Autonomic Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology

Introduction
The peripheral nervous system found in most domestic species can be segregated into three sub-systems; the
sensory system, the somatic motor system and the autonomic system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS)
regulates the internal environment of the body including factors such as body temperature, blood pressure and
concentrations of many substances. The ANS is also responsible for mobilising the body's resources during stressful
situations. The ANS controls gland cells, cardiac muscle cells and smooth muscle cells. Control of this nervous system
is involuntary and regulation is via autonomic reflexes. The autonomic reflex arc system is very similar to that of the
somatic motor system, i.e. there are sensory (afferent) nerve fibres, an information integration centre, motor
(efferent) fibres and effector cells. Any levels of increased activity within the autonomic nervous system can result in
both stimulation or inhibition of effector cells, although it is only the efferent part of the reflex arc that is actually
considered autonomic.

The autonomic nervous system is made up of the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and the Parasympathetic
Nervous System (PNS). The SNS is activated during critical situations, such as fight or flight responses whilst the PNS is
activated whilst at rest, such as during food digestion after eating.

Basic Principles
Within the somatic nervous system, the link between the skeletal muscle cell and the central nervous system consists
of a single nerve fibre. Within the ANS, efferent signals are transmitted by two neurons between the CNS and the
effector cells. The first neuron is a preganglionic neuron with a cell body in the CNS (either brain stem or spinal cord).
The second neuron is postganglionic and connects the effector cell with the autonomic ganglia found outside the
CNS. The ANS nerve fibres are generally composed of General Visceral Motor (GVM) that transmit purely motor
signals and General Visceral Sensory (GVS) which transmits purely sensory information.

The ANS reflex arcs maintain homeostasis via a process of negative feedback in which a sensory cell from within the
peripheral nervous system takes a measurement, for example body temperature. This temperature reading is then
relayed to the CNS where it is compared to a reference value. The CNS then uses efferent fibres to generate a
response from effector cells given the comparison to the reference and thus adjusting the internal environment.

Both the SNS and PNS employ different forms of neurotransmitters to facilitate their signals. Preganglionic
parasympathetic and sympathetic fibres utilise acetylcholine (ACh) as their neurotransmitter molecule, which are
termed cholinergic or muscarinic neurones.
Postganglionic PNS fibres also release acetylcholine (ACh whilst nearly all postganglionic SNS fibres
release norepinephrine as their neurotransmitter (there are exceptions to this rule but in general these are the
expected neurotransmitters). Neurones releasing norepinephrine are called adrenergic.

SNS and PNS Integration

Most organs in the body are under some form of autonomic control and therefore receive nerve fibres from both the
SNS and PNS. There are some exceptions to this rule, for example, most blood vessels only receive an SNS supply.
In organs where there is dual nerve fibre supply, the two divisions of the ANS almost always have opposing effects.
Using the heart as an example, increased activity in the SNS leads to increased cardiac activity such as heart rate
whilst stimulation of PNS fibres leads to reduced cardiac activity.

Actions of ANS
Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous
Organ
System System
Dilation of pupil Iris Contraction of pupil
Increased Activity Heart Decreased Activity
Vasodilation (only in some
Vasoconstriction Blood Vessels
vessels)
Relaxation Bronchi Constriction
Secretion Adrenal Medulla No effect
Decreased Activity GIT Increased Activity
Relaxation Bladder Relaxation
No effect Erectile Tissue Vasodilation
The ANS integrating centres are located in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata and the hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus functions as the principle coordinating centre for the ANS and also has the ability to affect other ANS
coordination centres within other parts of the CNS. For example, there is a close association between the
hypothalamus and the limbic system (emotion centre). There is also considerable connectivity between the
hypothalamus and the cerebral cortex. Therefore autonomic functionality is not independent of thoughts or
emotions; fear and anger have the ability to activate the SNS whilst anticipation of food stimulates the PNS resulting
in increased salivation and intestinal peristalsis. It should be noted that although the ANS and higher processes such
as the cerebral cortex are connected, the connection is indirect. Sensory cells within the ANS do not convey
information directly to the cerebral cortex and therefore the animal is not normally aware of the impact that their
thoughts and emotions are having on their organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System Schematic (Red = SNS & Blue = PNS), Gray's Anatomy, 1918, WikiMedia Commons

The SNS is activated in stressful or physically demanding situations and can temporarily enhance the physical
performance of the body in order to better cope with the stressor; it is often referred to as the "fight or
flight"system. The sympathetic division of the ANS has a thoracolumbar outflow from the CNS. The preganglionic
neurons (see Basics section) of the SNS are found within the grey matter of the lateral horns of the spinal cord within
the full length of the thoracic vertebrae and the cranial lumbar vertebrae. Preganglionic neurones in the SNS are
relatively short. The number of vertebral segments containing SNS preganglionic neurones has wide variation
depending on the species in question; horses have 18 thoracic segments, canines have 13 and humans have 12. In
most domestic species, the cranial most 4 to 6 lumbar vertebrae contain SNS segments. These preganglionic
segments are located like a string of beads along either side of the spinal cord and are referred to as sympathetic
chain ganglia. In most cases the number of sympathetic ganglia exceeds the number of spinal cord vertebrae
containing the preganglionic cell bodies. SNS axones exit the spinal cord via the ventral root allowing the formation of
the sympathetic trunk via processes called white rami communicantes which are heavily myelinated. On entry to the
sympathetic trunk, there are three possibilities for the neuron.

Firstly the SNS neuron could immediately synapse within the sympathetic trunk itself.
Secondly it could run up or down the sympathetic trunk prior to synapsing.
Or finally it could leave the sympathetic trunk without synapsing at all and instead run to collateral ganglia.
Within the abdominal cavity ventral to the lumbar vertebrae there are three sympathetic ganglia called
the prevertebral ganglia where this form of specialised synapsing occurs. The prevertebral ganglia are
made up of the cranial mesenteric, caudal mesenteric and coeliac. Postganglionic fibres from these
ganglia distribute to abdominal and pelvic organs.

These preganglionic fibres then branch out to form synapses with postganglionic neurons, but in doing
this each preganglionic fibre actually interconnects between neighbouring sympathetic chain ganglia.
Therefore presynaptic nerve fibres from one segment of the spinal cord terminate in several ganglia and
therefore activity in individual ganglia may affect many areas of the body. Postsganglionic neurones
then extend to target organs spread throughout the body. The exception to this rule is the adrenal
medulla as this endocrine gland receives sympathetic input directly from preganglionic nerve fibres,
directly from the spinal cord. In this case, the adrenal glands are effectively modified post-ganglionic
sympathetic neurons that do not have axons.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Cranial Nerves (Human), Patrick J. Lynch, 2009, WikiMedia Commons

The PNS is only activated during rest and can be used to regulate systems during functions such as
digestion. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons have cell bodies that are located in two separate
parts of the CNS, rather than running almost the full length of the CNS as the SNS does. The PNS has
preganglionic neurons located in the brain stem and the sacral part of the spinal cord, and is referred to
as a craniosacral outflow. Four of the cranial nerves supply parasympathetic innervation to the majority
of the body's glands and internal organs; the oculomotor nerve (III), facial nerve (VII), glossopharyngeal
nerve (IX) and the vagus nerve (X). In particular the vagus nerve (tenth cranial nerve) is responsible for a
major proportion of PNS innervation, although the PNS fibres located within the lateral horns of 2 or 3
sacral segments are responsible for innervation of the sex organs, urinary bladder and the rectum.
Preganglionic PNS neurones are relatively long and have their cell bodies located within the cranial
nerve nuclei for cranial nerves or in the lateral horn grey matter of the spinal cord for the sacral
segments. PNS ganglia are located either adjacent to or within the wall of target organs and in contrast
to SNS ganglia, there are no interconnections between ganglia in the PNS. Postganglionic PNS neurones
are therefore very short.

Enteric Nervous System

Postganglionic parasympathetic neurons that lead to the digestive tract differ from other organ
connections with the PNS as within the GI tract they become part of a plexus of neurons within the
walls of the tract. This complex network of neurons is referred to as the enteric nervous system (ENS).
The ENS includes sensory and motor components and is therefore of vital importance in regulating
smooth muscle within the GI tract. The wall of the GI tract contains numerous sensory cells that are
able to react to different stimuli including; wall stretch, changes in nutrient concentrations, osmolarity,
pH and irritation of the mucosal membrane. Stimulation of these sensory cells initiates reflexes which
coordinate various elements of the GI tract such as smooth muscle activity, exocrine cells and endocrine
(hormone producing) cells.

Digestive processes are coordinated by both neural and hormonal processes and neural regulation
involves two different types of reflex arcs that together contribute to control of the GI tract. Short reflex
arcs exist where both the sensory and motor nerve cells are contained within the wall of the digestive
tract making up the ENS. (Long reflex arcs also exist that connect the GI tract to the CNS and whilst part
of the PNS, are not part of the ENS). The ENS (short reflex arc) consists of two nerve plexuses within the
wall of the GI tract in which the nerve cells form synapses with one another allowing sensory cells and
motor cells to communicate. The simplest short reflex arcs involve a single sensory cell and a single
motor cell, with a simple cause and effect. More complex short reflex arcs involve nerve impulses being
propagated along a length of the GI tract by interneurons. An example of this would be the stimulation
of sensory cells in the upper GI tract affecting motor function and secretion in lower parts of the GI
tract. Since these more complex reflex arcs do not connect directly with the CNS, these reflexes are
considered part of the ENS.

Therefore the ENS provides the gastrointestinal (GI) tract with a certain degree of self-regulation,
although most of these short reflex arcs provide a stimulatory influence, utilising acetylcholine. Some
inhibitory reflexes do exist within the ENS including sphincter relaxation.

GI Tract: PNS Long Reflex Arcs

Within the PNS, activity in the GI tract is also regulated via longer reflex arcs that are made up of
preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic fibres from the CNS. The majority of the sensory cells
within these long reflex arcs have sensory nerve endings within the digestive tract, although other
senses including sight and smell can also exert an effect on the activity of the GI tract. Within the long
reflex arcs, most postganglionic fibres are actually part of the GI tract internal nerve plexuses and the
preganglionic nerves mainly run in the vagal nerve. Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons
release acetylcholine from their nerve endings, stimulating both secretion and motility. As mentioned
within the SNS section above, long reflex arcs associated with the SNS system generally inhibit
secretion, motility and decrease blood supply to the digestive tract.

These long reflex arcs primarily act to coordinate and regulate the activity of different sections of the GI
tract. The PNS long reflex arcs are mainly involved in preparing sections for activity as they are mainly
stimulatory. An example of this would be that the mastication of food stimulates salivary secretion but
also secretion of gastric juice, pancreatic juice and bile.

Neurotransmitters and Effects

A section regarding the type of neurotransmitter and its effect from both the SNS and PNS has been
included to display the most common types of receptors and their function for the major body systems.
The table below is not exhaustive but highlights the main neurotransmitters.

Types of SNS Neurotransmitters

The β1 adrenergic receptor is G protein-coupled and is associated with a number of physiological effects
including increased viscous salivary secretions, increased heart rate and increased heart contractility. β1
receptors result in the upregulation of cAMP resulting in stimulatory effects. The β2 receptor is also an
adrenergic receptor that is G protein-coupled. β2 receptors have a wide range of effects (see table
below).

Types of PNS Neurotransmitters

The PNS receptor M1 a muscarinic acetylcholinergic receptor that is part of the cholinergic receptor
group and is a G protein-coupled receptor. M1 receptors are found within the ganglia of postganglionic
nerves of the PNS. They are common in exocrine glands and are responsible for stimulating effects
including gastric acid secretion in the stomach and salivary gland secretion. The M2 receptor is also a
muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and is also part of the cholinergic receptor group. M2 receptors are
located in the heart and act via a G protein-coupled complex that causes a decrease in cAMP leading to
cellular inhibition. M2 receptors have also been shown to modulate potassium channels within the
heart further contributing to inhibitory effects on the heart. M3 receptors are also muscarinic
acetylcholine receptors from the cholinergic receptor group. M3 receptors are located in many places in
the body including smooth muscles, endocrine and exocrine glands. M3 receptors are also G protein-
coupled and they have effects including increasing intracellular calcium in smooth muscle to increasing
glandular secretions.

Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous
Organ/Body System Target Nervous
System (adrenergic)
System(cholinergic)
 Cardiac Output:
Heart Rate (SA Node),
Heart ß1 and ß2 (increases) M2 (decreases)
Contractility (Atrial
Cardiac Muscle)
ß1 and ß2 (increases
Ventricular Cardiac
Heart contractility and No effect
Muscle
automaticity)
ß1 (increases M2 (decreases
Atrioventricular Node
Heart conduction and conduction and
(AV)
automaticity) increases AV blocking)
α1 and α2
Blood Vessels (General
Arteries and Veins (contraction), ß2 M3 (dilation)
rules)
(dilation)
Bronchiole Smooth ß2 (dilation), α1
Respiratory System M3 (contraction)
muscle (contraction)
α1 (contraction of M3 (contraction of
Nervous System Pupil musculature radial muscle resulting circular muscle
in mydriasis) resulting in miosis)
ß1 and ß2 (stimulates
M3 (stimulates watery
Digestive System Salivary Glands viscous amylase
secretions)
secretions)
M1 (Gastric acid
Digestive System Parietal cells No effect
secretion)
Motility (Smooth α1, α2, ß2 (decrease M1 and M3 (increase
Digestive System
Muscle) motility) motility)
Sphincters (Smooth
Digestive System α1, α2, ß2 (contraction) M1 and M3 (relaxation)
Muscle)
M3 (Stimulates
Digestive System Glands No effect
secretion)
α2 (decrease secretion
Pancreas (Islet of M3 (increase secretion
Endocrine System from ß-cells; increase
Langerhans) from α-cells and ß-cells)
secretion from α-cells)
α1 (contraction and
Reproductive System Genitalia M3 (erection)
ejaculation)

**

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a very complex, multifaceted neural network that maintains
internal physiologic homeostasis. This network includes cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, GI,
genitourinary (GU), and ophthalmologic (pupillary) systems

 for regulating involuntary body functions such as heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and
digestion.
 The autonomic nervous system(ANS) regulates physiologic processes, such as blood
pressure, heart rate, body temperature, digestion, metabolism, fluid and electrolyte balance,
sweating, urination, defecation, sexual response, and other processes.
 Autonomic nervous system: A part of the nervous system that regulates key involuntary
functions of the body, including the activity of the heart muscle; the smooth muscles, including
the muscles of the intestinal tract; and the glands.
 The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) is a branch of the autonomic nervous system along
with the enteric nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. It is constantly active at
a basal level to maintain homeostasis. (called sympathetictone) and becomes more active
during times of stress.
 The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often
referred to as the fight-or-flight response. The parasympathetic nervous system has almost
the exact opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high energy functions
 What are symptoms of autonomic neuropathy?
 Stomach and intestine symptoms may include:

 Constipation (hard stools)

 Diarrhea (loose stools)
 Feeling full after only a few bites (early satiety)
 Nausea after eating.
 Problems controlling bowel movements.
 Swallowing problems.
 Swollen abdomen.
 Vomiting of undigested food.

The lymphatic system (Fig. 1.9) consists of a series of lymph vessels, which begin as blind-ended tubes inthe interstitial
spaces between the blood capillaries and tissue cells. Structurally they are similar to veins and blood capillaries but the pores
in the walls of the lymph capillaries are larger than those of the blood capillaries.
Lymph is tissue fluid that also contains material drained from tissue spaces, including plasma proteins and, some-times,
bacteria or cell debris. It is transported along lymph vessels and returned to the bloodstream near the heart.There are
collections of lymph nodes situated at various points along the length of the lymph vessels. Lymph is filtered as it passes
through the lymph nodes, removing microbes and other materials. The lymphatic system also provides the sites for forma-
tion and maturation of lymphocytes , the white blood cells involved in immunity

The motor division has two parts:

• THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM , which controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
• THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM , controlling involuntary processes such as heartbeat, peristalsis
and glandular activity. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions:
Sympathetic and parasympathetic

.
 The
sympathetic nerves originate in the intermediolateral horn of the spinal cord and exit at the T1
through L2 spinal cord segments. The preganglionic nerve fibers synapse in either the paravertebral
sympathetic chain ganglia or the prevertebral ganglia before the postganglionic nerve fibers run to
the target tissue. The parasympathetic nerves exit the CNS through cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
and through the S2 through S4 sacral spinal cord segments. The parasympathetic preganglionic nerve
fibers usually travel almost all the way to the target before making the synapse with the
postganglionic fiber
Unlike the somatic nervous system, in which a single motor neuron extends from the CNS to a
skeletal muscle, the ANS uses two motor neurons in sequence to carry motor nerve impulses to an
effector. The cell body of the first neuron, or preganglionic neuron, is located within the brain or
spinal cord. It extends an axon from the CNS to an autonomic ganglion. The cell body of the second
neuron, or postganglionic neuron, is located within the autonomic ganglion and it extends an axon
from the ganglion to the visceral effector

ANATOMY ▶ BODY SYSTEMS ▶ AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

Feedback

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

The ANS is a major mechanism for neural control of physiologic functions. The autonomic nervous
system(ANS) consists of portions of the central and peripheral nervous systems and functions
without conscious control.
Discussions of ANS usually take one of three perspectives:

 An anatomic perspective based on structure,

 A physiologic perspective based on function,
 A pharmacologic perspective based on the receptor subtypes involved.

All three perspectives are valid and useful. Its role is to maintain homeostasis in response to changing
internal conditions. The effectors under autonomic control are cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, adipose
tissue, and glands. The ANS functions mostly by involuntary reflexes. Visceral sensory nerve impulses
carried to the autonomic reflex centers in the hypothalamus, brainstem, or spinal cord cause visceral
motor nerve impulses to be carried to effectors via cranial or spinal nerves. Higher brain centers, such
as the limbic system and cerebral cortex, influence the ANS during times of emotional stress.
DIVISIONS
The anatomic perspective separates the ANS into a sympathetic and a parasympathetic branch,
based in part on the origin and length of the nerves.

The sympathetic nerves arise from the thoracolumbar spinal cord and have short preganglionic
neurons. The preganglionic nerves synapse in the sympathetic chain, and long postganglionic nerves
innervate the final target. Acetylcholine is the preganglionic nerve neurotransmitter, and norepinephrine
is the postganglionic neurotransmitter, except for the sweat glands, which have a sympathetic
cholinergic innervation. There is an endocrine component of the SNS.
Circulating plasma norepinephrine levels come from both overflow from the sympathetic nerve
terminals and from the adrenal medulla. Plasma epinephrine originates primarily from the adrenal
medulla.

The parasympathetic nerves arise from the cranial and sacral portions of the spinal cord and have a
long preganglionic nerve. They synapse in ganglia close to the target tissue and have short
postganglionic nerves. The parasympathetic nerves use acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter for both
the preganglionic and postganglionic nerves. There is not an endocrine arm to the PNS.

WORKING OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The physiologic perspective of the ANS is based on both homeostatic control and adaptive responses.
The ANS, along with the endocrine system, regulates most body functions through a standard negative
feedback process. The adaptive component of the ANS characterizes the SNS as mediating “fight or
flight” and the PNS as mediating “rest and digest.” This classification provides a logical structure for
the diverse actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves on various target tissues.

The SNS is activated by multiple stimuli, including perceived threat, pain, hypotension, or
hypoglycemia. The parasympathetic nerves are active during quiescent periods, such as after ingestion
of a meal and during sleep.

The pharmacologic division of the ANS is based on the receptor subtype activated. The SNS stimulates
a- and/or P-adrenergic receptors on target tissues. The PNS stimulates nicotinic or muscarinic
cholinergic receptors on the target tissues. Cells express different receptor subtypes, and the receptor
subtype mediates the action of SNS or PNS on that cell.

ANATOMY AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The sympathetic nerves originate in the intermediolateral horn of the spinal cord and exit at the T1
through L2 spinal cord segments. The preganglionic nerve fibers synapse in either the paravertebral
sympathetic chain ganglia or the prevertebral ganglia before the postganglionic nerve fibers run to the
target tissue. The parasympathetic nerves exit the CNS through cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X and
through the S2 through S4 sacral spinal cord segments. The parasympathetic preganglionic nerve fibers
usually travel almost all the way to the target before making the synapse with the postganglionic fibers.

COMPARISON OF SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC

NERVOUS SYSTEMS
Somatic Autonomic

Control Voluntary Involuntary

 One motor neuron extends A preganglionic neuron extends an axon from the CNS to an
Neural Pathway an axon from the CNS to an autonomic ganglion and synapses with a postganglionic
effector neuron that extends an axon to an effector

Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Acetylcholine or norepinephrine

Effectors Skeletal muscles Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, adipose tissue, and glands

Action Excitatory Excitatory or inhibitory

ORGANIZATION
Unlike the somatic nervous system, in which a single motor neuron extends from the CNS to a skeletal
muscle, the ANS uses two motor neurons in sequence to carry motor nerve impulses to an effector. The
cell body of the first neuron, or preganglionic neuron, is located within the brain or spinal cord. It
extends an axon from the CNS to an autonomic ganglion. The cell body of the second neuron,
or postganglionic neuron, is located within the autonomic ganglion and it extends an axon from the
ganglion to the visceral effector.

The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic
division.

SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Preganglionic axons of the sympathetic division arise from the thoracic and lumbar segments of the
spinal cord-spinal nerves T1-L2. Some preganglionic sympathetic axons branch from the spinal nerves
to synapse with postganglionic neurons in autonomic ganglia that are arranged in two chains, one on
each side of the vertebral column. These ganglia are called paravertebral or sympathetic chain
ganglia. Other sympathetic preganglionic axons pass through a paravertebral chain ganglion without
synapsing and extend to another type of ganglion, a collateral ganglion, before synapsing with a
postganglionic neuron.

PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Preganglionic axons of the parasympathetic division arise from the brainstem and sacral segment (S2-
S4) of the spinal cord. They extend through cranial or sacral nerves to synapse with postganglionic
neurons within ganglia that are located very near or within visceral organs.

Most visceral organs receive postganglionic axons of both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
divisions; but a few, such as sweat glands and most blood vessels, receive only sympathetic axons.

AUTONOMIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Preganglionic axons of both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions secrete acetylcholine to
initiate nerve impulses in postganglionic neurons, but their postganglionic axons secrete different
neurotransmitters. Most sympathetic postganglionic axons secrete norepinephrine, a substance similar to
adrenaline, which is why they are called adrenergic axons. Parasympathetic postganglionic axons
secrete acetylcholine and thus are called cholinergic axons.

FUNCTIONS
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions stimulate some visceral organs and inhibit others.
However, their effects on a given organ are opposite. For example, the sympathetic division
increases heart rate whereas the parasympathetic division decreases heart rate. The contrasting effects
are due to the different neurotransmitters secreted by postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic
axons and the receptors of the receiving organs.

The sympathetic division prepares the body for physical action to meet emergencies. Its actions have
been summarized as preparing the body for fight or flight. The parasympathetic division is dominant
under the normal, nonstressful conditions of everyday life. Because its actions are usually opposite
those of the sympathetic division, it is often viewed as preparing the body for resting and digesting.
Table below compares some of the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions on visceral
organs.

REPRESENTATIVE ACTIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Effector Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic Stimulation

Constriction of pupil; changes lens

Eye
Dilation of pupil; changes lens shape for far vision shape for near vision

Heart Increases rate and strength of contraction Decreases rate of contraction

Arterioles Constriction increases blood pressure No innervation

Blood Increases supply to skeletal muscles; decreases supply Decreases supply to skeletal muscles;
distribution to digestive organs increases supply to digestive organs

Lungs Dilates bronchioles Constricts bronchioles

Promotes motility and secretion by

Digestive tract Inhibits motility and secretion by glands glands

Increases bile production; decreases

Liver Decreases bile production; increases blood glucose
blood glucose

Gallbladder Relaxation Contraction

Kidneys Decreases urine production No known action

Increases secretion of insulin and

Pancreas
Decreases secretion of insulin and digestive enzymes digestive enzymes

Spleen Constriction injects stored blood into circulation No known action

Contraction of external urethral sphincter; relaxation of Relaxation of external urethral

Urinary bladder
bladder wall sphincter; contraction of bladder wall

Vasoconstriction; ejaculation in males; reverse uterine

Reproductive Vasodilation; erection in males;
contractions in females; stimulates uterine contractions
organs vaginal secretion in females
in labor