Bowling Green State University

The Great Debate: Should Students Handwrite or Type their Notes?

Understanding the process of handwriting and its relation to memory

Amy L. Arredondo

ENG 6040

Dr. Cheryl Hoy

16 June 2017
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The Great Debate: Should Students Handwrite or Type their Notes?

Walter Ong, in his book Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word, states,

“Most persons are surprised, and many distressed, to learn that essentially the same objections

commonly urged today against computers were urged by Plato in the Phaedrus (274–7) and in

the Seventh Letter against writing. . . . Plato’s Socrates urges, writing destroys memory. Those

who use writing will become forgetful, relying on an external resource for what they lack in

internal resources. Writing weakens the mind. Today, parents and others fear that pocket

calculators provide an external resource for what ought to be the internal resource of memorized

multiplication tables. Calculators weaken the mind, relieve it of the work that keeps it strong”

(78). Continuing this argument, there is a great debate regarding whether students should take

notes on a laptop or by hand, for the very same reasons Plato discussed in his day.

As technological advancements make electronic note-taking easier, instructors are seeing

more and more electronic devices in their classrooms. This makes sense, in a way, as electronic

devices make it easier and more efficient to take notes during

class. A “win-win” situation, right? Surprisingly, the answer

is “not necessarily.” While on the surface, taking notes looks

like the simple act of writing words heard during a lecture in

Figure 1. Students take notes on laptops
during a lecture. From Dunlap, Kristin.
order to review the information at a later time, there is a
Placement of Computers in the
Classroom. Classroom Management deeper level of thinking happening. The act of taking notes
Strategies for Teachers Using
Technology in their Classroom. involves several different cognitive processes which actually
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-
TT5T_sleLMI/Ui0DsTkpDJI/AAAAAAAAA assist in learning.
Cw/zTAQflqhPBk/s1600/3Tfig1-
1024x682.jpg
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The Process of Handwriting

Notes are recognized as “short condensations of a source material that are generated by

writing them down while simultaneously listening, studying, or observing” (Piolat et al. 292).

The key word in this definition is simultaneously. The cognitive processes in the brain that are

activated when notetaking involve those for handwriting, focus, comprehension, listening,

rephrasing information and more. Research shows that because these processes are working

together, the information is encoded in working memory and then moved into long-term

memory. Maria Alonso writes in her article titled “Metacognition and Sensorimotor Components

Underlying the Process of Handwriting and Keyboarding and Their Impact on Learning” that,

“Taking notes, apart from ensuring the possibility to remember information, allows us to

concentrate, comprehend and reconsider information as well as to reorganize intentions and

plans. Generally speaking, note taking is a complex activity which requires an effort; this effort,

however, pays off in form of efficiency” (266). This efficiency is known as “desirable

difficulty.” Desirable difficulty, a term coined by Robert Bjork, is a learning task that requires a

considerable but desirable amount of effort, thereby improving long-term performance.

Handwriting notes provides a desirably difficult task using the process of encoding, which is

believed to improve learning and retention. In contrast, when students take notes on a laptop they

have a tendency to take notes verbatim, which is a task with much less desirable difficulty.

Therefore, students taking notes on laptops are less likely to recall information even a few days

later.

Further, while it is obvious that taking notes, no matter the method, is advantageous on its

own merit, there are a few theories as to why taking notes by hand increases learning and

retention. First, one important ability in note-taking is working memory, which is “the ability to

temporarily hold and manipulate a limited amount of information” (Bui et al. 299). Next,
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handwriting notes is beneficial due to the generation effect. This theory states that “information

is better remembered when it is generated, compared to when it is simply read or heard. One

interpretation of this effect is that the act

of generation is itself really an act of

recall, and that the opportunity for recall

benefits memory for that information”

(Bui et al. 300). Finally, the translation

hypothesis occurs when “input activities

require translation between specialized

Figure 2. A simplified explanation of memory and the areas of the
processing domains, this leads to the brain that relate to memory. Source:
https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DBe96dqXgAAbceH.jpg

formation of more distinctive memory representations. Because listening to a lecture requires

phonological processing, whereas writing down what was said invokes orthographical

processing, the translation effect should benefit memory” (Bui et al. 300). These theories, along

with Bjork’s desirable difficulties, work together to become what is known as the levels of

processing framework. This framework explains why it is important for students to take notes as

well as why it may be more beneficial to handwrite them.

Literature Review
While research on this topic is in its infancy, there have been a few studies conducted

regarding notetaking by hand or electronically. The most recognized researchers on this topic are

Pam Mueller and Daniel Oppenheimer. They conducted three experiments using students from

multiple major universities. The experiments ask students to watch various lectures taking notes

either by laptop or by hand, with the laptops being disconnected from the internet to eliminate

distractions. The students were assessed on their knowledge using both immediate and delayed
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tests which included recall and conceptual questions. Data from these experiments shows that

students who took notes on laptops had greater short term recall, but lower recognition long-term

as well as lower ability to apply concepts. Further, Mueller and Oppenheimer note that in a

normal classroom setting students using laptops are easily distracted and attempt to multi-task or

log on to various social media sites. In addition, students taking notes on laptops have a tendency

to take notes verbatim which impairs learning. The researchers concluded that “(t)he computer

writing achievement is higher in those tasks where the retrieval of information requires a lower

level of processing, whereas handwriting students’ performance is higher when the task requires

a deeper encoding” (Aragon et al. 106).

Another study by Dr. Estíbaliz Aragón-Mendizábal, Dr. Cándida Delgado-Casas, Dr.

José-I. Navarro-Guzmán, Dr. Inmaculada Menacho-Jiménez and Dr. Manuel-F. Romero-Oliva,

professors at the University of Cadiz, conducted experiments similar to Mueller and

Oppenheimer. A major difference is that these experiments took place at the University of Cadiz

in Spain. However, the results reinforced the conclusions of the Mueller and Oppenheimer

experiments.

Carrie Fried also studied the use of laptops in classrooms. In her article titled “In Class

Laptop Use and its Effects on Student Learning”, she explains that students were asked to

complete “weekly surveys of attendance, laptop use, and aspects of the classroom environment”

in a large lecture course (906). Fried concluded that students working on laptops in the classroom

were more distracted as they “spent considerable time multitasking and the laptop use posed a

significant distraction to both users and fellow students” (906). She also concluded that laptop

use negatively affected learning.

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Similarly, researchers Faria Sana, Tina Weston and Nicholas Cepeda found that students

who used laptops in the classroom were multitasking while taking notes during the lecture. Their

research found that students who were multitasking did not perform as well on quizzes as those

students who used a pencil and paper for notetaking. Interestingly, the authors noted that “studies

suggest that students who use laptops in class report low satisfaction with their education” (25).

The authors conduct two experiments regarding laptop use and multitasking to show that

students are easily distracted by computers, both those they are using and those in close

proximity. Sana et. al., concluded that this “finding suggests that despite actively trying to learn

the material (as evidenced by comprehensive notes, similar in quality to those with a clear view

of the lecture), these participants were placed at a disadvantage by the choices of their peers”

(29). Distractions due to movement of images, screen lighting and other multitasking activities

likely caused involuntary shifts of attention among students in close proximity of laptop users.

Disrupting one’s own learning is an individual choice, but harming the learning of other students,

some of whom may already be working very hard to pay attention due to learning disorders or

disabilities, is disrespectful.

In “Note Taking, Review, Memory, and Comprehension,” Mark Bohay, Daniel P.

Blakely, Andrea K. Tamplin and Gabriel A. Radvansky discuss their experiments regarding

active learning and memory. They find that “Overall, these results support the idea that when

people are more actively engaged in material that they are trying to learn, such as by taking

notes, their memory improves. . . . More generally, the results reported here are broadly

consistent with the idea that memory can be improved when people are actively engaged with the

material to be learned, even if that engagement is simply the noting down of the important ideas”

(70). Again, the idea of active learning comes in to play as notetaking is an aspect of active
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learning. However, notetaking on a computer means the student has a bit of a disassociation from

the material yielding them fewer benefits for long-term comprehension.

Robin Kay and Sharon Lauricella from the University of Ontario Institute of Technology

wrote an article titled “Exploring the Benefits and Challenges of Using Laptop Computers in

Higher Education Classrooms: A Formative Analysis” in which they analyzed the use of laptops

in the classroom. According to their research, “(k)ey benefits observed include note-taking

activities, in-class laptop-based academic tasks, collaboration, increased focus, improved

organization and efficiency, and addressing special needs. Key challenges noted include other

student’s distracting laptop behaviors, instant messaging, surfing the web, playing games,

watching movies, and decreased focus” (Kay and Lauricella 1). While there were more benefits

than challenges, the authors still concluded that “the integration of meaningful laptop activities is

a critical determinant of benefits and challenges experienced in higher education classrooms”

(Kay and Lauricella 1). Their conclusions are similar to others discussed here as they feel that

the more actively involved a student is with the learning material the more beneficial to the

student.

Finally, researchers Dung C. Bui, Joel Myerson, and Sandra Hale from Washington

University in St. Louis conducted one experiment where “participants were instructed either to

take organized lecture notes or to try and transcribe the lecture, and they either took their notes

by hand or typed them into a computer” (299). The next two experiments focused strictly on

using computers to take notes. The difference here is that some students took organized notes

while others attempted to transcribe the lecture. Their analysis “revealed that for those who took

organized notes, working memory predicted note-quantity, which predicted recall on both

immediate and delayed tests” (Bui et al. 299). Therefore, those who took notes on a computer,
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but rephrased and organized them, performed better than those who transcribed. The conclusions

from these researchers show that working

memory is important in notetaking and those

with low working memory ability may be

negatively affected if forced to take notes by

hand. This is an exception to previous studies

discussed here as it takes into account those

Figure 3. An example of Sketchnotes. From Tamasi, Anna. An
Introduction to Sketchnotes. Blue Latitude Health. 25 Sept. 2014, with learning disorders or disabilities. In their
https://bluelatitude.com/our-ideas/an-introduction-to-
sketchnotes.
case, laptops, tape recorders, sketchnotes or

other forms of notetaking could be more beneficial.

Conclusion
There may not be a “one size fits all” answer to the debate on handwriting versus typing

notes. With the exception of Bui et al., these articles generally conclude that handwriting notes

is better for learning because it involves many different cognitive processes of the brain that aid

in memory. Further, researchers agree that the more actively involved a student is with the

material, whether written or spoken, the greater the chance that the student will retain the

information on a long-term basis. However, the exception, as Bui et al. noted, is students with

learning disorders or other disabilities. In these cases, the students should determine the ways

that they learn best and adapt their note-taking accordingly. It is also notable that other forms of

notetaking are also becoming more popular, such as sketchnotes. This could also play a role in

future research on this topic.

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After spending a fairly significant amount of time searching for sources on this topic, I

have found that research is this area is still lacking. There are conflicting studies which does not

allow educators to be able to take a firm stand on this issue. I believe that more research needs to

be done. Specifically, long term studies need to be conducted in order for researchers to grasp a

bigger picture of the issue. Also, I would like to see how individual learning styles play into a

student’s most effective form of notetaking. Do specific

methods of notetaking benefit visual learners more than

auditory learners? Finally, I believe it is very important to

include research concerning students with disabilities and

learning disorders. Many times, these students have the
lowest adaptability in the classroom setting. Helping them
figure out the most efficient notetaking strategy for them
Figure 4. An interesting Sketchnote
discussing learning styles and notetaking.
From Gentry, Lauren. The Power of
Sketchnotes. Scriberia.
http://www.scriberia.co.uk/journal/the-
power-of-sketchnotes.

would allow these students to even the playing field, so to speak. Helping students be more

engaged in the classroom is an important aspect of their learning. Finding out the best notetaking

strategies is one step in engaging learners.

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Works Cited

Alonso, María A. Pérez. “Metacognition and Sensorimotor Components Underlying the Process

of Handwriting and Keyboarding and Their Impact on Learning. An Analysis from the

Perspective of Embodied Psychology.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol.

176, 2015, pp. 263–269. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.470.

Aragón-Mendizábal, Estíbaliz et al. “A Comparative Study of Handwriting and Computer

Typing in Note-Taking by University Students.” Comunicar, vol. 24, no. 48, 2016, pp.

101–107. doi:10.3916/c48-2016-10.

Bohay et al. “Note Taking, Review, Memory, and Comprehension.” The American Journal of

Psychology, vol. 124, no. 1, 2011, pp. 63–73. JSTOR, doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.124.1.0063.

Bui, Dung C. et al. “Note-Taking with Computers: Exploring Alternative Strategies for

Improved Recall.” Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 105, no. 2, 2013, pp. 299–

309. doi:10.1037/a0030367.

Fried, Carrie B. “In-Class Laptop Use and Its Effects on Student Learning.” Computers &

Education, vol. 50, no. 3, 2008, pp. 906–914. Elsevier,

doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.006.

Gooblar, David. “Here's a Secret to Better Student Recall.” Chronicle of Higher Education, vol.

61, no. 4, Sept. 2014, p. A33. Academic Search Complete,

bart.blinn.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9

h&AN=98483777&site=ehost-live.

Kay, Robin H., and Sharon Lauricella. “Exploring the Benefits and Challenges of Using Laptop

Computers in Higher Education Classrooms: A Formative Analysis.” Canadian Journal

of Learning and Technology, vol. 37, no. 1, 2011, doi:10.21432/t2s598.

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Mueller, P. A., and D. M. Oppenheimer. “The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages

of Longhand Over Laptop Note Taking.” Psychological Science, vol. 25, no. 6, 2014, pp.

1159–1168. doi:10.1177/0956797614524581.

Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London, Methuen, 1982.

p. 78.

Piolat, Annie et al. “Cognitive Effort during Note Taking.” Applied Cognitive Psychology, vol.

19, no. 3, 2005, pp. 291–312. doi:10.1002/acp.1086.

Sana, Faria et al. “Laptop Multitasking Hinders Classroom Learning for Both Users and Nearby

Peers.” Computers & Education, vol. 62, 2013, pp. 24-31. Elsevier,

doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.003.