Ceg 812 - Lecture Note Part I

LECTURE NOTE
FOR
CEG 812: INTRODUCTION TO NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
PART ONE
i
GENERAL COURSE OBJECTIVES
This course is a remedial/basic course and aims at firstly introducing Naval Architecture to
students who are new entrants into a degree level marine/offshore engineering
program.Secondly,it is designed to further present the basic principles of Naval Architecture that
provides foundational knowledge essential for the understanding of all other fields of marine and
offshore engineering.
At the completion of the course, students would have acquired some basic knowledge of the
concepts and principles that are essential to undertake advanced courses on the subject or other
marine engineering courses.
ii
SCHEME OF WORK (MAR 421 – NARVAL ARCHITECTURE)
Functions of a ship
Ship types
Principal terms and profile of ship
Hydrostatic curves
Ship Calculation; Areas, Volumes, Moments, Displacements, TPC, Form coefficients,
BONJEAN Curves, Centre of gravity, Buoyancy,
Stability; Transverse and Dynamic
Inclining Experiment,
Calculations; GZ, GM and BM
Curves of stability; Free Surface effect
Trim; Change in trim and draughts
Statutory regulations
Classification Societies requirements
IMO REGULATIONS
Ship motion
Practical Drawing and Laboratory
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TABLE OF CONTENTSPage Number
Title Page…………………………………………………………………………………………...i
GENERAL COURSE OBJECTIVES…………………………………………..…………...…ii
Scheme of work ………………………………………………………………………………….iii
Contents ………………………………………………………………………............................iv
1.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….1
1.1 WHAT IS NAVAL ARCHITECTURE ……………………………………………………1
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE CRAFTS ……………………………………………...1
1.3 MYTH ABOUT VESSEL, BOAT OR SHIP……………………………………………….2
1.4 SHIP TYPES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………...3
1.4.1 Types of Ships …………………………………………………………………………..3
1.4.1.1 Characteristics of a ship…………………………………………...........................3
1.4.2 CATEGORIES OF OCEAN VEHICLES …………………………………………….5
1.4.2.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENT FOR SHIP CATEGORIES ……………………..7
2.0 THE EVOLUTION OF THE SHAPE OF A SHIP’S HULL FORM …………………..11
2.1 COMMON FEATURES AND TERMINOLOGY OF A SHIP’S HULL ……………12
2.1.1 HULL MEASUREMENTS …………………………………………………………14
2.2 INTERNAL DIVISION WITHIN THE SHIP’S HULL …………………………….......15

2.3 INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR A NEW-BUILD SHIP ………………………........16
3.0 INTRODUCTION TO SHIP DRAWING ………………………………………………..18
3.2 TYPES OF SHIP DRAWINGS …………………………………………………………...18
3.2.1 Lines Plan …………………………………………………………………………….18
3.2.2 General Arrangement ……………………………………………………………….20
3.2.3 Scantling Drawing …………………………………………………………………...20
3.2.4 Detail / Production Drawing ………………………………………………………..21
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3.3 IMPORTANCE OF SHIP DRAWINGS …………………………………………………21
4.0 INTRODUCTION TO LINES PLAN …………………………………………………….22
4.1 BODY PLAN ……………………………………………………………………………….22
4.2 HALF BREADTH PLAN ………………………………………………………………….24
4.3 PROFILE / SHEER PLAN ……………………………………………………………. …25
4.4 OFFSETS DATA …………………………………………………………………………..26
4.5 DRAWING QUALITY …………………………………………………………………….28
5.0 LINES PLAN DRAWING HANDS-ON ………………………………………………….29
5.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………....29
5.2 UNDERSTANDING OFFSET TABLE …………………………………………………..29
5.3 LINES PLAN DRAWING PROCEDURES ……………………………………………...29
5.4 SHIP FORM COEFFICIENTS …………………………………………………………...32
5.4.2 Prismatic coefficient ………………………………………………………………...33
5.4.3 Water plane coefficients ……………………………………………………………33
5.4.4 Mid-ship section coefficient …………………………………………………. …….34
5.4.5 BODY RATIOS ……………………………………………………………………..34
6.0 FLOATION, BUOYANCY AND DISPLACEMENT …………………………………...36
6.1 BUOYANCY OR UPTHRUST ……………………………………………………………36
6.2 FLOATION ………………………………………………………………………………...37
6.3 DISPLACEMENT …………………………………………………………………………39
6.3.1 VOLUME DISPLACEMENT ……………………………………………………...39
6.3.2 WEIGHT DISPLACEMENT……………………………………………………….39
6.3.3 MOULDED DISPLACEMENT…………………………………………………….39
6.3.4 COMPONENTS OF DISPLACEMENT …………………………………………..39
6.3.4.1 LIGHT DISPLACEMENT ……………………………………………………..39
6.3.4.2 LOAD DISPLACEMENT ………………………………………………………39
6.4 EFFECT OF DENSITY ON DRAFT AND DISPLACEMENT…………………………43
6.4.1 Effect of change of density when the displacement is constant ………………....40
6.4.1.1 The effect on Box-shaped vessel ……………………………………………….40
6.4.1.2 Effect of density on displacement when the draft is constant ……………….41
6.5 Tonnes Per Centimeter Immersion (TPC) ………………………………………………43
6.6 RESERVE BUOYANCY ………………………………………………………………….45
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6.7 The Effect of Density on Ship-shaped vessels (FWA) ……………………………………45
7.0 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION FOR SHIP FORMS …………………………………..51
7.1 Data of ship’s forms ………………………………………………………………………..51
7.2 Method of numerical integration …………………………………………………….........51
7.2.1 Measurement of Area and Volume ………………………………………………….51
7.2.2 The trapezoidal rule (Linear) ………………………………………………………..51
7.2.3 Simpson’s 1st (1/3) rule ………………………………………………………………53
7.2.3.1 APPLICATION OF FIRST RULE TO INTERMEDIATE ORDINATES
(ORDINATE BETWEEN TWO MAIN ORDINATES) …………………………………….56
7.2.4 Simpson’s 2nd (3/8) Rule ……………………………………………………………..57
7.2.4.1 THE COMPOUND SECOND RULE …………………………………………..58
7.2.5 APPENDAGES ………………………………………………………………………..59
7.2.6. VOLUMES OF SHIP SHAPES AND SIMILAR FIGURES ………………. ……..63

7.2.7 Simpson’s third rule −
…………………………………………...66
8.0 MOMENTS OF AREAS & VOLUME & CENTROID …………………………………72
8.1 First Moments of areas and volumes……………………………………………………..72
8.2 Second moments of areas ………………………………………………………………….72
8.3 SECOND MOMENT OF A RECTANGLE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH ITS

CENTRIOD……………………………………………………………………………………..74
8.4 Second moment of rectangle about one side (edge) ……………………………………...75
8.5 THE PARALLEL AXES THEOREM ……………………………………………………75
8.6 APPLICATION OF SIMPSON’S RULES ……………………………………………….77

8.6.1: To find moment about Transverse axis, YY/Longitudinal moment ……………77
8.6.2: TRANSVERSE MOMENT/ MOMENT ABOUT A LONGITUDINAL AXIS

X.X/CENTRELINE………………………………………………………………………… …83
8.6.3: DETERMINING THE VALUES OF 1ST AND 2ND MOMENTS ABOUT AXES FOR
SHIP’S WATERPLANES ………………………………………………………………86
9.0 CENTROIDS AND THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY …………………………………. ...94
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9.1 POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY RELATIVE TO KEEL AND CENTERLINE
……………………………………………………………………………………………………95
9.1.1 POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY RELATIVE TO KEEL ……………...95

9.1.2POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY RELATIVE TO CENTRE-LINE …...96
9.2 EFFECT OF REMOVING OR DISCHARGING MASS ……………………………….96
9.2.1 APPLICATION TO SHIPS ………………………………………………………97
9.3 EFFECT OF ADDING OR LOADING MASS …………………………………………..98
9.3.1 TYPICAL SHIP SCENARIO OF ADDING A SINGLE WEIGHT………….. …99
9.3.2 EFFECT OF SHIFTING WEIGHTS ……………………………………………...99
9.4 EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED WEIGHTS ……………………………………………….101
10.0 STABILITY ……………………………………………………………………………...106
10.1 Conditions of equilibrium ………………………………………………………………106
10.1.1 Stable equilibrium ………………………………………………………………..106
10.1.2 Unstable Equilibrium ……………………………………………………………107
10.1.3 Neutral equilibrium ……………………………………………………………...107
10.2 STABLE, UNSTABLE AND NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM FOR A SHIP …………..108

10.2.1 LISTING & HEELING ………………………………………………………….108
10.3 SHIP’S HEELING ………………………………………………………………………111

10.3.1 Correcting unstable and neutral equilibrium ………………………………… 114
10.4 Stiff and tender ships ……………………………………………………………………114
10.5 NEGATIVE GM AND ANGLE OF LOLL ……………………………………………115
10.6 EFFECT OF FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID ON STABILITY ……………………...116
10.7 HOW TO CORRECT ANGLE OF LOLL …………………………………………….118
10.8 STABILITY TYPES …………………………………………………………………….120

10.8.1 Initial Stability …………………………………………………………………….120
10.8.2 Static stability ……………………………………………………………………. 120
10.8.2.1 The righting arm …………………………………………………………….121
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10.9 To find transverse (BM) BMT (Meta-centric Radius) ………………………………...123
10.10 Calculating the effect of free surface of liquid (FSE) ………………………………..127
10.11 Moment of statical stability ……………………………………………………………134
10.11.1 The moment of statical stability at a small angle of heel ……………………...135
10.11.2 The moment of statical stability at large angle of heel ………………………...136
10.11.2.1 Derivation of the wall-sided formula ……………………………………...137
10.12 DYNAMICAL STABILITY …………………………………………………………..143
11.0 TRIM …………………………………………………………………………………… 147
11.1 To find the change of draft forward and aft due to change of trim ………………....152
11.2 The effect of Shifting Weights already on Board ……………………………………...153
11.3 The Effect of Loading and/or Discharging Weights …………………………………..155
11.4 Using trim to find the position of the Centre of floatation ……………………………160
11.5 Loading a wt. to keep the after draft constant ………………………………………...162
11.6 Loading a weight to produce a required draft ………………………………………...164
11.7 Using change of trim to find the longitudinal meta-centric height (GML) …………..166
12.0 BONJEAN CURVES ……………………………………………………………………169
12.1 HOW TO USE BONJEAN CURVES TO DETERMINE DISPLACEMENT AND

CENTER OF BUOYANCY ………………………………………………………………….172
13.0 THE INCLINING EXPERIEMENT …………………………………………………..175
14.0 STABILITY AND HYDROSTATIC CURVES………………………………………..178
14.1 Cross curves of stability …………………………………………………………….…...178
14.1.1 GZ cross curves of stability……………………………………………………...178
14.1.2 KN cross curves of stability ……………………………………………..........182
14.2 Statical stability curves ………………………………………………………………….184
14.3 Hydrostatic curves ………………………………………………………………………187
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14.3.1 Using the hydrostatic curves…………………………………………………….188
15.0 REGULATORY BODIES ……………………………………………………………...191
15.1 Classification society & IACS…………………………………………………………...191
16.0 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………….197

17.0 SOME SOLVED PROBLEMS…………………………………………………………198
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The origin of naval architecture

The Unenlightened Era
In 1600s aesthetics were given more importance than the actual construction of and function
of a ship, neglecting vital characteristics such as stability and hull proportion. Even the
drawings were made without the application of geometry and the line traces.
From the Mountains to the Sea
But things changed by 1700s. How? It’s a fascinating story!
It is believed that naval architecture was born in the mountains of Peru. A French astronomer
named Pierre Bouguer who never built a ship in his life is supposed to be the man behind its
birth. It all started in 1735 when French Navy and the science communities sent an expedition
to Peru to affirm the true shape of Earth. Till then it was not discovered that Earth was
spherical. On this 10-year expedition Pieree Bouguer wrote Traite du navire, which is
supposed to be known as the first book and the cornerstone of naval architecture and which
set down the scientific aspects of ship building. Meta-center is still used to measure ship
stability today.
1.1 WHAT IS NAVAL ARCHITECTURE?
Naval architecture is an engineering discipline that deals with design, construction,

operations and maintenance of sea going vessels or water-borne crafts. Naval architecture
plays the primary role in all stages of the life of a marine vessel right from the initial
designing to advanced type of design, actual construction, testing, operations, maintenance as
well as launching and dry-docking of marine vessels. The role and scope of naval architecture
doesn’t end here, as it is also involved in the modification, modernization and repair of old
vessels. The discipline also involves in areas dealing with formulation of safety standards,
damage control rules and certification of vessel designs.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE CRAFTS
From hydrodynamic point of view, marine crafts can be classified according to their
maximum operating speed. It is therefore, common to use the Froude number for this
purpose for a marine craft sailing at constant speed as follows:
10

=

Where l = overall submerged length of the craft.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
v = constant speed for a craft
Hence,
For a Displacement vessel, < 0.4and buoyancy force (restoring forces) dominates
relative to hydrodynamic force.
For Semi-displacement vessels, 0.4 – 0.5 < <1.0 – 1.2. Here, the buoyancy force is not
dormant at maximum operating speed for a high speed submerged hull type of craft.
For Planning Vessel: fn > 1.0 – 1.2. Here, the hydrodynamic force mainly carries the weight.
There will be strong flow separation and the aerodynamic lift and drag forces start playing a
role.
N/B: Hydrodynamic force due to hydrodynamic pressure is approximately proportional to the

relative velocity of the water and Buoyancy force due to hydrostatic pressure is proportional
to the displacement of the ship.
1.3 MYTH ABOUT VESSEL, BOAT OR SHIP
Generally speaking, vessel, ship and boat are used interchangeably in Naval Architecture.
Hence, there is no ambiguity in using anyone in the place of the other. However, in specific
terms, the following appears to distinguish among the three.
Vessel: Hollow structure made to float upon the water for purposes of transportation and
navigation especially one that is larger than a row boat.
Ship: A large floating vessel capable of crossing open water as opposed to a boat which is
generally a smaller craft. Any vessel of > 500 tons of displacement is a ship.
Submersibles are generally called boats regardless of their size.
Submarine: Any naval vessel that is capable of propelling itself beneath the water surface as
well as on the water surface.
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Underwater vehicle: small vehicle that is capable of propelling itself beneath the water
surface as well as on the water surface e.g. Un-manned underwater vehicles (UUV), remotely
operated vehicles (ROV), Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) and underwater robotic
vehicles (URV). They are used commercially and by the Navy.
N/B: Vehicles that do not travel on land are usually called craft such as water craft, sail craft,
air craft, hover craft and space craft.
1.4 SHIP TYPES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
AIM: To equip students with the knowledge of different ship categories.
Expectation: At the end of the lecture; students should be able to:
1. Identify characteristics of different ship types and the categories of ship.

2. Identify the general requirements for ship types.
1.4.1 Types of Ships
Different types of ships available today are:-
• Merchant/commercial ships
• Naval ships
• Exploration ships etc.
Merchant ships fondly called commercial ships are involved in the transportation of goods
from one region to another. They include such ships as the ultra large crude carriers (ULCC),
Very large crude carriers (VLCC) and super-tankers, medium-sized oil tankers, Ore carriers,
General cargo ships, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)ships,
passenger liners, container ships, roll on / roll off car and passenger ferries etc.
1.4.1.1 Characteristics of a ship
Generally, the first indicator /characteristic of a ship is usually her dead weight. This is
closely followed by her LBP (Length between perpendiculars) and block coefficient Cb.
Dead weight
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The dead weight of a ship is the difference between load displacement up to the minimum
permitted freeboard and the light weight. In order words, it’s the difference between the fully
loaded weight and the light weight.
The fully loaded weight consists of weights of cargo + fuel + water + crew, while the light
weight consists of hull and machinery.
Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP):this is the longitudinal length (distance)between the

fore and aft perpendiculars of the ship.
Block Coefficient: this is a measure of the “fineness” of the vessel’s underwater form and is
often used in the application of regulations of vessels, such as those governing its freeboard
or strength. It is the ratio of the volume of displacement at a particular draft to the volume of
a rectangular block having the same overall length, breadth and depth.
Another distinctive characteristic of a ship is its service speed and the table 1.1 below
tabulates the range of values of these characteristics for the different merchant ship types.
Table 1.1: Range of values of ship characteristics for the different merchant ship types (C.B.
Barrass, 1998).
Type of ship or Typical DWT LBP (m) Typical Cb fully Service speed knots
name (tones or m3) loaded
ULCC, VLCC 565,000 – 440 – 250 0.85 – 0.82 13 –15 34

and super-tankers 100,000
Medium-sized oil 100,000 – 50,000 250 – 175 0.82 – 0.80 15 – 15 34

tankers
Ore carriers Up to 323,000 200 – 300 0.79 – 0.83 14 12 − 15 12
General cargo 3,000 – 15,000 100 – 150 0.70 14 – 16

ships
LNG, LPG Ships 130,000 – 75,000 up to 280 0.66 – 0.68 20 34 − 16
Passenger liners 5,000 – 20,000 200 – 300 0.6 – 0.64 24 – 30
Container ships 10,000 – 72,000 200 – 300 0.56 – 0.60 20 – 28
13
Roll on / roll off 2,000 – 5,000 100 – 180 0.55 – 0.57 18 – 24
car and passenger
ferries
N/B:
• 1 Knot = 1.852 Km
• ULCC has deadweight > 320,000 tons (m3)
• VLCC has deadweight between 160,000 and 320,000
1.4.2 CATEGORIES OF OCEAN VEHICLES
Three (3) categories of ocean vehicles exist namely:-
1. Categorization by means of support system

2. Categorization by means of the mission (purpose)
3. Categorization by configuration.
1. By support (restoring forces)
Under support system, we have the following support forces and the various ships they
act on.
a. Support by buoyancy force: e.g. conventional displacement ships
b. Support by hydrodynamic force: Hydrofoil ships and planing hull ships at full
speed fall under this category. Hydrofoil is a craft which rises above the surface of
the water (due to hydrodynamic lifting force) when travelling fast. Hydrodynamic
force provides extra thrust in addition to that provided by the propeller.
It is important to note here that two basic types of hull designs exist namely,
displacement hull designs and planing hull designamong other uncommon designs
such as SWATH, M hull catamaran etc. The displacement hull design is common
with our displacement ships such as ULCC, etc. and the planing hull design can be
found amongst air-boats, hydrofoils, etc. While boats with displacements hulls are
limited to slower speeds, planing hull boats act like displacement hull at rest or slow
speeds but climb towards the surface of water as they move faster. Planing hull boats
are designed to rise up and glide on top of the water when enough power is supplied.
They have smaller drafts and their hull shapes can be flat-bottomed or vee-bottomed
or concave-bottomed.
14
c. Support by Aerostatic force (pressure): example of ships in this category is the Air-
cushion vehicles at full speed. Hovercraft is an example and it’s designed to ride on a
cushion of air formed by down-thrusting fans.
d. Ground supported: Ocean drilling platform (medium and shallow waters) fall into
this category. Example is a jack up drill ships, jacket structures (drilling platform),
gravity- basedstructure (GBS). It’s important to note here that ocean drilling platform
are categorized as operating either in shallow, medium or deep waters with respect
to thewave characteristics of the operating environment. A wave can be described
as a deep water wave, shallow water wave or an intermediate water wave. Values of
the ratio of water depth to the wave length are used to describe a wave as either a
deep, shallow or intermediate water wave.
Thus, when
ℎ < 0.05, wave is described as shallow water wave,
"
ℎ > 0.5, $%& '( )&(*+',&) %( )&&- $%.&+ $%&,
"
ℎ '( ,&.$&&/ 0.005 %/) 0.5, $%& '( (%') .0 ,& %/ '/.&+1&)'%.&/ '/'.& $%.&+ $%&
"
2. By Mission (Purpose)
Here we have ships designed for military and non-military purposes.
a. Military Purposes: examples of ships in this category are Aircraft carriers, Cruiser
– large fast ship used for war, Destroyer – a small fast ship used in war to protect
larger ships, Service vessel, Patrol boat (Gun boat), Landing craft – flat-bottomed
shallow draft vessel designed to beach with a bow and/or stern ramp for transfer of
cargo.
N/B: Bow/stern mounted hinged platform located to permit the
loading/discharge of vehicles aboard Ro-Ro vessels.
b. Non –military purpose
i. Transportation: e.g. passenger ships, container ships, bulk carriers (wheat, coal,
ore mineral) oil tanker (very large), specific vessel (LNG) etc.
ii. Work platform: offshore drilling, oil and gas production, oceanography research,
electronic tracking and surveillance – satellite, communication, weather
monitoring and navigation assistance, ocean mining and dredging; fishing, fish
processing, offshore power generation, offshore processing-sea water, minerals,
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offshore services – construction, pipe-laying, salvage and retrieval, ice-breakers,
offshore support for personnel.
iii. Offshore commerce:Break water (-offshore structures built to protect harbors
and marinas from wave action) used to prevent beach from erosion; artificial
harbors e.g. (marinas - specially designed harbor for small boats and yachts)
(yachts - private or charter vessel designed for pleasures cruising or racing etc.
and propelled by wind or power; deep water terminals; recreation (artificial reef-
a long line of rocks or sand near the surface of the sea); sea fish farms; wind mills;
renewable energy.
3. By configuration
Under this category, ocean vehicles are classified with respect to similarities in their
hull forms or designs and/or mode of operation. Five sub-categories in this category
are listed below;
a. Surface displacement: examples are the conventional ships with single hull,
catamaran. (Catamaran - double hull, large deck area, small displacement,
excellent stability).
b. Near surface: examples are air cushion vehicles (hovercraft), hydrofoils and
planing hull crafts (small displacement, high speed).
c. Submerged: examples are submersibles (ROV’s), submarines, underwater habitat
(hyperbaric chambers); submerged buoys.
d. Semi-submersible: off shore platforms with cylinder hull that provides stability
when filled with water, where the production facility sits atop a large semi-
submersible hull on a tower. Examples are very deep, small water plane vessels
(Sea star).
e. Bottom supported: Examples are temporary and permanent jack – up, jacket
structures, gravity base structures.
1.4.2.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENT FOR SHIP CATEGORIES
These are simply design expectations, i.e. what the design should achieve or what
must be given attention to, in the design.
For ocean transportation vehicles
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The design must optimize speed (mobility), ability to carry pay load i.e. (weight/total
displacement); (total displacement = dead weight displacement + light weight
displacement) cost and performance (motion, maneuvering, safety).
For work platform
The design must seek to optimize in terms of Performance: motion, station keeping
and strength of structure. In terms of logistics (i.e. practical organization needed to
make complicated plan successful when a lot of people and equipment is involved):
we’re looking at mobility, efficient delivery system, support systems and finally in
terms of Economics: the initial operating and maintenance cost has to be optimized.
Figures below show pictures of some chosen ship and offshore platform types.
Fig. 1.1: A Tanker
Fig. 1.2: Ferry (Catamaran, or SWATH)
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Fig.1.3: A Container Vessel
Fig.1.4: Small Water-plane Area Twin-Hull (SWATH)
Fig.1.5: Hydrofoil Craft
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Fig. 1.6: FLEX, SEVAN AND FLNG VESSELS
Fig.1.7: FLOATING PRODUCTION PLATFORM
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2.0 THE EVOLUTION OF THE SHAPE OF A SHIP’S HULL FORM
The boat or ship, in the broadest sense of the words, is almost certainly mankind’s oldest
form of transport other than walking on his own feet. The enormous carrying capacity of
water borne craft has long been appreciated. Even now in the late twentieth century where the
public imagination has been diverted to motor cars and aircrafts, the vast bulk of goods in the
ever-increasing world trade are carried by ocean going ships. At first glance, a modern large
container ship appears to have little in common with a Viking long ship or even a nineteenth
century tea clipper, but the basic hull shape of all these vessel is essentially similar.
The ship’s hull has therefore evolved into a surprising subtle shape to meet the
following requirements which are often in conflicts with each other.
a. A good carrying capacity for the overall size of the vessel

b. Good sea – keeping qualities
c. The ability to be easily driven through the water
d. The possession of the ability to remain basically upright in a seaway
e. The strength to withstand the stresses and strains due to the motions of the sea.
As with most of man’s engineering ventures, design techniques have progressed

considerably through trial and error within the limitations of the material and tools
available to build the ship at the time. True understanding of the principles involved has
often lagged behind “rule of thumb” practices and there have been some spectacular and
infamous examples of getting things wrong. The “Wasa” was a sixteenth century
warship, which capsized on launching due to its excessive top weight. Despite these
setbacks, the basic general hull shape has survived the test of time and has essentially
20
remained unchanged over the last thousand years; although we can build ships much
larger than ever previously envisaged today.This is because, within a broad set of
parameters, the evolved hull shape is the best one for the job of moving across a
frequently turbulent fluid surface at any kind of reasonable speed and comfort.
We can see the classical hull shape if we look at a traditional building technique; that of
the clinker built boat. In this method, the boat is built by laying overlapping planks from
stem to stern working outwards and starting from a strong central keel, which is shaped to
form the hull’s profile. The fore and aft ends of the keel are fashioned into the stem and
stern posts to which the planks are nailed, as shown below.
The shape of the boat is judged by eye and controlled by the degree of overlap at the fore and
aft ends. It may be double ended, as shown above or the stern may be “chopped short” by a
flat transverse bulkhead, called the “transom”. The depth of hull rises naturally near the
bow and stern where the planks are pinched together. To achieve this, the planks must be
gradually twisted as they are worked away from the mid-ships region of the hull. The hull in
the mid-ships region (or the waist) is correspondingly low and wide.
2.1 COMMON FEATURES AND TERMINOLOGY OF A SHIP’S HULL
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Both the sheer of the deck line and flare of the hull at the bow and stern improve the hull’s
sea keeping ability by increasing its resistance to being submerged at the fore and aft
ends by wave action. The upper deck is given a transverse, or athwart-ships curvature known
as Camber,to assist water drainage when seas actually break on board. The stern rake is
a natural consequence of the concave flare of the bow region and, again,it helps the hull ride
over the waves as it moves forward. Many ships have a raised watertight enclosed
compartment at the bow, known as the forecastle which provides additional protection
from seas breaking over the fore end. A similar raised structure called the poop, may be
built into the stern, but this is becoming less common. Most commercial cargo carrying hulls
are flat bottomed without any external protruding centerline keel with vertical side plating
amidships (i.e. the hull amid-ship is wall sided). Some smaller vessels however, retain an
external keel with a “V- shaped” bottom (i.e. the hull features a size of floor).
Hull of trawlers and tugs, which require deep immersion of the propeller for towing,
frequently become deeper at the stern (i.e. the hull features a rake of keel). A few vessels
have inward sloping ships sides amidships, known as tumblehome. This has no particular
hydrodynamic advantage and was usually incorporated into the design to reduce overall
enclosed space, which in the past gave the vessel a lower tonnage figure which harbor dues
are generally based upon.
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Rise of floor, rise of keel and tumblehome
23
2.1.1 HULL MEASUREMENTS
DIMENSIONS
1. Length overall (LOA): this is the extreme length of the ship, from the foremost point on
the bow to the aft point on the stern. Its primary importance is in determining the amount
of space that a ship requires when tying up alongside jetties and turning in confined rivers
or channels.
2. Length between perpendiculars (LBP): this is measured from the rudder post aft, to the
point where the stem cuts the waterline in the normal fully loaded conditions at even keel
(i.e. no trim by the head or stern). It’s an approximation of the submerged length and is
used in hydrostatic calculation concerning trim and stability. However, note that the
position of the ‘perpendiculars’ change slightly when “length” is defined for the purpose
of determining a ship’s maximum allowable draft according to the load-line regulations.
3. Depth of hull and beam: these are vertical and transverse measurements taken in the
mid-ships region, so the depth will be the minimum vertical distance between the
uppermost continuous (i.e. full length) decks, whilst the beam will be the maximum width
from one side to the other. Quite often, moulded values are quoted and they’re internal
measurements and do not include the thickness of the hull plating.
4. Freeboard: This is the height above the waterline of the uppermost watertight continuous
deck. It generally increases at the bow and the stern due to sheer so, for any particular
loaded state, its minimum value occurs at the mid-ships region. The law requires that
every commercial vessel’sseaworthiness must be assessed and on the basis of this, each
vessel is assigned a minimal legally allowable freeboard which limits the maximum load
the ship can carry. The basic calculations produce the SUMMER FREEBOARD.
The maximum allowable waterline must be marked on the ship’s sides. A range of
additional seasonal and regional adjustments, based upon the summer freeboard is
allowed depending upon the area the ship is trading in at a particular time of the year. The
summer load line and the allowable seasonal adjustments are marked on the ship’s port
and starboard sides in the mid-ships region. It is a serious criminal offence to leave a port
for the open sea with the vessel in an overloaded condition.
5. Draft: this is the depth of the hull beneath the waterline. If it remains constant along the
ship’s length, then the ship is said to be on even keel or level trim. The mean draft
indicates the amount by which the ship is loaded and is used in hydrostatic calculations.
The maximum draft is important for ensuring that the vessel is not run aground by
24
entering water that is too shallow. The draft produced by the summer freeboard is known
as the summer draft and is generally quoted as the designed maximum loaded draft,
though it is subject to both seasonal and regional adjustments.
6. Trim: this is the difference between the forward and aft drafts. A shipis frequently loaded
so that the draft is slightly greater at the stern than the bow, to ensure that the propeller
remains well immersed and to minimize taking seas over the bow. This is known as stern
trim or trimmed by the stern.
7. Air draft: this is the maximum height of any part of the vessel above the waterline for a
particular loaded state. It is important for ensuring that the vessel has adequate clearance
when passing under bridges or navigating in close proximity of airport runways.
DISPLACEMENT
A ship displacement is the actual mass of the vessel’s structure and all its contents, i.e. the
cargo, fuel and stores, so it can be broken down as follows;
Load displacement = Light displacement + dead weight (or Burden)

(Ship’s fully laden weight) (Ship’s structural weight) (Weight of cargo, fuel, water
etc.)
Displacement values are measured, quite correctly in tones and kilograms but often wrongly
expressed as ship’s weights. Weight, which is the downward force acting on a mass due to
the earth’s gravity, should be measured in Kilo-Newton rather than tones where, 1 tone
weighs 9.81 Kilo-Newton on earth as the acceleration due to gravity is 9.81m/s2
2.2 INTERNAL DIVISION WITHIN THE SHIP’S HULL

Internal subdivisions of a ship hull by structural partitioning are important for the following
reasons;
1. The internal decks and bulkheads provide essential stiffness and strength to the hull
structure.
2. The resulting subdivision creates suitably sized segregated spaces for fuel, water,
ballast, cargo and machinery rooms. A number of convenient sized cargo
compartments with separate hatches allows for flexibility in the distribution of mixed
commodities loaded for different destinations.
25
3. Internal subdivision restricts the possible movement of individual cargo stows,
particularly liquids that will flow back and forth with the ship’s motion.
4. Watertight material bulkheads and decks limit the extent of flooding that can occur if
a ship is accidentally “holed” under the waterline and to provide it with some chance
of remaining afloat.
N/B: The ship’s hull is internally divided into cargo holds, fore and aft peak tanks and the
engine room by vertical transverse Bulkheads. A double bottom space is created between the
hull bottom and its horizontal tank top. This is divided into tank spaces by continuing the
transverse bulkheads downwards to the ship’s bottom. (These transverse vertical divisions
within the double bottom are known as ‘floors’).
The cargo spaces are horizontally split into the lower holds and tween decks by a non-
watertight deck with hatches.
2.3 INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR A NEW-BUILD SHIP

N/B: when a ship-owner makes an initial inquiry, he usually gives the ship-builder four item
of information.
• Type of vessel
• Deadweight of the new ship
• Required service speed
26
• Route in which the new vessel will operate which will determine the maximum length
and breadth of the ship since there are length and breadth restriction on the different
routes.
For a vessel to be operated throughthe:
• Panama Canal, her maximum length must be 289.56m.
• Beam restriction for the Panama canal is 32.26m
• Draft restriction for the Panama is 12.04m up to the tropical fresh mark
• For St. Lawrence seaway, the restriction for length is 225.5m
• Beam restriction is 23.8m for St. Lawrence Seaway.
• . For the St. Lawrence Seaway, the draft must be no more than 8.0m.
• For the Suez Canal, there are limitations of ship breadth linked with ship draft.
Finally, there is the Air draft to consider. This is the vertical distance from the waterline to
the highest point on the ship. It indicates the ability of a ship to pass under a bridge spanning
a seaway that forms part of the intended route. Also for aircraft safe takeoff when route is
close to airport terminal.
For the Panama Canal, this is to benot greater than 57.91m. For the St. Lawrence Seaway, the
maximum air draft is to be 35.5m
27
3.0 INTRODUCTION TO SHIP DRAWING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Drawing is a communication language that uses graphics to represent an object, idea, design
etc. The use of drawing as a means of communication can be traced back since the ancient
Egypt. As in old saying “A single picture saved thousand words“has made drawing as one of
the most important entity and plays important roles in engineering fields. Ship is one of the
engineering products that require a lot of drawings to represent its unique shape, function,
components, structures, construction process etc. Therefore it is essential for those who are
involved in shipbuilding industry to understand the various types of ship drawing and know
how to draw them.
AIM: To acquaint students with the various types of ship drawing, its importance, and the
basic concept of orthographic views applied in ship drawing.
Expectation: At the end of the lecture; students should be able to:
1. Identify and explain various types of ship drawings and their importance.
2. Produce from scratch, lines plan drawing that represents the shape of the ship’s hull.
3.2 TYPES OF SHIP DRAWINGS
In general, drawings that associates with ship buildings can be divided into the following
categories:
I) Lines Plan Drawing
ii) General Arrangement Drawing
iii) Shell Expansion Drawing
iv) Schematic Systems Drawing
v) Detail / Production Drawing
vi) 3-D Product Drawing
These are the general drawings that might appear in the ship drawings however, it is
important to note that not all naval architects present their designs with all of the above.
Some naval architects present only lines plan, general arrangement, shell expansion, and
production drawings. Strikingly, with the advance of computer technology, naval architects
are moving towards presenting their design in the 3- dimensions product drawing.
3.2.1 Lines Plan
28
The lines plan drawing or simply the “the lines” define the exterior form/curved surface of a
ship. These drawings show the form of a ship to the moulded surface (i.e. the inside of the
inner strokes of plating) with the sections (stations or frames), waterline, buttocks and
profiles clearly indicated. Precise and unambiguous means are needed to describe this
surface, in as much as the ship’s form must be configured to accommodate all internals, must
meet constraints of buoyancy, stability, speed and power, and sea-keeping, and must be
“buildable”. Hence, these drawings consist of sectional drawings of the hull form (drawn to
suitable scale, usually 1:50 0r 1:200 using the method of prescriptive geometry) obtained by
the intersection of three sets of mutually orthogonal planes (longitudinal vertical (buttock)
plane, horizontal water plane and transverse plane) with the outside surface. The plans so
generated by connecting points of intersection between these planes and the ship’s form are
the sheer, half- breadth and the body plans respectively. Fig.3.1 below shows these planes
through the ship’s form while fig. 3.2 shows sample lines plan.
29
Fig. 3.2: Example of ship’s lines plan
3.2.2 General Arrangement

The general arrangement of a ship can be defined as the assignment of spaces for all the
required functions and equipment, properly coordinated for location and access. The efficient
operation of a ship depends upon the proper arrangement of each separate space and the most
effective interrelationships among all spaces. It is important that the general arrangement be
functionally and economically developed with respect to factors that affect both the
construction and operation cost, especially the manpower required to operate the ship. Figure
3.3 shows an example of general arrangement.
30
Fig. 3.3: Example of general arrangement
3.2.3 Scantling Drawing
Scantling drawing is meant for the construction of the structures and plating of a ship during
construction. The structure’s dimensions and the plate thickness are determined to withstand
the load that is going to apply to the vessel during operation. Three locations of the
structures that are generally shown in the scantling drawing are mid-ship, location of
25% from forward of perpendicular and location of 25% from aft-ward of
perpendicular. An example of the scantling drawing is shown in Figure 3.4 below.
31
Fig. 3.4: Sample of scantling drawing
3.2.4 Detail / Production Drawing

Production drawing shows the details of the system onboard, the fabrication and assembly
process of the system.
3.3 IMPORTANCE OF SHIP DRAWINGS

1. Since every ship has its own design and hull shape, ship drawings help to represent
the unique hull shape of a ship. For this reason, ship drawings of a particular hull
cannot be interchanged or shared with another hull. Ship drawings also help in the
modification, repair and maintenance of ship which ordinarily would have been
difficult.
2. Ship drawings are used in all the design calculation and analysis. Without ship
drawings, initial calculation and prediction of powering and performance of a vessel
cannot be done.
3. Ship drawings, also considered as the basic data, are essential tools for the production
process. Previous old shipyard builds vessel based on experience, but when a new
design of hull is being introduced, ship drawings are essential to make sure that the
accuracy and requirement are fulfilled for a vessel.
4. Ship drawing is part of the contractual matters. Without ship drawing, a vessel cannot
be classed. No classification society will approve and class a ship without the proper
ship drawing.
N/B: Amongst the various drawings in ship drawing, the most important and basic ship
data is Lines Plan Drawing. Lines plan drawing represents the basic outer shape of a
32
ship. Without linesplan drawing, all the other drawings cannot be drawn and what
follows is therefore a detailed discussion on Lines plan drawing.
4.0 INTRODUCTION TO LINES PLAN
Ship has a complex and unique hull shape due to its double curvature and non-homogeneous
cross sections. Unlike simple object like cylinder, box, and cone which can be represented in
simple orthographic drawing, ship hull require special way of representing its unique and
complex shape. Not only does it require to be shown in three different orthogonal views,
more lines are also needed in order to represents it’s shape at different cross sections or
planes. For this reason, the ship hull drawing is always called the Lines Plan Drawing.
Lines Plan is a lines drawing that represent the shape of the ship hull looking from three
orthogonal (perpendicular to each other) views i.e. front, side and top views. The front view
is termed as Body Plan, the side view is the Sheer Plan and the top view is the Half Breadth
Plan. Since all of these views represent the same hull, they are interrelated to each other, thus
the preparation of lines plan drawing must follow certain standard procedure.
Lines plan drawing has always been regarded by the naval architects as the most important
piece of information about the ship. This is due to two reasons namely: - the ship
performance and ship design process. On the performance of the ship, the shape of the hull
form determines the power required to drive the ship, thus reflect the ship speed. It also
determines the amount of pay load (capacity), comfort, habitability, etc. On the ship design
process, lines plan drawing is the first information that needs to be made available. Without
lines plan drawing, no calculation, design and analysis works can be performed. Construction
process also can only be commenced after the lines plan drawing is completed.
4.1 BODY PLAN

The length between perpendiculars is usually divided equally into segment transverse planes
that intersect the moulded surface of the vessel by generating curves, so called “transverse
sections” or “stations”. These curves (transverse sections or stations) areshown in their
true form on the body plan whereas they are both vertical lines on the sheer and half-
breadth plans. Because ships are normally divided into 11 or 21 stations, they are numbered
from aft with the AP as 0 and FP as 10 or 20 according to UK notation while the reverse goes
for the US notation. Body Plan represents the shape of the ship hull when viewing from the
front or rear of the ship at every ship stations as shown in figure 4.1.The body plan concept
can be better understood by referring to figure 4.2. Half or even quarter station may also be
used especially at the region with high curvature. Body plan is normally placed at the top
right hand side of the drawing although it can also be placed at the middle or on top of the
sheer plan drawing depending on the size and type of ship.
Since most ships havesymmetrical shape for both port (left side looking from rear) and
starboard (right) sides, only one side is shown in the body plan. Therefore, it is almost a
standard practice to show the stations of the rear region of the ship at the left side of
body plan while the right hand side of the body plan represents the stations at the
forward region of the ship. The center line of the body plan represents the center line of the
33
ship.Apart from showing the station curves, the body plan also shows the waterlines and the
buttock lines grid. These grid lines are essential not only for reference lines but also used for
transferring and checking data from one plan to another.
Fig. 4.1: Body Plan
Fig.4.2: Dimensional body plan

In a body plan, diagonal planes are to be drawn inclined to the vertical planes but
perpendicular to the transverse plane. Their curves of intersection with the ship’s surface
are known as “diagonals”. Diagonals are also freely employed for fairing the body. See
diagonal planes below in fig 4.1(b)
34
4.2 HALF BREADTH PLAN
The same hull form if it is viewed from top will produce the plan view of the ship. However,
since the hull shape is complex and unique, the plan view must be made at several waterline
planes. Thus Half Breadth Plan is a lines drawing that represents the shape of the ship hull
looking from top view at every waterlines of the ship. Waterline is the horizontal plane that
cut the ship along its vertical axis, thus creating the waterlines curves in its true form as
shown in figure 4.3which appear as horizontal lines on the sheer and body
plans.Waterline is normally equally spaced, although half waterline may also be used at the
lower region of the ship. Since the hull is symmetry about its center line, only half of the hull
is shown in this plan as shown in figure 4.4.
N/B: waterlines are usually spaced at 0.25-1m intervals. Additional half intervals near the
bottom where rapid changes occur are also possible.
Apart from waterline curves, the deck line curve needs to be drawn on this plan. If the ship
has bulwark, chines or / and knuckles lines, these curves have also to be shown in the
drawing. In this plan, the grid lines shown are the stations and buttock lines of the ship.
Chine refers to a sharp angle in the hull as compared to the rounded bottom of most
traditional boat hulls. It’s the angle where the strakes of the bottom of a boat or ship meet
the side.
35
Fig. 4.3: 3-Dimensional half-breadth plan
Fig. 4.4: Half-breadth plan

4.3 PROFILE / SHEER PLAN
Sheer Plan which is usually placed at the top left hand side of the lines plan drawing
represent the shape of the ship hull looking from the side of ship at several buttock lines.
Buttock line is the vertical plane that cuts the ship along its length, creating the buttock
linecurves as indicated in figure 4.5. The middle buttock line (normally labeled as BL 0) is
the plane that cuts the ship along its center line which creates the profile curve of the ship.
Other buttock lines are drawn outward (offsets) of ship’s center line and normally at equally
spaced distance. The stations and waterlines grids are shown in this sheer plan drawing. A
typical sheer plan drawing is shown in figure 4.6 where the buttock line curves appear in its
true form. It is however, horizontal on the half-breadth plan and vertical on the body plan.
N/B: It is important to note that the shape of the buttock lines in the sheer plan are only
used in fairing the sheer drawing but not linked in the finished plan.
“Fairing” means working to ensure that all the curved lines run smoothly and evenly and that
the various portions of the sheer drawing correspond as described.
N/B:Sheer drawing ≡ Sheer plan + Body plan + ½ breadth plan
Fig. 4.5: 3-Dimensional sheer plan
36
\
Fig. 4.6: Profile/Sheer Plan
It is worthy to note at this juncture that the work of designing the shape of a ship is a matter
of ship design. It will be sufficient here to say that displacement, fineness of form (block
coefficient), shape of mid-ship section (mid-ship section coefficient). Position of the center of
buoyancy, both fore and aft and vertically, and position of the transverse meta-center, all
have to be considered. The process is often a matter of trial and error before a form having
the designed qualities is obtained and when obtained the form must be fair.
4.4 OFFSETS DATA

Offsets data is the data that is extracted (measured) from the lines plan drawing and
considered the most important data for the design, calculation, analysis and construction of
the ship. As the name implied, Offset Data is the distance measured from the center line of
the ship to the specific point on the curves (station or waterline curves). The offset data must
be measured at every intersection points on each stations and waterlines including deck line,
chines, knuckles and bulwarks (if any). Offset data could also be called half breadth data
because it represents the half breadth of the ship at every station and waterlines. A typical
example of offsets data is shown in Table 4.1 and the measurement of offsets data is
illustrated in Figure 4.7.
In the offsets Table, it is also a standard practice to indicate the data of height above based
for deck, chine, bulwark, and knuckles lines. The height above base of buttock lines may
alsobe included whenever necessary.
A sample of the complete lines plan drawing containing the body plan, profile, half-breadth
plan and offset are shown in Figure 4.7.
Table 4.1: Offsets table
37
38
Fig.4.7: Offset data relation to lines plan
39
4.5 DRAWING QUALITY
The quality of the ship lines plan drawing is judged based on the following criteria;
Completeness – The drawing must include all plans (body plan, half breadth plan and sheer
plan) and necessary information such as Title block, Main dimension and Ship Particulars,
and Offsets Table. A complete drawing means that the user can find all the necessary
information from the drawing without the need to seek from other sources.
Accuracy – The drawing must accurately represent the ship hull form. Thus the main
dimensions and the offset data must be accurately represented by the lines plan drawing.
Cross checking on every plan is often necessary in order to check the accuracy of the hull
being drawn.
Smooth and Fair – All lines or curves drawn must be smooth and fair. Smoothness is defined
as no sudden or abrupt changes of the curve slope (gradient) unless it is meant for knuckles,
chine lines. Fairness can be interpreted in various ways. The simplest definition of fairness is
curve with no unnecessary inflexion points or waviness. Drawing and judging smoothness
and fairness of ship curves required skill and experience but it is an essential criteria for a
good drawing, hence good ship geometry.
Labeling – All curves and important information on the drawing must be labeled clearly and
appropriately. These should include, plans title, station no, waterlines no and buttock lines no.
The size and location of the labeling must also suitable with the drawing size.
Ship Main Dimensions and Particulars – The main dimension of the ship including Length
Overall, Length Between Perpendiculars, Breadth Moulded, Depth Moulded and Draft must
be shown in the drawing. Other ship particulars such ship name, type, capacity, speed may
also be included. This information should be written in a box, normally placed above the title
block.
Title Block – Information regarding company’s name, ship name, project title, drawing title,
drawing number, date, scale, designer’s and draftsman’s name, date of latest modification and
other relevant information should be shown in the title block. Title block should be located at
the bottom right hand corner of the drawing paper.
Drawing Layout – Margin lines / border lines of a 20 – 30mm distant from the drawing paper
edges should be drawn first. All plans, main dimensions block, title block and offsets table
should be arranged properly as to occupy the entire area of the drawing paper. Thus proper
scaling and clearance must be decided first before starting the drawing works.
40
5.0LINES PLAN DRAWING HANDS-ON
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Drawing lines plan normally begins with the reading of the data from the offset tables. This is
followed by drawing the grid lines that form the body plan, sheer plan and half-breadth plan.
Lines that represent the shape of the vessel must be smooth and fair. Beside smoothness and
fairness, accuracy is also very important, that is measurements at every line must match in all
the three different views.Choosing the right scale is also essential task in the drawing of lines
plan. Scale that is too small will lead to larger error and inaccuracy on the lines that were
drawn. On the other hand scale that is too large requires large drawing paper and may be
beyond the size of the drawing equipment.
5.2 UNDERSTANDING OFFSET TABLE

Offset table and lines plan has the same purpose of existence: give the correct perspective of
a vessel to viewer. However, both work in a different manner. Offset table shows the
measurement of a vessel for calculation purposes as well as preparation of lines plan,
whereby lines plan makes sure that the measurement from the offset table are able to produce
a smooth and fair hull form.
In the offset table, measurements are for outlining the shape of a vessel like deck, keel, water
lines, and buttock lines. The location of stations, base line and center line are often used for
the references of the measurement that is being taken.
The recorded measurements are in two formats: height and half-breadth. Height is normally
referring to the baseline of the ship and half-breadth is referring to center line of the ship.
5.3 LINES PLAN DRAWING PROCEDURES

Each participant will be given the ship main particulars and offset data. The LinesPlan
Drawing shall be drawn from the existing offsets data. Following are the steps tobe taken as a
guideline for the drawing hands on task.
STEP TASK
1 Preparation of Data and Drawing Equipment
Main Dimension and Offsets Data must be made available

Drawing equipment :-
- Drawing Table (with rotating and adjustable arms)
41
- Drawing Paper (A0 or A1 size of good quality paper / tracing paper)
- Ship Curves (sets of various shapes and sizes)
- Battern / Spline
- Weight Duck
- Scale Ruler (with Metric Scale)
- Eraser and Soft cloth
- Mechanical Pencils (0.5mm, 0.3mm, H, HB and 2B) or Pen (0.35mm,0.5mm)
2 Determination of Drawing Scale and Layout
Based on the main dimension and the drawing paper determine appropriate
drawing scale. These values have to be determined based on ship length and
the distance / clearance between plans. Use appropriate scale and size. The
space for title block, main dimension and offsets table must be given
consideration as to ensure the effective use of the drawing paper.
3 Drawing of Main Boxes and Grid Lines
Draw the main boxes and grid lines for all three plans (i.e. station, waterlines
and buttock lines grid). The grid lines must be drawn based on the station and
waterline spacing. Arrange these boxes such that clearance between them is
balance. Label these lines accordingly.
4 Draw Body Plan
Select one station (it is good practice to start from mid-ship station). For this
station mark the offset data on each waterline on the body plan grid. Using
ship curve draw a station curveby connecting these offsets mark. Make sure the
curve drawn is smooth and fair. Repeatthis step for other stations. Label the
station number accordingly. Now your body plan isalmost completed.
5 Draw Profile Curve
42
On the sheer plan grid, draw the profile of the ship based on the profile of the
basis ship. The profile coordinates is to be measured from the basis ship
profile. Make sure that the measurement is taken using the appropriate scale.
6 Draw Half Breadth Plan
To draw the half breadth plan, you need to use a clean sheet of white paper
A4 size. Mark the offsets data from body plan at a selected waterline on the
edge of this paper. Bring the offsets mark on to the half breadth plan grid
and mark it on appropriate stations. The point at both ends(fwd. and aft)
shall be determined by projecting the intersection points between waterline
and profile at sheer plan drawing (as in step 5) to the half breadth planat center
line. Draw a smooth and fair waterline curve by connecting all the marked
pointsusing weight and batten. Repeat this step for other waterlines. Special
care must be takenfor the transom station (if any). Label the waterlines number
accordingly. Your half breadthplan is almost completed.
7 Draw Sheer Plan
The sheer plan shall be drawn based on the completed body plan and half
breadth plan drawings. First, draw buttock lines (at least 3 buttock lines) on
both body plan (both sides) and half breadth plan. On the body plan drawing,
mark the intersection points between the selected buttock line grid and the
station curves. Draw a horizontal line from thesepoints to the
corresponding stations grid on the sheer plan and mark the intersection
points accordingly. Next, on the half breadth plan, mark the intersection
points between the selected buttock lines grid (as in body plan) and the
waterlines curves. Draw a verticalline from these points to the
corresponding waterlines grid on the sheer plan and mark accordingly. The
buttock line curve is drawn by connecting all the intersection marks either
on the stations or waterlines grids. Make sure the curve drawn is smooth and
fair. Repeat the above step for other buttock lines.
8 Cross Checking and Fairing Process
While drawing the buttock lines curves, you may have to move/shift some of
43
the intersection points in order to draw a smooth and fair curve. In doing so, it
is essential to understand that any movement of point on a particular plan
will eventually change the position of thecorresponding points on the other
two plans. Therefore it is desirable to do cross check all plans whenever any
points need to be shifted. Special care must be given and the movement of the
point must be done simultaneously on all plans. Significant changes will
eventually lead to drawing a new curve on all plans. This process is called
fairing process and may require to be carried out many times before a fair hull
form may be generated finally. Up to this point you have almost completed the
lines plan drawing but the quality of your drawing depends very much on the
skill and experience. Practices make perfect.
9 Draw Offsets Table and Main Dimensions
Draw the Offsets Table and Main Dimensions of the ship on the appropriate
location. Offsets table must include the half breadth data for all station at
every waterline including deck and bulwark (if any). The height above base
for the deck, bulwark and chine lines (if any) for every station must also be
indicated on the offsets table. The main dimension should at least include
Length Overall, Length Between Perpendiculars, Moulded Breadth, Moulded
Depth, and Draft (if known).
10 Draw Title Block
Complete the lines plan drawing by preparing the title block which at least
indicates the name and company logo, name of the ship, drawing number,
drawing title, scale, date, and initial of designer, draftsman, and checker. Please
refer to the standard format.
5.4 SHIP FORM COEFFICIENTS

These are non-dimensional coefficients describing the underwater form of ships. They are
related to the resistance and stability of the ship and can be used to estimate them empirically.
We have the block coefficient, mid-ship section coefficient, prismatic coefficient and the
water plane coefficient. While the mid-ship section and water plane coefficients are area
44
ratio coefficients, the other two coefficients i.e. block and prismatic coefficients are volume
ratio coefficients.
5.4.1 Block coefficient
Often called coefficient of fineness or fatness of a hull of a ship at any draft is the ratio of the
volume of displacement at that draft to the volume of a rectangular block having the same
overall length, breadth and depth.
56789: ;<=>7?@:9:A E
Block coefficient designated C4 = = F×H×IJKLM
56789: 6B C76@D
Where N = Volume displacement as others have their usual meanings
5.4.2 Prismatic coefficient

Also called longitudinal coefficient at any draft is the ratio of the volume of displacement at
that draft to the volume of a prism having the same length as the ship and the same X-
sectional area as the ship’s mid-ship area. The prismatic coefficient ranges between 0.58 ⋍
0.80 and is mostly used by ship-model researchers.
56789: 6B =Q<>R = ;<=>7?@:9:A E

Prismatic coefficient, CP = = F×K
56789: 6B >S<=9 T
Where Am = Ship’s mid-ship area
45
5.4.3 Water plane coefficients
Also called the coefficient of fineness of the water plane areas is the ratio of the area of the
water plane to the area of the rectangle having thesame length and maximum breadth.
KS:? 6B V?A:S >7?: KS:? 6B V?A:S >7?:

Water plane coefficient, CU = KS:? 6B S:@A?W7: KHXI = F×H
Y+&% 0 $%.&+ -%/& = Z × [ × CU
5.4.4 Mid-ship section coefficient

The Mid-ship section coefficient to any draft is the ration of the transverse area of the mid-
ship section (Am) to the area of a rectangle having the same breadth and depths. It ranges
between 0.67 ⋍ 0.98.
]<;=Q<> ?S:? ]<;=Q<> ?S:?

Mid-ship coefficient, C\ = KS:? 6B S:@A?W7: = H ×;S?BA
^')(ℎ'- %+&% (Y9 ) = [ × )+% . × C\
N/B: A little consideration would show that
46
Y9 b0c1& 0 (ℎ'-d ( )'(-%*&1&/. N
C\ × Ca = = = = C4
[ × )+% . Z × Y9 Z × [ × )+% .
C\ × Ca = C4
C4
Ca =
C\
Also note that Ca is always slightly higher than C4 at each waterline.
5.4.5 BODY RATIOS

Ratios of principal ship particulars of basic ships normally used to estimate those of new-
build for preliminary analysis. Examples are:-
E fg FHM
Displacement / length ratio; =
Fe Fe
H
Breadth / length ratio;
F
I
Draft / length ratio; F
I
Draft / breadth ratio; H
Example problems in coefficient of form

Example5.1: A ship 78m long, 18m maximum beam, has a light draft of 1.9m and a load
draft of 6m. The block coefficient of fineness is 0.9 at a light draft and 0.82 at a load draft.
Find the dead weight.
Solution Light displacement = Z × [ × 'ℎ. )+% . × C4 x ρ

78 × 18 × 1.9 × 0.9 k 1.025 = 2460.861.0/&(
Load displacement = Z × [ × 0%) )+% . × C4 x ρ
78 × 18 × 6 × 0.82 k 1.025 = 7080.372.0/&(
Deadweight = Load displacement – Light displacement = (7080.372 - 2460.861).0/&(
= lm n. tones
47
opK
5.2. Given that TPCSW = , Calculate the TPCSW of a ship 128m long with a maximum
qr.st
beam of 20m and coefficient of fineness of water-plane of 0.85 (Ans: 22.30tonnes)
6.0 FLOATION, BUOYANCY AND DISPLACEMENT
6.1 BUOYANCY OR UPTHRUST

A ship floats by pushing its own weight of water up and out of the way. The displaced water
then, exerts a supporting force on the ship’s hull as gravity tries to restore the original
undisturbed level. The resulting upward force is called the Upthrust or Buoyancy and is an
example of Newton’s third law of Force and Motion, which states that:-
“A single force must act between two masses and its effect upon one mass, (the Action) is
equal and opposite to its effect on the other (the Reaction)”
Conversely, according to Archimedes, the upthrust (which is provided by the force of
buoyancy acting vertically upwards through a point called the center of buoyancy) is the
48
apparent loss in mass of a body which is also equal to mass of fluid displaced when that body
is either wholly or partially immersed in a fluid.
Mathematically, let us consider a body as shown in Fig. 6.1 with straight sides of depth, d and
x-sectional area, A with the upper surface parallel to the surface of the liquid in which it is
wholly immersed at a distance h, below that surface.
∇ ∇
h
A d
Fig. 6.1
If the density of the liquid is ρ,
Then thrust (force) on the upper surface= Yℎu since, pressure is force per unit area.
Also, thrust force on the lower surface = Y(ℎ + ))u
⇒ Upthrust on the body = Difference between thrusts (forces) on both surfaces
= Y(ℎ + ))u − Yℎu = Y)u
Also the weight of the liquid which is displaced by the body immersed in it
1 = u = Y)u
Hence, upthrust on the body = weight of the liquid displaced.
6.2 FLOATION
The ship pushes the water upwards and the water also pushes back against the ship with an
equal force. Whether this amount is enough to support the ship or not depends upon the
volume of water displaced. If the ship’s hull encloses a considerable amount of space
containing low density material, including air, then its overall weight will be sufficiently low
enough to allow the displaced water to support it completely and so, it floats. If the hull is
then progressively filled with higher density cargo, the weight increases which require an
ever increasing volume of displaced water to support it, hence the ship floats lower and lower
in the water. If eventually all the enclosed spaces of the ship are completely immersed due to
increased loading, further increases in cargo weight will not produce any further increases in
displaced water because there is no hull to displace again. This in effect implies that there
49
won’t be sufficient displaced water to fully support the ship and even though the upthrust is
still acting upon the ship, the vessel will sink because the Upthrust is now less than the
increased weight of the vessel.
Alternatively, a ship may sink if some of its enclosed hull spaces are “holed or flooded”. The
ship’s weight in this case remains the same but the flooded compartment no longer
contributes to the displacement of water hence the buoyancy is now reduced. This ship must
sink lower in the water and, if there is sufficient remaining enclosed space to compensate for
the flooding, the vessel will remain afloat at a new deeper draft. If, however, the enclosed
spaces become fully submerged without fully compensating the lost buoyancy, the ship will
sink.
The principles involved are best illustrated if we consider the ship floating in an enclosed
space or, like Archimedes, we imagine a model boat floating in a bath and consider changes
in the water level when we increase the boat’s load or put a hole in it as Fig. 6.2 below
depicts.
A ship remains afloat if the weight of water displaced equals its own weight. To achieve this,
its average density, including enclosed void spaces, must be less than that of the water it
floats in. The density of fresh water is slightly less than that of seawater and so, a ship will
float at slightly deeper draft when it passes from seawater to freshwater.
Again, let us consider the following mathematical scenario for Floatation.

Recall that, the weight of the liquid displaced by an immersed body was equal toY)u =
(1) = (u). It implies that with a liquid density ofuy , the weight of liquid displaced
becomesY)uy = (uy ).
50
Also, if the body has density uz , the weight of the body Y)uH = uH
Now, if the weight of the immersed body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
body, then the body will not move up or down but will be stationary. This occurs when
uy = uH
i.e. Y)uy = Y)uH
However, when uy < uH then, Y)uy < Y)uH and the body will sink because the body is
heavier or denser than the liquid weight displaced.
Similarly, when uy > uH , it means thatY)uy > Y)uH and the body will rise because it is
lighter than the weight of the liquid which it displaces. As the upthrust (vertical force =
buoyant force) acting on the fully immersed body is greater than the weight of the body, the
body will rise to the surface of the liquid and will float with part of its volume out of the
liquid, i.e. it will rise until the weight of the body = weight of the liquid displaced by the
body.
From Fig. 6.3, it follows that, if depth of the body is D and the draft at which it floats with
the area parallel to the liquid surface is d, the body will rise until Y)uy = Y)uH
It implies therefore that for a body to float at rest in still water, it must displace its own
weight of water and the force of gravity must be vertically upward or below the center of
buoyancy.
∇ ∇
D A d
Fig. 6.3
6.3 DISPLACEMENT
By definition, displacement is the volume (in cubic meters) or weight (in tons) or mass of
water displaced by the hull. Different categories of displacement exist in Naval Architecture
and they are the following:-
6.3.1 VOLUME DISPLACEMENT
This is the size of the hole in the water occupied by the ship and is measured in cubic meters.
51
In this type of displacement, there is no density correction.
6.3.2 WEIGHT DISPLACEMENT
This is the weight of water displaced by the ship and it is equal to the volume displaced
multiplied by a constant representing the density of liquid in which the ship is floating. For
fresh water, weight displacement is volume displacement multiplied by 1000kg/m3
In sea water, weight displacement is volume displacement multiplied by 1025kg/m3.
It is important to note that displacement weight of a ship can vary according to circumstances
and position in the world, although displacement weight and ship weight are equal when the
ship is at rest in equilibrium in still water.
6.3.3 MOULDED DISPLACEMENT
This is the mass of water which would be displaced by the moulded lines of the ship when
floating at the design load water line.
6.3.4 COMPONENTS OF DISPLACEMENT
There are two main components of displacement namely: - Light and load displacement
6.3.4.1 LIGHT DISPLACEMENT
This is the weight of the hull and machinery. It is the weight of liquid displaced by a ship
when floating without cargo, fuel, stores or any other weights that do not form part of the hull
or machinery or fixed equipment of the vessel, but including water in the boilers and
condensers to working level. It is the weight of a ship when completely empty with boilers
topped to working level and it is evaluated by conducting the inclining experiment, normally
just prior to delivery of the new vessel.
6.3.4.2 LOAD DISPLACEMENT
This is the weight of the liquid displaced by a ship when floating on even keel at her summer
load draft in salt water.
N/B: Note that these two displacements are the lower and upper limits between which the
vessel would normally be expected to work. The difference between the two is the useful
carrying capacity of the vessel, i.e., the amount of cargo, fuel, stores, ballast, etc., which
when loaded to her light displacement will bring the vessel to her load displacement. This
difference is known as the Ship’s Deadweight. The Deadweight is thus defined as the
difference between the load displacement up to the minimum permitted freeboard and the
light weight or light displacement.
Since a floating body displaces its own weight, the most convenient method of finding the
mass of an irregular shaped body floating in a liquid is to take the product of the underwater
52
volume and the density of the liquid in which it floats. The mass of the floating body is
generally termed its displacement.
I.e. Displacement = underwater volume× ρ
where, ρ = density of liquid in which body is floating.
For a box-shape of length L, Breadth B, floating at draft d, in a liquid of density ρ then,
Displacement = L × B × d × ρ = mass displaced.
]?== ;<=>7?@:9:A
Volume displacement = = Z × [ × )
{
For shapes of ships, the underwater volume can be found using Simpson’s rules as will be
discussed later. When this volume has been found it can be compared to the volume of a
rectangle circumscribing the underwater volume of a ship having the same length, breadth
and draft as the vessel. By comparison, the ratio of the underwater volume of the ship to the
volume of the block having the same length, breadth and draft defines one of the hull form
coefficients, the block coefficient of the vessel as discussed earlier.
6.4 EFFECT OF DENSITY ON DRAFT AND DISPLACEMENT.

6.4.1 Effect of change of density when the displacement is constant
When a ship moves from water of one density to water of another density without a mass
change, the draft will change. This is because the ship must displace the same mass in each
case. Since the density of the water has changed, the volume of water displaced must also
change.
Mass = volume × density
If the density of the water increases, then the volume of water displaced must decrease to
keep volume of water displaced constant and vice versa, hence movement from salt water to
fresh water will create bodily sinkage to compensate for decrease in water density.
6.4.1.1 The effect on Box-shaped vessel

New mass of water displaced = old mass of water displaced
⇒New volume × new density = old volume ×old density
|:V }6789: ~7; ;:=<A |:V ;S?BA ~7; ;:=<A
i.e., = or = , for the same length and breadth of
~7; }6789: |:V ;:=<A ~7; ;S?BA |:V ;:=<A
vessel
53
Example 6.1: A box-shaped vessel floats at a mean draft of 2.1 m in dock water of density
1020 kg/m3. Find the mean draft for the same mass displacement in salt water of density 1025
kg/m3.
Solution
|:V ;S?BA 67; ;:=<A
Recall that,
~7; ;S?BA
= :V ;:=<A
67; ;:=<A
⇒&$ )+% . = × 0) )+% .
:V ;:=<A
y
Hence, /&$ )+% . = × 2.1 = 2.09 1
ys
Example 6.2: A box-shaped vessel floats upright on an even keel as shown in fresh water of
density 1000kg/m3 and the center of buoyancy is 0.50m above the keel. Find the height of the
center of buoyancy above the keel when the vessel is floating in salt water of density 1025
kg/m3.
; y
In fresh water, [ = = = 0.5 1
|:V ;S?BA 67; ;:=<A

In salt water, ~7; ;S?BA
= :V ;:=<A
67; ;:=<A
⇒&$ )+% . = 0) )+% . × :V ;:=<A
1000
=1×
1025
Hence, &$ )+% . = 0.976 1
y
And&$ [ = (0.976) = 0.488 1 ≈ . ln
6.4.1.2 Effect of density on displacement when the draft is constant
Should the density of the water in which the ship floats be changed without the ship altering
her draft, then the mass of water displaced must have changed. The change in the mass of
water displaced may have been brought about by bunkers and stores being loaded or
consumed during a sea passage, or by cargo being loaded or discharged. In all cases:
54
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. ) )'(-%*&1&/.
=
&$ )&/('. ) )&/('.
Or
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. &$ )&/('.
=
) )'(-%*&1&/. ) )&/('.
Example 6.3: A ship displaces 7000 tons whilst floating in fresh water. Find the
displacement of the ship when floating at the same draft in water of density 1015kg/m3, i.e.
1015t/m3
Solution:
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. &$ )&/('.
=
) )'(-%*&1&/. ) )&/('.
Or
&$ )&/('.
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = ∗ ) )'(-%*&1&/.
) )&/('.
1015
= ∗ 7000
1000
=
Example 6.4: A ship of 6400 tons displacement is floating in salt water. The ship has to
proceed to a berth where the density of water is 1008kg/m3. Find how much cargo must be
discharged if she is to remain at the salt water draft.
Solution:
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. &$ )&/('.

=
) )'(-%*&1&/. ) )&/('.
Or
&$ )&/('.
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = ∗ ) )'(-%*&1&/.
) )&/('.
1008
= ∗ 6400
1025
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = 6293.9 .0//&( ≈ 6400.0.0//&(
⇒ Cargo to discharge to remain at salt water draft = Old displacement – New displacement
= 6400 − 6293.9 = 106.1 .0//&(
55
Example 6.5: A ship measuring 120m X 17m X 10m has a block coefficient 0.8 and is
floating at the load summer draft of 7.2m in fresh water. Find how much more cargo can be
loaded to remain at the same draft in salt water.
Solution:
) )'(-%*&1&/. = Z ∗ [ ∗ +% . ∗ &/('. ∗ Cb
= 120 ∗ 17 ∗ 7.2 ∗ 1000 ∗ 0.8 = 11750.0//&(
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. &$ )&/('.
=
) )'(-%*&1&/. ) )&/('.
&$ )&/('.
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = ∗ ) )'(-%*&1&/.
) )&/('.
1025
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = ∗ 11750
1000
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = 12044 .0//&(
) )'(-%*&1&/. = 11750 .0//&(
⇒Cargo to load = New displacement – Old displacement = 294 tons.
N/B: This problem should not be attempted as one involving TPC and FWA.
6.5 Tonnes Per Centimeter Immersion (TPC)

The TPC for any draft is the mass of cargo which must be loaded or discharged to change a
ship’s mean draft in salt water by one centimeter.
Consider in fig.6.4 above, a ship floating in salt water at the waterline WL.Let‘A’ be the area
of the water-plane in square meters. Now let a mass of ‘W’ tons be loaded so that the mean
draft is increased by 1cm. The ship then floats at the waterline W1L1. Since the draft has been
increased by 1cm, the mass loaded is equal to the TPC for this draft. Also, since an extra
56
mass of water equal to the massloaded must be displaced, then the mass of water in the layer
between WL and W1L1 is also equal to the TPC.
Generally,
Y
= ×u
100
For sea water,
= ^%(( 0 *%+0 = b0c1& ∗ )&/('. 0 (&% $%.&+

= 1%(( 0 $%.&+ ,&.$&&/ $%.&+'/&( Z %/) 1Z1
= Y+&% ∗ Z&/.ℎ ∗ )&/('. 0 (&% $%.&+
= %.&+-%/& %+&% ∗ 1 *1 ∗ )&/('. 0 (&% $%.&+
y (9) ysDW y (A6:)

= %.&+-%/& %+&% ∗ ∗ *
y(@9) 9e y (DW)
1 (1) 1025.0//&(
= %.&+-%/& %+&% (1 ) ∗ ∗
100(*1) 10001
Y
= ./*1
97.5
N/B: 1000kg = 1tone.
For Fresh water,
opK ;:=<A 6B BS:=Q V?A:S < DW/9e opK yDW yA6:

= × = × k
y y y 9e yDW
opK yA.9e y opK.(9 ) yA y9

= y
× x =
y9e @9 y (@9)
× y9ex y
opK
⇒ = ./*1
y
TPC IN DOCK WATER
N/B: When a ship is floating in dock water of a relative density other than 1.025, the weight
to be loaded or discharged to change the mean draft by 1cm (TPCdW) may be found from the
TPC in salt water (TPCSW) by simple proportion as follows;
57
;V +&%.'& )&/('. 0 )0* $%.&+ (;V )
=
o +&%.'& )&/('.0 (%. $%.&+ (o )
Or
;V
;V = × o
1.025
6.6 RESERVE BUOYANCY
It has already been shown that a floating vessel must displace is own weight of water.
Therefore, it is the submerged portion of a floating vessel which provides the buoyancy. The
volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline is not providing buoyancy but is being
held in reserve. If extra weights are loaded to increase the displacement, these spaces above
the waterline are there to provide the extra buoyancy required.
The reserve buoyancy may be defined as the volume of the enclosed space above the
waterline. It may be expressed as a volume or as a percentage of the total volume of the
vessel.
Example 6.6: A box-shaped vessel 105m long, 30 m beam and 20m deep is floating upright
in fresh water. If the displacement is 19500 tons, find the volume of reserve buoyancy.
Solution:
)'(-%*&1&/. 19500 .0//&(

0c1& 0 $%.&+ )'(-%*&) = = = 19500 1
)&/('. 1.0.0//&(/1
0c1& 0 &((& = 105 × 30 × 20 = 63000 1
⇒ +&(&+&) ,c0%/* = 0c1& 0 &((& − 0c1& 0 $%.&+ )'(-%*&)
= 63000-19500 = 435001 .
6.7 The Effect of Density on Ship-shaped vessels (FRESH WATER ALLOWANCE)

It has already been shown that when the density of the water in which a vessel floats is
changed the draft will change, but the mass of water in kg or tones displaced will be
unchanged; i.e.
&$ )'(-%*&1&/. = ) )'(-%*&1&/.
i.e. &$ 0c1& ∗ &$ )&/('. = ) 0c1& ∗ ) )&/('.
58
|:V }6789: ~7; ;:=<A
⇒ =
~7; }6789: |:V ;:=<A
With ship shapes this formula should not be simplified further as it was in the case of box
shape because the underwater volume is not rectangular. To find the change in draft of a ship
shape due to density change, a quantity known as the “Fresh Water Allowance” mustbe
known.
The Fresh Water Allowance is the number in millimeters by which the mean draft
changes when a ship passes from salt water to fresh water, or vice versa, whilst floating
at the loaded draft. It is found by the expression:
I<=>7?@:9:A (A6:=)
⇒ Y (11) =
∗MpX
The proof of this formula follows thus:

Consider the following figures 6.5 (a) and (b)
Fig 6.5 (a) show a ship transiting from a salt water environment to a Fresh water environment
in Fig. 6.5 (b)
A little consideration would reveal a change in draft, d, shown as an increase as the ship
moved from the salt water environment (fig. 6.5 (a)) to the fresh water environment (fig. 6.5
(b)) due to density decrease.
Now, if the displacement of the ship in salt water (fig. 6.5 (a)) is
∆=V = 1.025 ∗ ∇o ………………………………………………………6.1
⇒ Displacement of the ship in Fresh water will be:
∆LV = ∇Lo ∗ 1.000 = (∇o + Y ∗ δd) ∗ 1.000…………………6.2
Since displacement of ship is equal in both fluids, we can equate both equations as follows:
1.025 ∗ ∇o = (∇o + Y ∗ δd) ∗ 1.000
Which by simplification gives:
0.025 ∗ ∇o = Y ∗ δd ∗ 1.000…………………………………6.3
From eqn. 6.3;
59
.s∗∇
δd = ……………………………………………………………6.4
opK
Also, from eqn. 6.1;

∆M
∇o = …………………………………………………………………6.5
y.s
Substituting eqn. 6.5 into eqn. 6.4 gives:

.s ∗ ∆M
δd = …………………………………………………………..6.6
opK∗y.s
Now, if we relateδd to TPC on the condition that the WPA does not significantly change,
we can have the following expression:
Y ∗ 1.025
=V =
100
y ∗ MpX
Transposing would give: Y = y.s
……………………………………………. 6.7
Substituting eqn. 6.7 into eqn. 6.6 gives;
0.025 ∗ ∆=V ∗ 1.025 0.025 ∗ ∆=V

δd = Y = =
100 ∗ =V ∗ 1.025 100 ∗ =V
.s ∗ ∆M ∆M ∆M ∆M

⇒δd = Y = (1) ≡ (1) = (*1) = (11)
MpX MpX MpX MpX
Note that the Fresh water Allowance or FWA, for the summer loaded draft is marked on the
ship’s side amidships, in addition to the seasonal and regional allowances to the load limits.
Fig. 6.6 below shows load line marks on a British Registered Cargo Vessel. On this figure,
the center of the disc is at a distance below the deck line which is equal to the ship’s statutory
freeboard. Then 540mm forward of the disc is a vertical line 25mm thick, with horizontal
lines measuring 230 X 25mm on each side of it. The upper edge of the one marked ‘S’ is in
line with the horizontal through the disc and indicates the draft to which the ship may be
loaded when floating in salt water in a Summer Zone. Above this line and pointing aft is
another line marked ‘F’, the upper edge of which indicates the draft to which the ship may be
loaded when floating in fresh water in a Summer Zone. If loaded to this draft in fresh water,
the ship will automatically rise to ‘S’ when she passes into salt water. The perpendicular
distance in millimeters between the upper edges of these two lines is therefore the ship’s
Fresh Water Allowance.
60
N/B: ‘W’ is a line drawn 1/48th of summer draft below the summer ‘S’ zone loadline.
‘T’ is a line drawn 1/48th of summer draft above the summer ‘S’ zone load line.
‘TF’ is a line drawn a distance equal to the FWA above the Tropical ‘T’ load line.
‘WNA’ is a line drawn 50mm below the winter ‘W’ load line.
When the ship is loading in dock water which is of density between these two limits ‘S’ may
be submerged such a distance that she will automatically rise to ‘S’ when the open sea and
salt water is reached. The distance by which ‘S’ can be submerged, called the Dock Water
Allowance, is found in practice by simple proportion as follows:
Let X = Dock Water Allowance
Let uIo = Density of dock water
Then,
¢11 1025 − uIo

=
Y 1025 − 1000
61
Or
Y (1025 − uIo )

0* %.&+ Y0$%/*& =
25
Example 6.7: A ship is loading in dock water of density 1010kg/m3; FWA=150mm. Find the
change in draft on entering salt water.
Solution: Referring to fig. 6.7 below for the analysis;
If, x represents the change in draft in millimeters
⇒
¢ 1025 − 1010
=
Y 25
ys
i.e.k = 150 ∗ s = 9011
⇒ Draft will decrease by 90mm (9cm or 0.09m)
Example 6.8: A ship is loading in a Summer Zone in dock water of density 1005kg/m3;
FWA=62.5mm, TPC=15tonnes. The lower edge of the Summer load line is in the waterline
to port and is 5cm above the waterline to starboard. Find how much more cargo may be
loaded if the ship is to be at the correct load draft in salt water.
Solution: Refer to fig. 6.8 below for the analysis;
However, noticein this problem that the ship is obviously listed to port and if brought
upright, the lower edge of the ‘S’ load line one each side would be 25mm above the
waterline. Also, since it is the upper edge of the line which is 25mm thick that indicates the
‘S’ load draft then, the ship’s draft must be increased by 50mm in order to bring her to the ‘S’
load line in dock water. In addition, ‘S’ may be submerged by x mm.
62
If ‘x’ represents the amount by which ‘S’ load line submerges in millimeters as the ship is
loaded to the correct load draft in salt water;
⇒
¢ 1025 − 1005
=
Y 1025 − 1000

i.e.k = 62.5 ∗ s = 5011
Hence, Total increase in draft required = (50+50) mm = 100mm 0r 10cm
And
%+0 .0 0%) = '/*+&%(& '/ )+% . ∗ = 10 ∗ 15 = 150.0//&(
7.0 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION FOR SHIP FORMS

7.1 Data of ship’s forms
They are discrete. Examples are line drawings, stations, water-plane etc.
They are evenly distributed most times
63
7.2 Method of numerical integration
Ship forms in most cases are not regular shapes/figures and so, determining their areas and
volumes take the form of numerical integration and the methods in use includes the
following:
1. The trapezoidal rule (linear)
2. Simpson’s 1st (1/3rd) rule (Quadratic)
3. Simpson’s 2nd (3/8th) rule (cubic)
4. Tchebycheff’s (similar to Gauss quadratic) rule – applied to a continuous function.
7.2.1 Measurement of Area and Volume
Any quantity which can be represented by the area under a curve can be determined by
measuring the area under the curve between limits.
If the equation of the curve is known, then the techniques of integral calculus can be used. If,
as is generally the case with ship data, there is no equation which describes the bounding
curve, one of the techniques of numerical integration must be used. All these techniques rely
upon dividing the area to be measured into segments and then applying various formulae to
the ordinates bounding the segments. However, the accuracy depends upon the spacing of the
ordinates and the nearness of the curve that follows the law.
7.2.2 The trapezoidal rule (Linear)

This rule assumes that the bounding curve between two ordinates Y1 and Y2is linear (straight
line) i.e. = %k + *. See figure 7.1 below.
C y
Y+&% = £ (k))k = ¤ *< (k< ) = * (k ) + *y (ky )

? <¥
ℎ
= ¦ (k ) + (ky )§
2
Q
Which in our case = ¦y + § = Y+&% 0 .+%-&¨'c1
64
The rule may be extended to any number of ordinates and when done is then known as the
compound trapezoidal rule as we shall see in fig. 7.2 below.
Q
Here, Y+&% = ¦ + 2y + 2 + 2 + § how?

Consider the figure 7.2 to be made up of 4 areas

A1 bounded by y0 and y1
Applying the rule, we have;
Q
For Yy = ¦ + y §
ℎ
Y = ¦y + §
2
ℎ
Y = ¦ + §
2
ℎ
Y = ¦ + §
2
⇒0.% Y+&% = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
Q
¦( + y ) + (y + ) + ( + ) + ( + )§ =

ℎ
( + 2y + 2 + 2 + )
2
This rule gives area values < those existing under a curve, but may be usefully applied as a
check on areas found using more complex rules.
7.2.3 Simpson’s 1st (1/3) rule:

This law assumes that the bounding curve defined by three ordinates y0, y1 and y2 is a second
order polynomial (parabola) i.e. y=ax2 + bx + c.
See figure 7.3 below
65
From which,
C y
Y = £ (k))k = ¤ *< (k< ) = * (k ) + *y (ky ) + * (k )

? <¥
ℎ
= ¦ (k ) + 4 (ky ) + (k )§
3
ℎ
Y = ¦ + 4y + §
3
This rule may be extended to any area which is divided by odd number of ordinates in which
case the number of segments is even. The compound first rule obtains the total area under the
curve by adding together the areas defined by groups of three ordinates as follows as in Fig.
7.4 below
From fig. 7.4 above, Total Area = A1 + A2

ℎ
Yy = ¦ + 4y + §
3
ℎ
Yy = ¦ + 4 + §
3
66
Q
Hence, AT = A1 + A2 = ¦( + 4y + ) + ( + 4 + )§

ℎ
= ¦ + 4y + 2 + 4 + §
3
Graphically, we can show in short hand form how the Simpson’s First rule multiplierscan
easily be determined in fig. 7.5 below
Fig. 7.5
Here; 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 1 are called Simpson’s multipliers.
COROLLARY: The first rule is applicable only if the number of segments is even or
ordinate is odd. For example:
Area Divisions
No. of Ordinates 3 5 7 9 11 13 15, etc.
No. of Segments (Spaces) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14, etc.
A derivation of the first rule is now presented to illustrate the general principles governing
the application of Simpson’s rules. Consider Fig. 7.6 that follows;
If = %k + ,k + * … … … … … . (7.1)
67
Q
⇒Y+&% = ª (%k + ,k + *) )k
Q
?¬ e ¬
= « +, + *k + ) =

8 4
%ℎ + ,ℎ + 2*ℎ … … … … … … 7.2(%)
3 2
8ℎ
% + 2ℎ , + 2ℎ* … … … … … … (7.2 (,))
3
Using eqn. 7.1, we can substitute various values of x to get corresponding values for y at the
different stations.
So, at station 0 when x = 0, y0 = c… … … … … … (7.3)
At station 1 when x = h, y = ℎ % + ℎ, + * … … … … … … (7.4)
At station 2 when x = 2h, = 4ℎ % + 2ℎ, + * … … … … … … (7.5)
Now subtract eqn. (7.3) from eqn. (7.4) to eliminate ‘c’
i.e. y − = ℎ % + ℎ, + * − * = ℎ % + ℎ, … … … … … … (7.6)
Also subtract eqn. (7.3) from eqn. (7.5) to eliminate ‘c’
i.e. − = 4ℎ % + 2ℎ, + * − * = 4ℎ % + 2ℎ, … … … … … … (7.7)
We can now solve eqns. (7.6) and (7.7) simultaneously to eliminate ‘b’.
Hence;
y − = ℎ % + ℎ, … … … … … … (7.6)
− = 4ℎ % + 2ℎ, … … … … … … (7.7)
Multiplying eqn. (7.6) by 2 and subtracting result from eqn. (7.7) will eliminate ‘b’ so;
2(y − ) = 2ℎ % + 2ℎ, … … … … … … (7.8)
And
− = 4ℎ % + 2ℎ, … … … … … … (7.7)
Hence, eqn. (7.7) – eqn. (7.8) gives;
( − ) − 2(y − ) = 2ℎ % = − 2y +
− 2y +
%=
2ℎ
Multiplying eqn. (7.6) by 4 and subtracting result from eqn. (7.7) will eliminate ‘a’.
i.e.
4(y − ) = 4ℎ % + 4ℎ, … … … … … … (7.9)
− = 4ℎ % + 2ℎ, … … … … … … (7.7)
Hence, eqn. (7.7) – eqn. (7.9) gives;
68
( − ) − 4(y − ) = −2ℎ,
− 4y + 3 = −2ℎ,
−3 + 4y −
,=
2ℎ
* =
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ into eqn. (7.2 (a)) gives;
8ℎ ( − 2y + ) 4ℎ (−3 + 4y − )
Y+&% = + + 2ℎ.
3 2ℎ 2 2ℎ
4ℎ
= ( − 2y + ) + ℎ(−3 + 4y − ) + 2ℎ.
3
4ℎ 8y 4
= ℎ® − + − 3 + 4y − + 2 ¯
3 3 3
4 8y 4
= ℎ® − 3 + 2 + 4y − + − ¯
3 3 3
4 8y 4
= ℎ® − + 4y − + − ¯
3 3 3
4 − 3 + 12y − 8y + 4 − 3
= ℎ® ¯
3
Q
⇒Area = ( + 4y + )
7.2.3.1 APPLICATION OF FIRST RULE TO INTERMEDIATE ORDINATES

(ORDINATE BETWEEN TWO MAIN ORDINATES)
The first rule can further be extended to reduce computation when some segments of an area
are bounded by a curve which is changing rapidly while other parts of the curve are changing
very slowly or not at all. For example, the bow and stern portions of a ship’s shape are parts
of the ship where shape changes rapidly, while over the parallel middle body, the shape
remains constant.
The 1st rule is modified by the insertion of intermediate ordinates which are measured at
points half way between two of the main ordinates as follows.
From fig.(7.7) above,
69
1ℎ 1 y
Y+&% 1 = ® + 4° + y ¯ = ℎ ® + 2° + ¯
32 3 2 2
ℎ
( + 4 + )
Y+&% 2 =
3 y
1ℎ 1
Y+&% 3 = ® + 4° + ¯ = ℎ ® + 2° + ¯
32 3 2 2
Q ± ° e ²
⇒0.% Y+&% = ® + 2° + + y + 4 + + + 2° + ¯

ℎ 3y 3
=
® + 2° + + 4 + + 2° + ¯
3 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
³'1-(0/d (1c.'-'&+( ((. 1) = , 2, 1 , 4, 1 , 2,
2 2 2 2
N/B: The Simpson’s expressions for Areas A1 and A3 are divided by 2 because of the
intermediate ordinates between ordinates y0 and y1 for area A1 and ordinates y3 and y4 for
A3
7.2.4 Simpson’s 2nd (3/8) Rule

This rule assumes that the bounding curve defined by four ordinates y0, y1, y2 and y3 is a third
order polynomial i.e.
= %k + ,k + *k + ),
From which the area is found to be:

Y+&% = ´ ℎ ( + 3y + 3 + ) =
C
£ (k))k = ¤ *< (k< ) = * (k ) + *y (ky ) + * (k ) + * (k )

? <¥
ℎ
= 3 ¦ (k ) + 3 (ky ) + 3 (k ) + (k )§
8
See fig. 7.8 below;
70
This rule may be extended to any area which is defined by a number of ordinates such that
the number of spaces or segments between the ordinates can be divided by three. For
example:
Area Divisions
No. of Ordinates 4 7 10 13 16 19, etc.
No. of Segments 3 6 9 12 15 18, etc.
(spaces)
7.2.4.1 THE COMPOUND SECOND RULE
The compound second rule obtains the total area under the curve by adding the areas defined
by groups of four ordinates as follows;
From fig. 7.9, total area = Area 1 + Area 2
Q
But, Yy = ( + 3y + 3 + ) and;
´
3ℎ
Y = ( + 3 + 3s + t )
8
Q
⇒0.% Y+&% = YM = ( + 3y + 3 + 2 + 3 + 3s + t )
´
71
Where the multipliers inside the brackets for the 2nd rule become;
1, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 1.
Graphically, we can show in short hand form how the Simpson’s Second rule multipliers can
easily be determined in fig. 7.10 below
Here, 1, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 1 are the multipliers for the second rule.

COROLLARY: The second rule is applicable only if the number of segments is divisible by
three (3).
N/B: Derivation of Simpson’s second rule is a Trial question for any curious student!
Corollary about the application of Simpson’s rules;
Rule 2 is used to obtain area when the first rule will not fit
Where both rules will fit, it is conventional to use the first rule in preference to
the second.
Where neither of these rules fit, then the area must be divided into subsections,
and each area found separately and the sum of the areas found.
7.2.5 APPENDAGES
It is often the case that there are small areas which it is inconvenient to include within
the main area to be measured using the rules. These appendages such as the bulbous
bow must be measured separately and added to the main area. In many cases these
appendages will be approximately triangular in shape. Although it would be possible
to divide each water-plane length into equal slices, this is usually not done in practice
because we want to measure width ordinates at station intervals common to all the
water-planes. As these increase in length progressively with the height of the water-
72
plane above the keel, there will usually be residual areas protruding beyond the fixed
measuring stations. Consider for example, a water-plane close to the keel that does
not extend to the fore and aft perpendiculars
The darker shaded appendage areas are assumed to be triangular with base lengths “a”
and “b” and perpendicular heights “w2” and “w8” respectively. For the sake of
simplicity, in this case we have only taken half ordinates at full station intervals,
though the principle of calculating the appendage areas could still be applied if we
had included half station measurements at stations 1.5 and 8.5. This would reduce the
areas of appendages and increase the accuracy of the approximation. Notice that the
common interval for the calculation remains as 0.1 of the length between
perpendiculars, even though this particular water-plane does not actually extend over
the entire length. At deeper drafts, the water-planes extend beyond the perpendiculars
and may include widths measured at station 10.5 aft of the rudder stock or station -0.5
forward of the forward perpendicular.
?∗V F V V´ C∗V´
Total WPA = 2µ
+ y + $3 + $4 + $5 + $6 + $7 +
+
¶
N/B: for most problems relating to ship shapes, the water plane is involved and
stations are measured along the centerline of the vessel. The ordinates are then
measured to the shell plating of the ship on one side only, it being assumed that port
and starboard sides are identical. Ordinates measured on one side only of the
centerline are termed half ordinates. To find the area of the whole water plane
therefore, it is only necessary to calculate the area of half the water plane and then
double the area found to obtain the area of the whole water plane.
Example application of Simpson’s Rules
73
Example 7.1: A vessel of length 90m has equally spaced half ordinates of the water-plane as
follows, commencing from the aft perpendicular. Find the area of the water-plane.
Station 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
½ Ordinate (m) 0.1 2.2 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.0 2.6 2.4 0.3
Solution
It’s necessary to represent this information graphically using the half water plane as shown.
The number of ordinates (odd-numbered) in fig.7.11 shows that we can use Simpson’s 1st
Q
rule for the determination of the water plane area, i.e. Y = ( + 4y + )

By dividing the figure into 4 areas

ℎ ℎ ℎ
Yy = ( + 4y + ); Y = ( + 4 + ); Y = ( + 4s + t );
3 3 3
ℎ
Y = (t + 4r + ´ )
3
Where h = common interval = 90/8 = 11.25m
i.e. h = length of vessel/number of equal divisions
AT = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
Q
= ( + 4y + + + 4 + + + 4s + t + t + 4r + ´ )
ℎ
= ( + 4y + 2 + 4 + 2 + 4s + 2t + 4r + ´ )
3
Here, Simpson’s Multipliers are: 1,4,2,4,2,4,2,4,1 (coefficients of the ordinates in the
bracket).
N/B: At this point, we can substitute values of the ordinates directly to determine the area of
the half-ordinates of the water-plane as follows:
Substituting values give;
yy.s
AT= ¦0.1 + 4(2.2) + 2(2.5) + 4(2.7) + 2(3.0) + 4(3.0) + 2(2.6) + 4(2.4) + 0.3§

74
11.25
= ¦0.1 + 8.8 + 5.0 + 10.8 + 6.0 + 12.0 + 5.2 + 9.6 + 0.3§
3
11.25
= (57.8)
3
= 216.751 (.ℎ'( '( %+&% 0+ .ℎ& ℎ% − 0+)'/%.&( 0 .ℎ& $%.&+
− -%/&)
For the Full water-plane area, we multiply the above result by 2,
i.e.¸¹¸ m. = lºº. ¸
Alternatively, we can set up a solution table using the Simpson’s Multipliers developed for
this scenario and values of the half-ordinates as follows:
Solution table for the sample problem
Stations ½ ordinates (m) Simpson’s multipliers Functions for area
0 0.1 1 0.1
1 2.2 4 8.8
2 2.5 2 5.0
3 2.7 4 10.8
4 3.0 2 6.0
5 3.0 4 12.0
6 2.6 2 5.2
7 2,4 4 9.6
8 0.3 1 0.3
∑ 57.8
y
Hence, Area = 2 × × ℎ ∑function for area
75
1
= 2 × × 11.25 × 57.8
3
= 433.51
Trial Question
Determine the errors associated with using Simpson’s Rules to determine the area under the
curve: y = 6 + 4x – x2 within limits x = 0 to x = 3.
Hint: Analytically integrate thefunction, y = 6 + 4x – x2 between limits x = 0 to x = 3.
Then, determine values of y0, y½, y1, y1½, y2, y2½ and y3 by substituting x = 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½,
3into the function, y = 6 + 4x – x2 and set them as values for the ordinates to be used in
relevant Simpson’s formula in order to determine the area. Compare results of Analytical
integration and that from Simpson’s approximation to determine error.
7.2.6.VOLUMES OF SHIP SHAPES AND SIMILAR FIGURES
Given the fig. 7.12 below;
If the areas of these ordinates are known at equidistant intervals then, the volume can be
found using suitable application of Simpson’s rule.For this figure, we can apply Simpson’s
1st rule, hence;Volume = h/3* ∑f (volume), where h = common interval.Thus the volume of
displacement of a ship to any particular draft can be found first by calculating the areas of
waterplane or transverse areas. And then using these areas as ordinates to find the volume by
Simpson’s rules
Example 7.2:The areas of a ship’s water-planes are as follows;
76
Draft (m) 0 1 2 3 4
Area of WP (m2) 650 660 662 661 660
Calculate the ship’s displacement in tons when floating in salt water at 4 meters draft
Solution:
We can represent the information pictorially as follows:
From the above, Simpson’s 1st rule can be applied to determine the volume of displacement
since the draft ordinates is odd. Hence, total Volume = V1 + V2. By the application of the
Simpson’s 1st rule:
ℎ ℎ
by = (% + 4%y + % ); b = (% + 4% + % )
3 3
Q Q
⇒bM = by + b = (% + 4%y + % + % + 4% + % ) = (% + 4%y + 2% + 4% + % )
From where Simpson’s Multipliers (S.M) become: 1, 4, 2, 4, and 1.

The solution table thus follows:
Solution table
Draft (m) Area (m2) S.M Volume function
0 650 1 650
1 660 4 2640
2 662 2 1324
77
3 661 4 2644
4 660 1 660
Σ 7918
Q
Volume = Σ(0c1& c/*.'0/)

y
= × 7918 = 2839.33m
Hence sea water displacement = b × u=:?V?A:S
=1.025 × 2639.33
= 2705.32 tons
N/B: The common interval, h, in the above example is the draft intervals which is 1.
Example 7.3:A ship’s breadthat 9m intervals commencing from forward are as follows;
0, 7.6, 8.7, 9.2, 9.5, 9.4 and 8.5 meters respectively. Abaft the last ordinate is an appendage of
50m2. Find the total area of the water plane.
Appendage area=50m2
A1 Appendage
Solution:
For this problem, the appendage area shall be added to the other area that will be estimated
for the seven (7) breadth ordinates preceding the appendage area using any of the appropriate
rules.
The solution table can then be set as follows expressly:
Solution Table
78
Ordinates S.M Product for
areas
0 1 0
7.6 4 30.4
8.7 2 17.4
9.2 4 36.8
9.5 2 19.0
9.4 4 37.6
8.5 1 8.5
Σ 149.7
ℎ 9
Y+&% 0 $%.&+-%/& = Σy = 149.7 ×
3 3
Ay = 449.1m
Total area of water plane
= Ay + appendage Area = 449.1 + 50 = 499.1m
N/B:
Appendage areas if given are added to the areas of water-plane calculated using
Simpson’s rules to arrive at the total area of the water plane. Appendages are small
areas often not convenient to add within the main areas to be determined by rules.
Their areas are added separately to the main area. Bulbous bow is an example of an
appendage.
If half breadth is used in the above calculation, then the area of half of the water plane
is found hence, total areas is gotten by multiplying area of the half water-plane by two
(2) before adding the appendage area.

7.2.7 Simpson’s third rule −

79
This rule is used to find the area between two consecutive ordinates when three consecutive
ordinates are known. It states that the area between two consecutive ordinates is equal to five
times the first ordinate plus eight times the middle ordinate minus the external ordinate, all
multiplied by 1/12 of the common interval.
Applying the 3rd rule to fig. 7.13 above,
Ì
Ë = ¦Í + Î − Ï§ × ÐÑ × Òº
¸ ¸
Where Òº = ÓÔÕd ºÖ

ÏÔ
Q Q
Hence Y+&% 1 = ¦5% + 8, − *§ and Y+&% 2 = ¦5* + 8, − %§
y y
Example 7.4
Three consecutive ordinates in a ship’s water-plane spaced 6 meters apart are 14m, 15m and
15.5m respectively. Find the area between the last two ordinates.
Solution
Q
Shaded area (,*) = y ¦5* + 8, − %§
6
= ¦5(15.5) + 8(15) − 14.0§
12
Y+&% = 91.751
Total area of the example figure is
80
ℎ ℎ
YM = (5(15.5) + 8(15) − 14 + (5(14) + 8(15) − 15.5)
12 12
ℎ
(Y + Yy ) = (5 + 8y − + 5 + 8y −
12
ℎ ℎ
= ¦4(15.5) + 16(15) + 4(14)§ ≡ 4 + 16y + 4
12 12
ℎ ℎ
= ¦15.5 + 4(15) + 14§ ≡ + 4y +
3 3
6
= ¦89.5§ = n¸
3
Example 7.5: A vessel has the following water-plane areas at the drafts given as shown in
fig. 7.14 below:Find displacement of vessel in salt water at draft 2m, 6m, and 10m
Draft (m) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Area (m2) 350 2500 3450 3960 4000 4030
Solution:
Displacement (mass) = Volume displacement *uo
At draft 2m: We will resort to the Simpson’s third rule which states that the area between
two consecutive ordinates, given three consecutive ordinates, is equal to five times the first
ordinate plus eight times the middle ordinate minus the external ordinate, all multiplied by
1/12 of the common interval.
Hence, ordinates 0, 2 & 4 will be considered for the displacement at draft 2m as the
following figure 7.15 depicts:
81
Here, the common (CI), h = 2
Station (draft) Area (m2) S.M Function for volume
0 350 5 1750
2 2500 8 20000
4 3450 -1 -3450
Σ 18300
Q
Volume = . ×( c/*.'0/ 0+ 0c1&)
2
× 18300 = º º
12
Displacement (mass) = volume displacement * density
= 3050 * 1.025 = 3126.25 tons
N/B: 1 ton =1m3
At draft 6m, we will consider fig. 7.16 below for the analysis:
Here, we shall use Simpson’s 2nd rule to determine the displacement at draft 6m since the
number of segments are divisible by 3. Hence, volume displacement =

´
ℎ . ×( c/*.'0/ 0 0c1&) and so, the following solution table suffices.
82
Station (draft) Area (m2) S.M Function for volume
0 350 1 350
2 2500 3 7500
4 3450 3 10350
6 3960 1 3960
Σ 22160
We can now substitute values from the table above into the expression for volume
displacement, i.e.

Volume = ´ ℎ . ×( c/*.'0/ 0 0c1&)
3
= × 2 × 22160 = mm¸ º
8
But, Displacement (mass) = volume displacement * ρseawater
= 16620 * 1.025 = 17035.5 tons
At draft 10m, we will consider the whole water-plane as given in fig. 7.17below. Here,
we consider sub-dividing the water-plane into two (2) areas namely: Area 1 with 3
ordinates and Area 2 with 4 ordinates.
For area A1 we will apply Simpson’s 1st rulewhile for Area A2 we will apply Simpson’s 2nd
rule. The following solution table therefore applies at draft 10m.
83
Station Area (m2) S.M for 1st Function for S.M for 2nd Function for
(Draft) Rule volume 0-4 Rule volume 4-10
0 350 1 350
2 2500 4 10000
4 3450 1 3450 1 3450
6 3960 3 11880
8 4000 3 12000
10 4030 1 4030
Σ 13800 Σ 31360
Q
Hence, Volume 0-4 = . ×( c/*.'0/ 0 0c1&)
2
= × 13800 = 9200 1
3

Also, Volume 4-10 = ℎ . ×( c/*.'0/ 0 0c1&)
´
3
= × 2 × 31360 = 23520 1
8
0.% 0c1& = 9200 + 23520 = 32720 1
⇒ Displacement (mass) = volume displacement * ρseawater
32720 ∗ 1.025 = 33538 .0//&(.
Trial Question
Derive multipliers to obtain the area of the shaded portion of the figure 7.18 below. N/B: All
ordinates are to be used.
84
Hint:
Use the 2nd Rule for area bordering Y1 → Y4------------(1)
Use the 3rd Rule for area bordering Y1 → Y3, to determine area bounded within Y1 → Y2,
choosing Y3 as the ordinate external to ordinates Y1 → Y2 --------------- (2)
Use the 3rd Rule for area bordering Y4 → Y2, to determine area bounded within Y4 → Y3,
choosing Y2 as the ordinate external to ordinates Y4 → Y3 --------------- (3)
Add, eqns. (2) and (3) ------------------------------------- (4)
Then, subtract eqn. (4) from eqn. (1) to arrive at the solution: the area of the shaded portion.
y
Ans: ℎ¦−y + 13 + 13 − §
85
8.0 MOMENTS OF AREAS & VOLUME &CENTROID
8.1 First Moments of areas and volumes
The value of the first moment of area is required in order to calculate the position of the
centroid of the area. The position of the centroid represents the position of the center of
floatation of a water plane and the position of the center of buoyancy of the underwater
volume of a vessel.
Recall from elementary mechanics, the following figure 8.1:
Consider an area A with an elemental area, ∂A at a distance r from an axis passing through o.
First moment of the elemental area, ∂A= r∂A ……... (1)
First moment of the full area, A = Σr∂A ……... (2)
Also, First moment of the full area, A = A ……... (3)
Equating eqn. (2) and (3) gives;
A = Σr∂A
Σr ∂A
=
Y
Ùirst moment of area

=
%+&%
ÙÛÜÝÞ \ß\àáÞ ßâ ãßäå\à
In a similar way, = , $ℎ&+& b = Y. Z
}6789:
8.2 Second moments of areas (see fig.8.1)
The 2nd moment of area is a mathematical form which arises from the moment of inertia of a
rotating mass. In general, the energy of a body can be written as:
86
0.% &/&+ = . æ + . æ + 0.%.'0/% æ/&+
1 1
= 1ℎ + 1 + çω
2 2
Where ω = angular velocity,
I = moment of inertia about the axis of rotation = Cma2 (where c = a constant)
m = the mass of the body
a = some dimension of the body
Similar mathematics to the above can be used to find the 2nd moment of volume or the
second moment of area. The term 2nd moment is used because of the a2 term in the
expression. “Cma” is the 1st moment used to find the center of gravity of a body; Cma2 is the
2nd moment.
N/B: It is not surprising that inertia should play some part in assessing the stability of ships
and other floating bodies because ships are rotating about some axes as they roll and pitch.
The mathematical form of 2nd moments appear when analyzing transverse and longitudinal
stability.
Consider now an area, A, rotating about some axis Y with an angular velocity (fig8.2). éY is
an element of the area at a distance r from the axis Y.
y
The KEof the element = éYb
Linear velocity;b = +ωy
y
⇒æ = éY+ ωy
87
And for the full area, A:
1
æ = × éY+ ωy
2
1
= ω ×éY+
2 y
The value of ×éY+ will be a constant when considering the rotation of the area about any
given axis. Ar2 is the second moment of the area about the axis Y.
For our work on ship stability, we require two values of 2nd moments and shortly will follow
an investigation of one of the several theorems which connect the 2nd moments of an area
about different axes.
8.3 SECOND MOMENT OF A RECTANGLE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH ITS

CENTRIOD.
Consider fig. 8.3 below:
Area of elemental strip = Z ∗ ),
H

0.% Y+&%, YM = £ Z ∗ ), =

First moment of elemental area about CL axis = Area * perpendicular distance = _Z ∗ ),` ∗ ,
H
First moment of full area; ^M = ª Z ∗ , ∗ ),
2nd moment of strip = 101&/. 0 '+(. 101&/. = _Z ∗ ),` ∗ , = Z ∗ , ∗ ),
88
H H
Second moment of full area =ªêH Z ∗ , ∗ ), = 2ª Z ∗ , ∗ ),

H
FC e He y FHe
= 2« = 2Z × =
´ y
8.4 Second moment of rectangle about one side (edge)
Area of strip =Z ∗ ),
H
0.% %+&%; YM = £ Z ∗ ),

First moment of elemental area= elemental area * perpendicular distance = Z ∗ ), ∗ ,
H
'+(. 101&/. 0 c %+&%, ^M = £ Z ∗ ), ∗ ,

H
Second moment of a strip = ª Z ∗ , ∗ ), =
H
Z, Z[
ë ì =
3 3
8.5 THE PARALLEL AXES THEOREM
The parallel axes theorem is used in cases where we wish to determine the 2nd moment of an
area about one axis (YY) and we already know or can find the value of the 2nd moment of
the area about another axis which is parallel to YY. See fig 8.5 below.
89
Consider the second moment of the area about an axis YY, given that NA is an axis parallel
to YY and that NA passes through the centroid of the area, located at C. see fig. 8.5 below:
Area of strip = ydx
]
First moment of area of strip about neutral axis, NA is = ªê| k)k
Second moment of the area of strip = moment of inertia of strip
]
= ç|K = £ k )k
ê|
Similarly, first moment of area of strip about an axis YY, parallel to the NA is;
]
£ _ℎ + k` ∗ )k
ê|
Second moment of area of strip about YY axis = moment of inertia about YY; i.e.
] ]
ç = £ _ℎ + k` ∗ )k = £ _ℎ + 2ℎk + k ` ∗ )k

ê| ê|
] ] ]
= £ ℎ )k + £ 2ℎk)k + £ k )k

ê| ê| ê|
] ]
Now, ªê| ℎ )k = ℎ ªê| )k = ℎ Y and;
90
] ]
£ 2ℎk)k = 2ℎ £ k)k
ê| ê|
]
= 0 ('/*& 1(. 101&/. %,0c. .ℎ& /&c.+% %k'(, £ k)k = 0
ê|
]
Also, ªê| k )k = ç|K
⇒ç = ç|K + ℎ Y 0+ ç|K = ç − ℎ Y
i.e. the parallel axes theorem states that the 2nd moment of an area (moment of Inertia) about
an axis (YY) which is parallel to an axis passing through the centroid of the area (NA) is the
sum of the 2nd moment about the axis through the centroid and the product of the area and
the square of the distance between the axes. Note that, when the parallel axes theorem is
applied to a rectangle to determine the 2nd moment about an edge, knowing that the 2nd
ízº
moment of the rectangle about the center-line is ¸ ; we can state that:
Z[ [
ç:;W: = çXF + Yℎ =

+ Z[ î ï
12 2
Z[ Z[ Z[
= + =
12 4 3
Which confirms the derivation of the 2nd moment about a center-line and edge for a
rectangle.
8.6 APPLICATION OF SIMPSON’S RULES

In working with water planes and underwater volumes of ships and other structures, we need
to apply Simpson’s rules to finding;
• Areas and volumes of curved shapes.

• 1st moments of these areas and volumes
• 2nd moments of curved areas.
The 1st moments of the areas and volumes are used to find the distance of the centroid of the
area or volume from a given axis, while the 2nd moments of areas are used in the calculation
of initial transverse and longitudinal stability.
8.6.1: To find moment about Transverse axis, YY/Longitudinal moment
91
From fig. 8.6 above, Area of strip = y*dl
First moment of area of strip = Area * perpendicular distance of area from axis YY = (y*dl)*
l
2nd moment of area of strip = Moment of 1st moment of area = 1st moment of Area *
perpendicular distance of area from axis YY = (y*dl)* l2
⇒Area of ½ water-plane = (c1 0 % (c*ℎ (.+'-( %0/ .ℎ& &/.ℎ 0 .ℎ& (ℎ'- =
7
ª ∗ )
Similarly, 1st moment of area of ½ water-plane relative to the transverse axis YY
7
= (c1 0 % 1(. 101&/.( 0 (c*ℎ (.+'-( %0/ .ℎ& &/.ℎ 0 (ℎ'- = ª )
And 2nd moment of the area = moment of inertia of ½ water plane relative to the transverse
7
axis YY =(c1 0 % 2/) 101&/.( 0 (c*ℎ (.+'-( %0/ .ℎ& (ℎ'- &/.ℎ = ª )
N/B: The integral part can be evaluated by Simpson’s rules using the values of l2y as
ordinates and the second moment about YY is found by multiplying the result by two.
The effect of translating these quantities into areas is shown in figures (8.7) (a), (b) and
(c)where (a) is area, (b) is the 1st moment of the area and (c) is the 2nd moment of area.
TABLES 8.1 – 8.4that follow give the standard proforma for calculating these values using
Simpson’s rules. Table 8.1 gives the standard proforma for calculating values relative toaxis
YY using Simpson’s Rules. This work has been reduced by noting that for, say, y2 in Table
8.2,
F(1st moments) = F (area) x 2h =4y2h.
And in table 8.3
F2nd moments) = F (1st moments) x 2h = 8h2y2
92
Note also that h and h2 are common factors in the tables for 1st moments and second
moments respectively.
7 ]
£ ) = ¤_< ℎ< `)

<¥y
93
7 ]
£ ) = ¤_< ℎ < `)

<¥y
Table 8.1 (Area)
Station Ordinates Simpson’s multiplier F(area)
0 y0 1 0
1 y1 4 4y1
2 y2 2 2y2
3 y3 4 4y3
4 y4 2 2y4
5 y5 4 4y5
6 y6 1 y6
Σ f(Area)
ℎ
Y+&% = × _Y+&%`
3
94
Table 8.2 (1st moment)
Station Ordinates Simpson’s multiplier F(1st moment)
0 0y0 1 0
1 hy1 4 4hy1
2 2hy2 2 4hy2
3 3hy3 4 12hy3
4 4hy4 2 8hy4
5 5hy5 4 20hy5
6 6hy6 1 6hy6
Σ f(1st moment)
Q
1st moment about station 0 = × _1(. 101&/.`
Table 8.3 (2nd moment)
Station Ordinates Simpson’s multiplier F(2nd moment)
0 0y0 1 0
1 h2y1 4 4h2y2
2 4h2y2 2 8h2y2
95
3 9h2y3 4 36h2y2
4 16h2hy4 2 32h2y2
5 25h2y5 4 100h2y2
6 36h2y6 1 36h2y6
Σ f (2nd moment)
Q
2nd moment about station 0 = × _2/) 101&/.`
Table 8.4: GENERAL SOLUTION TABLE USING SIMPSON’S 1ST RULE
Station Ord. S.M F(area) Lever for Lever for
1st F(1st moment) 2nd F(2nd moment)

moment moment
0 y0 1 y0 0 0 0 0
1 y1 4 4y1 1 4y1 1 4y2
2 y2 2 2y2 2 4y2 2 8y2
3 y3 4 4y3 3 12y3 3 36y2
4 y4 2 2y4 4 8y4 4 32y2
5 y5 4 4y5 5 20y5 5 100y2
6 y6 1 y6 6 6y6 6 36y6
Σ f(Area) Σ f(1st moment) Σ f(2nd moment)
96
N/B: Values on Tables 8.1-8.4 above are with respect to the application of Simpson’s
first rule. The coefficients of the ordinates for the moment and formula for the moments
will change if the second rule was used.
From table 8.4above:
Q
Y+&% = × _Y+&%`

1st moment of area about station

Q
0= %+&% ∗ 101&/. %+1 _ℎ` = ℎ× _1(. 101&/.` =
Q
× _1(. 101&/.`
2nd moment of area about station 0 = 101&/. 0 '/&+.'% =

1(. 101&/. ∗ 101&/. %+1 _ℎ` =
Q Qe
ℎ × _2/) 101&/.` = × _2/) 101&/.`

In general, we need to use the area and 1st moment of the area to find the position of the
centroid of the area (or of the volume when volume is being considered). Thus, to find the
position of the centroid of the area about axis YY, we use;
Q
1(. 101&/. 0 %+&% . ℎ× _1(. 101&/.`
k̅ = =
%+&% Q
× _Y+&%`

ℎ× _1(. 101&/.`
k̅ =
× _Y+&%`
For work on longitudinal stability, we require the 2ndmoment about the transverse axis
which passes through the centroid of the area. By making use of the theorem of parallel
axes, we can say that;
ç|K = ç − Yk̅
97
8.6.2: TRANSVERSE MOMENT/ MOMENT ABOUT A LONGITUDINAL AXIS
X.X/CENTRELINE.
To find the moment about a longitudinal axis X-Xi.e. centerline
The first and 2nd moments of the ship’s water-plane about its centerline are important values
in the calculation of its stability data. These values are determined at the design stage of the
vessel and are not normally calculated by the mariner. However, having an understanding of
the means by which these figures are obtained is of value and is explained thus:
When finding the centroid of the area relative to axis XX, note that the 1st moment of the
ship area y*dl is (y/2) y dl = (y2/2) dl. See Fig.8.8 below.
7
Hence, the 1st moment of the area =ª )
2
In finding the 2nd moment of the area about an axis, note that the second moment of area of

the rectangular strip, y*dl, about axis XX is 3 )
7 e 7 e
Hence the second moment of the area along the ship length = ª
) = 2 ª
) for the full
area.
Conversely, if we compare the following fig. 8.9 and fig.8.3 of section 8.3;
98
we can comfortably say that L = dx along the length of the ship while, B = 2y, the full
breadth of the ship’s water-plane and that of the rectangle.
Now, since the second moment of area = moment of inertia of a rectangle about an axis
FHe
through its centroid = y
as determined in section 8.3; we can write for the full water-plane
area of fig.8.9 that:
Z[ )k ∗ _2` 2
)I ≡ ≡ = )k
12 12 3
Where, dI is the differential of moment of inertia and so, taking the Integral would give:
7 e
I = 2ª ) , which is the same as previously determined.

N/B: The integral part of the above expression can then be evaluated by relevant Simpson’s
Rule using the value of y3 (i.e., the cube of the half-breadth) as ordinates and the second
moment of area about center-line, ICL, is found by multiplying the result by 2/3.
The effect of translating these quantities into areas is shown in Fig. 8.10 (a), (b) and (c) where
(b) is the 1st moment and (c) is the 2nd moment.
99
To find the 1st moment of the water-plane about its centerline, the following solution
table 8.5 may be used.
Table 8.5
Station Ord Ord2 Simpson’s Multiplier F(Second moment)
0 y0 y02 1 y02
1 y1 y12 4 4y12
2 y2 y22 2 2y22
3 y3 y32 4 4y32
4 y4 y42 2 2y42
5 y5 y52 4 4y52
100
6 y6 y62 1 y62
Σ f(1st moment)
And 1st moment of the water plane about centerline or longitudinal axis =
Q y
. Σ f_1st moment)

To find the second moment of the water-plane area about its centerline; the
following table 8.6 suffices.
Table 8.6
Station Ord Ord3 Simpson’s Multiplier F(Second moment)
0 y0 y03 1 y03
1 y1 y13 4 4y13
2 y2 y23 2 2y23
3 y3 y33 4 4y33
4 y4 y43 2 2y43
5 y5 y53 4 4y53
6 y6 y63 1 y63
Σ f(2nd moment)
And 2nd moment of the water plane about centerline or longitudinal axis =
Q y
. Σ f(1st moment)

Q y
Note that for the whole water-plane (i.e. both halves), Second moment becomes = 2 . . Σ F
(2nd moment)
101
Equally note that the multipliers and formulae for both the 1st and second moments will
change if Simpson’s 2nd rule was used in tables 8.5 and 8.6
8.6.3: DETERMINING THE VALUES OF 1ST AND 2ND MOMENTS ABOUT AXES
FOR SHIP’S WATERPLANES
The procedure for determining the values of 1st and 2nd moments about transverse and
longitudinal axes for ship’s water-planes can best be understood by the examination of a
worked example in conjunction with the explanation given above. The following example
serves as an illustration of these methods.
Example 8.1: A vessel of length 20m has the half ordinates of water-plane values as shown,
commencing at the after perpendicular (AP)
Station 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ord 0 10.0 13.0 14.0 14.2 14.2 14.1 14.0 11.5 6.2 0.2
Find;
a. The area of the water plane

b. The position of the centroid of the water-plane relative to the after perpendicular i.e.
transverse axis.
c. The second moment of the area about a transverse axis through the centroid or
longitudinal moment of inertia. (Parallel axis theorem must be used).
d. The second moment of the area about a longitudinal axis through the
centerline/longitudinal axis or transverse moment of inertia (cube the ordinates and
multiply by relevant Simpson’s multipliers (S.M.)).
SOLUTION
The first step is to present the given information pictorially so that the number of ½
ordinates will be clear enough to direct which of the approximate rules for Area is be
applied for the analysis.
Hence, below shows the ½ ordinates.
102
From the above, it is clear that we have Eleven (11) ½ ordinates and Ten (10)
segments which is indivisible be Three (3) and so, Simpson’s 1st rule is the
appropriate rule to apply.
I.e. Y+&% = ℎ/3_0 + 41 + 2` and
y y y
%+&% 0 $%.&+ − -%/& = . ℎ Σ _Y+&%` = 2 ∗ . ℎΣ _Y+&%` for the Full water-
plane.
Here,
Σ _Y+&%` *%/ ,& )&.&+1'/&) , (&..'/ c- .ℎ& (0c.'0/ .%,& %( 00$(:
N/B: If the division of the area was odd with segments divisible by Three (3), we
would have contemplated using the Simpson’s 2nd rule. Notwithstanding, even when
we have Area divided by odd ordinates whose segment is divisible by Three (3), for
example; Area having Thirteen (13) ordinates and Twelve (12) segments, we should
checked if Simpson’s 1st could also be applicable. If applicable then, we should
choose the 1st rule in preference to the 2nd rule.
Since we have chosen Simpson’s 1st rule for this problem, the next step is to delineate
the given area into sub-areas as follows:
Hence, Total Area of ½ water-plane, AT = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5

Where;A1 = ℎ/3_0 + 41 + 2`; A2 = ℎ/3_2 + 43 + 4`;
A3 = ℎ/3_4 + 45 + 6`; A4 = ℎ/3_6 + 47 + 8`; A5 = ℎ/3_8 + 49 +
10`
103
∴ AT = h/3_y0 + 4y1 + y2 + y2 + 4y3 + y4 + y4 + 4y5 + y6 + y6 + 4y7 + y8
+ y8 + 4y9 + y10`
= h/3_y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 + 4y5 + 2y6 + 4y7 + 2y8 + 4y9 + y10`
From the above, we can pick out the coefficients of the ½ ordinates (ys) as Simpson’s
multipliers as follows: 1, 4,2,4,2,4,2,4,2,4,1
With these we can generate the solution table as follows:
Solution Table for the example problem 8.1
Station ½ S.M F Lever for F (1st Lever for F (2nd

ord. (area) moment) moment)
(1st (2nd moment)
moment)
(AP)0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 10.0 4 40.0 1 40.0 1 40.0
2 13.0 2 26.0 2 52.0 2 104.0
3 14.0 4 56.0 3 168.0 3 504.0
4 14.2 2 28.4 4 113.6 4 454.0
5 14,2 4 56.8 5 284.0 5 1420.0
6 14.1 2 28.2 6 169.2 6 1015.2
7 14.0 4 56.0 7 392.0 7 2744.0
8 11.5 2 23.0 8 184.0 8 1472.0
9 6.2 4 24.8 9 223.2 9 2008.8
10 0.2 1 0.2 10 2.0 10 20.0
Sum (Σ) 339.4 1628.0 9702.4
With the solution table generated, we can now determine the requirements as follows:
y
a. Area of water-plane = Y+&% 0 c $%.&+ − -%/& = 2 × . ℎ Σ _Y+&%`
104
1
= 2 × × 20 × 339.4 = l¸. º¸
3
Where, h = common interval = Ship Length/No. of equal divisions = 200/10 = 20
Q ÷ B_y=A 969:A`
b. Centroid about Y =
÷ B_KS:?`
20 × 1628.0
= = 95.931 0+$%+) 0 Y
339.4
c. To determine the second moment of the area about a transverse axis through the
centroid or longitudinal moment of inertia, we will first need to determine the second
moment of area of the water-plane (moment of Inertia) about the Aft Perpendicular
then, modify it by applying the parallel axes theorem as follows:
1
&*% .ℎ%.: çKp = 2 × × ℎ × _2/) 101&/.`
3
1
= 2 × × 20 × 9782.4 = 521728001
3
This value must now be modified using the parallel axes theorem in order to obtain the 2nd
moment of area of the water-plane about an axis through the centroid of the water-plane, as
follows
ç|K = çKp − Yk
= 52172800 − _4525.3 × 95.92 `
= 105284331
d. To determine the 2nd moment of the water-plane area about the centerline, cube the
ordinates and multiply them term-wise with the relevant Simpson’s multipliers and
take the sum as follows:
Station ½ Ord ½ Ord3 S.M F (2nd moment)
0 0 0 1 0
1 10.0 1000.0 4 4000.0
2 13.0 2197.0 2 4394.0
3 14.0 2744.0 4 10976.0
105
4 14.2 2863.0 2 5726.0
5 14.2 2863.0 4 11452.0
6 14.1 2803.0 2 5606.0
7 14.0 2744.0 4 10976.0
8 11.5 1520.0 2 3040.0
9 6.2 238.0 4 952.0
10 0.2 0.0 1 0
Sum (Σ) 57122.0
ℎ&/, 2nd moment of the water − plane area about the centerline ( çXF )
Q y y y
= 2 . . Σ F (2nd^01&/.) = 2 × × × 20 × 57122.0
= 253875.61
Example 8.2: The half breadth of the water-plane of a ship at intervals of 30m commencing
from aft are as follows; 0, 7.0, 13.6, 16.9, 17.8, 18.0, 17.2, 14.5, 10.0, 4.7, and 0m. Determine
(a) the area of the water-plane (b) the position of the longitudinal Centre of floatation (i.e. the
centroid of the water-plane) L.C.F about amid-ship (c) the transverse moment of inertia about
L.C.F (d) the longitudinal moment of inertia about the Centre of floatation.
Solution
In a similar fashion, the first thing to do is to present the information diagrammatically.

However, remembering that Longitudinal Center of floatation is always determined
relative to amidships and so moment is always taken relative to the center of the ship
(amidships), the figure should look like the following:
106
Next, is to determine the appropriate rule to apply to the above figure. Since there are odd-
numbered ordinates and even numbered segments, the most appropriate rule to apply should
be the Simpson’s first rule. Following the First rule, we can then further sub-divide the area
into 5 (five) sub-areas as follows:
AT = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
By application of the first rule,
A1 = ℎ/3_0 + 41 + 2`; A2 = ℎ/3_2 + 43 + 4`;

A3 = ℎ/3_4 + 45 + 6`; A4 = ℎ/3_6 + 47 + 8`; A5 = ℎ/3_8 + 49 +
10`
∴ AT = h/3_y0 + 4y1 + y2 + y2 + 4y3 + y4 + y4 + 4y5 + y6 + y6 + 4y7 + y8
+ y8 + 4y9 + y10`
= h/3_y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 + 4y5 + 2y6 + 4y7 + 2y8 + 4y9 + y10`
From the above, we can pick out the coefficients of the ½ ordinates (ys) as Simpson’s
multipliers as follows: 1, 4,2,4,2,4,2,4,2,4,1
With these we can generate the solution table as follows noting that levers (moment
arm) aft of amidships are positive while levers (moment arm) forward of
amidships are negative.
107
Solution Table for example problem 8.2
½ S.M F(area) Lever 1st Lever 2nd (½ S.M F(2nd

Ord moment moment Ord)3 moment)
A.P 0 1 0 +5 `0 +5 0 0 1 0
7.0 4 28.0 +4 112.0 +4 448.0 343 4 1372
13.6 2 27.2 +3 81.6 +3 244.8 2515 2 5030
16.9 4 67.2 +2 135.2 +2 270.4 4827 4 19308
17.8 2 35.6 +1 35.6 +1 35.6 5640 2 11280
Ф 18.0 4 72.0 0 364.4A 0 0 5832 4 23328
17.2 2 34.4 -1 -34.4 -1 34.4 5088 2 10176
14.5 4 58.0 -2 -116.0 -2 232.0 3049 4 12196
10.0 2 20.0 -3 -60.0 -3 180.0 1000 2 2000
4.7 4 18.8 -4 -75.2 -4 300.0 104 4 416
F.P 0 1 0 -5 0 -5 0 0 1 0
Sum (Σ) -285.6F 1746.0 85106

361.6
Resultant 78.8A
Then:
Q
a. Area of water plane =2 × × _Y+&%`
30
=2× × 361.6 = 7232 1
3
Q÷B_<=A 969:A`
b. L.C.F. about amid-ship (k̅ ` =
÷B_?S:?`
30 × 78.8
= = 6.54 1 % . 0 %1')(ℎ'-
361.6
108
c. Longitudinal moment of inertia about L.C.F. Here, we shall make use of the parallel
axis theorem.
çûû = ç|K − Yk̅
Where ç|K = çF.X.L
But ç = moment of inertia about amidships ≡ (2nd moment of inertia about amidships)
ℎ
= × _2/) 101&/.`
3
30
= × 2 × 1746 = 13,420,000 1
3
Hence, Transverse moment of inertia about L.C.F (çF.X.L ` =
ç|K − Yk̅ = ç − Yk̅ = 31420000 – 7232 × 6.542
= 31,110,700 1
Where k̅ = centroid of water-plane area ≡ Distance of L.C.F from amidships
d. Moment of inertia about middle line plane /transverse 2nd moment of the water-plane
Q y
area of inertia = 2 × . × _2/) 101&/.`
30 1
= 2 × . × 85106 = 576,300 1
3 3
CAUTION!
When given values of half-ordinates/breadthsof water-plane and you decide to work with full
ordinates (i.e. half-ordinates multiplied by 2) and square the resulting full ordinate in order
to determine the First moment of area about the centerline, the final result of the First
moment of area about the centerline MUST be divided by 2.
Similarly, for the Second moment of area about the centerline, in which case the full
ordinates are cubed, you MUST divide by 4 the final result of the Second moment of area
about the centerline.
However, for confusion not to set-in, it is highly recommended for students to always work
with half-ordinates/breadthsof water-planeeven when given full ordinates/breadthsand
multiply the final result by 2 in order to obtain the First and Second Moments of the entire
109
water-plane since the expressions for their determination were derived using half-
ordinates/breadths of the water-plane due to symmetry.
110

Ceg 812 - Lecture Note Part I

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LECTURE NOTE

CEG 812: INTRODUCTION TO NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

1.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….1

1.1 WHAT IS NAVAL ARCHITECTURE ……………………………………………………1

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE CRAFTS ……………………………………………...1

1.3 MYTH ABOUT VESSEL, BOAT OR SHIP……………………………………………….2

1.4 SHIP TYPES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………...3

1.4.1 Types of Ships …………………………………………………………………………..3

1.4.1.1 Characteristics of a ship…………………………………………...........................3

1.4.2 CATEGORIES OF OCEAN VEHICLES …………………………………………….5

1.4.2.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENT FOR SHIP CATEGORIES ……………………..7

2.0 THE EVOLUTION OF THE SHAPE OF A SHIP’S HULL FORM …………………..11

2.1 COMMON FEATURES AND TERMINOLOGY OF A SHIP’S HULL ……………12

2.1.1 HULL MEASUREMENTS …………………………………………………………14

2.2 INTERNAL DIVISION WITHIN THE SHIP’S HULL …………………………….......15

7.2.6. VOLUMES OF SHIP SHAPES AND SIMILAR FIGURES ………………. ……..63

8.0 MOMENTS OF AREAS & VOLUME & CENTROID …………………………………72

8.1 First Moments of areas and volumes……………………………………………………..72

8.2 Second moments of areas ………………………………………………………………….72

8.3 SECOND MOMENT OF A RECTANGLE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH ITS

8.4 Second moment of rectangle about one side (edge) ……………………………………...75

8.5 THE PARALLEL AXES THEOREM ……………………………………………………75

8.6 APPLICATION OF SIMPSON’S RULES ……………………………………………….77

8.6.2: TRANSVERSE MOMENT/ MOMENT ABOUT A LONGITUDINAL AXIS

9.0 CENTROIDS AND THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY …………………………………. ...94

9.1.1 POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY RELATIVE TO KEEL ……………...95

10.1 Conditions of equilibrium ………………………………………………………………106

10.1.1 Stable equilibrium ………………………………………………………………..106

10.1.2 Unstable Equilibrium ……………………………………………………………107

10.1.3 Neutral equilibrium ……………………………………………………………...107

10.2 STABLE, UNSTABLE AND NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM FOR A SHIP …………..108

10.3 SHIP’S HEELING ………………………………………………………………………111

10.4 Stiff and tender ships ……………………………………………………………………114

10.5 NEGATIVE GM AND ANGLE OF LOLL ……………………………………………115

10.6 EFFECT OF FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID ON STABILITY ……………………...116

10.7 HOW TO CORRECT ANGLE OF LOLL …………………………………………….118

10.8 STABILITY TYPES …………………………………………………………………….120

10.8.2 Static stability ……………………………………………………………………. 120

10.8.2.1 The righting arm …………………………………………………………….121

10.10 Calculating the effect of free surface of liquid (FSE) ………………………………..127

10.11 Moment of statical stability ……………………………………………………………134

10.11.1 The moment of statical stability at a small angle of heel ……………………...135

10.11.2 The moment of statical stability at large angle of heel ………………………...136

10.11.2.1 Derivation of the wall-sided formula ……………………………………...137

10.12 DYNAMICAL STABILITY …………………………………………………………..143

11.0 TRIM …………………………………………………………………………………… 147

11.2 The effect of Shifting Weights already on Board ……………………………………...153

11.3 The Effect of Loading and/or Discharging Weights …………………………………..155

11.5 Loading a wt. to keep the after draft constant ………………………………………...162

11.6 Loading a weight to produce a required draft ………………………………………...164

12.0 BONJEAN CURVES ……………………………………………………………………169

12.1 HOW TO USE BONJEAN CURVES TO DETERMINE DISPLACEMENT AND

14.0 STABILITY AND HYDROSTATIC CURVES………………………………………..178

14.1 Cross curves of stability …………………………………………………………….…...178

14.1.1 GZ cross curves of stability……………………………………………………...178

14.1.2 KN cross curves of stability ……………………………………………..........182

14.2 Statical stability curves ………………………………………………………………….184

14.3 Hydrostatic curves ………………………………………………………………………187

15.0 REGULATORY BODIES ……………………………………………………………...191

15.1 Classification society & IACS…………………………………………………………...191

16.0 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………….197

The origin of naval architecture

From the Mountains to the Sea

ULCC, VLCC 565,000 – 440 – 250 0.85 – 0.82 13 –15 34

Medium-sized oil 100,000 – 50,000 250 – 175 0.82 – 0.80 15 – 15 34

Ore carriers Up to 323,000 200 – 300 0.79 – 0.83 14 12 − 15 12

LNG, LPG Ships 130,000 – 75,000 up to 280 0.66 – 0.68 20 34 − 16