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately
re-establish the trait theory in relation to gender.
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Equipped with new methods, gender leadership researchers revealed the following:
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.
Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as:
" Intelligence
" Adjustment
" Extraversion
" Conscientiousness
" Openness to experience
" General self-efficacy
While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its re-emergence has not been
accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.
Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still: -

Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the neglect of
cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills.
" Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes.

" Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and
those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences.
" Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for
effective leadership.
Leadership can be defined as the process through which an individual guides and motivates a group
towards the achievement of a common goal/s. Research has examined whether or not there are sex
differences in leadership, and these differences can be seen from a relationship based or task
based perspective. Until recently, leadership positions have predominantly been held by men and
men were therefore stereotyped to be more effective leaders.
However, current research has found a change in trend and women have become more prevalent in
the workforce over the past two decades, especially in management and leadership positions. The
gender gap is decreasing and these stereotypes are changing as more and more women enter
leadership roles.
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When studying perception and effectiveness of men and women in leadership, in multiple studies,
Eagly found that men and women are perceived better by subordinates and are seen as more
effective leaders when in positions in accordance to traditional gender roles. It was found that
women “lose authority… if they employ feminine styles of leadership in male-dominated roles.”
Even though women exhibit more qualities that qualify them to be more effective leaders, men still
assume far more leadership positions and are more likely to be seen as leaders. Dobbins and Platz
(2013) states that even men and women show equal amounts of relationship orientation and task
orientation and have equally satisfied subordinates.
The impact of Leadership Styles on Organisations
In the past, most women who succeeded in becoming leaders did so by adopting the masculine style of
leadership. There are now indications that women are beginning to make an impact on organisations
using their own style of leadership. Rosener (2010) has studied what she calls the second generation of
managerial women. The first generation of female managers had to adhere to the same rules of
conduct for success that applied to men. This new generation is making its way “not by adopting the
style and habits that have proved successful for men but by . . . drawing on what is unique to their
socialization as women and creating a different path to the top” (pp. 119-20).
Most of these women are working in medium size organisations that have experienced fast growth and
rapid change, organisations that have been most hospitable to women and non- traditional
management styles.
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These women actively work to make their interactions with subordinates positive for everyone involved.
More specifically, the women encouraged participation, share power and information, enhance other
people’s self-worth, and get others excited about their work. All these things reflect their belief that
allowing employees to contribute and feel powerful and important is a win-win situation-good for the
employees and the organisation.
The Androgynous Leader
Does this interest in the strengths women can bring to leadership mean we have come back to that
notion of the “androgynous” leader or manager? Androgyny is an amalgam of male and female styles.
The androgynous leader blends the characteristics typically associated with males such as dominance,
assertiveness, and competitiveness-with those typically associated with females-such as
cooperativeness and a concern for people.
If there is anything we have learned from research in leadership, it is that the trait theory is not a
particularly useful one. Leadership skills need to be varied to meet various tasks and environments.
There is no one right style and no one right set of “traits” even if they are androgynous. Although
androgyny is appealing because it incorporates what are viewed as the strengths of both males and
females, it also perpetuates some of the same stereotypes that have hindered the development of
leaders of both genders.
The term “leaders” refers to persons holding formal positions of leadership in complex organisations in
industry, government, education, politics, the arts, sciences, and professions. Historically, gender
precluded most women from becoming leaders in such organisations; as a result, the assumption that
males were better suited than females for leadership roles was, until recently, rarely questioned.
Since the early 1970’s, the foundation of that assumption has been shaken by the large number of
women who, according to Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership, have (1) been elected prime
minister (in Britain, Canada, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Norway, Sri Lanka etc.) and to other high
government offices; (2) been elevated to managerial positions in business organisations; and (3)
earned master of business administration (MBA) degrees.
In addition, the assumption that leaders should be men has come under scrutiny by a growing body of
scholarly writing on the subject of gender and leadership.
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Several reasons are cited for the low proportion of women leaders. One is that females’ life aspirations
are diminished by their early childhood socialisation in the nuclear family. Generally the nuclear family
transmits definitions of appropriate gender behaviour to children. For girls, this includes
submissiveness, passivity, avoidance of aggression and competition, reticence to take risk, and other
qualities our culture considers “feminine.”
One result of this childhood socialisation is the tendency for adult women to be stereotyped as less
well-suited than men for leadership roles. Several studies have shown that people perceive successful
managers to have the characteristics typically associated with men, though the actual qualities
successful managers possess are a combination of masculine (e.g. forcefulness, self-confidence, task
orientation, initiative) and feminine (e.g. concern for people, feelings, and relationships) traits.
An obvious consequence of this is that a man is more likely to be selected for a leadership position than
a woman of equal qualification. Thus, a woman who aspires to leadership positions must overcome
both her childhood socialisation, which discouraged development of some essential qualities, and a
popular perception of the maleness of leadership — both of which tangibly reduce the chance she will
be judged qualified. In addition to socialisation and stereotyping, other barriers to females’ upward
mobility into leadership positions include:
(a) Discrimination against them in personnel decisions involving promotion, selection, and supervision;
(b) A dearth of women and men willing to mentor women;
(c) Management development opportunities that are based on job rotation: geographic mobility can
create difficulties for a woman’s children and destroy her spouse’s career;
(d) Co-incidence of the biological clock and some professions’ “up or out” policies, such as professors’
tenure clock and lawyers’ partner clock; and
(e) The perception of women as “outsiders” because of their physical differences, stereotyping, and
exclusion from some social clubs and activities where important networks are built and maintained.
Contingency Leadership Theories
The focus is on some of the better known theories on leadership which will allow us to better decipher
the nuances related to the issue of effectiveness as it relates to gender. The premise for doing such is
to establish a foundation of facts pertaining to commonly held beliefs on leadership.
Reference is being made to the popular leadership models and theories, the Normative , Decision
Model, the Situational Leadership Theory, and the Contingency Theory all of which impact on gender.
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Normative Decision Model
The normative decision model was designed to improve some aspects of leadership effectiveness.”
This model implies that leaders could often improve group performance by using an optimal amount of
participation in the decision making process. The model, by its very nature, would lead us to conclusion
that this form of decision making by a leader is very much gender-neutral. This model also looks at the
nature of a decision by a leader and a low-level decision that has no great impact on the group; there is
much less resistance to a decision imposed upon the group leadership.
The Situational Leadership Theory
The second theory to explore regarding leadership effectiveness is the situational leadership theory
(SLT). This theory addresses the optimum way for leaders to address their leadership style depending
on the type of follower involved.
The two different approaches to leadership studied in this theory are the task behaviour and the
relationship behaviour nature of the work being done by the followers. Task behaviour is associated
with a more direct approach where the leader spells out the responsibilities of an individual or group.
“The results of this theory point out that in some situations, high levels of task but low levels of
relationship behaviours were effective; in other situations, just the opposite was true.” The theory goes
on to talk about how the maturity level of both male and female impacts on leadership.
This theory correlates leadership effectiveness and gender and points out how important the follower
and the situation are in terms of producing effective leadership techniques. The bottom line to this
theory is that flexibility and tending to each situation and subordinate according to their job and
personal maturity level is a time-tested approach to attaining favourable results from the leadership
perspective.
This theory, in contrast to the situational leadership theory- suggests that leader effectiveness is
primarily determined by selecting the right kind of leader for a certain situation or changing the situation
to fit the particular leader’s style”. The basis of this theory is one, which takes into consideration both
the leader’s style and the situation the leader finds him/herself in. This theory, unlike the previous two,
takes a greater look at the individual characteristics of the leader versus focusing on the follower or the
situation.
This model suggests that basic personality characteristics are established early in life and the
experiences a leader has had in the past will determine what type of leadership style they will use. This
model, unlike many others, states that it may be in the best interest of the group to make sure the
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leader selected for a certain job or task is of a compatible type for the type of job required. This model
refers to altering the situation, and not focusing on the leader, to get the best and most positive work
done.
Gender-Related Issues of Transformational and Transactional Leadership
With regards to gender differences in transformational and transactional leadership, and gender-related
stereotypes, results indicated that there were no differences in the way the primarily Caucasian
subordinates evaluated their actual male and female managers. There were, however, differences in
the ratings of stereotypic male versus stereotypic female leaders on transformational and transactional
leadership, but only by female respondents. Finally, congruence between ratings of actual managers
and ratings of stereotypic managers was found primarily for male respondents, suggesting that
stereotypes may be one explanation for gender differences.
Transformational leadership — occurs when a leader engages with a follower in such a way that both
parties are raised to higher levels of motivation and morality with a common purpose. Transactional
leadership- in contrast, is a set of leadership behaviours that emphasises exchanges or bargains
between manager and follower, and focuses on how current needs of subordinates can be fulfilled.”
These gender differences may or may not lend themselves to more effective styles, but it may simply
be the style of leadership that will matter the most. Female leaders were evaluated as being more
transformational by female subordinates than male leaders who were evaluated by male subordinates.
Distinctions in styles can be important because they are one factor that may affect people’s views about
whether women should become leaders. It is not surprising that women are the usual focus of
discussions of the impact of gender on leadership. From one side, the differences in leadership style
can provide a rationale for excluding women from opportunities and especially from male dominated
leadership roles. From another side, the perception of sameness would fail to acknowledge the
relational qualities which are traditional source of female pride and that may contribute to superior
performance by women leaders.
Therefore, leadership styles of women and men are different, probably because women more co-
operative and collaborative, but less hierarchical, than men. However, men and women have different
social roles, for instance in the family and employment place.
Therefore, leadership styles of women and men are different, probably because women more co-
operative and collaborative, but less hierarchical, than men. However, men and women have different
social roles, for instance in the family and employment place.
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The main differences of men from women, that male are assertive, controlling, and confident tendency,
for example: they characterised as ‘aggressive, ambitions, dominant, independent, self-confident and
competitive’. On the contrary, women are ‘affectionate, kind, helpful, sympathetic, nurturant,
interpersonally sensitive and gentle’, Alice H. Eagly, Linda L.Carli, (2003). Having different
characteristics male and female try to adopt each others’ style of leadership in order to be competent in
leader roles.
Both, ‘men and women’ who have female bosses are more collaborative, and less aggressive than
men. They seek consensus, emphasize team building, are more nurturing and empathetic, and are
more approachable. However, males are still frequently rated more positively than females for the same
behaviours.
Men show more leadership, have higher-quality contributions, being more desirable for hiring, meriting
a higher salary, and more responsible job. For the same behaviours, women were rated as more
emotional, less warm, less sensitive, and less attractive than males. Women have begun to increase
their individual power, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness. Male dominance is
effectively reduced when people are reminded of their equalitarian attitudes.
SUMMARY
The challenge to organisations of the future is to accept a variety of leadership styles. There is no one
“best” style of leadership. These styles depend on the organisation and the task to be done. If
organisations continue to become flatter and less hierarchical, some of the leadership traits traditionally
associated with women leaders will be most appropriate in those organisations. Both men and women
should feel free to adopt leadership strategies that will help them succeed. The recognition of a
diversity of leadership styles will allow potential leaders to lead in ways that will draw upon their
individual strengths. The restructured workplace will provide a setting for a variety of leadership styles
to flourish, and, as a result, it will gain in strength and flexibility.
Clearly we are in a period of transition in regard to our thinking about gender differences in leadership
styles. The cultural factors supporting differences in leader behaviour are in a period of flux. It seems
likely that as more women assume leadership roles and as sex role stereotypes fade away, the very
notion of gender differences in leadership style will also disappear. We will recognise that different
leaders have different styles, but we will not automatically associate one style with women and another
with men. Males and females alike will be challenged to develop the type of leadership skills that will be
needed to lead the organisations of tomorrow.
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QUESTIONS
1) What are the greatest challenges women in leadership experience?

2) Are women’s struggles significantly different than those of men in similar roles?
3) Which traits serve women best? Which traits hold them back?
4) What are the real differences in style for men and women leaders?
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CHAPTER 17: APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Specific learning outcomes
• Understand the leadership approaches and the need for development
• Understand how leaders can influence the workforce
• Understand leadership challenges are when attempting to implement development plans
• Understand why leader development should be consistent with strategic planning
ESSENTIAL READING
listed below.
Textbooks:
• Dalgish, C., du Pleassis, M., Lues. & Pietersen, E., (2009). Leadership in the African Context.
Juta.
Journal Articles:
• Ron Cacioppe, (2011) “An integrated model and approach for the design of effective leadership
development programs”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 19 Iss: 1, pp.44
– 53.
• Francis Amagoh, (2012) “Leadership development and leadership effectiveness”, Management
Decision, Vol. 47 Iss: 6, pp.989 – 999.
• Gina Hernez-Broome, Richard L. Hughes, Leadership Development: Past, Present, and Future,
Human resource planning.
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• Bass, B.M. (2012). “Two Decades of Research and Development in Transformational

Leadership.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(10): 9-32.
• Cacioppe, R. (1998). “An Integrated Model and Approach for the Design of Effective
Leadership Development Programs.” Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 19(1):
44-53.
• Sankar Y. (2013). “Character Not Charisma is the Critical Measure of Leadership Excellence.”
Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 9(4): 45-55.
17. INTRODUCTION
Leadership development is more important than ever, and the ability to change and grow is taking on
increasingly more importance today. The pace of change is faster in every industry, and the complexity
of work is greater. Organisations are flatter especially in regard to decision-making, so they need
strong, effective leadership and, therefore, leaders. To get there, leadership development can take on
many forms such as training workshops or one-on-one coaching. There are many arrows in the
development quiver.
Often it is extremely difficult to combine different development and learning approaches into a cohesive
whole. However, people learn in a variety of ways. Different approaches have different benefits, and
progress is hard to achieve. The popular biographies outlining how the likes of Bill Gates and Richard
Branson made their millions indicate that the breadth and depth of what is on offer is great. However,
while there is a move in some leadership development circles to the development of the leader as a
person, most leadership development still seems to be concentrating on that part of leadership that is
visible, externally verifiable, and explicit in nature. The tacit, implicit core of who a manager is tends to
have been largely overlooked, perhaps because ‘improvement’ is not easily measurable.
It appears to be this core, however that is crucial to the development of leadership, and now the
emphasis is shifting to the more humane side of management and leadership, with the focus turning to
the individual rather than the processes that they manage.
One of the key leadership competencies is the need to seek different and broader perspectives. To
enable this we need to build a more diverse and varied leadership pool, so we should be nurturing
aspirational employees whatever their background, ensuring that paths to leadership are open to all
employees.
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Leadership development programmes are becoming open to all who are interested and not just a few
pre-selected high potentials. Successful broadening of the future leadership pipeline depends on four
things:
•Clearly defined leadership culture.
•Detailed breakdown of required competencies and capabilities for leaders.
•Support and access to all the relevant tools, resources and coaching that individuals need.
•Information on leadership development programmes being freely accessible to everyone in the

organisation.
Less than half of CEOs are confident that their investment in leadership development will produce
results. Maybe the key to getting real value for future leaders is to design programmes that reflect the
changing problems and challenges that they will face whilst allowing them to develop the skills and
competencies they will need; and to find an effective way to measure success.
17.2 Elements of Leadership Development Programs
Major talent management functions all play a part in a comprehensive leadership development program
and can be well supported by a unified talent management technology platform. These functions
include:
• Recruitment, to source leadership talent.
• Assessments, to evaluate leadership capabilities both internally and externally.
• Performance management, to monitor and make course corrections in developing leaders.
• Succession planning, to avoid future leadership gaps.
• Career planning, to enable employees to understand their leadership options and set development
goals.
• Development, to create a roadmap to fill skills gaps.
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A successful leadership development program begins with the alignment of leadership development
with company strategy and an understanding of the type of leadership style(s) needed to execute that
strategy. A continuum of steps positions an organi.ation for current and future leadership needs.
An integrated leadership development strategy should focus on developing the competencies identified
for current leadership and on those competencies that will be required to support the organisation’s
strategic future. In addition our research has shown that one of the key components of a successful
attraction and retention strategy is an aggressive leadership development strategy for identified talent.
Personal Leadership
Leading/managing oneself to be personally effective involves accepting responsibility for personal

growth and career advancement, initiating actions to improve knowledge, skills and performance. This
includes:
o Personal Insight
o Personal Positioning
o Personal Planning
Interpersonal Leadership
How to influence others from a “non-authority” position—
Getting along with others and pro-actively developing rapport with them; building cooperative
relationships. This includes:
o Communicating for Success

o Handling Conflict
o Giving Feedback
o Assertiveness
o Influencing
Team Leadership
How to utilise appropriate interpersonal styles and methods in guiding a team towards task
accomplishment without the reliance on authority or position. Creating a shared vision which integrates
with that of the organisation for the team that is inspiring and motivating.
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This includes:
o Team Development
o Facilitating Group Processes
o Presenting
o Facilitating Learning
o Coaching
o Group Decision Making
Performance Leadership
Focuses on how to guide, evaluate and develop the competencies of team members to maximise their
performance. This includes:
REVIEWING
o Agreeing Expectations
o Reviewing Expectations
o Giving Feedback Perfomance &
AGREEING Development
o Coaching for Success COACHING
Excpectations
FEEDBACK
17.3 Transformational Leadership (optional)
Revolves around facilitating profound learning and change using evolving interventions i.e. participative
design, etc. in transforming systems to achieve systemic sustainability. This includes leading in
turbulent times.
17.4 Strategic Leadership Development
The business world is changing with phenomenal speed. Workplace dynamics have shifted from
stability and predictability to change and uncertainty; from work permanence to temporariness; from
standard work patterns to flexible patterns; from valuing loyalty to valuing performance and skills; from
paternalism at work to self-reliance; from linear career growth to multiple careers; and from one-time
learning to lifelong learning.
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1. These shifts have been triggered by changing workforce demographics, growth of the knowledge
economy, globalisation, digitisation and the advent of the social web, the culture of connectivity, and the
evolution of a participatory society.
2. The demands of the new workplace pose a new kind of threat and opportunity to organisations.
Gone are the days when the CEO was the superhero who came to the rescue of an organisation on the
brink of a breakdown. Traditional Western views upheld the CEOs as “special” people blessed with the
capability for command and influence; they had a unique mix of skill, ambition, vision, charisma, and
hubris; they could overcome the blocks that stymied everyone else and make great things happen.
3. However, globalisation and inter/intra-connectedness have destroyed the cult of the hero-leader and
made it mandatory for organisations to develop leadership capabilities throughout the organisation.
Today’s leaders are master strategists, change managers, relationship/ network builders, and talent
developers.
4. They are called to design, steward, and teach. High-potential managers are identified very early on in
their careers and are groomed to assume these diversified leadership roles to ensure seamless
business growth and continuity in an ever more dynamic and complex environment. Research reveals
skills required by a leader to bring about change include ability to possess a collaborative mind-set,
develop people, act digitally confident, be a global citizen, and anticipate and build for the future;
5. Implement and manage change, coach and develop others, execute organisational strategy, identify
and develop future talent, and foster creativity and innovation;
6. Drive business competitiveness and innovation, build key relationships and win people over without
using position, set and effectively communicate vision and direction for people, achieve results through
the performance of others, develop their people for the longer term, inspire followership and model a
true sense of collaboration, change potential, intellectual potential, people potential, and motivational
potential;
7. Respond to trends like climate change and resource scarcity, and do business in emerging markets
marked by poverty, corruption, and human rights violations;
8. Know thyself, design for failure, go where there be dragons, be a T-shaped thinker, facilitate the
possible, tell a compelling story, build and manage networks;
9. As a result, leadership development programs have seen significant investments in recent years.
Organisational spending has changed to reflect the increased use of a variety of developmental
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experiences. These funds are invested in creating more comprehensive solutions and acquiring tools
for identifying and developing future talent.
10. Shifts in Leadership Development Approaches are based on context and need, leadership
development approaches have changed over time. For example, in much of the world, executive
development once consisted of classroom programs and seminars but later moved toward an emphasis
on strategic transitions due to fierce global competition, rapid advances in technology, and waves of
mergers and acquisitions. Content of such programs changed from functional knowledge to leadership
and organisational change.
11. To help gain a better understanding of the evolution and transition of the different approaches, we
have grouped them into three general shifts:
12: Individual in Western dominated models, leadership development focused mostly on individual or
personal development, with very little attention paid to wider business benefits. People became leaders
by virtue of their personal characteristics (intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, level of energy and
activity, and “masculinity” were all cited as key traits) and education levels. Because of this, there was
little focus on management and leadership development and more on recruitment and selection
processes.
13. Leadership development programs were mostly face-to-face interactions and operated with a
single-minded focus to fix personal traits.
14. Team-based Globalization and technological advancements put increased pressure on leaders to
steer global and diverse teams. As a result, the focus of leadership development programs shifted to
helping leaders lead effective and cohesive teams. Moreover, organisations were moving away from
person-centric work models and were adopting team-based work approaches to meet the leadership
programs aimed to develop skills like communication, decision making, team productivity, and morale
building.
15. This gave rise to experience-based programs, which were used to develop a leader’s team-building
skills.
16. Collaborative Relationships with globalization and technology continuing to be the business
realities, collaborative leadership emerged as a body of leadership practice that focused on developing
leadership skills and attributes needed to deliver results across organisational boundaries. Leaders
recognized that critical business relationships could not be controlled by formal systems but required a
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dense web of interpersonal connections with various groups and departments to accomplish a shared
purpose.
17. To help leaders form effective business partnerships and strategic alliances, leadership
development programs laid emphasis on relationship-building skills like networking and interpersonal
skills, communication, coordination, and cooperation.
18. Virtual, classroom-based programs and short- and long-term rotational assignments are
increasingly used to develop these skills.
17.5 Leadership Development Today:
Holistic and Personalised
The current dominant leadership development strategy in much of the world is more holistic and
includes elements of the individual (leading self), team-based (leading others), and collaborative
(leading with others) types of leadership development. Personal mastery and work-life integration are
as important as leading high-performance teams and creating the best place to work through
collaborative advantage.
Based on corporate goals and individual needs, organisations can employ any one (oral combination)
of the developmental strategies to give their leaders a competitive edge and a holistic mind-set.
Personalisation and customisation of development is the critical shift in this current trend. The types of
development offerings can range from rotational assignments and experiential programs to coaching,
mentoring, and executive education. Programs can be developed internally, externally, or both,
depending on the resources and expertise of the learning and development team.
17.6 Impact of Leadership Development
Leadership development programs are becoming laboratories of change. Leaders going through
executive developmental programs are introduced to skills and competencies that will help them
empower and engage their workforce and drive performance and productivity. Leaders may be born,
but there’s a growing school of thought that believes since most aspects of leadership are behavioural,
they can be developed through a well-crafted leadership development program.
Because of the changes and challenges facing leaders today, few would argue with the need for strong
leaders and effective leadership succession planning. Several studies show the benefits of a
successfully implemented leadership development program.
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Leadership development has an impact on improved business outcomes, such as:
• Retention
• Productivity
• Profitability
• Customer loyalty
• Safety
Additional impact includes:
• Driving organisation/bench strength
• Improving efficiency and effectiveness of leaders
• Increasing successful execution of business strategies
• Improving management communication and alignment
Investing in leadership development programs can offer value,
• Improve bottom-line financial performance
• Attract and retain talent
• Drive a performance culture
• Increase organisational agility
With numerous other studies drawing a direct linkage between leadership, profitability, and financial
success, it is not surprising to witness an explosion of interest and the proliferation of new leadership
development methods.
17.7 Strategies for Accelerating Leadership Development
Organisations are employing various strategies for accelerating the development of their leaders. The
top three strategies used globally and regionally are to grow talent internally by identifying high-
performing leaders; provide learning opportunities; and provide coaching, mentoring, job shadowing, or
rotational programs. Fewer than 20 percent of companies across the regions hire leaders from the open
market. More organisations are opting to promote and grow talent internally than hire externally, likely
due to the global talent shortage and competitive labour market found in many regions.
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17.8 Summary of different leadership approaches, their benefits, and when they provide the
greatest impact
Leadership
Executive coaching • Performance coaching before a leader assumes a new role;
• Learn a new skill to address new/recurring business problem
• Most widely used for succession grooming, interpersonal skills development, business etiquette
grooming, promotion support, conflict resolution
• Time-bound and personal
Mentoring • Support leaders who’ve been promoted to new responsibilities

• Help them sort and prioritize issues that might otherwise affect performance at work
• Demonstrate to leaders that an organisation is committed to developing and helping them improve
their skills
• Promote networking across the organisation as mentor can provide introductions to key stakeholders
• Most widely used for leadership, network, and transition support
• Can result in a long-lasting relationship between mentor and mentee
• More cost-effective than hiring an external coach or resource
• Mentees can seek advice on all matters related to individual performance in the organisation
Simulations • For a particular skill development—through trial and error, mastery can be achieved; for
example, in business scenarios, a non-assertive leader can learn how to be more assertive during
performance discussions with teams
• Most widely used as a tool for performance support
• Allows leaders to make errors outside the business setting and learn from their mistakes
• Leaders’ decisions or actions carry little risk to business operations
• Any business (individual/team) situation can be simulated and implemented
• Not bound by time or space
Job rotation • When a person takes on a new leadership role, this approach can help him learn the
varied functions/roles of the business; similarly, when existing leaders assume higher leadership roles,
this allows them greater exposure to company’s operations
• Motivate a leader who has been on a job for a long time
• Is personal and most widely used for career advancement and performance support
• Allows for a leader’s cross-functional development
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• Helps leaders consider all functions and perspectives before making organisational decisions
Action learning • Address problems and issues that are complex and not easily resolved
• Find solutions and underlying root causes of business problems
• Determine a new strategic direction or to maximize new opportunities
• Most widely used for: new business/product exploration, conflict resolution, team development, skill
enhancement, and personal effectiveness
• Can be used in personal, team-based, and collaborative settings
• Assist succession planning by developing highly qualified leaders for promotion to next level of
leadership positions
• Deepen leaders’ confidence in their leadership and team participation skills
• Enable participants to establish effective, mutually respectful working relationships at all
organisational levels
• Develop competence among individuals and teams in problem-solving and decision-making
processes
• When developing a global business leader or a manager with a diverse mind-set
• Ability for expat leader to share and develop skills when local operations and staff lack expertise
• Most widely used for career advancement and global knowledge management
• Mostly personal in approach
• Leader gains local, national, international exposure and hence makes better business decisions
• Benefits host and visiting countries/local bodies due to multicultural styles of working and leadership
• Most widely used for knowledge development, skill advancement, collaboration building, and
performance support
• Widely used for personal, team development.
SUMMARY
The field has seen evolutionary growth and changes to the methods and approaches of leadership
development, starting with the individual and now encompassing teams, virtual spaces, communities,
and geographies across the globe. The complexity of what it means to be a leader cannot be
understated, especially in the fast-changing business markets in which we operate. The rapidly
evolving organisation’s global and strategic structure has made leadership development a critical
component of success. Leadership drives an engaged workforce and high levels of business
performance.
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Organisations with strong leadership practices financially outperform those that do not have these
characteristics. But high levels of engagement do not come about by accident. They require conscious
and deliberate investment, significant time commitment, and support for leadership programs that have
the potential to develop high-calibre leaders who are well prepared to address the current and future
business challenges.
Training of leadership skills conducted and the importance of learning from experience is now widely
acknowledged. Development techniques with potential to increase learning from experience is widely
accepted in organisations. Training and development are more effective when they are mutually
consistent, supported by a strong learning culture, and integrated with other human resource activities.
Leadership development should include shared leadership process relevant for teams and
organisations. The systems approach to leadership development is strategically important for long term
organisational effectiveness.
QUESTIONS
1. What are some of the considerations needed in order for training and development to be
effective?
2. Give reasons why it is important for the leadership development programs on an organisation
to be consistent with the human resource management practises and their competitive
strategy.
3. Discuss how special assignments are relevant in order to develop leadership skills
4. Indicate what the benefits of mentoring are when developing leaders.
5. In your view what can be considered in order to integrate leadership training and development
and self-help activities.
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CASE STUDIES & QUESTIONS
1) Acme Manufacturing – Managerial Roles (Yukl: 409 -410)

2) Consolidated Products - Leadership Behaviours (Yukl: 410 -412)
3) In feet first – Change leadership (Yukl: 413 -414)
4) Echo Electronics – Empowering leadership ( Yukl: 414 – 415)
5) National Products – Traits and Leadership skills (Yukl: 416 – 417)
6) Mercurial Mohamed – Power and Leadership ( Yukl: 420 -421)
7) Cronwell Electronics – Dyadic Theories & Fellowship (Yukl: 422- 423)
8) Southwest Engineering Services – Team leadership (Yukl: 424 – 426)
9) Streategic Leadership of Comfort Ltd – Strategic leadership ( Yukl: 426 – 430)
10) Enron –unethical leadership – Ethical leadership (Yukl: 433 -434)
11) Madison, Jines and Conkin – Cross-cultural leadership and diversity (Yukl: 435 -436)
12) Wilkinson, Crowe and Mauley – Leadership Development (Yukl: 436 -437)
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VIDEO LINKS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q8NdH3fRujw
1) Ten Leadership Theories in Five Minutes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKUPDUDOBVo

2) Leadership Theories - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y4cSOAPddvQ
3) Core Leadership Theories - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRrC67py-4E
4) Behavioural leadership theories - Making the Transition to
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCyInWhvgG0
5) Leader - Inspirational Leadership ...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4kjS64vSVw
6) Empowering leaders in the African context ...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7H97fQJXwg
7) Leadership: Does Gender make a Difference?...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4uPJ1ah5eE
8) How to avoid gender stereotypes: Eleanor Tabi ...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ZFNsJ0-aco
9) How To Become A Strategic Leader…
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FeP5U3TCxu4
10) Strategic Leadership: Embracing Change….
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPIqJbLjNbM
11) Five Barriers to Global Leadership…
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxa64YFyL_o
12) Leaders Empower Others to Lead!....
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQCxiLVAXS0
13) Power & Influence: Types of Power - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_6DuoiuzwA
14) What is Ethical Leadership? …
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ks2QGoIq5nA
15) Ethical Leadership…
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kmA--yq5eq0
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
A New Era for Global Leadership Development by Bill George February 17, 2012
Ali Jafri (2013: 89) - The Challenges of 21st Century Leadership
Avivah Wittenberg-Cox is CEO of 20-first, one of the world’s leading gender consulting firms, and
author of Seven Steps to Leading a Gender-Balanced Business.
Barbara Adachi, Daniel Helfrich, Michael Gretczko, and Jeff Schwartz, Human Capital Trends 2012—
Leap Ahead, Deloitte Consulting LLP, 2012
Beechler, S., Baltzley, D. (2008), “Creating a global mindset”, Chief Learning Officer, Vol. June pp.40-5
Boatman, Sara; Adams, Todd C. Campus Activities Programming, v24 n9 p62-67 Apr 1992 15
.http://www.citeman.com/4843-the-behavioral-approach-to-leadership.html#ixzz3oIKNryhh
Bob Rosen is founder and CEO of Healthy Companies International and author of the New York Times
Best-Selling book Grounded: How Leaders Stay Rooted in and Uncertain World (Jossey-Bass, 2013).
He is an internationally recognized psychologist and trusted global CEO advisor.
Carly, L.L. and Eagly, A.H. (2011) Gender and leadership. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B.
Jackson and M. Uhl-Bien (eds) The SAGE Handbook of Leadership. London: Sage, 103–117.
Catalyst Information Center (2013). Why Diversity Matters, http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/why-

diversity-matters; Madsen, S. R. (2015). Why do we Need More Women Leaders in Utah,
Charles Mitchell and David Learmond, Go Where There Be Dragons:Leadership Essentials for 2020
and Beyond, The Conference Board,Council Perspectives 023, 2010.
Charles Mitchell, Bart van Ark, and Rebecca L. Ray, The Conference Board CEO Challenge® 2013
Summary Report: Countering the Global Slowdown, The Conference Board, Research Report 1511,
January 2013.
Collinson, D. (2011) Critical leadership studies. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson and M.
Uhl-Bien (ed.) The SAGE Handbook of Leadership. London: Sage, 181–194.
Dalgish, C.,du Pleassis, M., Lues. & Pietersen, E., (2009). Leadership in the African Context. Juta.
Dr. Stephen L. Cohen is Founder and Principal for the Strategic Learning Collaborative and was
formerly Senior Vice President of Global Solutions for Right Management’s Lead and Develop Center of
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Excellence. He is located in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA and can be reached at

steve@strategicleadershipcollaborative.com.
Ethical Leadership By Jane A. Van Buren.
Ewington, N., Lowe, R., Trickey, D. (2008), Being International. International Management
Development, Worldwork Ltd, London.
Global Trends and Approaches,RESEARCH REPORT R-1517-13-RR by Amy Lui Abel and Rebecca
Ray, The Conference Board, and Ric Roi, Right Management, with Sherlin Nair, Yolanda Lannquist.
http://www.citeman.com/4843-the-behavioral-approach-to-leadership.html#ixzz3oIKC15qC.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8210591_cross-cultural-leadership-styles.html.
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/emergingmarketeconomy.asp#ixzz3oo0ALmDH.
http://www.uvu.edu/uwlp/docs/uwlpbrief2015no5.pdf.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wKTAfU69K4&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RoMgrpQVDJ Read more:

http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/For-Gol/Gender-and-
Leadership.html#ixzz3sDo7VAG84
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR14/GGGR_CompleteReport_2014.pdf, p. v.
Industrial and Commercial Training Volume: 42; Number: 1; Year: 2010; pp 3- 10. Emerald Group
Publishing Limited ISSN: 0019-7858.
Jazmine Boatman and Richard S. Wellins (2011), Time for a Leadership Revolution: Global Leadership
Forecast 2011, Development Dimensions International, Inc.
Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2001) Organizational Behaviour 5th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp 656 – 690.
Leadership Insights, The Human Age Global Leader: Trends in Global Leadership Development, Right
Management, 2012.
Lussier, R. & Achua, C. (2012). Leadership: Theory, application, & skill development. Mason, OH:
Cengage Learning.
Meister and Willyerd, The 2020 Workplace.
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Ngunjiri, F. W., & Madsen, S. R. (Eds.) (2015). Women as Global Leaders (Charlotte, NC: Information
Age Publishing).
Pettigrew, A.M., Ferlie, E., & McKee, I. (1992) Shaping strategic change in large organisations: The
case of the National Health Service. London: Sage.
Rabotin, M. (2008), “Deconstructing the successful global leader”, T&D, Vol. July pp.54- 9.
Robert P. Hewes, Alan M. Patterson, A Three-Pronged Approach to Leadership Development Premium

Content Friday, September 07, 2012.
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Pavilion Journals (Brighton) Ltd.
World Economic Forum (2014) The Global Gender Gap Report.
World Economic Forum (2014) The Global Gender Gap Report.

http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR14/GGGR_CompleteReport_2014.pdf, p. 39.
Yukl, G., (2013) Leadership in Organisations. Ninth Edition Pearson Education: Prentice.
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CHAPTER 2: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT ................................................................................12

CHAPTER 3: LEADERSHIP THEORIES ................................................................................................17

CHAPTER 4: LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR .............................................................................................27

CHAPTER 5: EMPOWERING LEADERSHIP .........................................................................................33

CHAPTER 6: KNOWLEDGE AND AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP .............................................................40

CHAPTER 7: STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP ..............................................................................................48

CHAPTER 8: LEADERSHIP AND ETHICS ............................................................................................56

CHAPTER 9: CHANGE LEADERSHIP ...................................................................................................67

CHAPTER 10: TEAM LEADERSHIP ......................................................................................................76

CHAPTER 11: CROSS CULTURAL LEADERSHIP AND DIVERSITY ...................................................87

CHAPTER 12: DYADIC THEORIES AND FOLLOWERSHIP .................................................................92

CHAPTER 13: LEADERSHIP IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT ...............................................................103

CHAPTER 14: LEADERSHIP IN EMERGING MARKETS ....................................................................110

CHAPTER 15: LEADERSHIP IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT .................................................................117

CHAPTER 16: GENDER LEADERSHIP ...............................................................................................125

CHAPTER 17: APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT ...................................................140

CASE STUDIES & QUESTIONS ..........................................................................................................152

INTRODUCTION TO THE LEADERSHIP STUDY GUIDE

“Everything we hear is an option, NOT A FACT.

2. STRUCTURE OF THIS STUDY GUIDE

Provides an overview of the

1. Introduction and Overview of Leadership

2. Leadership and Management This part of the Study Guide details

Leadership and Ethics (textbooks and journal

11. Cross Cultural Leadership and Diversity • Questions for reflection

12. Dyadic Theories and Followership

13. Leadership in the African Context

14. Leadership in Emerging Markets

15. Leadership in the Global Context

16. Gender Leadership

17. Approaches to Leadership Development

1. Structure of Each Section

3. Essential (Prescribed) Reading

Your prescribed reading comprises the following:

Yukl, G., (2013) Leadership in Organisations. Pearson.

• South African Textbook

4. Brief Overview of Relevant Theory

5. Questions for Reflection

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF LEADERSHIP

Specific Learning Outcomes

• Grasp the background to leadership.

Journal Articles & Reports

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF LEADERSHIP

1.2. Context of Leadership

Source: Sarma (2008)

1.3 Definitions of Leadership

Table 1.1: What leaders influence

Leaders can influence

1.4 The Characteristics of Leadership:

1.5 Functions of Leadership:

Leadership is also an essential element in successful attainment of organisational objectives. The

1) Traits used to differentiate the leaders from non-leaders or followers.

Leadership is a personal ability of an individual. Ability is a function of personal skills in handling a

As illustrated in figure 1.1, basic skills needed for effective leadership:

1. Discuss the functions of leadership in the organisational process.

3. Distinguish between production-centred and employee-centred leadership behaviour.

CHAPTER 2: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Specific learning outcomes:

! Understand the differences between management and leadership

• Akbar Ali; How to differentiate between ‘Leadership’ and ‘Management’ Function in

2. UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

• The manager administers; the leader innovates.

Subject Leader Manager