' PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER BY DONALD Q. KERN D.Q. Kern Associates, and Professorial Lecturer in Chemicat Engineering Gase Tnaitale of Technology McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY Auckland Bogoté Guatemala Hamburg Lisbon London ‘Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sio Paulo Singapore Sydney TokyoPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘To my wife INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1965 NATALIE W. KERN for her real help Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co-Singapore for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exporced from the country to which it ir consigned by ‘McGraw-Hill, 1234567892 SP 98765 Copyright, 1939, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. AM rights reserved. Rope ath plbleaon may be eepodicad’ aed i & enn ws or wransmited, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior writen permission of the publisher When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-086953-3PREFACE is the dbject of this text to provide fundamental instruction in hest has obtained a tional information from industrial epplnt ion,INDEX TO THE BS SeegzEeae gaveessEeussEsesazeasessaPREFACE thas been influenced in his own professional development by beaks of Prof. W. H. Mokdams, Ds. Alfed:Sehack, and fe ‘The Patterson Foundry & Machine Company. New Your, NY. April, 1960 CONTENTS Papyace. . .: "ons ro me Praia Arsananos CaLcotaniows. « « 7. 12 Pacall-counterfow: ba he ten “37, Diroctonntact Transfer: Cooling Towers |. 4B, Batch and Unsteady State Processes... 19, Furnace Calculations... : 20, Additional Applications a Te Cnc Tepe ed ve i . Avrmsor or Caucutarion Data. ‘Avrion Ixpax. ‘Sonzecr Ixpmx. . a BRZSRRSeee.e Ee ECEri tty‘ii INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS Process multiple effect evaporator, . . ‘Heat transformer evaporator. Balt water distiller ‘Cane sugar maltiple effect evaporator Paper pulp waste liquor multiple effect evaporator . Caustic soda multiple effect forced circulation evaporator . ‘Themmooomprossion cane sugar evaporator ‘Varonuzna Exouancnns (Tesvzan) ‘Vaporiter, forced cireulation (butane-steam) Kettle reboiler (hydrocarbons-steam) . ‘Thermoayphon reboile, horizontal (aaphiha-gas os. ‘Thermaoxyphon reboiler, vertical (butane-steats) : Exraxpep Somrscxs Longitudinal fin double-pipe cooler (gus oil-water) ‘Tubular longitudinal fin cooler (oxygen-water).. “Transverue fin erossflow cooler (air~water) Cooling tower rerating. an Gas cooler (nitrogen~water) . billie: Gas cooler, approximate rolstion (aitrogen-water) 2). Rapuawe Hearena ‘Tube atl oe Direct fired vessel Bas 38 82688 888 88 38 CHAPTER 1 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer. The science of thermodynamics deals with the quanti- tative transitions and rearrangements of energy asheatin bodiesof matter, Heat transfer ia tho science which deals with the rates af exchange of heat very different, Va} vepeiaion generally a ane more ri znon than condensation, rapid phenome: d outside the critical region, a large amount of energy is involved in the ‘transition. For the same substance in its different phases the various thermal proporties have different orders of magnitude. As an examplo, the spe- cific heat. per unit mass is very low for solids, high for liguids, and usually intermediate for gases. Similarly in any body absorbing or losing heat, ‘special consideration must be given whether the change is one of sensible oF Intent ent or both. tl farther, its aluo mown that « ho mource ieand zis the thickness of the wall in the direction of heat flow, the quantity of heat flow dQ is given by PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER placed over a hot flame, Tho liquid at the bottom of the can becomes heated and less dense than before owing to its thermal expansion, The ts of the conduction equation and is given by dQ = nA dt 2) ‘The proportionality constant h is a term which is influenced by the nature of the fluid and the nature of tho agitation and must bo evaluated expari- Weis ie Radiation. Radistion involves the transfer of radiant energy from a source to 8 receiver, ;When radiation issues from source to a receiver, part of the energy is absorbed by the receiver and part reflected by it. Based on the second law of thermodynamics Boltemann established that ‘the rate at which source gives off heat is aQ = dA Tt ay ‘Thie is known as the fourth-power law in which 7 is the absolute tempera- ture. ¢ is. dimensional constant, but ¢is a factor peculisr to radiation and is called the emissivity. The emissivity, like the thermal condue- tivity & or the heat-transfer coefficient fh, must also be determined. experimentally. Process Heat Transfer. Heat sranafer has boen described ag the study of the rates at which heat is exchanged between hest sources and receivers4 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Jn the chapters which follow studies will first be made ofithe three individual heat-transfer phenomena antl Inter of the way in wbich their combination with s simultanoous source and receiver infiuences,an sppa- ratus a8 a whole. A large number of the examples which follow have been selectod from closely related processes to permit, gradual com- parisons, ‘This should not be construed as limiting the broadness af the underlying principles. Many of the illustrations and probloms in the auecoeding chapters refer to liquids dorived from petroleum, ‘This s quite resaonable, aince pettoleum refining ia major ADI ia elated tothe epee ervity by carte ——MIS agi APL = Sarat TOE ~ 15 ae ‘Being mixtures of compounds the petroleum fractions do not boil isothermaliy like preliguidsbut have boing rang. At mompheriopremsre to lowes temperature ure iui i of the common petroleum fractions derived from crude oil is given below: i Susseses PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 5 A method of defining the chemical charecter of petroleum and corrulating the Properties of mixtures waa introduced by Watson, Neleon, and Murphy.* ‘They ‘Seared Unt when sede of uniform dintiling behavior adil nto marow the ratio of of the abeolute average boiling point to the speci sravitin of the cuta isa constan\or fete xa as) NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 1 2 Heat-tranefor macs, te i ividual heat-transior coefiient, Btu/ (hr) K Characterization factor rane & ‘Thermal conductivity, Btu/(he)((e (°F /ft) % @ Aconatant, Beu/ (kr) Fe)(°RS) + Bmieivity, dimensionless "Won, ME, ¥en, an . 2. ep, Ld gle, ‘2%, 1460 (1885). ed ra 0 asvall of unknown size in a measured interval ¢ hr with a measured i iti a= = ent a Biu/hr (3) Cit to have certain het-ow charscterisis, the conductance obtained above conDucrioN oii 1886, Tater tonsa Ba, Prom (1983); 98, 404 (1896); 38, 875 (1943); 37, 196 (2048) ae Fy, 9 BB, 1316 (1987), mg8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER auxiliary heater isadjusted until no temperature differences exist between the specimens and adjacent poists in‘the guard ring- Observations are made when éhe heat input and she temperatures on both faces of exch difference and dimensions of the specimen are known, & can be computed directly from Eq. (2.4). Liquids and Gases. There is greater difficulty in determining the conductivities of liquids and gases, If the heat flows through » thick ‘against itstemperature. Fora given rate of haat inp acl for the temparatare of Fra, 22. Higuid conductivity #0- the paratun (After J.P. D. Sacth) by suitable equations, A more exactrmethod, however, is that of Bridg- man and Smith,! "consisting of a very thin fid annulus between two Fig, 22. Heat supplied to the inner cylinder by resistance wire flow ‘through the film to the outer cylinder, where it is removed by the bath. "This apparatus, through the use of a reservoir, saeures that the annulus is full of liquid and is adaptable-to gases. ‘The film is 344 in. thick, and. the temperature difference is kept very small. Influence af Temperature and Pressure ont. ‘The thermal conductivi- ‘ies of golids are greater than thone of liquids, which in turn are greater Smith, J. F.D,, Ind. Eng. Chem, 29, 1246 (1990); Trans. ASME, 06, 710 (2998). conpuerion 9 the averages for the entire specimen, and the error introduced by this of change from @ & decrones to ani increase. For the most practical prob- Jems there is no need to introduce a correction for the variation of the thermal conductivity ‘with temperature. However, the variation ean usually be expressed by the simple linear equation kein where ks is the conductivity at O°F and + is a constant denoting the change in the conductivity per degreo change in temperature. The con- a. For all the common gases and vapors there is an increase with increasing temperature, Sutherland? deduced ‘an oquaticn from the kinetic theory which is applicable to the variation of the conductivity of gases with temperature babe Brace ) TH, Vii, where Cy = Sutherland constant lu ‘The infuonce of pressure on the conductivities of solide and liquids appears to be negligible, and the reported data on gases are too inexact ‘owing to the effects of free convection and radiation to permit generaliza- tion. From the kinetic theory of gases it can be concluded that the inftece of presmure shoud be aall except wher avery low vacuum ie feasible to develop an oquation which wil have the brondact applicability * Butherland, W., Phi. Mag, 36, 507 (1898).10 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CONDUCTION un and from which other equations may be deduced for special applications. dQ; out of the cube at the right face and in the eame form as Eq. (2.7) eagon (24) may be written in differential form is given by ® rat 2 a at ® ora et as) 98m bayae(—% Bae) aa) In this statement b is tho only property of the matter and itis samumed from which . to be independent of the other variables. Referring to Fig. 2.3, an cle- , ay ‘mental cube of volume de = dx dy ds receives a difierential quantity of Bo ay an B) a 9) hent 4@% Btu through ita left yx face in the time interval d@. Assume all | ‘but the loft and right ys faces are ‘The cube will have changed in temperature by —dt deg. ‘The change in Snsulated. In the samo interval temperature per unit time will be di/d# and over the time interval dé it the quantity of heat dQ} leaves at is given by (@1/d0) d0 deg. Since the analysis has been bssed on an ‘the right face. It is apparent that elemental volume, it is now necessary to define a volumetric specific heat, any of three effecte may occur: dQ; ¢ Btu/()CF) obtained by multiplying the weight specific hest may be greater than dQj s0 that ‘Btu/(Ib)(°F) by the density », To raise the volume ds dy de by the elemental volume stores heat, “a inoeasing the average temperature Gur ‘of the cube; dQ may be grester than dQ, 20 thst the cube loses requires a heat change in the eube of eat; and lastly, dQ; and dQ; may ag ‘be equal so that the heat will simply g- ep as dy dat (2.10) pose through the cube without affecting the storage of heat. Taking 6 ‘being more general, a slorage or depletion and combining Kgs, (2.9) and (2.10) | difference between the heat entering and the heat leaving or . co de by de = bly as (23) ae ey al = dQ - 2% es) trom whiah ‘Acoording to Tq, (2.5) the heat entering on the left face may be given hy a i (%) 904 dy ae(— 2 27) ae a o %, ‘hl a Puri’ geal ruin and the tera Bcc the harm A o ai diffusivity, since | i properties involved i bic ‘The temperature gradiont — 2 may vary with both time and position in of hoat gud as the dimensions of ft /tn. ir the inniation i removed . from the cube s0 that the heat along the cube. ‘he vation of ~ 2 an ste) ony a ~ 2022). Over the (12) becomes feareis along the X,Y, and 5 axe, By. distance de from 2 to z + dz, if dQ, > aQj, the total change in the tem- & E+) an perature gradient twit be — 20Y8 ae or — Fi ae. ‘Then at 3 the 86 op Nach * ay? a " ” j a ‘When the flow of heat into and out of the cube is asin the sleady arndicnt in — 2, and at 2 + ds the temperature gradieat ia sale, tdoea not vary with time, and di/d# = 0, in Eq. (2.12). ' 2¢/ax ia . G12). a constant and 3%/dat = 0. dQ, = 40%, and Eq. (2.8) reduces to Eq. (2. -% Fa where dzdy = dA. Substituting ¢Q for dQ’/d0, ear tera bey12 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSPER dimensions of Btu/hr, the steady-state equation is aq=eiad (214) Equation (2.14) applies to many of the common engineering problems. ‘Thermal Conductivity from Electrical-conductivity Measurements. temperature baths at t; and f, re- spectively. By fastening electric leads to the left and right faces, re- spectively, a current of I amp may ‘be passed in the direction indicated, generating heat throughout. the Jength of the bar. ‘The quantities of heat: leaving both onds of the bar in the steady state must be equal to the amount of heat received as electrical energy, I*R», where Rv is the resistance in ohms, From Obm’s law Ein By _ Aue T= CUA) ~ 6a where E, — E, is the voltage difference, .o the resistivity of the wire in ohm-ft and K, the reciprocal of the resistivity, is the electrical conductivity. r= Kade 2.15) ade _ de wate - 16) ‘Substituting Ege. (2.18) and (2.16) for F*R, dQ = PR = Kat @a =KA @« (2.17) ‘But thie ie the same a2 the heat transferred by conduction and given by conpuction 13 Eq. (2.9). When ti = & and equating (2.9) and (2.17), a . ria — K(Z) dao (2.18) But a _ ade iserenit & "BE (2.19) erentiating, at aE\? dt a (ari ae ® det Pate (2.20) UfL and A are constant for the bar, then K(dK/dz) is constant, Since K does not vary greatly with ¢ or z, dE/ds is constant, d'R/dz* = 0, and from Eq. (2.18) substituting Eq. (2.20) for d'¢/det a ee K=0 (221 a _K aE (2.22) Holm toe RGR +Ck+C, 223) ‘two opposite faves of the partially insulated elemental cube az dy de were constant. Upon integration of Eq, (2.14) when all of i are independent the steady-state equation is ‘Revarables but @ ana (224) Given the temperatures existing on the hot and cold faces of respectively, the heat flow can be computed ‘through the ‘om of ans equation. Since L/L is the conductance, its reciprocal R is the resist- ance to heat flow, or R = L/kA (hr)(*F)/Btu, ‘Example 2.1. Fiow of Heat through a Wall. ‘The fs a Gin, thic yeasur- sen ie atc auc Ae en i ie al wa of kaolin insulating brick. How ruch heat will escape through the wall? Solution. ‘The average temperature of the wall will be 900°F, ‘From Table 2 in theCONDUCTION IS Reatronging and substituting, afte to— ty Ook" CREWE Ua) 8) Example 2.2. Flow of Heat through a Composite Wall, ‘The wall of an oven con inte of three layers of brick. ‘The inside a bullt of 8 in, of firsbrick, & = 0.68 Btu) Sager Pid surrounded by 4 a. of nguating brick, & = 0.18, and un ontaide lye, of 6 in. of building brick, b = 0.40. ‘The oven operates nt 1600°F and it ie anticipated that the outer sido of the wall can be maintained st 126°F by the circulation of ai Hor meh bea wi be ot pretreat of ace and wat nee re th trac tayo Solution: “ PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Appendix the thermal conductivity at 982°F is 0.15 Btu/(br)(()("F/Mt), Extrepola- se O°? wil ao change this ral precy. i j 4 For the frebrick, If = Ly/kad = 8/18 X 0258 X 1 = 0.98 (hi)(°)/(Btu) Iumlating brick, Ri = BofA = 4/12 X 0.15 X 1 — 223 Bolling brick, Rw Do/bsd = 6/12 X 0.49 x 1 = 1.5 Ra has Heat loos /St* of wall, Q = A‘/R = (1600 — 125)/4.45 = 882 Btu/hr ‘For the individual Levens: A= QR and te = OR, ete, Ale = 382 X 0.98 = 35°F Hm 1600 — 305 = 12707 Ab BEX ~ SF = 1275 — TB TP Example 2.8. Flow of Hest through & Composite Wall with an Air Gap. To iuatzate the poor conductivity of » gas, auppowe an air exp of 1 in. were left between ‘he hamloting brick and the frebrick. How auch heat would be lol through the ‘wall # the inside and outside temperatures aro kept ommtant? Selstion. | From Table 5in the Appoodi at 672°F air has a conductivity of 0.0965 ‘Beu/(ha) te "F/N), nnd this temperature is logo to tho range of the prablom, through material « mast overcome the Fay = 0.25/19 % 0.0058 w 0.70 (hr)7F)/Ben ae en a oneiog triode mateial o the host meat see = 446 +07 = 624 Tos Gunma nuatedde and in nie ‘The buat tow exteog atthe @ = 1005238 ot aapte right since teey sate eb stings, ey By and Rene Cotta seh a esta ey ene og steady atate precludes tivities and thicknesses, the ratio of the heat loes by 15 per cent epentine lifrence eroes each layer to ia reatance must be the Heat Flow through a Pipe Wall. In the paisago of heat through a lat serene ratio of the total temperature difference is to the total wall the area through which the heat flows same aa the ‘is constant throughout the entire distance of resistance ar aL ak_ ae 2 the heat flow path. Referring to Fig. 2.6 @ O-F-E-RHE @20) showing » unit Jength of pipe, the area of the . taxing actusl tomaperntures With the distanoe-of the path from ri to rs. ng baiteal ‘For any composite system ‘The area at any radius is given by Jer] Meh bb hot ex and if the heat flows out of the cylinder the tempeenture gradient for the Ong ge me TE16 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER incromentel length dr is dé/dr. Equation (2.14) becomes a= oere(— BY Btu/(an)din £4 (2.29) Integrating, ta-gbinrt 2.30) When + © ny ¢= ty and when r= 74, £= fg; where ¢ and o refer to the a inide and ovlside surfaces, respeotively. Then ‘ak(y — te) 9 23 log r/ri ean) and if D is the diameter, te = De ‘ mo De a, 2%, Olnial eal rsittance, + met Blog Pt 32) p= tet BM oe FE (2.33) Adding, 2 D = t= BE og Bt + BE os as) et) 2X 9.14 X 0,68200 — 175) qe wits aie SN ee 598 Beu/lin If the inside diameter of a cylinder is greater than 0.76 of the outside Gnsneter, the mean of the tivo may be used. Then per foot of Jength At At foots (2.38) 9° 7 Lids ~ Wa = De Fha(Ds + DIB — D)/2 ia the thickness of the pipe. Within tho stated Weide Fae acs DeyDy, Ba, (235) will dillr from Bq. 224) by cowpucrion wv about 1 percent, Actually there are 1.57 {of external surface per linear foot and 1.31 ft* of:intemal surface. ‘The heat loss per equare foot is 343 Btu/hr based on the outside surface and 411 Btu/hr based on the inside surface. ‘Heat Loss from a Pipe. Jn the preceding examples it was assumed that ‘the cold external surface could be maintained at a definite temperature. Without this assumption the examples would have beon indeterminate, since both @ and 4¢ would be unknown and independent in s single equa- tion. In reality the Leroperature assigned to the outer wall depends not only on tho resistances between the hot and cold surfaces but also on the ability of the surrounding colder atinoephere to remove the heat arriving at the outer surface. Consider a pipe as‘shown in Fig. 28 covered ‘ agged) with rock wool insulation pt, and carrying steam at attempera- ¢Aeeeeeeeeee sy ‘ture f considerably above that of |= % | ‘the atmosphere, 4. The overall Q2777i/LA ~~ temperature difference driving heat out -of the pipe is 4 —~t, The veristances to heat flow taken sume; (2) the resistance of the pipe metal, which is very small except for ‘thick-walled conduits #o that # and ¢ are nearly the samo; (8) the resist ance of the rook woo! insulation; and (4) the resistance of the surrounding, air to remove heat from the outer sitface. The last is appreciable, although the removal of heat ia effected by the natural convection of ambient air in addition to the radiation caused by the temperature differ- ence between the outer surface and colder air. The natural convection results from warming air adjacent tothe pipe, thereby lowering its density, by a conventional resistance term R, = L,/K.A, since L, is indefinite and the conductance of the air is simultancously supplemented by the trans- of heat from a pipe to ambient air ia usually 2 heat loss, and itis therefore desirable to report the data aes unit conductance term k/L Btu/ (hr) (ft? of1B PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER external eur CF of tomporature difference). The unit conductance Se et Atha und eietanee L/h Le instead of the wipro ote resistance entire surface L/kA. words, it oon oe stow surface rather than the con- It Hie gettin etn coach, é 1 Hoitman, R. H., foe. Fae Chery 7, 445-450 (109). 2 Bailey, A, and N.C. Lyell, Bngincering, 47, 00-02 (1989). cowpucrion 19 Pipe wall: 9 sytbe, ay 31) ‘Insulation: T= meio @-4) 231) Radiation and oonvoetion to at: = harDilts — be) G2) ‘or combining nn gi eBea bog ) ‘The terms inside the parentheses are the four resistances, and of these the frst two can unually be neglected. ‘The equation then reduces to ai q= He + a From the abecien of Fig. 2.9 it is seen that hy depends upon not only20 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER (Check between ts and 4. 2 x 3.14 x 0.098800 ~ 4) a = ee t= 125.8°F Check ‘The total host loss g does aot appoar to vary significantly for the different asmumod ‘values off, This x because the insulation and not the small murface coefficient affords the major resitanos to heat flow. _ When the varistion ing is considerable for different assumed temperatures off, it indicates insuficiont insulation. ‘The Maximum Heat Loss through Pipe Insulation. It would seem at first that the thicker the insulation the less the total heat loss, This is always true for fiat insulation but not for curyed insulation. Consider a pipe with successive layers of cylindrical insulation. As the thickness of the insulation is increased, the surface ares (2 the resistaneo of the inaulation per Linear foot ‘, af pipe is . ‘Fro, 2.10. The eritioal ra- 2aky io and the resistance of the air per linear foot of pipe, although a function of the surface and air temperatures, is given by Rags (2.87) ‘The resistance is a minimum and the hest los» maximum when the derivative of the sum of the resistances R with respect to the radius ris set equal to sero or aR Lomt+tal Fon yet eee (238) =i.) irked At the maximum best loss r = r., the etitieal radius, or nah 2.39) Im other words, the maximum hest loss from a pine occurs when the critical radius equals the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the insula- tion to'the surface coefficient of heat transfer. The ratio has thecdimen- sion of ft. Tt is desirable to keep the critical radius as small as possible CONDUCTION 4 0 that the application of insulation will result in a reduetion ince inthe hat ot fom ie Mains obvioulysccomplahed te ‘using an insulation of smal! conductivity so-that the eritical radius than the radius of thenipa, ot < re Seton es The Optimum Thickness of Tasulation, ‘The optimum thi inmalation is arrived at by a purely economic approach, Ita bare rive were to carry & hot fuid, there would be a certain hourly lose of hect, Fe plant heee abe determined from the cost of producing the Btu in lant it-generating station. The k the thickness and infil cost ofthe nage nt wet Ho the renter lation and the gresier the annual: fixed lott Notun will be obtainod and the thickness corre- sponding to it will bo the optimum eco- Fa. 2.11. Optimum thickness nomic thickness of the insulation, ‘Tho “sms. form of such an analysis is shown in Fig, 2.11. ‘The most difficult is hlaning relinble initi-nstallationeost date, nance they vary greatly Tits Mant to plant and with the amount of insulating to be done at « Graphical Solutions of Conduction Problems, Thus far i ‘mont of conduction, only those eases have heen considered in wich te Thickness ovation DF on the cold side DEF at the uniform temperature fs, metal bracing i agdhTber J. and P. Schofield, Prac, Tater. Congr. Refrig, BH Cong, % 591-61022 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER conpucTiON 23, ribo are attached to the outer sheath and imbedded two-thirds into the The te eee tal hace How ieee 1d as ea ue Janes, ‘bjekness of the wall. Since the sheath and metal ve & high here @ is low. 2.12 was constructed in this thermal conductivity compared with the wall material ite’, the rib and manner starting with six isotherms, sheath may both be considered to be at very neasly the same temperature. ‘Although the individual portions of the network are neither squares ‘The predominantly horizontal lines indieated on the drawing represent nor rectangles their corners are at right angles in accotdance with the isothermal planes perpendicular to the plane of tho drawing. Conse- steady-state principle that the flow of heat is always at right angles to the ‘quently there is no heat flow to be considered in the direction perpendicu- {isotherms comprising the temperature difference, In Fig. 2.12 itis ecen lar to the plane of the drawing. ‘tbat 11 lanes were obtained for each half of a symmetrical section. If the isotherms were undisturbed by the rib, the portions abod would then A tte B ail G ‘be aquares and the heat entering BC would flow normal to it and 6.3 lanes would be required. ‘The rib is therefore equivalent to increasing the heat removal by 33 per cent. When the ribe are spaced more closely together, the frsctional hest removal increases. PROBLEMS 4 RL A furnace is encloged by walle made (irom inside out) of 8 in. of Kaolin ficebrick, il Y Rib 6 in, of kaolin insulating brick, and 7 in. of fireclay brink. What is the heat lose per ‘square foot of wall whon the inside of the furnace it maxintaiued at 2200°F and the - ‘ual at 200°F? ‘Qa. A furnace wall is to consist in series of 7 in. of kaolin firebrisk, 6 in. of kaolin D te, € Ay F ‘insulating brick, and ufisient fireclay brick to redace the beat lee to 100 Bea / (ir) fe} ‘Bio, 2.12, Grephioal representation of beat conduction. ‘Then the face temperature are 1600 end 10072, respectively. ‘What thickness of fireclay, should ‘an affective air gap of 3§ in. can be incorporated ‘Since the drawing is symmetrical about the vertioal ine BE, consider Totes tho Srey and inating boick when eet the wall without inating only the right half of the drawing bounded by BCFE. Assume an srbi- Sauar pet vin cha of lag ek lb reget, t ae " rin et trary numba of iotborms tf the destion fom Ht to H so tha, & : “ Sica Ses sea wi iraguatt bolls cannot ilarnad face pesto above 1500°P, js constant, At = ty Ate WE asin with thon kate = 2 bd. The {ge bricks cannot exeed O00°R, What thicknem of the wall wil give «feat loan greater the assumed sumber af isotherms tho greater the precision of the eso of 109/00 who hn extra fen ampere a 200 soli ‘consider the heat to flow from f to motal at t; through EF, repent ‘ ‘i in mica conta jon. Next, to “deated, | Ne ‘24. A Gin. TPS pipe is covered with three resistances in setice consisting from the ne ae Pe ance chee with gh mem Sadr" iE naa PP ae ita g whers = (ab + od)/2, and unit depth # = 1 perpendicular to 100°F, what is the heat loss per equare foot of outaide pipe surface? Sing. "The steady-hoat flow into exch lane ie @,. ‘The conduction ‘28. A Din, IP8 line to a efigerated procem covered with 34 in. of Kapok caries the drawing. Tho feng “aifference from one 125% NaCl brine at O*F and at w flow rate of 20,000 Ib/lr. ‘Tho outer surlace of the cormption i then Qs = i ne papain for the ‘apok wilb mantined at °F. Wate the quan fr the wot bat? Cale. isotherm to natu same, constant Tonka pe an spesture rise i for a eet i evident from the conduction equation that the rabio y/x rust Tgth of ipa, nn Dee and Oe tem ofthe iid for 5 6. ‘iso be constant, although y and x may vary. ‘The network of tho draw- 16, A vertical cylindsial kiln 29 fin diameter ia enclosed ab tho top by & hemi- ‘constructed auch that, for each quadrilateral, y = 2. Where 2 is spherical dome fabricated from an Bin. layer of interlocking and sell-upporting, ing is con 1 togather owing to the high ‘32 per oent chromo bricks, Derive an expreseion for conduction through the dome. small it is becanso the isotherms are cromded together owing ‘When the iaide and outede of the hemispherical dome are majniained at 1000 and. ‘heat removal by the rib. ‘The heat flow per lane is then given by 200°F, reepectively, what is the heat lous per square foot of internal dome eurface? -) “How doce the total host les for the dome compare with the total heat lose for ist pac). stracturally supperted roof of the same material when exposed to the same difference ™ in temperstare?By PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER V1. A-Lin. ote pipe earying 450°F steam is lagged with 1 in. of kapok surrounded boy ino powdered mogpeaite applied as plantr, The surrounding alr is at 70°F. NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 2 eatsfow arn, Constants of integration {Volumes opi hea BU2/(09)E) ‘olumetsi pe [pels haat ob conta prem, BEU/CBYCP) ‘Diameter, ft . fe Yoltge ot elotromotive force Seas cotlent of het Wander, Bro/(Q9CP) Current, amp leuicl unduly, 1/ohmete ‘Thermal conductivity, Btu//(ar)(ft*)(°F/tt) ‘Thickness of wall or length of pipe, ft 2 Boat flow, Bs/or “Heat flow per fare, Btu/hr Beat, Bia ‘nt flow, Bba/ (h(n ft) Racstance to heat fiom, (nF) Btu ~Pesintance to eectie Now, obs iu, ft Type QOOP ED EAN PROT SOON Radius, aay int "F re ate emptor 1, Coordinates of distance ft 77" Gangs in thermal vondutvity per degree sage ‘Time, br ‘Density. Ib /te? Resistivity, ohm convection. A temperature difference existed between the pipe surfaco and the average temperature of the air. Since the distance from the pipe surface to the region of average air temperature is indefinite, the resist~ ance cannot be computed from R, = La/ksA, using k for air, Tnstesd the resistance must be determined experimentally by appropriately ‘measuring the surface temperature af the pipe, the temperature of the air, and the heat transferred from the pipe as evidenced by the quantity of steam condensed in it. The resistance for the entire surface was then computed from Rom BZ Ou) (F)/Bea Af desired, Ze can also be calculated from this value of R. snd would be the Yength of a fictitious conduetion film of air oquivglent to the com- bined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiation. The length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious film finds numerous applications. Tnstond it is preferable to 58 PROCHSS HEAT TRANSFER simply be called the resistance. . - wil sine Fecia other than condition are necessarily combinations of two effects. ‘Particulatly in the ease of free ot forved convection to liqui CONVRCTION 7 film coefficient such as the size of the pipe and whother or not the fluid is considered to be on the inside or outaide of the pipe. With so many ‘ng it = efag |, 10 the modulus of elasticity. [In liquide i results in deformation ot a given rate. To evaluate » refor to Fig. 3:3 where shear is produced by maintaining the liquid film between a stationary plate at distance Y and a moving plate with velocity V. At any point in the film the velocity 1 is given8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER by u = Vy/¥. v Rato of hear = Sf = 5 (3) rouy 64) whore 4 is called the viscosity when V and Y have unit values. ‘The actual foree required to move the plate ia =A. If F is the pound- force, L the length, and 4 the time, the dimensions of the viscosity are. _ oP L fm RTE" BEB or using the pound-mase M, where F -+ Mg and g = L/6t, the secelera- tion of gravity, owt LM ES DAL/S~ Th ‘When evaluated in egs metric units » is commonly called the absolute viscosity. . —_erememsss_* *~ centimeter X second ‘This unit’has been named the poise after the French scientist Poizeuille. ‘This is ailarge unit, and it is customary to use and speak of the centi- poise, or-one-bundredth poise, in engineering unite its equivalent is defined by pound-mass * = Foot X hour ‘Viscositios in centipoises can be converted to engineering units on multi- plying by 2.42. ‘This unit bes no name, Another unit, the kinematic viscosity, is also usod because it occurs frequently in physical systems and produces straighter graphs of viscosity vs. temperature on logarithmic coordinates. The kinematic viscosity is the absolute viscosity in centi- poinos divided by the specific gravity. ‘nematic viscosity = SPSolute viscosity Kinemati viscorty = ea re erally ‘The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stokes, after the English mathe- matician Stokes, and the hundredth of the stokes is the centistokes. ‘The viscosity can bo determined indirectly by messuring the time of efflux from a calibrated flow device having an orifice and a controlled ‘temperature. The commonest is the Saybolt viecometer, and the time of efflux from a standard cup into a standard receiver is measured in CONVECTION 29 seconds and recorded as Saybolt Seconds Universal, SSU. Convers factors from the time of efflux to centistokes for the Saybalt and other Viscometers wre given in Fig. 13.1 _ and otter eat Transfer between Solids and Fluids: Streamline and Turbulent ‘Flow. ‘The Reynolds Number. When a liquid flows in a horizontal Fic. 34. Turbulent fow in pipes, ‘through which water flows, A thin stream of ink is inj t injected at the center of the tube, and if the ink remaine st the center for a reasonable : {Reynolds 0., “Seientifo Papers of Osborne Reynolds,” p, 81, Cambridge Uni- 1 B. Bl,30 PROCESS HEAT TRANAPER CONVECTION Tine flow. Streamline flow is, in fact, a form of conduction whose study different groups of variables, each group having the net dimensions of ‘wil be deferred to a later chapter. ‘The speed with which heat is trans- the dependent variable. As» yery simple illustration consider the con- Jemed to cr from a given liquid to a tube is considerably less for stroam- tinuity eguation which is frequently written in elementary physics and ine than for turbulent flow, and in industrial practice itis almost always thermodynamics texts in the form Physics desizable to avoid conditions such as low liquid velocity which promote wa streamline flow. z 5) Dimensional Analysis, A method of correlating a number of variables where w = fluid flow rate, weight/time toa single equation expressing an offect is known as dimensional analy- = fluid velocity ja conduit, length time i Ca oes ern Pe cmente rape | = epenife ion of the conduit, length X Sength = length? i ic laws deri example is » = specific volume, : rational jpration of © pendulum from Newton's second law and the ee me Tength X Tengih > Jength/weight = length? revilational constant. Still other effets ean be desoibed by dif- Why doos Ba (@.5) have thi particolar form? , o and must be Ertan! equations, and the course or extent of the phenomens deduced by rolated oo that their net dimonsions are the same as those of the SMhans of the ealculus, Numerous examples ofthis type are encountered cot variable w, nambly, weight/time. An equation inv. te depen elementary physics. In etill other types of phenomens there is inewfi numbers and dimensions must be correct with : tt0 end Lott. Gent information to permit the formulation of either differential equations Ghecking the dimennions alone, writing for the va ae or ‘car picture by which fundamental laws may be appliod. ‘This last their individual dimensions, G5) {roup must bested experimentally, and the corso. ‘the observa wei 1 one is an empirical approach to the equation. Equations which oan Weight _ length . tength? _ Weight ‘pe obtained theoretically can also be obtsined empirically, but the reverse ‘Time ~ “time * * Tenet ~ “time G6) Stdgme sted by far the proof of the mathe- watt ‘Bridgmant has presented by far the most extensive It is seen that the dimensions on the left side are identical wit inatioa! principles underlying dimensional analysis. Bovauso it operaico dimensions of the group oaly when the variab ae identical with the not baly upon the dimensions of the variables, it dose not directly produce fn the partoulas manner indiatad by the formula. Tae Sone vnerieal results from the variables but instead yields » modulus by pendent variables above give an answer in weight/time only when Piel the cbeerved data can bo combined and the relative influence of trranged in a single way, wa/e. Conserecly it may be deduced that th fo The variablos established. As such, itis one of the important comerstones of am opéation is deerméned only by sts dimensions; the form which pro. of empirical study. Tt recognizes that any combination of s number juces dimensional equality represents the necessary relationshi Pro- Gada dimension, such as 5 Ib or 5 ft, posnosses two identifying aspects, one the variables, Any physical oquation may bo writen and evaluated in SF pure magnitude (numerical) and the other quantitative (dimensions). term of a power series containing all th variables If the fori ware not Fundamental dimensions are quantities such as length, time, and tempera- Known in the illustration above sad it waa desire to find a relationahs Puiswhich aro directly measurable. Derived dimensions are those “Sich mus exit betweon the variables wg, and» may be exceed eich are expressed in terms of fundamental dimensions such a6 veloc- by a power sories such a8 it may be expressed Tength/time or density = mass/lengtht. The end results “ * Ty casional analysis may be stated as follows: If a dependent variable (, 1 0, 9) = awbwate + alwhutaty’ + +++ =0 (82) hhaving given dimensions depends upon some relationship among ® grou? ‘The factors « and «’ are dimensionless proportionality eonst Since oP vatablos, the individual variables of the group must be related in such the dimensions of all the consecutive terms of the series are identical, iti Srvay that the net dimensions of the group are identical with those of not necessary to consider any of the terms beyond the fist, ied tho dependent varisile, ‘Tho independent variables may aloo be related cone oan write Accordingly jnouel a way that the dependent variable is defined by the sum of soveral W(wredte) = 1 @s) {1 Bekdgman, P. W., “Dimensional Analysis" Yale Univesity Pres, New Haven, where ¢ indicates the function, Arbit sng b = =1 0 ht «32 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER will not eppear in the final equation caised to a fractional exponent, w= outa (8.9) Substituting dimonsions, ight . Dength®\* ea «(en oman (Yan If a group of independent variables will establish numerical equality with « dependent variable, the same is true of their dimensions. Equa- tion (3.6) imposes this condition. ‘The exponents o, d, and ¢nay then assume such values a8 are necessary to effect the dimensional equality ‘between the left and right éides. The remainder of the solution is merely to evaluate c,d, and e by simple algebra. Summing the exponents of the dimensions on both sides and recalling that an exponent of zero reduces a ‘umber to unity, length, 0 = ¢ + 2d + 36 Z weight, 1 = —e then = +1,d= +1, and¢ = —1. Substituting these in Eq. (3.9), w= autatt = a @.t) Inasmuch as this is an exact relationship, the proportionality constant is equal to 1.0 and ve wo=-% to employ other dimensions such as temperature and a derived heat unit LH, the Btu or calorie. . In mechanical and chemical engineering it is customary to use a set six dimensions: force F, heat H, length Z, mass M, temperature T, and time @, One of the important alternatives, however, hinges about the unit of force and the unit of mass, In the preceding illustration the weight ‘was employed. The relationship would hold whether the pound-thase or ‘gram-mass or the pound-force (poundal) or gram-force (dyne) were used CONVECTION 33 ease Tames 3.3, Duseveions asm Ure Dimensions:* Forse =F, heat =H, length = Z, mass = M, temperature = 7, time = ¢ "The foroe-pound is the pounds, the force-gram in the dyne +. RE he Forvevgrama inthe dyno Sym] Quantiey: consistent engineering and metric unite Pianene a | Acceleration of gravity, 1/0, ey 4 | hr or rac fy at ue a ML/H x MLiFe , ais L & bye r P z a i x ® ups 2 nies PL/A a Fie P PL/o : L ‘ H/MT : bat : oa ? rT ¥ are | Thermal cistusivity, £7, cme 3 [Remar ecw a ® Tee te radatity, ry CEE) (hr) (Bea, (*C)(cm) (see) foal LIOR 4 | Velocity, ft/hr, om feos Lye oe (br) /1t%, (force-g)(vec) /om* Fo/lt : y (om u lMeie (Ft) Ch), @/fem)(see) yee ‘we | Work, (forve-Ib)(t), (foree-g) (cm) FL +r ym wie nt ago stony low w FUME as long as the weight wao always troated in the same way. Cons systom in which the mass is a fundamental dimension 26 Af Eat ‘From the soceleration equation, foree = mass X aecelofution, P= Mie, 4a another set of dimensions it may be more convenient to consider forceTRANSER a PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER convecrion 35 the fundamental dimension, in which case mass is expresoed by stating ds and arbitrarily et ly the M = Fe. ‘equal to 1, setting the exponent of dP/dL, ‘When some of the variables are commonly expressed in units of force po our (8) YY such a0 pressure FZ~* and other vatiables by units of mass such ss the LB 4) \za} Ea) Ure, Gut) density AEL-, itis necessary to introduce 2 dimensional constent into the Summing 1s, seriee expression before solving for the expononts. Tho constant relating ponent 1 ¥ and F naturally has the dimensions of the gravitational acceleration bdsm ‘constant Lé-?, A similar situation also srises when describing a phe- x =a+b— Bead + menon by which @ work or kinetis enorgy change occurs in 8 system, Onctdt ‘Somme of the variables may ordinarily be expressed in terms of foot-pounds dam (loree-pound X foot) and others in terms of heat energy such aa the Solving simultaneous! Btu, A conversion factor which is the boat equivalent of work must be a introduced to convert FL to H, or vice versa. ‘The constant is the kinetic 6 @ ‘energy equivalent of the heat 42/2. A number of common variables to tog ‘and dimensional constants are given in Table 3.1 together with their net in 3 dimensions ip a six-dimension aysiem. ‘Typical sets of engineering snd a2 _¢ ametrie unite are included. : . . Analysis for the Form of a Fluid-flow Equation. When an ineompressi- ‘Substituting back in Eq. (3.13), ‘oid fain a tight risoatal uniform pipe wit constant mass we - the pressure of the fluid decrease along the length Bipe ~ obrmtabt ani See (Due) ring Poon. Thins cmonly eli the pre dopo he a DEA p @.15) system, AP, Tho pressure drop per unit length is referred to a where a and ~d must be evaluated from experi pressure gradient, dP/aL,, which has been found experimentally to be venient term of almost universal use in jneeine i a ae A con influenced by the following pipe and fluid properties: diameter D, veloc- which is identical with up and goeresponda to the reighe deen po ity w, fluid density p, and visoosity », . Wht relationship exista between foot of flow aren, ‘To obtain the drop frome tn Pe are the pressure gradient and the varisbles? a by AP, dls by the lgth of pipe lo Al rat Ba (0.15) enlace Sdhton. "Tho presure bax dimensions of ore/are, wheres the equivalent g, substituting for Ky its density ia exprestod by mase/volume #0 that a dimensional constant ] relating M to F must be included, Ky = ML/Fé#, The name result ap = $EE(Be) an may be accomplished by including the seceleration constant g along with 10 16) the variables above. While the visconiy is determined experimentally where Duip/u or DG/n is the Reynolds number. a8 force effect and has the dimensions F¢/Z?, it is a very emall unit, and Analysis for the Form of a Forced-coavection Rquation. The it is more common in the engineering eclences to use the absolute vie- heat transfer by forced convection to ani tution. The rte of cosity af/L# in which the conversion from foree to mass has already been turbulent dow in «pipe of uniform diameter at constant tinw rate ian males theron antag inttenced by the velocity w, density p, specific het Using the same method of notation as before, weap: Canductivity b, viscosity 1, as wall asthe inside diameter of the @ ws ofthe Mid fn ee ea ena Tmeter fect the thick ae ‘pipe Which the F< Pm Kw 13) be conducted, snd they also influence the exten Sr aed a rant oat F = eDre'Ky 3 aration at36 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER on. What relationship holds between the film coefficient or rate of feet transfer, hy = ST [such as Btu/(hr)(ft*)(*F)], and the other variables? ; ‘Solution. This not known whether all energy terms will be expresood tnechanically or thermally by the dimensions of the variables so that the ‘Fimensional constant Kx = ML*/H@* must be included. If all the dimen sions combine to give only thermal quantities such as the Btu, which aappeara in the dimensions of hy, the exponent of Kx in the series expression chould be sero and the constant will reduce dimensionally to 1.0, a pure number. Bs & th p, 6, D, By sy Kr hy = ataDrhl eK, @.17) Las OO BY ery OC) Summing exponents, BH, badt+f~i BL, -2—a—abte~f-pt2 IM, O=b—dtoti Bf, -l=-d-f M6 -1 =a -f—g~ di Solving simultaneously, one b=a a=1~f enol f=t g=l-f-«@ i=0 tating back, Sabena ety EE @.19) or collecting terms, ee (™Y (¢) , (3.20) ini three sets of where a, a, and 1 — f must be evaluated from a minimum of experimental dats. Substituting the mass velocity for up in the above, p(y” om ‘The dimensionless groups AD/k and tx/k, like the Reynolds number CONVECTION ar Dup/ ot DG/u, lave been sssigned names to honor earlier investigators in the field of fluid mechanics and hoat; transfer. A list of the common groupe and the names assigned tothem are included in Table 3.2. ‘Tanun 32. Comox Dnamaronuras Gaovrs One of the useful aspects of dimensional analysis is its ability to pro- vide » relationship among the variables when the information about phenomenon is incomplete. One may have speculated that both fluid fiction and foreed convection are influenced by the surface tension of the fiuid. ‘The surface tension could have been included os a variable and new equations obtained, although the form of the equations would have beon alteted considerably. Nevertheless it would have been found that the exponents for any dimensionless groups involving the surface tension would be nearly zero when evalusted from experimental data. By the samo token, the equations obtained above may be considered to be prodi- cated on incomplete information. In either case a relationship is obtainable by dimensional analysis. Consistent Units, In establishing the preceding sions were referred to in general terms euch as length, ete., without specifying the units of the dimensions. ‘The dimension is ‘the basio measurable quantity, and convention has established a number of different basic units such as temperature, °F and °C; ares, square foot, square inch, square meter, equare centimeter; time, second or hour; ote, In order that the net dimensions of the variables may be obtained by cancellation among the fundamental ard derived dimensions, all must ‘employ the same basie meesured units, ‘Thusif several variables employ dimensions containing length such as velocity L/0, density M/L4, and ‘thermal conductivity H/@DT, each must: emptoy the same basic unit of length such as the foot. Accordingly, when substituting values of the variables into a dimensionless group, it is not permissible to signify the38 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER dimensions of some variables in feet, some in inches, and ell others in ‘statement of a phenomenon can be expressed by Sener DRO (a2) where the total number of + terms or dimensionless groups equals the 3 CONVECTION 30 Analysis for a Sieve Jon) = 323) aC) ¢ ye Gy (ery ay Gin (sy (Hy G24 Summing exponents, 2H, Omatetg 3, 0= top) “sas oo m+ WLOnad—etmti 10 -a-e=g 2» on aah arama ‘sppeat a6 solutions for x. When 6 = 0, a = 1 and Dup/s = 1; and when ¢ = 0,¢ = 1 and o¢/k = 1. Assume & b=0, i above, d= 0,f= +19 0,¢=0, naa (iP) 1 Having already obtained hy it in desirable not to havo it appear again in cither x, or x2, ‘This can be accomplished in solving for the next oup by assuming ¢ = 0, ‘The entire Nuswlk number hD/k wil then is L a exponent of the viscosity is sued to be aero, i vl nt be polo to obtain either a Reynolds number or a Prand@l number.0 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Assume f= 1, 0=0, ¢=0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, b= ,d=1,9=0;m = —L5=0, a) ry Toprevent the hs term and the velocity or density from appesring again, assume a =0,¢=1,f=0, All the exponents will have now appeared in one ot more solutions. "Assume @ == 0, ¢=1, f 0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, b= 0,d=0,g=—Im=Li=0, w+) ‘The final expression is (2, a Z) =o (8.35) o: 1p -o(22)a(@) <2) @)-- EX GE om where the, proportionality constant and the exponents must be evaluated from experimental data. ‘Development of an Equation for Streamline Flow. Since streamline ast =1-38¢ (g) (27) hero fy and & are the itlet and outlet temperatures of the fluid, ¢, is the Uniform inside pipe surtace temperature, f — th the temperature differ- ‘ence at the inlet, and #(1wo/KD) is the numerical value of an infinite series having exponents which are moltiples-of we/BL. Equation (3.27) may be replaced through dimensional soaiysis with an empirical expression which must be evalusted from experiments. If tf — fy, the rise in the Yemperature of the fuid Bowing in the pipe, s considered to be influenced 1 Gens, Taj Ann. Physik, 86 387 (1865). For areviow ofthe treatment of conduc tion in moving fils nee T. B, Drew, Trans, AICKH, 26, 22 (951), CONVECTION 4 in radial conduction by the length of path Z, the rate of flow i host c, thermal conductivity #,'and the temperature “llfeence ‘sven the pipe inside eurface and the fuid temperature s0 that Af = ty — ty, . te — th = aL Auhctet att (8.28) Solving by the method of dimensional analysis 4 b-4= «(g) ah (8.29) o Gb _ (wl "a= ele, (3.30) which is similar to Ea. (8.27). Now note that neithe (3.29) contains h; or the viscosity x. But Q = hasatar {825) nor twclts — &) = her DL At and substituting @ = Sarg in Bq, (3.30), bb (DO Tae ** GE Gal) ‘Now synthetically introducing the viseosity by multiplyi f of Eq. (8.31) by (#/u)4, one obtains ” ing the right term and the temperature difference was simply the difference between any42 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Tiquid. What is the appropriate temperature difference for use in the equation Q = hiAd(p — 1) = BAs At, where fy is the constant tempors- thuge of tho inside pipe wall and ¢is the varying temperature of the liquid inside the pipet “Referring to Fig, 8.6, the constant temperature of the inside pipe wall js shown by the horizontal line ¢,. If the specific heat is assumed con- Fra, 36, ‘Temperature diffrence between a fsld ond pipe wall stant for the liquid, the rise in temperature is proportional to the total ‘heat received by the liquid in passing from tbe inlet temperature f to the ‘outlet temperature fr and if Ix is eonsidered constant dQ = hed, ty (3.33) ‘The slope of the lower line defining the temperature difference Ais a5 a function of Q is ae (a4) where Aly = f — ts and Ahi = t — te ‘Eliminating 4Q from Eqs. (3.33) mi 28), dbs cay — ag = [EH (35) ‘The expression (4M! in the lgarithmde mean temperature diferenc, apbreviated LMTTD, and the value of ha, which has been computed from. Q = hdcat; when At is the logasithmic moun, is a distinct value of CONVECTION hy W the valuo of At, were arbitrarily taken as the arithmetic mean oe eras de value fhe wold have to be daniguted bo show that am is is pled by afiing the sbrpt oo for arti ‘mean, a8 he OF fn h appr ity, the arithmetic and logarithmi. oe logarithmic ‘Bsperimentation and Correlatien. Suppose experimental spparatua Q = well, — h) = AAAs (8.37) From the observed valuee of the experiment and the eslculnti given in Eq, (3.36), hy ean be computed from tion of At, a8 tt = t wot the Be = wee (8.38) factors which affect h, are those encountered in the dimensional analysisconvection 45 nected to.calibrated condensate drain tanks where the heat balance can PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER 44 le correcting for the temperature drop through the pi that lemporsture aguinst emf by means of Potentiometers the Teade es es Dipeimiace thermocouples aro brought out through the gaskets at to permit the condensation of stcam for liquid-heating experiments or the rapid circulation of water for liquid-cooling experiments. The auxiliary a exchanger is connected to perform the opposing operation of the test ‘usually be carried out in Jess than an hour. section and cools when the test section is used for heating. For a heat- ing experiment, cold liquid from the reservoir is circulated through the circuit by s centrifugal pump. A by-pasa is included on the pump dis- e is |. The fas calming sections, Next the liquid passes through » cooler whore its temnetature is retumed to 4. The annulus of the test section is eon-46 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER convuction ar and thermometers appesr elsewhere. ‘The sxe is true of equations to are aan tor Huld fiw through standard orgs when the properties of the |, 2 gator acces ane aheneewonmencos oy. ° Boreas eae | | Ssaaaenaesascee ieation Convection Equation from Experimental aio Sreebon at Ded Cee a aia mc ve Git lesscascunen aa ae py Morris and Whitman® on heating gaa oil and straw oil with T ( Setsasougeiae | | Segggasuaaan ses steam in a $4-in. IPG pipe with a heated length of 10.125 ft. & OSS SSSSHG HWM Te vcr ata en 38 5 va | SSSTSECeeaeae pe veo 38 ant al int oe | Deszooetese: Gade aaeeeae ‘ind the epecific heats from Fig. 4. Both are plotted in the Appendix Seeseanseasee gle | 882882! © | Me ; ett je: | seaman | nt Ne - a een 0 ge ane ee ete ae ee af = ae ‘SSPEARS | Se geageesusaens Cl nb 2 | scdesangasees || 23 0 envi sep avanengens |e| 29uunanngaagaas ‘Vscoaities Fi _ [heeeoennaeans |] wnecooncencaena ‘with *API 98 ‘the tivity of the metal as iP 2 | Sddseaaeceses |) sisaveaddseeres Tae by Mortis and Whitman to bo 5 Btu/(hr) (2) C/O and constants a agg: ; though ths ia higher than the-value given in Appendix Table 3. Only, ae ° Seaeseeseees : Begeegeseegenes Snlumns 22, 4, and 5 in Table 83 were observed where i sense 5 SSANASHSASESASS ‘cae f= laa || Hannan 1, = temperature of outer pipe averaged from thermocouples — RARSARS too et tow, Ib/hr L . |ggecemngcenas| | reencesseeaaaac Tie Set oep in correlating a foroed convection equation is to devermine Senangadudges| | Htuasesqeseengs tnt oe as ne E . [eegesaesnaase = ey. Nd be incorrect. In column "Reynolds numbers « /pezzzgaeteges| | consescogssenss ee ca age nd PRORSSESARSAA | | SPRSRESSSEASAS may in le ‘proper ave ar & 385! TH ay orate (a+ 1/2 The Reyaols numbers al excend p > |RSSesezuaeaeg | | SRIERARSSEREERS + Amesican Tntitute of Phoien, ‘Temperstare: Tie Measurenoat and Contre in Lf ieee 7 cmt are Reinhold Pbaing Corporation, New York, 104) Pa angaeengegaas | | sesecscssscaeee eetacte FHL, and W. G. Whitman, Zad. Bng. Chen. 20 204 (1978).48 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER °2100-in substantiation of turbulent flow. Equation (3.26) isigiven as P-()(0) ‘and a, p, and q can be found algebraically by taking the data for three test points, Algebraic Solution. This method of correlation is demonstrated ‘by using the three points B4, B12, and C12 in Table 3.3 which include a = log a + 4.0086p + 1.76199 16 = log a + 4.4005p + 1.51729 Ba: 1.9004 = log a + 3.6846 + 1.61709 Eiiminating the unknowns ane by one gives a = 0.00682, p = 0.93, and @ = 0.407, and the final equation is oan, “AP oma ()""(3) When the equation i to be used frequently, it ean be simplified by fixing 1108 the eube root of the Prandtl number and solving for new values of and p. The simplifed equation would be Peoom (2G) Grophical Solution. For the correlation of « large numaber of points the graphical method is preferable, Rewriting Eq. (3.28), 3 ‘OM = «(2 (0) ‘hich is an equation of the form yoo (3.40) convgcrion 49 ‘Taking the logarithms of both sides, log y = log a + p log x ‘which reduces on logstithmie coordinates to an equation of the form Veatpr ean ‘On logarithmic coordinates the entire group (ID/k)(cu/k)~* is the ordi- nate y in-Eq. (3.41), the Reynolds number is J +, pis the slope of when plotted as y vs, x, and ais the value of the Sntooept when ate Plog =0 Observed teat data: Woight flow of gas cil, w = 722 th ‘Temperature of oat pipe fle, ee 77t°F Temperature of oit at pipe outlet, fy = 108.9°F Average temperature of outside pipe surface, #0 = 210,19" Physical data and calculated results: Heat load, Béu for: Average oil temperature = TL + 1089 +1069 | goon Average speci heat, ¢ = 0.472 Btu/(Ib)(°F) Q = wells — th) = 722 X 0.472(106.9 — 77.1) = 10,150 Btu/hr ‘Temperature of Surface, t,: . LD. of }gin, TPS = 0.62 in; 0.D. = 0.84 Length, 10.126 fy; murfce, 1850s60 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Thermal conductivity of steel, 35 ‘Beu/ (hr) (Et*) CF Et) 10,180 — 007 Bia @ por lin ft, ¢ = 79,195 2.34 4, Ds 238 X100T Jog 984 298,7°F = te — Fah log B= BIO = gC BIE BE OO ‘yin expression Q = Act! i = 0087 ~ 77.1 = 1310°F age at = 208.7 — 106.9 = 1018°F 191.6 — 1018 Ai = LMTD = 33 Tog (B1.6/1018) 7 = 536 Beu/(hr)Ge)CF) =15.7°F 6.36) ‘the thermal conductivity of the oll will be considered constant st 0.078 Btu/(br) Ge) CEA). » 588 X 0.82 | ‘i Numit ponte, He =" = are 365 dimensiones ‘Maps velocity, = 342,000 st 8 = pip = CHROOT nee tate) i foot vnaso/100 vicosity from Hig, 3.8 at O2F is 2.22 contipoien [gram-mas/ Qaeol ‘or 8.22 X 2.42 = 7.80 Ib/ (ft) (br). \ Dg _ 082 ber, Re =~ = Gr X 342,000 X 755, Reynolds num! 4. 1 7.80 i se Prandtl number, Pr = = ARE = AT, dimensionless Sane a a Mu/Pr ~ 0.75 plotted in Fig, 89 Eon wil je See prh 085 plated Sa Fig. 8.10 hvala f tho Gin il in which te ordinate ine =" /($) : saruming a value of ¢ = 3% and plotting the ordinate jz = “E / ir) itn posible to obtain the single line as chown in Fig, 3.10. ‘By drawing CONVECTION 51 ‘the best straight line through the points of Fig. 3.10, the elope can be measured in the same way as on rectangular coordinates, which in this particular caso is found to be 0.90. By extrapolating the straight line 5 g a 100) a 80] 8 C4 3 30} 4 40] e] a4 &: ical ac iy Ae an et ~y, tl EF | “Fon “Ee a | bal 4 os 3 03} 2 aus Z Sa 0 i ER tooo Sa — pa fet new ‘exponent of 1.0. component of 34. until the Reynolds number is 1.0, ¢ value of « = 0.0115 is obtained sa the intercept. ‘The equation for all the data is thus Ap 008 fog\ §P ~ oous (2) @® A value of g = 0,40 would cause less bowing and a amaller deviation. ‘The correlation of data need not be confined to heating or cooling runs on (8.42) into a single correlation, called the isothermal heat but the procedure invotwes an addition ee en oman, until Chap. 5, deferred Correlation of Fiuid Friction in Pipes. When a fluid flows in pipe isothormally, it undergoes a decrease in pressure, From Eq. (3.16) it is seen that for isothermal turbulent flow this pressure drop is a functi of the Reynolds number and, in addition, to the roughness of the pipe2 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER Rewriting Bq. (9.16) in dimensionless form, rig" square foot. For combination with other hydrodynamic equations it is more,convenient to use a friction factor f so that nee (8.43) When experimental data are available, itis thus convenient to obtain a correlation by plotting f as a function of the Reynolds number and the conventional Fanning equation as shown in Fig, 8.11. ‘The Fanning written aa AF = AP/p where AF is the pressure drop expressed in feet of Kiquid, or aHOL AP = Dp (3.44) For the portion of the graph corresponding to streamline flow (Re < 2100 to 2300), the equation for the pressure drop may be deduced from theoretical con- siderations alone and has been verified by experimont, Tho equation is = 306, ap = Sint (3.45) By equating (8.44) and (8.45), since each applies at the transition point from streamline to turbulent flow, the equation of this line, known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, where fis used with Eq, (8.44), is _ 16 t= pom (3.48) ‘To the right of the transition region in turbulent flow there are two lines, one for commercial. pipes tid the other for tubes. Tubes have ‘smoother finishes than pipos and therefore give lower pressure drops when all other factors aro the same, ‘This is not so of streaming flow where the fluid at the pipe or tube wall is assumed to bo stationaty or neatly stationary and the pressure drop is not influenced by roughness. ‘The equation of fin Eq, (8.44) for fluids in tubes in turbulent flow is given by convEerion 83 Drew, Koo, and McAdams! within +5 per cent by = 0.00140 + 50.198 f o + waz (8.474) For clean commercial iron and steel pipes an equation given by Wilson, 0.20, 0.55] ine - tage lap HOrL om I be 3 4 5678908 2 se 5 rae Fre, $11, Prioion factor foe fa in pipes and tn ‘MeAdams, and Seltzer within +10 per cent is . 0.264 I= 0.0085 + OT G47) Tecan be seen that, if the transition from i _lt ti streamline to turbulent is dren by Dup/y = 2200, approximately, then the velocity at winks ‘pipe changes from streamline to turbulent flow is . = 23004 = Dp For water flowing in s J-in, TPS pipe at 100°R, the viscosity is 0.72 centi- 1 Drew, T. By E, C. Koo, and W. H. M [Deen 7.2 . H. Moadams, Trans. ATCA, 28, 56-72 (1029), ean," Es Ws H. MeAdams, snd M. Salter, Fad. Bing. Chen SA 196 rscy PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER is gam-maas X 100 (em)(sec) or 0:72 2.42 = 1.74 Ib/ (ft) Pie oe ee daweter ue pipe is 1.09 in., or 1.09/12 = 0.091 ft. 3300 X L74 _ 0.196 tian = SIC GES 707 fe, oF 0.196 fs n= a = 16,100 ft/hr, oF 4.19 fps Reyoolds Analigy. Both host transfer and fluid friction in Cena ree ave boon treated empirically, whereas their streamlie- * Baroolda, op. ot pp 81-85. CONVECTION 55 wall is obtained by equating the drag on unit length of pipe wall to the product of the pressure gradient and the cross-sections! area of the pipe, which reduoes to : roadout G48) where r is the drag, Since the drag is assumed to be equal to the loss of omentum of the Suid, mune = bout (@.49) ‘The rato of heat transfer between the fluid and the wall is given by mU2er dL(T ~ t,) = WO aT @.50) ‘or from Ega. (8.49) and (3.50) war 8.51) sac + Rewriting Eq. (3.50) to include the heat-transfer coefficient, WO aT = hor aL(T — t) wear.” (@.52) fe meray te ogc 58) | Vis interesting to note in Eq, (8.63) that an equation haa been obtained | for the hesi-transfer coeficiont which involves the friction factor and i36 PROCHSS HEAT TRANSFER ‘hich ean be dotermined from an experiment in which no heat was trans- Terred. Like'most derivations which require a number of assumptions, ‘the use of Eq. (3.63) applies only to a small range of fluids, particularly permanent gases. It was Reynolds 2s quoted by Stanton’ who predicted that the coeff- cient of heat transfer obtained from Eq. (3.53) should bo affedted by the ratio of the thermal conductivity and viscosity of a epecifie Suid. While the presence of the thermal conductivity suggests the influence of con- €f its innor circumference is i', the heat flow per equaro foot of layer is given by Ke ~ 6) q= Hea) where fis the mean conductivity for the layer. Assume that the transfer of heat and momentum is carried through this layer by molecular motion ‘without disturbing its laminar flow. The inner surface of the layer moves ‘with a velocity w' in streamtine flow, and writing (1 — w’) for w in Eq. (3.58), aa 1e(T - ¢) Qa alt — ft) = Fy (3.55) From the definition of viscosity given by Eq. (3.4), rang (3.56) where is the viscosity of the fluid in the Inyer, “From Eq. (3.64), 7 9 lg t-4=-E-88 (or ‘And from Faq. (8.55), , rere) (ss) Combining Eqs, (8.87) and (3.58), (3.59) r-4a0(+%-¥) ‘Phil, Trans. Roy. Soc, (London), A 390, 67-88 (1897). *tanton, T. E., ‘+ Prandtl, L,, Phyoit, Z., 28, 487-489 (1928), Taylor, G.L, Brit, Ade. Comm, Aero, Repl, and Mene 272 (1917). CONVECTION 87 ‘The corrected value of fy becomes hp at T-%) wy le ETOTE Substituting 1’ for the ratio /u and eliminating r by means of Bq, (3.48), (8.60) hn (3.61) or in dimensionless form using ¢ for @ and A f ven i fone ing ¢ for for he a8 usually given in the hot 1 31-7 re G02) ‘Equation (3.61) is the Prandtl modification of the Reynolds an: which is sometimes called the Prandil analogy. The dimeresaes Prandtl group cu/k has appeared earlier in thie chapter, and when it is numerically equal to 1.0, Eq. (3.61) reduces to Eq. (3.53). This is approximately the case for permanent gases, Whilt notable extension of the Reynolds analogy, it too has Jimita- tions. Modern theory now presumes that the distribution of velocities no longer ends abruptly at the laminar layer but that there is instead a buffer layer within ‘the laminar layer in which the transition occurs. Other extensions of the analogies also appear in the literature. PROBLEMS LL. The heat-transfer coefiicieat A from a hot horizontal ‘to. con ws ttm ha oy ansity », viscosity », thermal coeficient of expansion 9 of the gus, pipe dissaste: D, etal cnwtn and the aperture cifras A betwee the eras of he pe sameeren for the heat-tranafer woelicient. lsh ‘ ots ines eration sherpa lat ‘ongth of the sold 1, and the tomperatare difference At betweon thi turtece of tae noh rollin uk opeaticeo hg Beabonedneacesopater ete 44. When » Suid fos atound a ephere the force exertad hy the tid haa beencd PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER found to be « function of the viscosity 1, density 0 and velocity wf the gxs, and the digmeter D of the sphere. Entablish an expression for the preseure drop of the Suid ‘ns fonction of the Reynolds number of the gas. ‘85. Tho heating of gas off end straw oil in a pipe haa been found for a Hua. IPS pipe to follow Bq. (42). SP asus (2) (E)" itu he cape ‘26. Using Eq. (3.49), it in desired to crouinte 4000 Ib/ur of amyl acetate through «2 3¢-in, IPB pipe while jen temperature i raised from 180 to 150°R. (0) Prom data tveiiabie in tbe Appondix on the physical properties of amyl acetate calculate the Iheat-transfer coeficont, It may be néocesary to extrapolate nome of the data, @) ‘Do the suxne for 6900 Ib ir af ethylene lye! inthe ume pipe when heated from 170 {0 08°F, ‘if only one point ia given for » property, euch as the thermal condustivity, and itis ¢ lower thant the average temperature, ita ure will ntually introduce a alight factor of alot. for heating water in» pipe while wteam is circulated on the outside, Note that ©", ‘the reported mass velocity, is notin consistent units, ‘8.7. Ona }4in. IPS pipe 10,125 ft long Morris and Whitman reported thefllowing —~ 1.6 92.7 werd 108.1 108-4 105.0 307.3 106.7 108.5 106.3 10.4 307.8 ‘Visorities and conduetivitin oan be found in the Appendix. Tho specific heat and _sesvity shonld bo taken 92 1.0, Establish an equation of the form of Bq, (8.26) using ‘ll the data, (Hint, To save time in the selostion of the exponent of the Prandtl smamber, take three random pointa such aa the first, st, and an intermediate one and ‘solve algebraically.) ‘38, On cooling & 358°API gas oil with water Moris and Whitman reported the following for 10-125 ft of }4-in. TPS pipe: GF Ble] he, ‘82.6 8 S888 ERs S88 8 Ea gsu8 Bxiee es Smhe Skee SHoee| 8 BEI8 SSE8R 888s y S338 \e Stash a ation a ha form of (8.26) forall tho data. () Combine data with that of Prob. 8.8 to obtain ons correlation for beth ails. ‘Ocaataels60 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER convacrion 61 ven the exponent ofthe Prana nue ib, an pot opts with heat for Acceleration of gravity, fart Heat unit, Bie Heat-rannfer coefficient in general, Btu/(hx) (0) Hleat-tranafor cooficient based on the inside pipe Conversion fect been Knee je energy and heat, (maae-Ib)(t)/Btu Conversion factor betwoen force and mass, mase-Ib foree-Tb ‘Thermal conductivity, Beu/(und (ey CF/At) Length, ft Pundnmestal dimeovion of mas, aasib velocity perpendicular to inside pipe surface, Ih/(he) Mase ylasiy pope Pipe surface, Ib/(r) (4) &8 ‘Thermal reatance on inside of pipe, (he) (4 (°P)/tu ‘Thermal resistance on outside of 8) Damas Pipe, Che) (9) °F) /Btu Ratio of u'/u, dimensionless PER BBE Bo ggete sone Po PN SSts prea RO RAE EE ees BERES BB ba goose go ee F £ 8 = & E Hl 8835 Temperature fers bobwomn ine Je pipe Buid and inside pipe wall, °F rexperntuediferenco obween outalde pipe fai and outade pipe mally ‘Velocity in general, ft/hr oe Pe | saa8 asst Eg ae ppes ‘The temperature tp infor the inside surface of the tube. Tsarmuch aa these dite fall below a Reynolds number of 2100, obtain an equation of the form of Eq. (8.82). ‘The ‘viscosity of the oll a 24.0 centipoiaes at 200°F nnd 250 centipoins at 100°. Inter- ‘mediate viscosities can be obtained by drawing a straight line on logarithmic paper as ‘shown in Fig. 38. (The hiat of Problem 87 is applicable.) NOMENCLATURE FOR CEAPTER $ Pa | Any of sveral proportionality constants, dimensionless ‘Tine, br # — Yioosty, o/c) stv arenes 2, A Heabtraneler surface, fi Dimensionless goup a Fluid fow aren, itt Density, lb/ft 6 ‘Thickness of laminar Inger, f¢ Shoat stress, tht Specie host of hot laid in derivations, Btu /() CF) Function © Bpeciic heat of cold fad, Bta/(b)(F) D__uside diameter of pipe ortube, ft ‘Saperecr F Fundamental dimension of foree,forco-b af Pressure drop ft of liguid Pq Constants f Friction factor in the Fanning equation, dimensionless J. Friction factor, dimensionless Subscripts (except as noted above) @ Mane velocity, Tb/Cnr}t0) 4 Inside a pipe or tube 1 Ind, Brig, Chem., 98, 1420-1495 (1990), I © Outaide pipe or tobeCHAPTER 4, RADIATION Tey calags shen lets ually te tucnyin dua Wadena ye eee noneres siven point can be represented by a sine wave having finite length from crest to crest and which is 2, the wardlength. The number of waves passing a given point in unit time is the frequency of the radiation, and et the wave. portance aa aeleat tander aa found ia ovina adil pe of radiant energy, sae at which has the value of the quantum for a given frequency. ‘The picture of tho stom propored by Bohr is helpful to a clearer under- * sanding of oe pombe ain of radiant eneey. Elona are pre sumed to travel about the nucleus of an atom in elliptical or ing ditanes from th maclens. “he elon eal dertrcs pols etzely lave the spon indoeneed by ‘the nucleus If th traniion is ffom an orbit of high energy to one of lower eusrgy, the readfastmentis affected by the radiation of the excess energy. iret ech change in in dhe ample ot mpltndon of vibration will cause a change in energy content. A decrease in amplitude israeli ot ery, weaning tro of the absorption of radiant energy. ‘The energy of a molecule may be changed by an alteration of its kinetic energy of tranelation or rotation, and this will ikewise result in the emission of radiant energy. / A decresseot PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER in velocity corresponds to the émission of radiant energy, while.an increase ‘the higher the temperature the greater the quantity of radiant energy eniitted from » substance.) Since molecular movement ceases com- pletely only at the absolute 2¢ro.of temperature, it may be concluded that. all substances will emit or absorb radiant energy provided the tempera- ture of the substances is above absolute zero. For radiant energy to be emitted from the interior of a, solid it must penetrate the surface of the solid without being dissipated by producing other energy changes within its molecules. There is little probability thet radiant energy generated in the interior of a solid will reach its sur- face without encountering other molecules, and therefore all radiant length, This is attributed to tho existence of an infinite variety of linear oscillators, The energy emitted at each wavelength can be determined through the use of a dispersing prism and thermopiles, Such meseure- ‘ments on a given body will produce curves as shown in Fig. 4.1 for each siventomperature, ‘The curves are plots of the intensities of the radiant energy Jy Btu/(br)((t!)(mioron) against the wavelengths in microns } as determined at numerdus wavelengths and connecting pots. For any giventemoperature each curve possesses a ‘at which the amount of spectral energy given offis a maximum: (For the same body at a lower i ation is obviously less, but ‘The maximum intensity falls between 34 and 400 microns, indicating that RADIATION 66 ‘Whe Gealing with the properties of radiation, it entiate between two kinds of properties: monochromat monochromatic property, such as the meximum val refers toa single wavelength. A total property indioates mer a & 8 3. ‘ ad Nee | + 6 3 0 f A, woveletength microns Tra. 41. Intensity of monochromatic radiation for thot body at dierent temperatures, algebraic sum of the monochromatic values property i eum of the of the chromatic radiation literally means “one color” or one evelongth bar Tas intercity of monoctromaté emis, ul Ht ner 2 Ss if i 2 2 ° 6 power E, Btu/(br)(ft*). If the intensity of the radiant energy vavelongth in Fig. 4.1 ia Jy Btu/Chr)()(mioron), the tots acta, power is th aren under the curve and may be somal be B= [na (a66 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER A relationship between Z, and \ was the subject of many investigations both experimental and mathematical during the nineteenth century. Planck was the first to recognize the quantum nature of radiant energy ‘and developed an equation which fite the spectral energy curve of Fig. 4.1 at any temperature. It is given by RADIATION e7 ven by atrtr (4.6) ee is the fraction absorbed, ‘the reflectivity r the frac- n=, (42) ‘traaiamissivities, but there are none which completely absorb or reflect . all the incident energy. ‘The substances having nearly complete or unit where [, = monochromatic intensity of emission, Btu/{hr)(ft?) + sbeorptivities are lampblack, platinum black, and bismuth black, absorb> (anicron) | ing 0.98 to 0.99 of all incident radiation. = wavelength, microns If an ordinary body emits radiation to another body, it will ha if at Cs and Cy = constante with values 1.16 10* and 25,740 monochromatic intensity of emission and the absolute temperature ie a constant, or l & ditties f i i MT = 2884 micron °R 43) _ ‘Equation (4.3) may be derived from Eq. (4.2) as follows, ‘After ‘heral oquibrium has boon rowed, the teeeraeen of ee cat : ‘and that of the enclosure will be the same, inferring that the body ia an, = a(ZG,) -0 4 absorbing and radiating heat at identical rales. Let the intensity of Cesenconar 1) -epcaynany SF a 9 radiation falling on the body be Z Btu/(hs)((¥), the frection absorbed oF aud the total emisive power Ei Btu/(hr)(fv?). Then the energy ‘mitted by the body of total surface Axis equal to that reseived, or (54+ Bor +5-0 45) BA, = Tos “an By trial and error, the firt term equals ~5 when XT = 2884, By = Ia, (48) ‘Spectral measurements of the radiation received on the earth’s surface If the body is replaced by another of identical shape and equilibrium is from the sun and allowing for absorption by the atmosphere indicate that again attained, the peak Flies approximately at 0.25 micron, which in well in theultra- Ei = Io a» violet. This accounts for the high ultraviolet content of the eun’s rays ‘and the predominance of blue in the visible portion of the spectrum. ‘The Tea third body, a black body, is introduced, then Iocation of the peak allows an estimation of the sun's temperature from Rely (4.10) Eq, (43) at 11,000°R. dof ‘The Incidence of Radiant Energy: The Black Body. ‘The preceding But by the sbeorptvity of « black body is 1.0, iseuwsion has dealt with the generation of radiant energy. What hap- Bobo. pens when radiant energy falls upon a body? In the simple ease of light a a au it may be all or partially absorbed or reflected. Ifthe receiving medium fs transparent to the radiation, it will transmit some of the energy through Sronrpte toe ada ae rato of the total orn raiser iteelf, ‘The sume effects are applicable to radiant energy, and an energy Sinonthe maximum absorptivity of the black body is taken’as 1.0 from Dbslance about a receiver on which the total incident energy is unity is Eq, (48), te rel moray ho68 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘missive power are not obtainable, but By = ok (4.12) Ey = oaby (4.18) z =a=6 (4.14) Ey Frases (4.18) ‘Tho use of the ratio of the actual emissive power to the black-body emis- sive power under identical conditions is the emissivity «. Since itis the reference, the emissivity of the black body is unity. ‘Tho emissivities of common matetials cover a large range and aro tabulated in Table 4.1. (4.19) if can be seen that any body having a high emissivity as a redistor vil have a high absorptivity when acting 28. receiver, ‘The usual state- tment is aa follows: Good radiators make good absorbers. are also canceled. Ifthe galvanometer deflection for the specimen non RADIATION 69 black body is measured and then cis replaced by a perfect black body, the ratio of the two galvanometar deflections is the emisivity of the specimen. Dats obtained in this manner are the normal folal eméesivily a8 given in Table 4.1. They may also be used in the solution of problems baving bemiephericl radiation except in the presence of highly polished Wo, 42. Apparatus for measuring orsiviting, Influence of Temperature on the Emissive Power: Stefan-Boltemann Law. Ifa perfoct black body radiates energy, the total radiation may be determined from Planek’s law. Starting with the monochromatic black- body equation he ge, er] it assy be appliod to sum up all the energy by integration of the ares under # curve in Fig. 4.1 or ata fixed temporature >on Be [aa 4.16) Lat 2 = OyaT, d= Cx/Ts, ah = (—C4/Ta") de, froth which Be OF aie — yds (417)i Bs mera leat teal ull Hf al) |! a qa oe i = i Be a 4 : fli i i i ba & OA foadE bs aes Habe» we wt Hu ba ; i oa Eli sesbeanel ; iH 5 5382 Ebssele 3 di if ef sat [ i (onaspen0) —(rauopp saovaung saomA 20 mun wen NOLEVIQVH 1 a2 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER danse 41, ‘Tun Noweat Totat, Exrearrers or Various Suupaces (Hormes).— RADIATION B Teo 44, Tae Nomat. Tora, Exasstviry or Vassovs Sonraces (Horrer)— (Continued) (Continued) Surface tee | Eminsivity® ee Sataoe si elabed 440-1260 | 0.0108-0,0324 Polsbod. mt 100-00" | 0.0221-0.0312 (if Iayers on alumiaum foil (ineeed oi. Sted (ee Irom) ‘ i : ” ‘Tantalum Slement 2120-5490 | 0.104-0.81 Ba ait de ae Filament, aged. |. 99-000 lament. 1000 Zine } ‘Commercial 99 40-50 Gnidized by heating. 10 Galvanised eben con, fay Bright... 82 Galvanized aboot ion, gray oxidized eee 'B, Relyactories, Building Materials, Points, and Miscellaneous et [ Board . Paper 100-700 Bick Se cise, 1 Ses gleacd, rough 2012 Grog bee, glasol.. 21a Gee Be carbon “Tearbon (Gebruder $i 260-1160 ‘Ths tard with emi ‘on heating carbon flames 3900-2500 Can et «} e520 sae. 200-440 ‘Thin ® Thick 8 100-700 345 stint BUSSE 22288 slo, to mow th efecto el layee ee Altzum, pars A af thie table,us PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 4 RADIAPION ‘Expanding the term in parentheses, r id oe , of rain’ hau ae infiely lrg wo hat the emu of dain nT p= eyes from the n= - Sr f Meebo bew teed + de 618) woniver is insignifeant. Tei te patos lanes enact nice the energy from the first is Zi = Plates ‘black bodies, Tntegatng cach term and suming only she Sot four as cigifeanly Oe eae Doak Coly, atne ay trees toatl . Ey the net . ‘energy it receives is absorbed B= SF x oat 19) ad the na coehage Per eruazo fot batreon two Planes inalntained Evaluating constants, Gon, B= 0.173 X 10°F! (4.20) a wv Bia = o( Pt ~ TH) (4.23) ‘Bquation (40) being the aron under a corve in Fig. 41 from = 0 62 = oars[(%)'- G)] , am Qe @ states that the total radiation from s perfed back body is pr- oa) \t09) (aad) * tional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of te a0, Kaample 41. Radiation between Thins known as the Stefan-Boltsmans law, "Tho oonstant 0.178 X 10-* at ne casa tmpartere oD ond 1000°R haranang they ave Hck bode, bee Dea )GU)CRS) is known oo the Stefan-Boltemann constant, uniahy WO0 feat iat boFemored rom the colder wallfo malnins gastant tapes? designated by «. "The equation was also deduced by Boltamann from the _ temapecnture? desioaticer uf thetmodynamice. Equation (3.20) serves a8 the principal Saloon: 1000 + 400 = 1480". ve andhip fr the calculation of radiation phenomené and isto radiation @ 1 = 800 +460 = 1280°R ‘what Q-= AA At ia to convection. However, Eq. (4.20) was derived for fm OT [(24.6)* — (12.6)44 = 8,500 Btu/ (hr) (itt) ssperfect black body. From Eq. (4.14) if s body is nonblack, the emissiv- fig is the ratio 2/H wid B oan bo written B= Fe Equation, (4.20) ‘becomes E=e? (a1) planes are not black bodies and have different emissivities, the net Exchange of Energy between Two Parallel Planes rey be of Different Emis- aivity. The preceding discussion applied to black bodies. If the two exchange of energy is and Fry eh eee Chi ek ne “Some of the energy emitted from ear 42) rbed, and the remainder radiated back to the a7-* source. Tan ee ae eis sn ral cane . energy the first wall machango of Energy between Two Large Parallel Planes, Quantity tino Brand enicy en ested all wl nor Band roles sive sonsierations 20 far have dealt with the energy change when radis- Te ctet it The fret wal wl thon sguinrudinte buts te umount Bon ooours only from a single body, and it has been astumed that efer5y Hy(1 — «)(1 — a). The changes at the two planes are amount vie radiated is mo longer returned to te source, This is true only if one {husk body radiaios to another black body with no medium between them , Hot plane Beno absorption occurs by the medium between them. Of the gas, Radiated: E, Shrorine, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are classified a8 nonabsorbing- Returned: By(1 — «1) Cutten’ monoeid, carbon dioxide, and organic gases snd vapors oe Radiated: Bi(1 — «)(1 — 4) ‘absorbing to greater or lesser extents. ‘From earlier discussions it should Returned: F,(1 — a)(1 — a)(1 — 4)6 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ', and Eq, (4.25) is a series whose solution (4.26) ‘Rasmple 42, -Redistion between 1 Puneet Ditsnt Bastin If the two ‘walls in Example 4.1 have amiativitics of 0.0 and 03, reapectively, wast is the net Tailt4oy ~ 026 = £005 Beara For perfect black bodies the value wus 3500 Btu/hr)(it). Radiation Intercepted by a Shield, Suppose ‘evo infinite and parallel planes are separated by a ‘third plane which is opaque to direct radiation planes is given by Eq. (4.26). oA _1 @ apeyFapy ci tT) 4) , the net exchange from 1 to 8 is given by T= (T+ TD (4.29) ‘Then A 1 Be (4.30) = Tareas ia (40) When «i = 4, Qi = }4@, and for the simple case whese n shields are employed, each having the same emissivities as the initial planes, a= Hie RADIATION 7 where Q is the exchange if the initial planes were not separated. ‘Spheres or Cylinders with Spherical or Cylindrical Enclosures. The radiation between a sphere and an enclosing sphere of radii ry and rz may be treated in the same manner as Eq. (4.26). The radiation emitted initially by the inner sphere is H,Ay, all of which falls on A. Of this 2 total, however, {1 ~- «)H1A, is reflected of which @) (eBay falls on Ay ana fs — «)E:A; falls on As. If this analysis is continued as before, the energy aschango will again he represeated by a geometrical series and the net exchange between the inner and outer sphere is given by ple 2.5, calculations were made on the loss of hest from a pipe to ait, ‘When a heat source is small by comparison witb the enclosure it ia custom- aty to moke the simplifying assumption that-none of the heat radiated from the source is reflected to it. Tn such eaves, Eq, (4.26) reduces to Scot 7 (4.2) Sometimes it is convenient to represent the net effect of the radiation in the same form employed in convection; namely, @ = hA2s - T) (4.33) tious film cosficient representing tho rate at which the statonient of the heat balance as applied before in the Fourier equation to conduction sad convection, Fisbenden and Seundergt have treated 3 ‘number of interesting aspects of the subject. ‘ Fishenden, M., and O. A. Saunders, “The Calculation of Heat Transmission,” 1s Majesty's Stationery Offce, London, 1032.RADIATION 9 sides, anglo aba’ must equal a, and the side a’b corresponding to Aj is ddj = dA, ove a. For the second plate, dAj = dds cos as. ‘The center of surface dA{ may be considered to lie in the hemisphere receiving radiation from @A,, and the quantity falling on » surface in the hemisphere consequently diminishes with the square of the radius. If ‘both are black bodies, the radiation from plate 1 to plate 2 ie proportional to the normal surfaces exposed to each other and inversely to the equare of the distanca between them. a = Beads aay 439 where 7, is the proportionality constant dimensionally equal to the intensity of radiation. Substituting the original surfaces, 0-4 = Fy c00 04 008 1 AAs dds 425) power Z. In Fig. 4.6 let day be the solid angle which is by definition the intercepted area on a sphere divided by +. dA, is a small plate i80 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER the center of the isometrio plane of the base. ‘Then do, AAS rin dB de # 7 = sin a da dB (4.38) From Eqs. (4.85), (4.850), and (4.38), 4 7 2 Banenf sin «cos ade fas =In (437) nab (4.38) ‘Substituting Eq. (4.38) in Eq. (4.35) tho net exchange between 7's and Ty is aq ~ Seaconasdds dds scr _ mp (4.39) Tf cos ay e08 ax dAa/at? is written F4, Fs is known as the configuration or geometric factor. For eome aystems it is very dificult to derive, but for several basic arrangements it is fairly simple, Hotel! has integrated a | number af eases, the commonest of which are plotted in Figs. 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9. Equation (4.88) ean thus be written in integrated form Q = FiAw(T{ — TD (4.40) * Hottel, HL C., Meck. Hag. Ba, 600 (1920), ibe ioe ho i ! Lae LA oe teen Bestia ath, Se A ative recent ed ages dss ws Leen _ ou be | sete accent fe TT ee os ti 2D oy |4:=Aee ee - eS ae ws a Recwtre Eames aus] en a «ol ee, Cangth of com-| ‘tus (Bon sibeler i “ Se aa z rao WEST OTD Fro. 4.9. Radiation between perpendicatar planes. (feted)82 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER If the two surfaces are gtay and-therefore noublack, from Hq. (4.26) FiAw o> are Gf ai aa ‘Writing F, for the emissivity correction, Eq. (4.41) becomes Q= FF AT - TH) (4.42) "The summary in Table 4.2 gives tho values of F, and F, for a number of the common oases derived here and elsewhere. at E re in : Timear of "The emissivity of oxidised stool from Table 4.1 is « = 0.70. “tes evace dt th doa wr 4. X1) = 40 fn ‘The murinoo of the pipe in not negligible by comparison with that of the duct, and (of Table 42 opploa mast nesiy- died sin in Table 2 0.276 (oxidised in Table 4.1) + -7 i 060 © (Table-4.:1) rE 3) oe +a Gan -*) Qa Paras — 7) . ay RADIATION cE PROBLEMS A. A Pin. IPS steel pipe carries stosm at 325°F throagh o room at 70°F, What ered otro te wale sn whet to leapertare of tho laqured tet hos selva ima ben reached ‘44. A din, IPS lagged pipe carries steam at 400°F through a room at 70°F, Tho ‘tagging consist of » Hin thiok layer of asbestos. Ths uve of an overcoat of 28 per ‘eat aluminum pants tobe invesigned. What poroenago stving in heat es can ‘molten organic compound is caried in the smaller of two concentric stool pipe Band Sin 1S, The samuas co be forded wit tmnt prove slo ‘ion, or the liquid can be heated somewhat and circulated without eteam wo that the 8. Calculate tho radiant-hast los from a furnace through a 2in.-diameter peep door when the inde taapersare is T180°F ant the aulode ompratre a TO, Consider the emimion dye to « black body. ‘AT. A bare concrete punap house 10 by 20’by 10 ft high a to be heated by pipes {nid in the concrete Soor. Hot water is to be ured as the heating mediam to maintain smintain temperntures of 62°F on al inde muzfaces in the winter. (a) What is the rate of radiation between the oor and the ceiling ifthe walls are considered noncon- ducting and reradisting? Tho pumps cover» negligible ares of the floor. (6) What sation a wil berouired the for arn is dole by enlarging the room to ty ‘48, Abath of molten sin is oeated in the comer of the oor t's sine dipping room from s Heath?” @) Il tho bath onowed to Ue coker fhe ton wt feat ot bbe endintad? NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 4 4 Heat-transfer of emitting or abeorbing murtace, ft! A! —_Bffective surtace, ft 2 Abworptivity, dimensionless re {Hotter cetent nerf oration, Bu/te\ ONCPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Intensity te) Tae te ayo ea, Bea f(r) {() nieron) ‘Nomber of radiation sbialds Heat fow or net heat exchange, Bta/(hx) Reflectivity, ganas radiug, ft sreepeifanann constant, OTB X30 Hea /Che) Ce) CR) ‘Tranomissivity, dimenaionlons CHAPTER 5 TEMPERATURE ‘The Temperature Difference. A temperature difference is the driving Sie ups T the immediate subject for study. reser ‘stein Which includes both a source and « constant over the length of the pipe. It is not ordinarily possible in industrial equipment to measure the average pipe-wall temperature. Only the inlet and outlet temperatures of the bat and. gold. fyids are Knowitor-eatr 06 measured, “ind these are. referred to_as the process Plots Temperature vs. pipe length, tvs. L, for a system of two con- centric pipes in which the annulus fluid is cooled sensibly and the pipe fiuid heated sensibly are shown in Figs. 6.1 and 5.2. When the two ph-rnunlerBas. Viguee 5 dan be oom with Fig, 3.0 to which it is Simiar exept that one en ple of ve. Land the ceria plot of v8, 0, the hent transferred. When the fluids traveliin the same. Fig. 82, they erein temp “a citer cata varias agoording to one curve aa it proceeds along the length of the pipe, and the temperature of the annulus fluid varies according to Dn sue remind of thin bok the ti ana ee ni ah ie thre one wl a Cap6 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER TEMPERATURE 87 ; origin where where At is the temperature difference between the two streams for the another. ‘The temperature difference at nny length from the entire eurface A. Using the simplification that the thin metal pipé-wall 1 = On the variate nen ‘The concentric pipes in Figs. 5.1 resistance is nogligible, Eq. (6.2) hocomes and 5.2 bring together two streams each having s particular film coef 4h 4) Cient, and whoso tomperstares wary from inlet to cvtlet, For fom 0 ATES 8, venience, the method of ealeulating the temperate noe tbe alone Hereafter Eq. (6.3) will be referred to simply as the Fourier equation. the two should emplay only the process difference in this Just a By was obtained from fy = Q/A, At; in Eq. (@.2) using thermo- are generally known. ‘To establich the temperature difference = te couples, 20 U can be obtained from U = Q/A At using process tempera- manner between some goueal tempers Zo at Sui? cosary to acoount also for all tures alone, In experiments involving sensible beat transfer between two senoral temperature of » cold Bui In the case of two eon- fluids, Eqs. (5.2) and (6.4) can be used to obtain either individual film the reeistaiices babweai the two temperatures. coefficient froia the overall ooaficient U only if some supplementary yoy th ty en di Int Fra 6, Comtectw. Fes ba, Paralld dew. of the torepesivo steams ao gr, tho total Bet tear @ Di /a so bigos tha janer pipe being very thin, the resistances encountered is also given, being computed from Q = wells — 4) = WC(T, — 7). ieee pole tie ein Cnt‘ a of 5 si i to At/ER as ri UM resistances annolus Sid-Slmy Oi cat coefficient, and it usually is it may be neglected. If one film coefficient small and the other vary large, the mall ecefcient provides the major reslstanoo and the overall coeficiant of heat transfer for the spparatus is ‘very nearly the reciprocal of the major resistance, Suppose hy(A,/A) = 10 and hy = 1000 Bea/(hr)(f*)(F) Ry = H4o = 0.1, Re = Kooo = 0.001, and ZR = 0.101, A variation of BO per cout in 2, docs not materially influence Q, since & value of hy = 600 will change 22 only trom 0.101 to 0.102. ‘ ignifcant difference ents, the muller cooficlent athe dthmic Mean Temperature Difference: Counterflow. Genorally 28Ds),,De 42 ‘when temperatures are plotted againet length aa in Figs. 6.1and 52. At bm crabs ter goes + oes 62) every point 7 — {between tho two streams differs, yet tha should lead U D von of Fourier’e oquation tothe mune rel aE. (38), which the Sophie mean tepor- ‘The integrated steady-state modification of Fourier’s general Ww * = tye. ; nay then be weitten Saq-vas (53) 4s an advantage to a derivation based on T — vs. L, since it permits at88 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER idéntification of the temperature diffctence anywhere! wlong the pipe length. -Later, when more ‘complex flow patterns are encountered, this information will be ewential, Although tio lfuids may transfer heat jin a concentric pipe apparatus in either counterflow or parallel flow, the ‘two fluids of Fig.'5.1 in counterflow, the following assumptions must be “1, The overall coefficient of heat transfer U is constant over the entire length of: path. qu! fare 2, The pounds por hour of fluid flow is constant, obeying the steady- state requirement. 8. The spocific heat is constant over the entire length of path. 4. There aresno partial phase changes in the system, ée., vaporization co condensation. ‘The derivation is applicable for seneible-heat changes and when vaporization or condensation is isothermal over the whole length of path. ~ 5. Heat losses are negligible, ‘Applying the differential form of the steady-state equation, a, aQ = UCT = fal a 5) where a” is the square feet of surface per foot of pipe length or o” a= dA, rom a ferential heat balance, dQ = WCaT = wedt (6.6) ‘where Q ia the limit a3.dQ varies from 0 to Q. At any point in the pipe from left to right the hoat gained by tho cold fuid ié equal to that given up by the hot fluid, ‘Taking a balance from L = 0toL = X WO(T — 71) = welt — 4) 7 from which . T= T+ Hot) (5.8) From Eqs. (6.6) and (6.6) substituting for 7, dQ = wo dt = o[n+ ge-w— ara, y ’ TEMPERATURE 80 t and Lare‘the only variables. - Collecting terms of ¢ and L, Ue" db | 08 (5.9) ‘This right-hand term is of the form dt 1 fiz Pht ~ 5, Oe + bd) integrating dL between-0 and Z and dt between f and t, val ot twee + (GE-1)s we” Tue in 6.10) 7 we, {we We ) Pott ea ‘To simplify this expression substitute for sin the numerator the expres sion from Eq. (5.7), expand the denominator, and cancel ‘one coer wa we Tec PCy i FE 1) UA i Tirt Wea ~t) Tt Since we(ts ~ 1) = @ and substituting fs and At; { terminal temperature differences 7, — and Ts =. She Det andl = ua (Me- on i en va cit) Ii the difference between the two terminals Als — Al is writ pa arin = shen nt umevcally eater than unity and aay confusion due to negative sons iminated. The expresion in parenthoses in Iq. (6.18) ceain ine eatithmie mean or og mean temperate diference and ie atv intod EMTD. Equation (5.19) for it sea [0=vdat= vax pon (6.180) A (5.13)90 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER z Parallel Flow. Referring to Fig. 5.2 for the case where both fit flow in the same direction, the basic equations aro essentially the {I __ For the steady state, dQ = U(T — tha” al from the finat form of the detivations for ‘here is little to choose between the ‘examples which folloy demonstrate that except where one fluid is isothermal (such a8 condensing steam) there is a distinct thermal disadvantage to the uso of parallel flow. apperatas at a temperature of 300°F and in to be cooled to 200°F by « cold fuid ‘entering st 100°F and heated to 150°F. ‘Shall they be directed in parallel flow or ounlerion? nt? coavesiont to wri the temperntues in the form omployed hore ‘and to realize that the log mean is always somewhat lest tha the arithmetic mean BY eran. a (@) Counterflow: ‘Hot fusid Cold fvid , (Py mo — 190G) ~ 160 (62) 200 — 300, = 360 (48) ‘80 (Ate — Sts) iy = Ae o IMID = gy ah/ah, ~ TBiog Kes” OOF ‘than for counterfiow. v fe TEMPERATURE — 91 sample 52 Celealation of the LMTD with Bgual Outlet Temperatures, A fuente voocantrie pipe aparstas at 007 and iso endo o 200 bya cod Auf catering a 100F and hentai 200 49 200°F by cok ©) Counterfe:92 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER Lastly, when one of the fuids proceeds ‘through the epparatus isother- nally (condensing steam), parallel fow.and counterfiow yield identical temperature differences. ‘Example 6.4. Caleslation of the LMTD with One laothormal Fluid, A oold Bud js heated from 100 (o Z75°P by steam at 300°F. (a) Counterfow: Hot fouid Cola uid 30 5 = 35 300 — 100 = 200 8) Pasallel fone: Hot uid Cold uid 300-100 = 200 300-278 = ‘These are identical. Hereafter, unless specifically qualified, all temperature arrangements vwill be assumed in counterfiow, Many industriel types of equipment are actually a compromise between parallel flow and counterflow and receive ‘additional study in tater chapters, . ‘Heat Recovery in Gounterflow. Very often # edunterflow apparatus is available which has a given length Z and therefore a fixed surface 4 ‘Two process streams are available with inlet temperatures T',, 4 and flow rates and specie heats W, @ and w, e, What outlet temperatures veill be attained in the apparatus? . ‘This problem requires an estimate of U which can be checked by the methods of succeeding chpters for dif types of counterflow hest- transfer equipment. Rowriting Eq, w(t, — 4) = va & Rearranging (6.16) Since WO(T. — Ta) = welts = t), we/WC = (Ti Ty ~24)). This means that the ratio of the temperature ranges can be established with- out recourse to actual working temperatures, Calling this unique ratio R without subscript me M-T R-WOr Substituting in Eq. (6.16) and removing logarithms, Bint. goamou Foe = erences (617) TEMPERATURE 93 ‘To obtain an expreasion for T's alone. baat ead Substituting in Eq. (6.17) and solving, = DERM + [1 ~ eesnmenyyy, PS gr 5.18) For parallel flow it becomes a(R eMsmoeroT, + [eeamoern — Rp Fe ET aetoer — 5ay) 4, may be obtained from 7"; by applying the heat balance WOT, ~ Ts) = welt, — 4) ‘The Caloric or Average Fluid Temperature. Of the four ti ° ‘ sgum used jin the derivation of Eq. (5.14) for the LMTD, the one which Faia ject to the largest deviation is that of a constant overall heat-transfer coefficient U. In the calculations of Chap. 3 the film coefficient was computed for the properties of the fluid at the arithmetic mean tempera- ture between inlet and outlet, at ‘ war peptone and ithough the correctness of this calculation a ° at the inlet and outlet as obtained from the data of Morr tana wee an fortis and Whitman through use Brample 6.8. Calculation of J, and hs, Calculation of point B-4: eiample, take the case of an 7 Ol y= 82 Sra GD GREE)" am Feosre Buyanyancemy (BY = (247X285 x’aArn he = 00ne x gy x O01 % 2570 x 3.52 = 188 a inetPROGESS HEAT PRANSFER av 120a'F: . 0485, C2)” - GStar era)” <0 20 (2 ayE4) 100 = -10.6 por cont ana From the above it is seen that under actual conditions the variation ‘The ratio of the LMTD for constant U/ and the true temperature difference for varying U ia then toed na the batia for establishing » singe overs coefficient which is the rue mean rather than the arithmetic mean, Assume: 1, The variation of U is given by the-expression U = a'(1 + bf) Q = WO(Ts — Ta) = welts — 4) Since R= we/WC = (T, — Ta)/(ts ~ 4) oF generalixed as in Fig. 6.1, poate The heat ‘Dalanoo for the differential ares 2A is given by dQ = UT — Hdd = wedt 3Golbura, A. P., Ind. Hng. Chem., 38, 878-877 (1938). TRMPRRATORE 95 where U is the average value for the inezement or a dA WOAH = oe Since U = a'(1 + 0/0, substitute for U, at ah PUFVHE =D * we From the heat balance obtain the expression for 7’ in terms of ¢ and ‘separate into parts, 1 fi (R= va} a4 oR=1- 0, FUR I, noe ei T+¥i}~J we (6.20) Integrating, 1 Ti Rat (R-Vy 14% A FRET PR FUR) [apie ee TER t]-4 (5.21) Using the subscript £ to indicate the cold terminal and 2 the hot terminal a8 heretofore Kada+es) =e +hn) As before, ah~ Th Abe Th - bab Uibh A Trin Ui Tyas ~ 6 (6.22) Combining with Q ~ wells — 4), 9 Bist om ‘Equation (6.23) is » modification of Hq. (6.18) which accounts for the variation of U by replacing it with U; and U;, whete 4 = Oand A = A, Fespectively, ‘This is otill unatistactory, however, since it requires twice sealeulating both individual film coefficienta to obtain U, and Us. Col. bur chose to obtain a single overall cooficient, Us, at which all the ‘surface can be rogarded tobe transferring hent at tho EMTD. Uris then defined by Q _ Did — Vrdt (Aly — aby A> in Dian7Ovan ~ & (ig ‘ait) (5.24)98 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Substituting Us = a'(1 + U4), Ue. ahoh 5.26) eekit « seis the calorie emperature of the cold stream. By definition, let Dt 2 Made "Wr 7 * Bat Bh and substituting the equivalents in Eq. (6.25), bt LA ve Levee Re Eppys Ret from which nme Rea (WK) + [r/6 (6.27) Equation (5.27)/has been plotted in Fig: 17 inthe Appendix with -U Uw Ken Oe - a parameter, 1 fe refer to the oold and hot torminals, we ely "ns Coo faction Foes be obtained from Fig. 17 by vomputing K. from Uy and Ue and dt/Ats for the process conditions. ‘The calorie temperature of the hot fuid Tis T= Pe FATs- ) (628) for the eohd uid ™ tem th + Fells — 4) (6.28) tua in thei i hore the orretated in the insert of Fig. 17 the values of Kw corti fo that of petroleum cut. A corelaton of this type can "TEMPERATURE 7 be made in any industry which deals with-a particular group of fluids by obtaining a ead b from properties and eliminates the calculation of Us true temperature diforence for counterfiow. The LMTD may be retained, however, i a suitable value of U is employed to compensate for its use in Eq. (5.13). Bsarple 66. Calculation of the Calotie Temperature. A 20°API crude ait it cooled from 300 to 200°F by heating cold 60°APT gssoline from 80 to 120°F in a counterfow sppérutas. At-wbst fid temperatures sbould Ube evaluated? Setation: Shalt Fiber [0°API crude: OTAPY gasoline 12.5. | Calorie temp. | “97 250 Moon | 100 Higher temp. ‘Lower temp. Dif 180 }at 10 [a4 Grude, 7, — Ts = 300 - 200 =.100%R, X, = 0.68 from Fig, 17 insort Gasoline, fy 4, = 120 80= 40°F, K, $0.10 ‘The larger value of K, correepands to the controlling heat-transfer coefigient which {a sanuined to establish the variation of U with temperature. ‘Then 4 200 — $0 $8 sory ~ 0887 ‘Fe = 0.425 from Fig. 17 Calorie temperature of crude, 7. = 200 + 0.425(300 - 200) = 242.5°F. Calorie tempernture of gutcline, £, = 80 + 0.425(120 ~ 80) = 97.0°F. It should be noted that thers can be but ome ealoric mean and that the factor F, ‘applies to both abresms but is determined hy the controlling stream, side caloric temperature is 7. and the inside caloric temperature é and W/Rue = he = AAS A) = hy X (ID/OD), where the subscript io refers8 ‘PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER TRMPERATURE 99 to the value of the cooffcient inside the pipe referred to the outside sur- fow outward toward the wall to maintain the increased velocity. ‘This face of the pipe. in a radial velocity component which actually modifies the nature of the aM Mak ent (6.30) streamline flow. If data for heating an oil in a given temperat On aR RTRs” Re are plotted-as in Fig, 310 together with data for cooling tho olla the ‘Replacing the resisianoos in the last two terms by film eoefielents Tk = b . is = hd sector The ¥ Wee ~ 17h Soothermal Hine. He was able to employ a baaio equation of the form of Solving for he em Faq. (8.32) by multiplying the right-hand term by the dimensionless ratio went EEO G/w/” where » is the viscosity at the ealoric temperature and yy ie the and viscosity at an arbitrary film temperature defined for streamline flow by atm tee 6.32) fy = tet lle — be) (6.38) ‘When the hot fiuid is inside the pipe these become snd for fowby he 0 (saa) fy = be + Hilt — ber) (634) eet eR Sieder and Tate* undertook the correlation of a large quantity of data and in tubes, rathor than pipes, and obtained a dimensionless factor (/e)"” (68201 where iy is the viscosity at the tube-wall temperature Using the de _ te = Te ER, ®) i ‘. i "velocity distribution are the reverse of Fiquids. PROBLEMS: ‘84, For a concontrc-pipe hoat-transfer spparaton having s 1in. IPS mer pipe ‘te film coofciant fy has boen computed to be 10.0 Btu/(hr)(H)(7F). By suitable how does the value ofthe anne oe iciont affect the value ofthe overall coeiciont? ‘BA. (@) For values of by ~ 300 and A, = 600, what exror remyts in the calculated value of U for a concentri-pipe hest-teansfor apparatus heving a tn. TPS inner Pipe when the metal reistance ie obtained from Hq = La/kad iartend of (2.3 /2rka) 1Golbar, A. P, Trans. ATCAE, 98, 174-210 (1983). *Bieder, E. N., and Q. . Tate, Ind. Bng. Chem, 38, 1429-1436 (1038).100 PROCESS HEAT TRANSEBR TEMPERATURE 108 ‘dog Ds/Ds and when; the pipe reskstines is hijted entirely. (6) What are the errors ob ‘when the cooficenta are him TOjand By = 20% ¢ “Epps hit of it id in deriton; s/f) ‘E3. Calculate. the'LMTD forfpouiterfow, inthe following.cases in which the hot ‘ Specific heat of oold fuid, Bta/(b)(F) * fui is cooled Sr0m 200 to Ap0"F hand the oolA uid, heated thiough an equal rangein D Inside diamoter af pipe, fb ‘each cate is (6) 9016 140°F, (&) 80 t0430"F, hnd (0) 60to HO". Observe the nature | % Galorie fraction, dimensiontons of the diviation of the LMT from the arithmetic means of ihe tro terminal differ- e "Masa velocity, lb /(hn)(@t) ‘ences in‘each case, a Heatstransfer soeficient, Beu/(ix)(CF) 4 A hot idiot fom 245 to ZF ip eth cate, Compare the advantage dake Inside and outeids fl cocfcients, Btu/(hr}(R%)("F) of countarllow over parallel fow in the sisatof fhe LMITD whan e cold Suid is to be he MAd/A, inside fm coefisient referred to outside surface, Btu/ heated fom (a) 139 to 220°F, () 125 to B10°R; and (c) 50 10"125°F erygeycr) 10,000 Ib /hrof cold bénsens i bedtéd tinder presnure from 100°F by cooling K ‘Calorie fyctor,dimensionlens * 9000 1b for of st & temperature of GX. - Heatitranafor wil occur in a | : ‘Thermal conductivity, Biu/ (he) CF) ‘concentrie-pipe app paving s1}{-in, TRS iimer pipe 240'ft long. Tests on | L Length, ft simildr equ ‘heat between the mune Hquids indicates thut a value of tur ‘Log mean temporature difference, "F ‘= 120 basod on the outside surface of the inner pipe may be expected. (a) What | ¢ Beat flow, Biu/he coatiet temperatures may be expected in counterfiow? (0) What outlet temperatures R Ratio of we/WC = (Ps — T)/t4 ~ 4), dimenionloss nay be expected in parallel Bow? (c) I part of the consentrie pipe is remeved Jesv- ZR Overall reratanoe to heat Sow, () (A(R) /Bta ing only 100'Kn ff, hat outlet temperatures many be expected in counterfow? ' Ratio of cold to hot terminal diference, dimensionless 5. Dense i be eal in canentzigpe ppartor having» 14, 173 ‘Temperature of the hot Suid, F inner pipe from 160 lo 140°F by 8000 Ibfhr of nitrobensene having an initial temper- Calorie tampernture of hot Suid, "F ature of 180°F. A.value of U ~ 100 msy be expected based on the outaide murface of ‘Hot-Guid inlet and outlet temperatures, repectively, “F ‘the pipe. How mush sold bensenetan be heated in 160i ft of eoncentrie pipo (6) in ‘Temperature of tho cold uid, F counferfiow, (0) in parallel Row? Wins. “"TYishand/-error solution.) Caloric temperature of cold fui “¥ ‘Ailing isto be oopled from 200:to 180°F in a concentri-pipe apparatus having Fin temperntare in Eqs. (6.83) and (5.4), °F TOT} of external pipe sutisce by 8600 lb/hr of toluene entering at 100°F. Avvalue of 6 Inside pipe-wall temperature, "F “78 raayrbe anticipated, How much hot anilin ean be cooled in sounterfow? ‘Outaide pipo-well temperature, F 5.8. In & countectiow concentsio-pipe apparatus a:Hgud in cooled ‘rom 250 to Cold-fuid inlet and outlet temperature, respectively, °F 900°F by Beating another rot 100-ta 226°F. the valve of U;, at the cold terminal, al ‘Temperature difference at » point of mean over an area, “P Fe caleulated to be 60.0 fromthe properties st the cold terminal, and Us at, the'bot, ly Ah ‘Teapersture diferenee tthe col nd hot terminal rxpetvely, ‘terminals caloulated to be 2.0. "At what uid temperatures should U be edmputed {$0 expres the overnl hoat trinster for the entire anparatust . Me Lagu aan of = teand 1, ~ 6, °F Ine counterflow concentric-pipe apparnins Liquid is cooled from'250 to 150°F “Overall conficiant of boat transfer in general, Btu/(hr)(fv(*F) “bp hetig aut from 136 160°. Tho aun of Ua th ad terminal 2 ad uw ‘OveraR cooficent of heat traner at cold and bot terminals, at the hot terminal Us ia 58, At what liquid temperatures ahould U for the overall Un Us Beu/hn) Ge) (7) trapeir be compete uv Valuo of U at ty Btu/(hn)(ti) (°F) “:t10, Thecalraltion of the clara tonperitugs oan be seseeplched directly by w ‘Weight fow of ot ftid, Ib fax evaluating of snd ¥ in U = a'(l +0')sfor a given temperntuts range. If the hot » Wright fow of cold fluid, bse Iigaid jn Prob. 8.8 always provides the controling fin coefficient, what are the « Bepetonalty nme menos umerical-values of tho constants a! and W'7 * Wioosity at mean or osloris temperature, Ib/(t) at) S.11, A AU"APT kerosene is oocle from 400 to 200°F by boating 3A°API crude oil oa Vissosty at the film and pipeswall tamperstaree, reepostively, from 100 101200°F, Botwoon what ealorio temperature isthe heat transferred; and T/A) hoy do thee deviate fom to meant 5.18. A 35° API distillate used as a hestingseil is cooled from 400 to SO0°F by fresh Superecripta iAP Gans ed "200 to BOO'F. - Between what calorc-tomperaturee ie Saaese'e"” Constanta do those from the mean? + Subscripts (except as noted above) (OMENCLATURE ¥OR CHAPTER & i aside a pipe oF tube ‘Heat-transfor wurfoes or surface of pipes, £1? utaide a pipe or tube e ‘External pipe surface per foot af length, to ‘Value based on inside of a pipe or tube referred to the outelde of oe ‘Constants'in the equation:U = a(t +80) ‘the tube.Definitions. Heat-transfer equipment is defined by the function it fulfilla in a process, Bachangere recover best, betwoon two. process streams. Steam and cooling water are u Wiles anda nol eosideed COUNTERFLOW ‘The double pipe exchanger is extremely useful because it ean be soni aby pig hp rm tana pra sd poi 1, ‘Taous 6.1. Dovpia Pare Growanors Frermcs ‘ne IPS Inner pipe, IPS 1% 2 4 a a Beste yp hinge aly amie fn 2 15, or 206 “Double Pipe Bichangecs. Yor the derivations in Chap. 5, x concen- trie-pipe heat-transfer apparatus was employed. The industrial counter- Xo ponait the entry and ext of the ansulus fluid which eres from one leg to the other through tho return heed. ‘The two longths of inner pipe are connected by a return bend which is umally exposed and does not provide elletive hata ince, When arranged i two loge a in ig Film Coeficiente Fiaids in Pipes and Tubes. Equation (3.42) ws obtained for heating several oils in a pipe based on the data af Morris and ‘Whitman. Seder and Tatet made a ler corlation of both heating sa cooling 8 ‘a number of fluide, principally petroleum fractions, in hori- sontal and vertical tubes and arrived at an equation for streamline flow whee Dh < ‘< 2100 in the form of Eq. (6.35). Pol OOOO” - Ga)" wo ere Zs the total length length of the heat-transfer path before mixing occurs. per cent rom Be 100 to Re = 2100 except or water Deyond the tenaition rang, the data may be extended to turbulent flow in ho form ee eam (2 an *Biodet, E. N., and G. E. Tate, Ind. Rng. Chem., 28, 1420-1496 (1036).104 PROCBAS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Equat maxinjim mean’devistions of, approximately +16 anit 0 sree far the Heynolds numbers sbove!10,000. * While-Eqs. Tor organie liquids, aqueousmclutions, and gases. ‘They are not conserva- tive for water, and additional data for water will be given later. In onder to ponmit the graphical representation ofboth cquations on a single pair of coordinates, refer to Fig. 6.2. Using the ordinate ‘The equivatent diameter ie four times the hydraulic radia, and the po te * in anmuli, COUNTERFLOW hydraulic radius is, m turn, the radins ofa pipe equivslent to the annulus crocs section. |The hydraulic fadius is ebtained as tho ratio of the flow Dy Wetted perimeter ~~ 4D, > Be In pressure-drop calculations the friction not only results from the reaist- ssnce of tho outer pipe but is also affected by the outer surface ofthe inner Pipe. The total wetted perimeter in x(D, + D,), ahd for the preesure drop in annuli Pi ~ pl weiod patos ~ OE PN - Ds — Dy oa Dy = Any = 4X flow area ~ = DD «a heat transfer and pressure drop.since D, might ne Be abore 2160 while Drisbolow 2100, Aotaay oS both Reynolds numbers should be considered CS» only approximations, since the sharp distinction {( {(» between: strearline and turbulent flow at the \W*t HH}, Reynolds mimber of 21004 not completely valid (4 film CoeficlentsforFinidsin Annstl. When ra aa icciee dan the equivalent diameter from Eq. (6.8) issubsti. so and location of cnafic tuted for D, Fig. 24in the Appendix may be con.“ bem = ha on)106 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER COUNTRRFLOW 107 process can be computed. The calculation of A is known as design. ‘When heat-transfer apparatus has been in service from sometime, how- dirk and eeale deposi pe, addi (6.6). i opaival value of Zand Soa raul snout 1 ‘heat isno longer tranat erred by theoriginal _ Ub = Saige = 083 Bin/ny (ey CR) vege" surface A; 7 nses above and taZallabelow the ‘ dagired outlet teimpersturea, although iyand h ‘The Fourier equation for surface on which dirt will be deposited bocomes jane resonin substantially constant, To overcome _ this eventuality, it is customary in design- . Q= Usd at (6.11) ing equipment to anticipate the deposition of I it ia desired to obtain A, then h,, and A. must firt be calculated from ia, 64 Loeton of took dirt and ecale by introducing « resistence Ry equations such as Hq. (6.1) and (6.2) which are independent of the extent ‘Besta 04 Bestdssosier called the dirt, soale,or fouling factor, or re- of the surface but dependent upon ite form, such as the diameter and oon sistanoo. Let Ry be the dirt factor for the ‘Asid flow area. With these, Uc is obtained from Eq, (6,6) and U, inner pipe fluid at its inside diameter and Ry, the dirt factor for the obtained from Vo using Eq, (6.10). Sometimes, however, it is deairable annulus fiuid at the outside diameter of the inner pipe. ‘Thess may be ‘to study the rates at which dirt accumulates on a known. surface considered very thin for dirt but may be sppreciably thick for scale, which ‘Ue will remain constant if the soale or dirt deposit does not alter the ‘has s higher thermal conductivity than dirt. The resistances are shown ‘mase velocity by constricting the fluid flow area, Up and Af will obvi- in Fig. 64. Tho xalue.of U obtained in Eq. (6.7) only tram L/h and ously change 8 the dirt scoumalates because the temperatures of the fhe may be. the. overall designated by Ue to Sinide will vary from the time the surface is freshly placed in service until ‘has not been taken Into secount. ‘The coefficient which ‘becomes fouled, 17 Atis caloulated from observed temperatures inetead inches the dit restos called the devin o diy oral exelent U of process temperatures then Eq. (6.11) may be used to determine Ry ‘The value of A corresponding to Us rather than Uo provides the basis . ; oa which equipment is ultimately built. The relationship between the "What epldes ery Ui oped te nats Bas = A/a. ‘two overall cooficients Uc.and Up's sues it nest tho name at What Hrvagh a Gat wal ator ts ee ‘4 fiat wall. As chown by Eqs. (2.24) and 1 1 (2.38), failure to correct to the outaide ‘negligible | usually: [ign dt Rat te | of Sev Sran Rubra ioe, name arieamerse108 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER - COUNTERFLOW 109 for a given fouling period. ‘Thea from Ea. (6-10) \} piping, Sttings, control regalators, ond the pressure drop in the 1_4 6. Weir” To tne head must bo added the sete prema atthe ene he BT Ue 17) Fine such as the elevation or preasure ofthe final receiving vessel. Once a which can also be written definite pressure drop allowance has been designated for an exchanger Ue = Us (13) ast part of a pumping circuit, it should always bo utilized as completa Re Te a-possible in the exchanger, since it will otherwise be blown off or . . expanded through a pressure reducer, Since in Eq. (3.44) When Re (deposited) > Ra (allowed), a8 after » pariod of worvioe, the " apparatus no longer dalivers a quantity of heat equal to the, provess | AP? ( , since f van as wn 22) requiremetite and must be cleaned. neatly, ‘varies somewt ¥ Numeri¢al values oftthe dirt or fouling factors for a variety of process ‘and in Eq, (6.2) for turbulent flow service (ate provided!in Appendix ‘Table 12. The tabulated fouling " ‘factors ate intebded tb protect the exchanger fm delivering Tow tom . f= G* (nearly) ‘the required process heat Load for.s period’ of about a year to a year anil a the best ute of available: isto ‘the tis velocity whi half. Actually the parpese of the: tabulated fouling factors should be Oe ee ane tne aa a a Pm valet wine ‘considered from another point of view. In designing # process plant stonany ta aller a preuare ter of b ty 10 pal for ee eahenger op Containingimany heat exchangers bub without alternate or spare pieces of battery of saxchangers #isling exchanger hheat-transfer equipment, the provess must be discontinued and the equip- the flow is by gravity, F hesicpraeae hatte ‘excopt where ment cleaned es soon as the'‘first exchanger becomes fouled. It is “For gravity flow the all orack, eres i faiey sandra, Impractieal to shut down-every: time one exchanger or another is fouled, tion of the storage veasel above the final determined by the clever and by using the tsbulated fouting factors, it can be arranged £0 that all feet of fluid may be coo. save ae se of The ‘the ezohangers.in the process become dirty: at the same timo regardless t hy-p/ldd, Pounds per equare aaultiplyin ofservice. - At-thattimecll can be dismantled and cleaned during 1 single “The pressure drop in pipes ean be: from the Fanning eguation @autdown. ‘The tabulated values may differ from those encountered by [Eq. (3.44)), using an aj se eae free eee ae aw ee cexpericnce in particular services. If too frequent cleaning is nepeasary, ® (G475), sae aoa the’ pe ae ol far the Foe greater-value of Ry should be kept in mind for future deeign. fiuids flowing in annuli; replace D in the eee ee ‘Tt is to be expected that heai-transfer equipment will tranafer more obtain fhe Fanning equation twny- ne maid miter | heat than the provess requirements when newly placed in sorvice and Panning thet it wilf deteriorate through operation, as a result of dirt, until it just ar - (6.4) fulfills the process tequireménts, The-calculation of the temperatures ; % delivered initially by:s clean exchanger whose surface has been designed ‘Where several double pipe exebangore are connected in eres, annulus to for Us but which is-operating without dirt and which is consequently snrulue and pie to pipe a in Fig €6 Oe length in Ea, Gd) or (O18 oversurlaced is not difficult, Referring to Ens, (6.18) and (5.19) use is the total for the entire path, Voor U and the actual surface of the exchanger A (which is based on The pressure drop computed by Eq. (3.44) or (6.14) does not include Us). ‘This esloulstion is also useful in checking whether or not a Clean the pressure drop.encountered when the fluid enters or leaves exchangers. exchanger will be-able to deliver the process host requirements when it : For the inner pipes-of double pipo-exchangers connected in series, the becomes dirty. “ -entrance Joss is usually nogligible, but! for anmuli it may be significant. ‘Prosaure Drop in Pipes and Pipe Annuli, ‘The pressure-drop allowance The allovange cf preaar drop of on velocty hea, 71/2, pa hap aa in ‘an exchanger is the static fiuid proaure-which may be expended to vil ordinarily suffice, Suppeee water lows ia. an fas ar hain rive the fluid through the exchanger. ‘The pump selected for the eireu- velocity of 720,000:Ib/ (ar) (Et), Sues 9 tne byt ta saci) ation of a provess fluid is one which develops sufficient head st the @ (spproxim is : desired capacity to overoome the frictional losses caused by canneeting V = sang = Saar Oa * 92 foe310 ‘PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Tho preesure drop per hairpin will be 3.2*/(2 X 32.2) = 0.160 ft of water or 0.07 psi. Unleas the velocity is well sbove 3 fps, the entrance and ‘ait lomes may be neglected, Values of V#/2g' areplotted direotly against the mass velocity for a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0 in Fig, 27 in the Appendix. and preanure drope. For the standard strangemente of double pipes the flow aress are given in Table 6.2. ‘Ten 62, Fiow Ansan axo Bgcrvacaxr Diasorraas mi Dousux Pir Excrancmns Heeshanger, IPB JAunalus} Pipe} de & 2 x 19 | 1.80 | 0.05 | 0.40 24 x 1M 3 | 1.60 | 20 | ost x2 va | aa | 107 | 0.00 x 7.88 0.58 In the outline below, hot- and cold-fluid temperatures are represented by upper and lower case lotters, respectively. All uid propertion are indicated by lower case letters to eliminato the requirement for new nomenclature. Proxess conditions required: Hot fluid: Ty, Ts, W, ¢, 8 orp, », k, AP, Ra, or Ra: Cold fluid: t, fz, w, ¢, # or p, p, I, AP, Raz or Rae ‘The diameter of the pipes must be given or assumed. (1) From 7, 7s 4, ts check the heat balance, Q, using ¢ at Tue and Low, Q = WOE: — Ps) = welts ~ 4) @ Flow area, a, = +D#/4, fet. (©) Mace velocity, Gy = w/a b/s). at 7, oF & depending upon which Bie. 1/(1(hr) = entpein 248, MOWER tho inner reas te tt Ba Renee, # 1b/(ft)(br) obtain the Reynolds num- 5; Rey = DOy/p. (© From Fe 2A iu which ju = (BD/B\en/8)M/pn)-*1 va, DOy/a Df eN*Y p\-™™ 4 fog 24) (5) 5(2) % 10 = hy Bou/(hx)(f)CF) (6.150) {10} Convert he to his he = iy(e/A) = hy X ID/OD. (6.5) Annulus: (©) Flow area, a, = (D} — DH)/4, 0 i = 4X flow - Equivalent diameter D, weet ats = St & enuz PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER (6!) Mass velocity, Gz = t0/ds, Ib/ (hr) (fe?) (6) Obtain pat Teor é, Ib/(tt)(hr) —-contipoise 12.42. ate 2 "Blog an/al, ~ TE Tog Bye ~ 72°F Gis) (@) Caloric temperatures: A check of both streains will show that neither in viscous af the cold terminal (the viscosities toca than 1 centipoige) and the temperature ‘(+/na)*™ may be ssmumed equal to 1.0, Poe = H4(1O0 + 100) = 150°F ay = 36(020 4 80) = 100°F Proceed now to the inner pipe. A chock of Table 6.3 indicates thatthe How area ofthe inner pipe is grenter than that of hoanmulus, lace the larger stream, bentene in the inner pipe. Cold fui: inner pipe, bensene @ D = Las/i2 ~ 015 Flow ares, oy = =Di/4 =F x OTA = Omn0e a Baulr diam, D, = (DE = DD/D, fe [Eq (6.3)] Dem (1725+ — 0.1388 0188 = 0.0762 ft4 PROCESS HRAT TRANSFER Hot fissd: gaaulue, toluene Cold fuuid: inner pipe, bensene ‘0. = Wa. (©) Mase vel, Gy = w/e © Soja ~ 70790 wvgan | = anaes — ao B/C 0 AT oom BMG | = OM x Baz = LAL B/C}O) Reynolds Die aynalds no, Réy = AE 0. Rey « Die 0.0782 X 761,007.99 80,000, 1X5 X 948,000/1.21 = 89,500 ja = 187 Fig, 24h|(D Ju = 226 ig. 20) The tar, «= 044 Bra/)CE) |) Ac LOOT, «0425 Brw/AICH) ‘Fig. 21 ‘b= 0.065 Beu/ Cos) fe) [Table | — 0.001 Baa/ he te CPZ) Table 4] (ey -Caaeey me (GNC we [mens )"E)™ (Bq. (0.150)1 oot eter x Qh xunecid |, mec fib cum ce = 233 Bia/) GCF) ~ EE e/ONOCD (10) Conroct Ito the warface tthe OD he = XB (11) Clean overall sosfficiont, Ue: a = ey: — Fea age ~ MO Benn) HC) (2) Design overall conthicient, Un: rt we Ut ‘Ry = 0.008 (required by problem) gprs tom Up = 15 Bia/they ce) (°F), ‘Summary ES | oe Qa Ueda Anges serum = ff - 510 (18) Required surface: a, (65)] couNTERFIOW 18 From Table 11 for 1}4-in. IPS standard pipe there are 0.435 it" of extemal surface por foo length. aid length = 28, = 318 ‘This may be fulfilled by connecting three 20-ft hairpins in series. (14) The surface supplied will actually be 120 X 0.435 = 52.2 ft". ‘The dirt factor ‘will accordingly be greater than required. The actual design coefficient is Uo = gift = 1 Beaten Qone7) Ryo Ue aUP = OU 0002s CnNge|CA)/Bia (B18) Pressure Drop (1) Di for pressure drop difrs trom D.] (1) For Bép = 89,500 in (0) above for boa raat, 0.304 oe i, (04) ff = 90085 + ererearas Ba. C.A7B)) "= airs — era wanes OT aoeas + 08 = nat mo 0.88, »-—= 62.5 X 0.88 = 56.0 cous x 767 000/099 = 3,500 Table 6} 0364 fm 0068S ++ specs = 0.0072 8 ah, = Ba aan] (4 X oon? x 948.000 x 120 O87, p = 62.5 X O87 = AE "2 X4I8 X 10 X 56.0" O15 Table 6] saan a ar.» A ar, = 82X80 sap 4x 0.0071 x 767,000 x 190 _| Allowable AP, = 10.0 pt Double Pipe Exchangers in Serlos-parallel Arrangements, Referring to Example 6.1, it is seem that a calculated pressure drop'of 9.2 pai is116 \PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER doa cin whenover the allowable pressure drop cannot ve Pclution el poaible, howeves, even when all the above have Meee actnnraed i sevcel eeu ner vided ha : and each half traverses but oge exchanger thrqugh the inner pipes in COUNTERFLOW ur Wg. 6.6. Dividing a stroam,in half white keeping the flow area constent produces shout one-eighth of the series presstre dibp, sincs G and Z will be half and the product of Gin Ea (64) will be onesighh While the flow of one Suid, ila the Inter tour tthe wction of dow Patron two didn the Trae Tenperatire Diterence for Seiet-peralel Arrangements The LMTD calculated from 75, 7, i, and ts for the series arrangement zs coshangeroperse in counteefiow. For exchanger I, containing half the surface, @ = weer — 7) = YA x ier, and tarp, = CeO Subatatog in Be (6.16), (T — Ts) HO" GHAR Resrranging, (7-7) We = wT ee - (6.16) (6.17) (6.18)(T — Ts) ftom ‘Similarly Jet (23) cOUNTERFLOW 9 and equating Has. (6.24) and (8.25), ‘Therefore me arth nts +P) — TT, =0 {6.27) ‘Bquation (6.27) is» quadratis whose solution is * = (Ee N=)" “al (629 ‘Ot ia the single value for the entire series-parallel arrangement; thus Q = UAAt = WOT — Ts) (6.30) ae FG (an It is convenient in this derivation to employ a definition for the tre tempeniire difewore in terms of the maximum temperature span Atm a(t = 4) (632) Bausting (631) and (6.32), FE mat * _ Fer, — 7) 1120 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Since M = (Ty —-Ts)/(Tr — ti), define P’ = {2p — )/(Ps =) and UA/WC = M/y; then P4+M=1 cor M=1-P + Substituting in Eq. (6.29), 4 AEE +e] 6 Foetal (e)ip)" +e] om If developed in a gencrali#edymanner it ean be shown thet, for one series hot atteam and m parallel cold streams, Eq. (6.34) becomes SSP miele DG) o8] Re %1-T: * * als =) For éne serige cold streamvsind n paralld hot streams, LaF 28 Meee [a — 29 (h)"+2"] (35) mn @ or where where Mak Prmgiz ond RY Rrample 6.2. sate ste retuned Abank of double ‘pipe exchangers operates with the hot fiuid in series. fram 300 to 200°F and the cotd ‘fiuid in six parallel streams from 190 to 220°F. What is the true tempersture differ-_-~ ence AIT 200 7-7 900-20 REE Sasi OO = yar) Be as ~ Sabeiutng a Ba, (6882) and wing, ¥ = 020. ai~0ning00 10 mer 6) Tin LAETD wold bo BT, nnd a ero 27 prt well b ine y pecanger with & Viscosity Correction, ¢. For heating or cooting Guida, the-use of Fig. 24 with an assumed value of (1/1.)*44 = 1.0 also ‘aapumes a negligible deviation of fluid properties from isothermal flow. ‘For nonviscous fluids the deviation from isothermal flow during heating COUNTERELOW " “Oe mo Ge (6.37) ‘Similarly for two resistances'in series employing the viscosity corrections for deren rm eter he kn ool os coefficient is again Pk (6.38) Brample @2. Double Pipe Lube Oll-Crude Oll Exchanges, 6,000 Ib/hr af a #8 40°F and 77at B007F, Thieevnooiee aro grt enough to fntrodue an etrit folns)*toe 1 wormed, Betution: ) Heat Balance: Labe oil, @ = 6000 X°0.62(450 — 350) = 427,000 Be Grade s0 = 79000 O886 10 ~ 200) = 7,000 hr Hot Fluid Cold Fluid Diet @) at: 450 | Higher tomp | 10 wo fae 350 | Lower temp | 300 1 wile impos topo he 7320 hr of sae at sues the owen fac stoosoal domaine al thro parallel streams. At = 87.5°F122 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER @) Caloric temperatures: ble, © 9357 Kim 048 Py = 0805 a” ro 17, = 380 x 0,305(450 — 350) ~ 380.5°F ‘= 800 X 0:306(810 — 800) — 204°F ‘Proceed now to the inner pipe. ea fut: earn, bb (@) Flow area, Ds wm 3.008/12 = 0.256 ft Dy = 238/12 = 0.100 ft a= 1h Db 1 Tobie = 0909/4 = om 1 ‘Equiv diam, Dy = (Dj — DD/Ds (Ba. 6301 - co2se 010? = O13 ft “Masa vel, Gs = (© a = 360015 /e) (0) a1 2005878, » = 207 Vigo x aad = 7.25 B/C) (Hig. 1 Rea = Diale ea. 60} = 0.48 X 885,000/T.26 = 6,000 Tt only 2 hairpins in series are required, | Ty wit be 2 x 40/018 = 614. Us yp ~ 60, ) ju = 5 Fe. 2 @) At 7. = 3005°F, = 0615 Btu/ IC) Me 4] k= 0067 Bru/anneeycr/e) We (2 - Cae a0 om nainE(G)*® Beery A, _ mS x 0.007 98 a7 Os = 427 Br/Qu ye) te water an Ty + Bel oe a, 630) = 904 + yp ey G8 — 300 =3F pe = 66 X 249 = 16.01/00) (Fe. 14) = wae tr eee 090 (Fig 24) aoke Ba, (6.20) ig. 177 (6.28) (6.20) Gold rid: ianer pipe, crude od (@ Flow area, D = 2067/12 = 0.172 ft ay D/A Se x 0728/4 = 0.0088 ft" ‘ince two parallel streams have boon as ‘sumed, 1/2 Ibi wil Bow in each pipe. (8) Mane vel, Oy = t/t ~ sites ‘= 1,500,000 Bb/(he)(t*) ( ACDEF, p= 08S = 088 248 = 201 Ib /(E) (he) Wig. Ray = Dial , = 0.172 X 1,560,000/2.01 ~ 138,500 1 ju = 820 (Fig. 24), © Aig = 2O0F, ¢ = 0885 30 /D)CF) (Fig. 4) b= 007s Bea/oey OCF) (Bie 1) ose oun kh ow 243 Btu/(br) (fF) by he gD 00) 574 XOD = B42 X 2.067 /238 = 207 ‘Now procoed froma (4) to (0) to obtain le: enor x282 = 180 Fig 14) tra Giant = @01/1.86)" = 1.0 nearly ig. 241 he na Be ea. 687) = 1 X10 = 207 COUNTERFLOW iva (12) Clean overall coefickent, Ue: Niche _ 297 Tom pS Bean 7 0 Bea/e)CWICH) 628) 22) Design averalleoeficionty Vn: 1 Us” Ue 10) Ra = 0.008 + 0.003 = 0.006 ara Gn enem Bee Summary 35.4 [Pout] 207 Ue 80 Uv ma (3) Surface: @ ay Ae ulna ‘External surface/lin ft, a” = 0.622 ft (nite 13) Required length = 128, = 278 lin ft ‘Tiss equivalent to more than si 204 hairpins or 240 infer. fince two setae or cplyed eh iri or $30 Inf pls ae tthe annul counected in series and the tubes in two parallel benks of four exchangers. ‘The corrected Up will be Up = Q/A at = 427,000/890 X 0.682 X 87.5 = 24.5. ‘The corrected dirt fantor willbe ike = 1/Un ~ 1/Ue = 1/245 ~ 1/240 = Q0114. y Pressure Drop @) Di =D, — Di) (Eq, (6.4)] For Rey = above Tbe sy = ons | Oe ae Ral = DG 9 = 0.0085 + sep papec ~ 0005875 ‘== 0.088 X 335,000/7.95 = 2680 (Ba. (3.470) J. 4 BM aise fF more meas Koreas FO a, 9.70 Halen a fi reugh an 0776 p= 08 xr wit Sly fee eachengee Pig. 61) PEL. @) oF, = ~ Me aed © Ae = 3D a AACS x sass x00, | _ 4 x nob x 1ssojo0o x 180 SCA TOK ARE 0 FX AMEN TO CATE KOE wire eee att =O AP, = TK ATS 5 oat 07 r= sdag = i = toe ra Allowable 4P, = 10.6 pai ah, ~ 8 (Z) = 0 (p28) ~ ost | tthe tow had not bend Fx, vided, th pre- U67 +045) x 48.4 ware drop would be nearty eight times as AP, = UST $08) X84 5.5 pat | great, or about 60 pi,124 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 3 COUNTERFLOW 125 s 4 {6.11. 13,000 Ib/lur of 28°API guis oil (00e Example 68 in text for viscosities) is mapmn AD det st twee ek in nt vrai 6.1, What is the fouling factor'whei'(6) Uo = #0 and Up =.20,-0) Ue = 80 and “s Uo £0, and (¢) Ue = 110 and Up = 100% Which do you consider reasonable to ‘specify‘between two moderately lean dkreamns? t ‘6.2. A double pipe exchanger was oversized becanse no data wero xvullable cn the rote at which dirt acoumulated. ‘The exchanger was designed to cool | nas many 3-by 2in, {PB doulte pipe te are required, Pressure drop {af 10 poi aro permitted along, with'e iminitoum Hct Yastor of O04. (a) How many Ii ar required? @) How abl hey bo arsed (What th Saal dt factor! _bestod from 100 to 300*R. ‘Twenty-foot bsinine of & by BinSTPS doable ps ‘dealers dof 0 a ermal A iis mm dit ao of arranged? {e) What isthe final dit factor? © How shat chy be Flow arco, it? ‘Reternal murface per linear foot of pipe, £8 @ pipe, hor dace this justify or refute your initidl decision where to place the hot stream? Specific heat hot fiud in desivations, Bta/(b)CE) ‘G4. 10,000 1b fur of 87°API gasoline is cooked from 150 to 180°F by heating 42°API Aconstant ‘kerogene from 70 to 100°F, Pressure’ drops of 10 pa are allowable with & minimum Specific heathof cbld fluid in docivations or either foid in caleulations dict factor of 0.004. -{0) How many 234- by 174 in. TPS hairpins 20 f¢ long are B/E) requited (6) How ahallthey be arranged? (<) What is the final fouling factor? Inside diamoter, 2 i For anuali Dis the outside diameter of ance pipo, Deis the inside diamo- ter ofthe outer pips, ‘ielet Gael fr boat raafer and pestre drop ft Equivalent dlameter fr hee-traafer and preewre drop, in. Outside diameter, AS oy 1" 7 ‘ E 0.005 is required. (6) How many hairpin sections are required? (0) How shall they bbe arranged? (2) What ie the final dirt factor? ‘41, 24,000 Th fax $f S5APT dlitillae is cooled from 400 to 300°F by 60,000 Ib /hr of BA°API crude ofl “heated from am inlet femperature of 260°F, Pressure dropo of 10 pei are alowable, and a dirt factor of 0.000 is roquired. Using 20+ bairpina of 4 by Sin, IPS (a) how many ste required, (@®) how shall they be arranged; and (what ia th final ooking factor? 1.8. A liquid ia cooled from 260 to 200°F by another Which is heated from 200 to Acceleration of gravity 4.18 x 100 ft/he? * Asederation of gevity 222 f6/oot Veil in nn i vitor ine ‘Pipe outside diameter, Btu/(hr)(t)(°F) a Saori ee r r 315°R. How doca the trus temperature differerico deviate from the LMTD if (a) the hhot fluid is in series and the cold fluid flows in two parallel counterfow paths, (6) the ‘Thermal conductivity, Bru/(hr)(tt%)("F /ft) ‘hot fluid in in series and the cold Oxid dows in Chee paralel-Sow-counterow paths, Fipe langth of length of path, ft ‘Tomperature group (Ps — 7.)/(0' — t), dimensions Namber of poral streams Outaide diameter, oF in, Temperature group (Tr ~ 4)/(0: ~ 4), dimensionless ‘the hot stream into (0) wo parallel strenms and @) into three parallel streams? ‘6.10, 6330 Ib/br of toluene ia cooled from 160 t0-100°F by heating amyl nectato ‘Teraperature group ~ 43)/(Ts — ty), dimensionless from 90 to 100°F using 15thairpins. ‘The exchangers.are2-by 1}(-i0.IP8. Allow. ee . ing 10 pai preaare dope sod providing a minimum div factor of 0.004 () how many ‘hairpins are required, @) how shall they be-arranged, and (¢) what in the final dirt ‘Temperstare group (71 ~74)/(t — &), dimensiontess factor? ‘Temperature group (71 —Ts)/m(z ~ 6), dimensionleat ‘Teanporature group m(P; ~ TO /ly ~ 4), dimensionless RRBORTUG*ROW AREF PAs OSemrRS pe tc oakee +€.48,, 100,000 tb fur of nitrobensene is to be oooled from 8250 275°F hy benseno126 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 2 Ry Onmbined dir nto ind dirt aco, out cit factor, aay eencry Ro, Ret ‘constant, dimensiones ‘Fuoonty ef the cali temperature, centpane X 243 ~ ty 8) (oe) Roa ep epi cn 24 = B/C) Ge) vio ‘Subscripts and Superecripts 1 Annalus Yous Pipe Firat of two oxchangern ‘Becond af two exchangers CHAPTER 7 1-2 PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW: SHELL-AND-TUBE EXCHANGERS INTRODUCTION ‘The Tubular Element. The fulfilment of many industrial services points at which leakage may occur. Where large heat azo reared, they ean beet be obtained by mens of eellend-tabo 0 that thy ea eee ealy a hown a Fe 2 "Tho tubes aro128 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER actually packed in the tube shest by means of férrules using a soft metal + packing ring. IOC 2026 EEL (asquare pitch brome ith (cD Sane pitch ; ‘ith ceonng tenes Fea 72. Common tube lapeate for exthangert. eter and 1 in, OD sre most common in heat-exchanger design. ‘The date of Table 10 have been arranged in'e manner which will be most useful in heat-tronsfer odlealations, ‘Tube Pitch. ‘Tuby-holes cannot be urilled very close together, since | 400 small a.seidth of.metal between adjacent tubes structurally ‘weakens ; the tube sheet, : The shortest distance tal i the clorenc ox Kgs Co ota ‘Pubes ‘are Ia out on either square or triangular patterns as shown in Big. 7.30 shown. 1 are ‘ ‘Shella are fabricated from steel Shells, pipe with nominal TPS diam- io, 7.8, Vieed-head tubular exchanger, channel covers (4). ‘The tubes are expanded into both tube sheets and are equipped with transverse baffies (5) on the shell side. ‘The calcula ‘or far apart, the mass upon the diameter of the shell. ‘The ba than a distance equal to the jnside diam: dturaiite Equal 10 meu jpside dis The sfeheld securely by means of base spacers (6) as chown in Fig. 7.4, which consist of through-bolts screwed into the tube sheet and a number of130 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER st PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW 131 amaller lengths of pipe which form shoulders between adjacent baffles, through the shell. ‘The baile pitch and not the 25 per cent out of the ‘An enlanged detail is shown in Fig. 7.5. bafiles, a8 shown Inter, determines the effective velocity of 16 shell fluid. ‘There are several types of baftles which are employed in heat exchang- Other types of baffies are the dise and doughnut of Fig. 7.7 and the i gry bt by far hp mt commen wre segmental baffies as shown in Fig. orice ballon Big. 78. “Although aon type, se aomesnes 2.6, Segmental bales at af thea Ta which ate. gen. employed, they are not of general importance. ly 75 per oant of the inside diameter of the shell. These are known 25 pre el ed wl bowed hh it this bock although rain the ask Gnd hosel fal flownacro the oe of te ae Fractional bafile cuts are also’employed in industry. An excellent ‘From a practical standpoint it is very dificult to obtain » high velocity. review of the influence of the baile cut on the heat-transfer cosficient ‘when one of the fiuid flows through all the tubes in a single pass. ‘This has boen presented by Donohue.!|‘They may be arrange, ae shown, for can be circumvented, however, by modifying the design so that the tube penis” Bow or may bo rola 9-6 ove “side-to-side” {uid is carried through fractions ofthe tues eonscutivaly. An example ow, the latter bag dail w when a mixture of liquid and gas flows & two-pass fixed-tube-cheet exchanger is chown. in Fig. 7.10, in which + Donohue, D, A., Ind. Bug. Chem, Al, 2490-2510 (1048). Sines pube fluid flows through the two halves of the tubes successively.132 PROOBSS HEAT TRANSFER 1 PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW ‘The exchangér in whieh thebhelbcde fd ows in one abel pe sod ‘The disadvantage to the use of a srs tn ha simple geometry. Te snare the Soting headcover it a necetary to it would be possible to insert a ‘great number of tbes, The bane ak only reduces the number of tubes which might be plaod in tho tube bundle but also provides an undesirable flow channel between the bundle and the shell. ‘These objections are overcome in the more conventional aston ington eel sae The insides. of “Agana i removing only tha chanpel cover split-ring floating-head 1-2 exchanger ch Fig.7.12. Although it: Ste Sey Se ok aioe n problems are atively expansive to manufacture, it doce bao a treet ‘number of extremely critical in 1-2 fixed-tube-sheet exchangers, since both passes, mechanical advantages. 1 ites Hom te plough tape by Sa oral to abl ae, tend to expand differently and cause atreas on use of a eplitzing assembly at the floating tube sheet and an oversized the stationary titbe sheota. shell cover which accommodates it. ‘The detail of a split ring is shown in ‘Removable-bundle Exchangers. In Fig. 7.41 is shown a counterpart Big. 7.13, The foun ab shee i is clamped betwoen the floting:-head 1-2 exchanger having a tube bandle which is remoyable from tho cover and « clamp ring placed in back of the tube shest which is split in of the.1-2 ving @ + half to permit dismantling, Different manufacturers have different XO Bplitring sanembly. 7 shell. It consiste-of # stationary tube sheét, which is clamped between modifications of the design shown here, but they all accomplish the i. It single-channel flange and a shell flange. At the ‘opposite end of the purpose of providing increased surface over the pull-through flosting tenth ees ean na iy ig fugit ‘head in the same size shell. Cast channels with nonremovable channel floating head. A floating-head cover is bolted to the tube sheét, and the ‘covers aro also employed as shown in Fig. 7.12. eatne unl ean be withdraw from the channel end ‘The shell -is134 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 44 PARALLEL-COUNTBRFLOW 135 higher pressures or services causing vibration. Usbend Ezchangere, The 1-2 exchanger shawn in Fig. 7.16 consists of tubes which are bent in the form of a U and rolled into the tube sheet. ehery lies nterty | SS petted chord Yoo 114. Tabeahestlnyout for a 15% fa. 1D sbel employing 1 in, OD tabas on 11440, (Bangale pich wh ax tube amen, laid out with minimtim space allowances between partitions and-ndjoin= i hin a ° A. 1 19 BHD 6 HT 8 Wie, T37, Usbead doubletabeaheet exchanger, (Paltevrn Foundry & Babine Co) PAE ao Over 39. ‘The tubes can expand freely, eliminating the need for a floating tube sheet, ‘These tube counts include a free entrance path below thé inlet nossle foating-head cover, shell flange, and removable shell cover. Bafiles may equal to the cross-sectional area of the nossles shown in Table 7.1. When be installed in.the conventional manner on square or triangular pitch. fs larget inlet nosale is used, extra entry space can be obtained by flaring ‘The emallost diameter U-bend which can be turned without deforming the inlet noxsle at its base or removing the tubes which ordinarily lie the outaide diameter of the tube at the bend has a digmeter of three to close to the inlet nossle. _ . four timés the outside diameter af the tubing. ‘This means that it will Packed Floating Head. Another modification of the losting bead 1-2 ‘usually be necessary to omit some tubes at the center of the Inindle, ‘exchanger is the packed flosting-head exchanger shown in Fig. 7.15. depending upon the layout,186 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER top to bottom er side’ to side, the heat-transfer ooeffcient is higher than for undisturbed flow wlong the axes of the tubes. The higher transfer ~ coofiicients result from the increased ie in Fig, 7.18; the yelocity of the fluid ‘undergoes continuous fuctuatfon be- ‘eause af the constricted area between flow and tube size the ooefliéionts for triangular pitch are roughly 25 per cont greatet than for square pitch, . ‘Several factors not treated in preceding chapters influence the rate of heat transfer on the shell side. Suppose the length of a bundle is divided Lic le size, elearance, and flnid-fow charadteristics. Furthermore, there is no trae flow area’ by which the shell-eide mase velotty ean be computed, turbulence. In square pitch, as seen i ot PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW 137 -sinee the flow area varies acrose the dianster of the bundle with the differ- » ant nifaber of fube clearances in each Tongitudinal row of tubes. The “coma tained fr fue Yowing in tutes (x ebiouly nat applica to fisid a i q ‘DG/u huis been retained, in sgréement with the suggestion of MoAdams,* but using fictitious values for the equivalent diameter D, and the maze velocity 0, as discumed below, Figure 28 in the Appendix is a correlation of industrial data which gives ‘satisfactory results for the hydrocarbons, organic compounds, water, ido ** { suequs solutions, and gases when the bundle ensploys haflos with accept “ able clearances between baifles and tubes and Between bafiles and shells. *P-m(2)"@) precludes comparison between Guids flowing in tubes and across tubes on the basis of the Reynolds number alone. All the data in Fig. 28 refer to turbulent flow. ‘Shell-side Mass Velocity. ‘The linear and mass velocities of the fluid change continuouily across the bundle, sinoe the width of the shell and ‘the number of tubes vary from zero at the top and bottom to maxima ‘at the center of the shell. The width of the flow ares, in the correlation ‘McAdams, W. H., ‘Heat Transmission,” 24 ed. p. 217, MeGraw-Hill Book Com- pany, Inc., New York, 1942, “Yor mochanical details and standards woe Slandards of the Tubular Bechanger Manufacturers? Association, New York (1940). . ‘'Colbur, A. P,, Trans. AICAE, 29, 174-210 (1933), ‘Short, B.E., Unie, Tasas Pub, 3310 (1038), "Breidenbach, E. P., and H. E. O'Connell, Trans, AICHE, €8, 761-776 (1048),mpecn, "The shellide or bundle erosfiow ares cys then given by oc DXCE iw a) and as before, the mans velocity is a= Bb / Chr) (et) 2) —— pattern as layed out on tho tube sheot. Referring to Fig. 7.19, tore the crmbatah cover i rsa fr sue ph >, = See ft 3) * d= tka na) ig a f +t PARALLEL-COUNTERELOW 139 whore Pe is the tube pitch in inches and de the tube outside diameter in inches. | For triangular pitch as shown in Fig, 7.10 the wetted perimeter of the element corresponds to half « tube. a, = 1X O46 eX O.86Pe — ‘The equivalent diameters for the common arrangementa are included in Fig. 28. Te would appear that this method of evaluating the hydraulic radiue and equivalent diameter does not distinguish between the relative peroontago of right-angle low to axial flow, and this is correct, It is possible, using ‘the same shell, to have equal mass velocities, equivalent diameters, and ce Reample .i. Compute the abel-side equivalent diameter for 8 34 in. OD tithe on ‘Hin, square piteh. From Eq. (7.4) an Mra ‘The True Temperature Difference At in a 2-2 Exchanger., A typical Plot of temperature va. length for an exchanger havig one shell paas ‘and two tube parses is shown in Fig, 7.20 for the nossle arrangement indicated. Relative to the shell fluid, one tube pass is in pounterflow and the other in parallel fow, Greater temperature differences have‘difference in. 1-2 exchanger. ‘The assumptions are XL The shell ‘ross section. a "There ean equal amount of heating mrfoe in each pas ‘The overall cbefficient of heat transfer'is constant, =~ Q = UA At = WC(T, — Tr) = wells — 1) (76) 'Gnderwood, A. J. V., J. Inst, Petroleuni Technol, 90, 148-158 (1084). % . ‘Chom., 26, 604-808 (1082), ‘Donen fs “A titoaes, ‘and W, M. Nagle. Trans, ASME. 2, 283-204 290), ‘empernture is sn average isothermal temperature at: ‘ft PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW ‘From which #-Gid)- (tig). on In Fig. 7.200 let Y tion of the shell L = X betwoonL = OandL =. Let t' and & repre- ‘ 5 -weer-uSar_—nsu@a-m as) =Wear = vaa(z -i4e (7.9) ~ [54 - ar (7.10) we T-ETAR ” But in this equation 7, #,-and & are dependent variables. The heat balance from L = X to the hot-fluld inlet is WOT — 24) = wo(e — #9 a) and the heat balance per pass we dt = 04 (pf (7.12) we de ~ 0 44 op ey (7.13) Dividing Eq. (7.13) by Eq. (7.12), an t-e a (as) To eliminato # and df from: Eq, (7.21) and (7.18) e a, -D+e (7.15) Differentiating Eq. (7.15), with the hot fluid inlet 7; constant, we G6 mw — Sal at (7.18) Substituting in Eq. (7.14) and rearranging, Wear. P- 6 WC/w)(r, - 1 weet Foe (7.17)Maz PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER ‘$f PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW 13 ‘The number of variables in Eq. (7.15) has been reduced from three of Eq. (7.24) Ky = T; so that Eq, (7.26) becomes (7, #, ©) to two (7 and £), For a solution it is necessary to eliminate either 7 ot #. Simplifying by the use of parameters aa in the ease of the double pipe exchanger lot ‘Toking logarithms of both sides and simplifying, pe Hy mt RE val x Rearranging m8, ‘ So yepr(-#) 28) atv u Differentiate Tq, (7.26): weit Soret gr m=O 7218) ate 2 fm ny 4 VERT aE 0 ee VFI an) AK WAROVEE 2 gy (Oaned®—VEF 797) Simplifying and substituting WC = we/R, a7 4 URE _ Thee a0 a9) sehtttg he was a Differuntiating with renpect to 4, bee ePth Sa i eay torre maa on, Une mR f+) =0 0 Ri +t) — RP, = KAR + VFA) Substituting — KAR - VEFFT) (7.30) 12) and (7.13), Baw 19) a8 O49) From Eq. (7.26) at A = Oand T = T, and Ki = T: er, URaT OR gi me opt we Hd ~ Coo 9-0 at) M-T=Kit Ks a) Since tho eat chang is ensile a dneot proportionality exists between ‘Maltiplying both cides of Eq. (7.81) by (8 + VEFF1), hn prong ofthe fexperatre He @ 4+ VEEP — 1) = KR + VED a 7.22) \ +K(R+ VR FI) (7.32) w ae Adding Eqs, (7.31) and (7.82) and solving for Ky pe tg 723) Kyo Rt) + (Mi ~ THR+ VF) ~ ORT er oRar toh 728 aver (a) ad + wo dd ~ Gey Bont ‘Returning to Eq. (7.31), Difforentinting again with respect to A, -Ki=K- (1-1) = or uner Uae “0 | (38) Bt VR ED - 1) - 8 VB FUT — Ty) — RT + Rt) (Boyd VBE : ‘Tho solution of this equation will be found in any standard differentis!- ; (vas) equations text. ‘The equation is , Bince R= (Ti — Ta) — t), Te Kit Ke COVED 4. Kg CAPER (7.98) Ky R= VETIy~ ~~~ 5p) When 1? = T,, A will have ineroasod from 0 to A, and from the solution 7 @F VF PIG) (i) (at)1-8 PARAILELCOUNTERFLOW 145 +? It can be shown-that the values of Fr for a 1-2 and 1-8 exchanger are leas ‘than 2 per cent apart in the extreme case and generally considerably less. Tis therefore customary to deseribe any exchanger having one chal! pace and G00 or more even-numbered tube passes in parallel fow-counterfiow 4 8 8 1-2 exchanger and to uso the value of Fr obtained from Eq. (7.41). } “The reason ¥+ will be less than 1.0 is naturally-duo to the fact that the t x ‘and four, six, ight, oe a Payor 8 exchenge, Ba (7.10) becomes for a 1-4 exchanger dA aT eewe PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER b# PARALLBL-COUNTERFLOW it is customary in parallel flow-counterflow sre studiod. The operating temperatures of tho cold fuid are fixed, ober very showy. In ote approach, and if ta > T Quen ty ~ Tri Tile the hot-fuid temperatures are variable thereby changing tho cpm ee ‘approach in each case, Note the conditions under which Fr shrinks called the temporstore and to rapidly, particularly the approach at the practical minimum Py = 0.75 ‘Tt is useful to investigate soversl typical process temperatures s 4 ‘the value of ‘and the Inflaence of the relationship between and fs, The ealeulation note the influence of different approaches and crosses upon. sad ihe tienen of ec : 10 has as ‘Reample 7.2. Calculation of Fr for Fioids with Rqual Ranges 09] —| ie le it Point: (0) 0° approach) Zero approach (0) 20" erose °F ranges —— \ (Ei) 350 200 (4) {T,) B00 200 (4) (Ti) 280 200 (4) CW 100%) T9300 90 4) (43) 180 100 @) oa 100 100 100 100 100 100 * oracle ee eed Roto R=10 Hoke mem sean 0.855 os ‘Pr = 0.925 (Fig. 18) 0.80, = 0.84 In Fig, 7.23 are shown the results of the calculation when one fluid has a8, five times as great as the other. k- yercadh °F the crdte Gnat-aige Presoure Deep, “The preasure drop through the shell of an on Fe wich fads having sl rangs in 8 ‘ Pe, 1:32. Tflnnce of approach temperate exchanger is proportional to the number of times the fuid cromes the 1a exahener bundle between bafiles. It is also proportional to the distance across ‘the bundle cach time it is crossed. Using a modification of Eq. (8.44) =, Qiband Ferre correlation has been obtained using the product af the distance neroes erace the bundle, taken as the inside diameter of the shell in fost D, and the number of times the bundle is crossed WV + 1, where AV is'the number of a] - bales. If Z is the tube length in feet, fr ing practical | ‘Number of crosses, N + ¥ = tube length, in./bafBe space, in. on =12X1/B (7.48) Hf the tube length is 16'0” and the baffles are spaces 18 in: apart, there of will be 11 erosses or 10 bafiles. There should always be an odd number of erosees if both shell nossles are on opposite sides of the shell and an © J % ‘even number if both shell nossles are on the same side of the shell. With Veenwonnw- Approach "Fama te FA ie ‘dose batt spacings st convenient intervals such as 6 in. and under, one F728, Tatoos of epwonch temperature on Fr eevng mae renee bafle may be omitted if the number of crowes is not an integer. ‘The 1a erchanes a . oquivalent diameter used for oaloulating the pressure drop is the same Fora given uric th reduction of Fy below unity in Ba. 7.49) ‘as for heat transfer, the additional friction of the shell itself being neg- ‘compensated for by iicreasing the surface. Thus: process terse lected. ‘The isothermal equation for the pressure drop of » ftuid being ‘fures are fixed it may be inadvisable to employ a parallel flow-coun' heated or cooled and including entrance and exit losses is a ipment beyond of ite mechanical advantages. . 41) _ SEDAN +) a ide each wi el rage of 10 ad 507 ap. moe ceo, PE OM)“ Cre ae ab dre pm tnt an = WE 19 = ty ot" the 2 = WOGs ~ 71) = wells = 0), known rhage in the apiagraity ofthe id Rachtee Ce ng nt wurfaco A, and thoitrue temperature difference for the proveas tempera apres drop inipoundsperoguars {9 sures a value of the design or dirty coeffidient, Unis obtained. Ue must pounds. pet ch rial exceed Up sufficiently so that the dirt factor, which ja a measure of the ‘When these are fulfilled, an existing exchanger is suitable for the process conditions for which it has been rated. .In starting » csleulation the first i= ge noes, as) 3) sad Inn the | : of tube passes, Z the tube length, rete a oa info ‘The deviations are not given, but the curve ‘otal net pod by the Tubular Exchanger Maurofacarers Amociyion: : Tato the next at the channgl and floating head hot fluid on the left the usual method of computing the LMTD may be retained. ‘The Calculation of an Existing 1-2 Exchanger, Process conditions required . Hot fhiid: Ts, 7, Wo, a by Ra, AP Cold:ftuid: ty th 1, ¢, 2,1, by Ra, AP For the exchanger the following data must be known: Shell side Tube vide 1D ‘Number and length Baffle space OD, BWG, and pitch Passes Passes (4) Heat balance, Q ~ WO(T ~ Ts) = welt ~ ty) (2) True temperature difference Al: ump, B= T=7, gopoh 614) ability of sn exiting exchanger for» new sovvio, aah ih ‘dean 4t = LMTD X Fr (Fr from Fig. 18) (7.42) * ‘ performed” by the two fluids os vrei of ea oni yon fn codifisients ky and he? q160 ‘PROCHSS HEAT TRANSFER (8) Colorie temperature 7, and tt (6.28), (6.29) ‘Ht fluid: all ride Cola fd: tube side © Flow area, a = ID x C'B/144Pr, ft? 4@) Flow ares, ox (Tae GhA))| Flow are per tube from Teble 10, in : om No. of tubes x flow aren/tube ~|* ‘No. of passes: = Meoi/ttin, se 4. (1.48) (8) Mase ve ds = Won B/E |) ‘Mam vel, Gr = 1/2 To /ar} C4) ‘- | () Obtain D, from Fig. 28 or compute {6) Obtain D from Table 10, i. from Eq. (7.4). Obtain » at t, Ib /fft)(hr) = op X 2.42 Obtain» at Ty Yb/{ft)(br) = op X 2.42 Rey = DOs Bea /(hr}GUNCEA- ompatet (orb. Compute® (o/E)™ mnie B(E)"% Bx asin] ie ~ink(Z)* 6 4 ©1501 (10) Tubo-wal temp, ty B= BX 5 (Ea. 6.591 wont ete! ° Ba, 6a) ; : AY) Obtain ne and 6 =. ofa) (A) Obtain t from (10). (Fie. 241] Obtain ead x — Ge/oe)*%. OFig. 241 (a2) Corrected soticiat, y= ft |) Corrected concent, ig = Me ls. 30)) a. (0871 (28) Clean overall cooficient 1 te= 625) (a ene os Mn vera stain tops Heat-teanster curface, A = o"LN,, ft p= ge, Busentenc) (48) Dirt factor Bet Rem Ceeye™ te) te FY BO _ OD 1 Ryequale or exceeds the required dirt factor, proceed under tbo preerre drop, 1 The‘ of calcio temperature in in partial eontraistion of the detvaion for tna ey ales Sowccountarbow temperstore difrence in whick U wa sawatnd constant. “The use of calorie tomperatares presumoe that a inser variation of U with rm counted foe us the product of UsunuAt where Ati the true parallel Bow ae titow temperature diference ween is constant. aa en graph of Hen/t)™ va. wf potzoleas factions i given in Fig, 18° 12b/B | @) aPe= ERX 10"Des, wrens [Oar Pap feat Ua. (7.48)) (ia, (244))] Br = APs + APY pai four pamon, and baffles are spaced & in, apart. ‘Will the exchanger be muitable; ic, what is the dirt factor? 1-8 PARALLEL-COUNTBRFLOW (1) For Resin (6) obtain f fein abe ride 188, 1607" ‘OD, BWG, pitch = 1 in, 18 BWG, 154in. oquare . ‘@ = 43,800 x 0.005¢n00 — 200) = 5,100,000 Nitin ead, = 14000 O10 ~ 100) = 2100000 Bua/ht 100182 PROCESS HEAT. TRANSPER 49 PARALERI-COUNTERFLOW 183 + @) Teand &: (18!) Clean overall cosficiant Ue: te Be 085, ie. 17) fade, 128-102 ‘ & te = = 69.8 Bin ihe} ee K, = 0.20 (crude oil controlling) Tae Fhe” St F168 Fy O38) F=oat ‘Design overall eooiciant Ui Te 200 40.42 X 100 = 80°F om ao ‘st = 100 +043 X70 = OF a a” = 02618 fin fe 19) ” . . ‘Total surface, A w 158 X 160” X 0.2618 = 062 fi , ‘Binice the flow aed, of both the shell and tube sides will be nearly equal, arsume the @ | 100,000 larger stroama te flow in the tubes and start ealoukition on the tabe side, Uo = Fag Gea Ime 7 858 Btu/(hr) (CK) ‘Ht fusid: shell side, Rerovene Cold uid: tbe side, crude ait factor ° (0) Mow sey ae = ID X OBL 1) Flow aren, of = 0.815 in? Ttatte am Dirt me u, 10) =Uo= Up _ os ~ 558 = 34.25 x 025 x 6M x18 = Nalfitin a. (68)) Bam CE? m= BS SHEE 0.00048 te) 09) /Bea// (0.18) 03 = Ue X OMe X4 OLEH WY) Mass vel, = 57a, {Eq (7.2) ‘= 48,800/0.1476 = 207,000 16/0) 4) () Ru = DGJn {Ea. (7.3)) At, = 280°F, » = 0.40 x B42 "Ab 4 = 120°F, = 049 Bra/db)(P), Wie bk 0.077 Bea/ee) GCE Mt) [Fig. 1} fm CAD X A707" = 8.8 (0) For Re = 2590, o reba wie # (2% = in() (2) ‘= 000176 tin ~ counts feet Ante (Z)"% ea. Cox] & & -32(7) (FZ) 0 $7 ggotre tf fig. 201 7 = o.oogas 970 ig. 261 Bem 0 x¢ OOMSS 5 1.95 w 1069 Wea, (6:260)1 D,= MIP = LIT Kt a6) #7 8% a0 Be at x OO, x 381 = 185 YN of rome, N41 230/8 Ley apy = co Ft ray ‘: fa ey ID 0.81 (Ea.(7.43))) 522 X10" Dap, (107) Tuboswall temperature: 10) Be — Be xc 5 = 105 x SH = 100 712 x 16/5 = 39 “ Bq. (0.801 mete ee 8) DAN +0) y aA Bea. (630) g SAO ag, HA: AAI] @) Ge — 1,080,000, 35 = 0.5 Bi. 27) =19+ (@80 — 129) = 297, 0008 x 1.77 x 89 -*F Toe-F To ” save Baa x OM 5 OOS OTN 08 | OP Te Bea. ca) (AY) Atte 21H, py = 0.86 249 | (At) Att, © 200°P, po 15 X28 = 4X ic08 = 29 pet 1.86 1b/C) Gar) Fg. 14) = R65 We/feNhe) Fig. 14] Allowable AP, ~ 10.0 pai © aPr = AP, + 4P, be = u/ne) 40m (0297/1.30)04 61 = Genel (.7/B.08)36 S65420— 026 Bla. TAN) 098 Fig. 24 invert] "= 1.1 Tig, 24 ingort] APre 00nd se he 5 he (22°) Corrected confficient, Am $y | (18) Corrected oooficiont he a Ft #1 Ibis ooen that a dirt factor of 0.00848 will be obtained although ealy 0,008 will be Bq. (6.38)1] 2 TBq. (6.87)1 ‘required to provide reasonable maintenance period. The prewure drope have ot = TAO OR 182 Rt meV) | mH TTT om 121 Rem yhe RENO ‘been exoneded and the exchanger will be satisfactory for tha nervien164 PROCBSS HRAT TRANSFER 1-8 PARALLBL-COUNTERFLOW 155 ‘Bxchangers Using Water. Cooling operations using water in tul equipment are very common. i anne the bastante sosy average about 1 cent per 1000 gal, although it has the advantage of Charncterintion of water separate it from all other fuids, Tt is corrosive being generally available ot from 20 to 60 pei pressure whichis adequato toteel, particularly when the tube-wall temperature is high and diseolved Ea ee a ee eer che nate is ieteniae ee te air ia present, and many industrial planteuse nonferrous tubes exclusively ra coating ower is aed, the ont. Khe water ig Getarmined by the for heat-tranafer services involving water. ‘The commonest nonferrous cnet of rec water, Pumping Power, fan Power, and write-off on the tubes are admiralty, red brass, and copper, slthough in certain localities oie bestetrant ‘here is a preference for Munts metal, aluminum bronze, and aluminum, we sel ide beat-manafr curve (Fig. 28) cormlates very rll for the Binoo shells are ususlly fabricated of steel, water is best handled in the Sow of water neross sabe ‘The high thermal conductivity of ‘vabee, When water flows in the tubes, there is no serious of cee ern con ot the Cabe ede corve (ois DD) heceen ites a ‘corrosion af the channel or floating head cover, since these parte aré aften Seats which are the tube-side curve (Fig. 24), however, gives ooefi- Gnade of east iron or cast stael. Castings are relatively passive to water, hich are grrerally High, Tn its place the date of Hagls sod land large corrosion allowances above structural requirements can be enguron for water alone are given ip Fig. 2 and are recommended when provided inexpensively by making the castings heavier. ‘Tube sheets cer water Sows in tubes Since this graph deals owly with water, i hes nay be made of heavy sted plate with a corrosion allowance of about boon poi to pot Sm coficents selon fest pr eco with 134 in. above the required structural thckmess or fabricated of naval brows razare as the parameter, The date have bean plotiod with the 2 stominum without a corrosion allowsnoe. 3% in., 16 BWG tube as the base, and the correction {actor obtained from ‘When water travels slowly through & tube, dirt and alime serulting from the insert in Fig, 25 should be applied when any other inside diameter is sieroorganie action adhere to the tubes which Would be carted avray if : = with ind ‘there were greater turbulence, hot andar practice, che uae of cooling Deere nt ae am conmennte ranging water at velocities as than 3 fps should be avoided, although in certain {oem 60 to 1000 for both the silt be, the salectian of the sored Tpoalties minimum velocities ag high as 4 fps are required for continued Sd as chalet ee the net end tube alee the ened eee ‘operation. Still another factor of considerable importance is the deposi- an the shell and tube sides, the combined resistance ‘don of mineral soul. When water of average mineral and sir content ie 2000, of Uo = S00. If fouling factor of 0.004 is required, the footing ‘brought to a temperature in excess of 120°F, it ia found that tube action Ao Dee be ae teen bot a 200, When ah eat, pecomes excessive, and for this reason an outlet water temperature above aust be lesg than 1/0.004 or 250. | Whenever high coefficients oma excnsva wo cist on both sides of the exchanger, the use of on unnocessarily Isrge Cooling water is rarely abundant or without cost. One of the,gerious fouling fect thou be avaided. problems facing the chemical and power industries today results fron pen ering hen Searrery problem oonurin porechanscyAikbongh the gradual deficiency of surfase and subsurface water in areas of indus- 1500 I ‘exchanger, the heat recovery is equivalent to fia] concentration. This ean be partially overeome through the use of zaarly 1#00 Tb/tr of sheam, which repreetata a sable economy in the coning ter (Chap, 7, whic ree te eoling water end eda he a year. requirement to only 2 per cent of the amount of water required in onoe- Reample TAA Calelation of 4 Distled-witer-Baw-water Rrehangee. through use. ‘River water may provide part of the solution toa deficiency lb of dotiled water entero an exchanger at OG°F and eaves at 85°F hehe cf ground water, but it is costly and presupposes the proximity of a river. vill be transerred 4o 290,000 Ib‘ raw water coming from aupply at 76°F and River water must usually be strained by moving screens and pumped Insving the exchanger at 80°F. A 10 psi preasare drop may be expended on both aaGderablo distances, and in some localities the water from ri ream we providing» fouling factor ot 006 for dled water and 005 fr ing oongusted industrial areas requires oooling in cooling towers before it Toc for thn ins 1H echanger baring 100%, 0 can ba ed. subsn 100" lag andi oan 15cm tc ich Th hole sreage “Many sizable municipalitios have legislated against the use of public ‘for two pases, and baffles are spaced 12 in. apart. seater supplies for large cooing purpones other than for make-up in ‘Wil the exchanger be nite? cocling towers or spray-pond systems, Where available, municipal water 1 Bagle, A. and R, M. Fergraon, Pro. Roy. Sor, ALT, 540-568 (1980)1-8 PARALLBL-COUNTERFLOW 157 Het sd shalt Wi, diiedter Cold tui: tube wide, row waler ey A= inf ($6) 1 ten. 6189] Ay = 1350 x 0.90 = 1825 Fe. 25) = 7 x36 x 170 /0.0088 =.1019 a = hy XED/OD = 1aN6 % 065/075. ~ 440) pO) 4) The small difference = 1155 [Eq. (6.5)] = “the need for a tube-wall correction, aad (2) Float balance: eek Distilled water, @ = 178,000 x 1{08 — 85) = 1,400,000 Bear Rw water, Q = 280,000 X 1(80 — 75) = 1,400,000 Bea ar (18) Clean overall coefficient Uo: @ ae a bade 1155 x 1010 Hot rid nla Pit Dit, Ye ER Tine panto 7 7 B/C) 638) s . ‘When ‘both film coefficients are‘high the thermal resistance of the tube me 03. | Bigher'Tomp | #0 @ ot cit rite tral fn ihe met int 85 || Lower Temp | 75 Py 1B4BWG tube 2 = 0.00017 andor copper'Rm = 0.000017, | pita 7 74 (16) Design overall coeficiont Uz External slirface/ft, a” = 0.1963. 113/1% Te = 14 Loe ow ‘A= 160 x 1007" 50.1060 = 802 0" 8 5 . @ 1,400,000 Rapes Sa gla Ors . Uo ~ a ~ ia x 1075 ~ 259 «a Pr = 0945 ig. 18) (45) Dirt factor Re: ‘At = 0945 X 114 = 1075°F (742) @) Teand Qe ‘The average temparstures,T'yand ty of 80 and 77.5°F wilt be satisfactory for the short rangeeand ¢, and ¢.takenaa 1.0, ‘Try bot Suid in oll ae atrial, ainoe itis ‘the smaller af he two. ‘Hot fluid: shell vide, dietted water Cold fui: tube side, r00 water Yo= Ue . saz ~ Bem TERUG STK a ~ OMMOMNIUNCTY/Bm (018) a ID XCBAMPr (Ba. 7-101] C0) oh 0.844 int [Table 10) $15.25 x 0.1875 x 12/ Jan = Noi/idn Ba. 7.48)] 844 gaz = O.ape fs] = 100 X Dasae/tak xB = 0.186 © 0. = Wi Ee 2} Gs wee = BOON anny OOOO ‘ es Caleulatd 0.0000 = 1,605, 00/3600 x 82.4 = 6.70 fos «Required 0.0020 0) AGT. = 8, pw 081x249 16) Ab = TTF ye = 088 x 243 = 108/360) FEB EO, Pressure Drop -D, = 0186/12 = 0.0888 15 [Fig. 284] D = 085/12 — 0.04 I (Res b-for pre | 1!) For Ba = 16,200, = 0.0019 077in.*} (1) For Res = 36,400, f = 0.00019 f/f0.2 TS Fo xomoonian tea | Re = Daye nen”) ORI _ ie - jo = Dave “By Wo. ot crocs, We = - j= 78 [Mig 321] = 0.054" 4,506,000/2.28 ~ 86,400 ") No. of rose, W 1 I | 8 sarcoma 80) (@) At T. = °F, ¢ = LO BW/CH)CF) lato = 036 Bexar Table} (a/b) = (1.0 X 1,90/0.80)4 = 1.76 Dim 1525/19 = 1.27 ft158 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Pressure Drop (0) at, = SERED on, can] oy aP Gs = 1305008, AY = 028 ax - Allowable AP, = 109 pei 0 aPe = (8a, (247) 249-420 = 75 p6 Allowable APy = 10.0 pai {ti seen that th overall oefisint fr this problem ia ve tne that ofthe o-oo exchange of Example 7.3, the principal difference being due-to the excellent thermal proper of wale, ‘The exahanger i antitactory forthe serve. between the two conditions: much water and small surface or little water ‘and large surface. Jn the following it is assumed that the line pressure on the water is the annual cost of water and the fixed charges, which include maintenance and depreciation. If Cr is the total annual cost, Gs = (water cost/Ib) (Ib/hr) (annual br) “+ (annual fixed chargea/ft?)(H9) Q = wel, — t) = UA(LMTD) (79) ‘Substituting the heat-balance terms in Eq. (7.49), wherew = Q/Te(ls — 4] and the surface A = Q/U(LMTD) Or = age + ENTS — inerp = Bt Keeping wll factors constant exoept the water-oulst temperature and consequently Af, CQ orm “ata Te hah oo Jn (Ti = &)/At:, ‘The optimum condition will occur when the total annual cost mini- mum, thus when dCr/dt Dien eng met rt We egy oetact [arty] 19 Bguation (75 reproduced in Fig. ‘Rammple 7.5, Calculation of the Optimum Outlet-water Temperature. A viscous ‘aid is cooled from 175 to 160°F with water available at 25°F. What isthe optimum~ conilet water temperature? 180 85 = At = 65 emir and mnnionance tnd 10 per oon160 PROCESS RAY TRANSFER ‘When the value of U i high-or therp is a-large hot-fuid-range, the Holuthons of ergenic liquide: use the weighted conductivity. sGolutions of -organio liquids and Water: use 0.9. timed the weighted conductivity, Solutions of salts and water circulated through the shell: use 0.9 times the conductivity of water up to concentrations of 30 per cent. Solutions of salts snd wator circulating through the tubea and not exocsting 30 psx cot: ‘use Fig. 24 with a conductivity of 0.8 that of alia cnpesios: ‘use 0.0'times the conductivity of the dispersion ‘Wmulsions: use0.9; times the conductivity of the liquid surrounding. the droplets, Specific heat: COrpiniesblutiong: uae the weighted specie heat. Organio solutions in water: use the weighted specific heat. Fiusable salts in water: uso the-weighted specifio heat where the specific hheat of the salt i for the orystalline state. Viscosity: Organic liquids in organics: use'the reciprocal of the eum of the terms, sirupy and oan not be eatimated. ‘Wherever iaboratory tests are available or data can be obtained, they will be preferable to any of the foregoing rules, The following demon- strates the solution of a problem involving an aqueous solution: Bramplo7.6. Caleuiation of a Phosphate Solution Cooler, 20,160 Ib/br of a 30% temperature, since such data entail not only: destructive testa but records kkept over a long period of time. ‘Solution Exchangers. One of the commonest clames of exchangers, embraces the costing oF heating of solutions fot whioh there ie a pautity ‘K,PO, solution, specific-gravity at 190°F = 1.30, is to be cooled frou 150 to 90°F cf physical data. ‘This ie understandable, sineeproparty vs. temperature 2 en me ‘deg ell wate rom 66 OF ec dg fp am lmao Sth ‘Available for this service is = 10.02 in. ID 1-2 exchanger Maving &2,% in. OD, 16 BWG tubea 16°" lag ad out on In oquar pitch. ‘The bund is aranged (6¢ < fo pasos, and the ballon are apaced 2 in, apart. ‘with considerable caation, Trey te given ae folont ‘Wat the exchanger be euitable?162 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘hal side TD 7 1002, Number nd tagth +82 100" OD, BW, pick = Hin 18 BG, Tin square (1) Hat balance: Bpecifi heat of phorphate solution = 0.3 x 0.19 +0.7 X 1 = 0.757 Btu/Mb)('F) 90% KPO, sohition, Q = 20,160 X 0.757(150 — 90) = 918,000 Beu/br Water, Q = 41,600 x 1.0(80 — 68) = 915,000 Btu/br @ ate LTD = 37.0°F . aw paBaar s=yyZq-ome : Fem 0st a 8 af = O81 X 32.9 = 30.7F wT sal Tiere peor od oft and 70° wl be mcr. = 0.38 Bis/OoMR“CRAD| - Gea ft) = (0.757 X 2.90/0,98)% = 1.88 oy hn (FY x1 Be Ca9 max 9 =m Sixctp/oD sao xossets = 71 K 0.38 x 189/0070 aor ee asi CF) Bra/ter)eyCF) Tq (6.591 (UO AI 9 and deed 414 PARALLBL-COUNTERFLOW 168 (18) Claan overall coefficient Ye: Te = pM = SE — 203 Bia tar) (OCF) (6.28) (14) Design overall oeficient Up: External surface/{t, a” = 0.1068 ft (Table 10) A= 52 X 190" X 0.1968 = 168 1 Do = a — sa aay 7,188 Bou / He) CH) (U8) Dirt tector Raz Rex gabe REE - coon anenen pe (620) 9 For Re. = 16,760,f = @.001980%/in.* | (1) For Re, = 17,000,f = amas (Fig. 25) ig. 25) $oitn Na atesaen, 1 = alIB | OD APs sae Timg, TC) OO a. =rex000,27-000 ean ay ap, = LEP AD a aay) e Bi X 18Dat ap, -2P ia, (7.48)) = 0.0019 X 578,000* x 0.833 x 96 Oe a9 " 538 x 10" x 0.070 X 1.90 X10 4x2 = 95 pei Allowable 4P, = 10.0 psi OP = OP, + aP, (Eq. 7.471 2 e+ a7 = 23 pi Allowable SP = 10% pai ‘The exchanger is satisfactory for the service. Stoem asa Heating Medium. ‘Thus far none of the heat-transfer serv- ian etuittad hae amtlowed stacm althnnch i te he far the enmmenost. by caléulation[” In this book in all beating services employing relatively = heating medium. Stopm a5 a testing mpdiuin introduces sevéral diff. <7 culties: (1) Hot steam vondensate ia fai Chap. 21. . 2 ‘The heat-transfer coefficient a saodated wth the Sondenstion on tetoam are very high compared with any which have been studied so far. It is customary: to-adopt a conventional and conservative value for the film + coefficient, since it is never the controlling film, rather than obtain-one ONT ERFLOW 165 ‘sirfroo steam a value of 1800 Btu/(ke)(f)(F) will be used for the cost of process or live steam, Although it possesses a high latent heat, contlensation of steam without regard to ita location. ' Thus Ai= hy = exhaust steam ia of limited process value, since the saturation temperature a= 1500.7} is ually about 215 to 280°F. If a liquid in to be heated to 250 or 275°F, ‘it is sdvantageous in hesting to connect the steam tothe tubes of the “lf itis necessary to use process steam at 100 to 200 pei developed at the ‘with condensation. “ using as little process steam as possible. ‘This leads to an optimum: If 2 ‘the outlet temperature of the oold fluid in the first exchanger is made to approach the exhaust steam temperature too closely, a «mall At and largo first heater will result. On the other hand, if the approach is not close, of 3 the operating cost of the higher process steam requirement in the second heater increases so that the initial cost of two shells may not be justified. In the following analysis it is sssumed that the pressure drop, pumping166 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER cost, and overall coefficient are identical in a single and double heater equation is token as the samt of steam and fixed charge and becuune stoam condenses iothermally, at = MTD, Cr = welt — OCs + AiCr + ell — 1)0Cr + AC, (7.52) ; Ca = cost of exhaust steam, dollare/Btu Cr = cost of process steam, dollare/Btu Ts = temperature of exhaust steam, °F ‘Ty = temperature of process steam, “F 4 = intermediate temperature between shells total annual operating hours we, Pah Os wey Trae ange Geer wt be FS Subetta tuting, differentiating Eq. (7.52) with respect to ¢, and setting equal (te — na — 9 = Gee st) Reample 27, The Optimum Uso of Kxheast and Process Steam. Exheust steam, uote (> 228°F) and proves steam at 86 pei (o 328°F) are available to heat « Tiquid from 180 to 260°F. Exhaust steam Se availabe at conta per pet 1000 tb and ‘process steam at 80 conts per 1000 Ib, From experiance am overall rate of 50 Btu/ ‘he)GHNCH) may be expected. The amumption may be checked later. Um anual ‘fixed charges of $1.20 per equare foot, 8000 annual hours, latent heata of 960.1 Btu/tb for exhaust, andl 888.8 Btu/Ib for process steam. ma 0 = A the shel diameter ao tha the entire bundle cnn be supported by two 4-8 PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW 167 ball circles which support one ot two rows of tubes in common. These may be spaced farther apart than the outside diameter of the sbell, but Bamgle TA Calcalaton of « Suarsfstion Hotter witht Batles, 200000 Ibfar of & 20 per cent mugar solution (2 = 1.06) is to be heated from 100 to 12°F Rear nvr nea, 1D 1 estan 12 “without bafles having 76 (00, 1BWG tue 100" kong hidout ona tin spun Ptah "Thebundie nareonsed {or bo pastes, pare 0.008 dirt factor without exsoeding a 10.0 pai sotution. moe Deon, Namba od ength = 76 iste Bale spncy ~ Daf cca OD, BWC: pitch ~ 34 in 18 BWO, Lin squate (0) Heat balance: = ‘Specific heat of 20 por cent sugar at 1U°F = 0.2 X 0.90 +08 x 030 Btu/t Sage elution, Q = 200,000 x o.(122 ~ 100) = 700,00 Beale ay Sn a= 0 x 800 = 700 Behe (Tate 7) Cold Fuid Dif.+168 PROCESS HBAT PRANSPER Hot uid: tube sie, hoem (of = 0,302 int Tidbte Wi] (4), = (gree of ball) — (aspect tubes) eon Nalin Bq. (7.48 = Mistet/4 ~ 70 X= Dro 0.09/144 x 2 = o10707 tet "xen 7 (6) Gs (lor proasure drop‘only) = W/es | (@) G, ~ w/a, Ba. 2.9) "= 8060 0.0787 = 49,500 Tb/ (0) 2") (©) Ab ty = LIN°R, «= Brae 2 too caus saab) = 098k th/Uft)Gar) Fig, 28] Fie. 14) + D = 042/12 = 0.0817 ft” (Table 10)| D, = da/(vetted perimeter) (Ba. (6.2)) Bay = Bais “Pe BO AK OBO Xt eXOTOAD = 0.0517 x 49,500/0.08t = 83,500 asi r ese ep Re, = Diiute Wa, ay) = 0.148 x 364,000/2.14 = 17,100 1) From Fig 24 tuboakde data) (8) Condensation of steam: ag = 1800 Bet/ Car} C0)7F tio) bt Mew ore xo x 20/018 — 78 = t) (Ba. (6.S1a)]] (32) Ab by = 20°F, pe % Sevier we rare ast % 28 = 18 B/C) =m 8 > i wait Ge (a/ne) tm (B.1E/1.26)0 me 119 (08°) Corrected coeticient, = Me [a (838) = 278 X 119 = BIL Btu/Qer) (NCP) (28) Clean overall eoeficent Ye: 3500 x att : em py BBG = 257 Bay) — (88) (46) Design overall coebisiont Vor = 0.1608 fin fe (Tate 10) Fo EES ~ maa . : Up my = GONE, = 18T Beas NACE) (18) Dirt factor: Rat neStglt Bai em enoneniim am sont mn Cold fa: shal side, sugar pluton m 033s Bu/WNGNCEY eas = (0:96 x.3.14/0.288)4 = 20 Jo7 m= t05 (Z)"% a corso “9 9) pci rf eee fn able) 9 Dr = A wa ead = 00 feb ‘wétted perimeter {Eq. (6.4)] 12H» oomon 4X OMITO X BIE X 0.75/13 $314 X 1a) = 0.123 Bes = 82,500/f = 0.000155 $4/in.* Re, = DiGh/p (Ba. 7.8)) ‘Fig. 20)( = 0.28 5 964,000/8.14 = 14,100 fotin ltr Fig. 264or tube side) wo 3 ase Oma, PH 740) ‘= 0.00025 tein. ‘Hoat Recovery in & 1-2 Exchanger, When an exchanger is clean, tho hot-fluid outlet temperature is lower than the process outlet temperature and the cold-fiuid outlet temperature is higher than the process outlet ‘temperature. For counterfiow it was possible to obtain the value of Ts and tz for a clean exchanger from Eq, (6.18), starting with swells ~ ) = UA x LMTD For a 1-2 exchanger the outlet temperatures can be obtained starting with the exproasion-we{ty — ts) = UAFs X LMTD, whero the LMTD is Seng Gh me ot eastern Band Shy Ea, {7.39) and Fr is defined by ‘Recognizing that Fr oan be eliminated whem UA/ue in Eq..(7.37) ix plotted against 8, Ten Broeck' developed the graph shown in Fig. 7.25. ‘Jn an oxisting 1-2 exchanger A and we are known. U ean be computed ‘Ten Broeek, H., Ind. Sng, Chem, 90, 1941-1049 (1938),‘PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 1-8 PARALLEL-COUNTERFLOW qb from iti R from s fluid to the maximum which might have been the flow quantities and temperatures, and R can be evaluated from cf best removed T/W, This permite to be read diroctly from the graph. Since fenoved. Using the usual nomenclature, B= (e—8)/(Ps—t) and 71 and t are known, it is then poasible wee) thts 1 o obthin trand from the heat belanoe weld — ti) = WOM ~ 7). fat) 7 Tah (754) The Fine designated threshold represents the initial points at which a ey oe temperature croas oocurs. Values on this line correspond to T's = &. which is identical with the temperature group and presumed that i= i Depending upon whether the hot or cold terminal approaches 19 TOT sero, the efficiency may also be expressed by, af “wor, = 79 a 7 Wor) 0) os ‘Although there is merit to thi definition from the standpoint of therm Fas ynamies there is a lack of realism in an efficiency definition which . _| involves a terminal difference and a temperature difference af zero. oa) the aame as defining the efficiency aa the ratio of the heat transferred os} by a real exchanger to an exchanger with infinite surface. ‘in prooess beat transfer there is another definition which is useful. = ‘Tho process temperatures are capable of providing a maximum tempera- a + tare difference if arranged in counterfiow. ‘There sppears to be some “ ‘uA ‘value in regarding the efficiency of on exchanger as the ratio of the ve. 1ah Toa Diveck dart for demining when Ty and hare ors in a2 [E* temperature difference attained by any other exchanger to that for true Tihscee. Undeariat & Bngiauring Chowan) ° eounterfiow. ‘This ia identical with Fr, which proportionately infuencos Outlet Temporntares fee a lean 1-2 Ruehangee, In Brample 72, ‘the surface requirementa, Tt will be seen in the next and later chapters eer el eanger, What wil the ove tmperabares bo when he exchange: ‘that othor flow arrangements besides 1-2 parallel fow-eounterflow can ia freoly placed in sorvion? bbe attained in tubular equipment and by which the value of Fr may be . . increased for given process temperatures. These obviously entail fow ‘Seetion mms Anca ea Mop 6-000 patterns which approach true countatflow more closely than the 1-2 Wm 45900 C= 0.00 exchanger, - UA 08 XO” “oe 7 Tampo0 x45 ~ 0% PROBLEMS a xg = a7 ‘TUL, A 1-2 exchanger isto be used for heating 60,000 Ib fs of methyl ethyl Kstone fram 100 to 200°P using hot aryl aloohol available st 250°F. (c) What minimum rom Figure 725, ‘Gantty of amy! eleohol a required to diver the doxied heat loadin a 1-2 exchanger? o=4 _ pass ) If the amyl alcohol is available at 275°F, how docs thi affect the total required Soha h wantity? ta by + ODBC: — f) = 100 + 0.265(800 — 100) = ITF ‘7. A 1.2 exchanger has one shell and two tube passes. The passce do not have Fy = Ty — Re — t) = 300 — 2.78(177 ~ 100) = 176F ‘eel tees, Jnsiend X per cant ofthe tubes ae inthe fort yam nd (A — 2) per x per oan win theft pas ‘The BAclency of gn Rechanger. In the design of many types of {oa ef contact U i jute, (2) Develop an exprmion forthe tree temperature apparatus it is frequently desirable to establish « ‘Etemnea whan pe ent tthe fon are i hn cole of he tp ae pe. ® performance, The efficiency is then defined as the fractional perform ‘What isthe true temperature difference when the hot fluid is cooled from 485 to 925°F rare of ox apperuiae delivering los than the standard. Dodge! sivet bby & noncontzolling cooling medium in the tubes which is heated from 100 to, 150°F Suteacciangaacmeeratenintomaaty | AE pnp ae mn omeans ar edwe. B. F.. “Chemical Engineering " McGraw-Hill Book Cl ent Bar do thane compare emaperature+ If PARALLBL-COUNTERFLOW 173 > Flow ares, ~ Txternal eurfacesper tinker foo, Peart tcoma eee in erations, Btx/0)CE) i ‘of Guid, Beu/(b)(F) (on Jogurithmtc paper.) Coot of exbaust steam, dollars /B ‘LA: 06 000 fr of SOMAPT chootption oll in being cooled from 40010 200°F pwd Annual fizod changes, doliane/ft* to host S6°APE distillate from 100 to 906°F. Available for the serviced 8 291in. 1D. = Cost of proces steam, dollare/Bka J-P exchanger hating 898 tubes 1 in, OD,:14 BWO, 160” longon 1}4-in triahgulsr | ‘Total samual oget, deliars/year pitth, Baile mre opsced 10 in apart, andthe bundles reunged fot four tube pam. Gost of water, doliare/b ‘What srrangecasit gives the more neorly balanced preerure drops, and what i the dirt Inside disineter of tubes, fects? ‘The vineolty ofthe absorption ais 2.6 ountipoee at 100°F and 1.18 cmt Outside diameter of tubes, in. Equivalent diameter for hoat transfer and pressure drop, ft ‘auivalant diameter for heat tranafer and preseure drop, in. Inside diameter of shel, ace colata a8 gtrnight line.) ‘The viscosity of the distillate is 3.1 centipoioe st 100°F and LBocotipoise at 210°F. i ‘A. 48,200 Ib/or of 3S°API dintillate is. eoclpd from 260 Jo 1906F using cooling. ° ‘waler from.85ito 190°F, -Available for tho sete ia » 10% insiID 1-2 exchanger having 90¢ tubes 3 in. OD, 16. BW, 180" long on Jin. square pitch. “Bafle are spaced § ia, apart, and the bundle is arangod for four paomes, ; What arrangement Friction factor, dimensionlem; for AP in pe, $3 fa -xfwan tha more notriy balanced preanure drops, aud what ia the dit factor? “What ‘Mass velocity, To/Thr) (19) the optimom outht-water temperature? of the distillate ate given ia Acoeloration of gravity, #/hrt Prob. 78) . ‘Acceleration of gravity, {8/00 ‘74. 75,000 Ib/br of ethylene glyco! ia heated from 100 to 200°F using steam at Tieat-traneter coefisient in genera, for inside fuid, and for outeide BEO'F, Available for the séevice Mt a 173( in. ID 19 exchunger having 224 tubet ftakd, respectively, Btu/(hr} (te) CF)FLOW ARRANGEMENTS POR INCRRASED HBAT RECOVERY 177 Goal i eo is 27, wher it teverses direction after the frst the tilbe temperature'is t, where it roveres direction after 176 ‘PROCESS REAP ‘TRANSFER A the fube fluid may be+hedted tom recpetesirin Whe 3 2 the fwo-fiulds ‘are near their outlets} the shell uid, being cooled, iat 4 q . - 4 modiate temperatures T,and\t,., Calling these exchangers { end IT in Teme Hl Fig. 84, the heat balances are, rexpectively, a . WOT: ~ 7.) = ele = @1) , i oo. WOU. ~ TH = welt, = 4) BD Ei ‘The quantities of heat transferred in I and TI are obviously not the same. BB “Equation (787) may be written'for each of the exchangert: ‘YW By slgebrai sii minatng Ys and Bex (23) i (4 song {Buse of Sand tho heat balances in Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), Py is given by vet id not meveiome in contd wih the 10*F We ot Bad 3 Passes I anid II are in tontaet onky with Sand passes-Ulfand IV; aro in.‘ soto ih Te thare are two dhellipaases Snd but two tube passes, Shey an bearanged in te out of ‘using three 1-2 exchangers in series (8-6 arrangement) or two 2-4 exchane-FLOW ARRANGEMENTS FOR INCREASED HBAT RECOVERY 179 Fra, 46, Iniuenee of appronch temperature 00 Pr for unedtn Auil tempers Tenet Wra, G9. Welded ball 2-4 fosting-bead exchanger. (Pellerson Foundry & Machina Ca.) here because they tay create mechanical problems in stationary tube-sheet exchangore and are not often employed. Fischer! has calculated and plotted the values of Fr for soveral odd-numbered tube arrangements, tionary tube sheet. Through the use of split segmental baffles a removable ‘eal is provided betwoen the longitudinal baffle and the sholl, sinoe any ‘Naturally for a maximum valve of Pr the odd tube-pass arrangements exchanger except that both of the shell nossles are adjacent to the ata- ‘must be piped so that the majority of the tube passes are in counterflow#LOW ARRANGEMENTS FOR INCREASED HEAT\RBCOVERY 181 leakage between jell passes invalidates the ealeu- ‘paifes, The mass velocities itt this case are the sameiper inch of baffle appreciable i Se tro sa mee Hl gpebing 28 for 1-2 cxchangers for given ‘eight loy,dlthough the fuid ‘i wns dapth Duvall the fase dimeter of the shall ‘Hlorisontally cet baffles are seldom_used, since most fluids involved in large temperature \\ Gqobses necdssitating 2-4 exchangers also have long'temperature ranges ! ‘gad relatively smallflow quantities. The reduced How ares and increased ‘puss velocity. and film ooeificient afforded by vertioally out bales are iimally desirable. ‘the Calculation of a S-4 Exchanger, A 24 exchanger can be used 180 PROGESS HEAT TRANSFER with a welded] | bafile, a single 2-4 exchanger will be adequate. Ifthe Vidlue of Fryis bdow these timits, it will then be necessary to uso Slnger number othe pesses inl an atrangoment is found in which Pr aptiroximates those yaluee. “The ciloulation'of a 2-4 exehanger dlfers in only three minor respects Te it nocomary to wo, 2-4 sxchanger? Will the available exchanger fléll the requirements! Satta: Beobanger: Shell wide Tube vide ID-=35in, ‘Namber and loagity = 456,120" [allo apaoe = Tin. (verkzeut) — ODZBWG, pitch = 4 in, M BWA, 19440. oquare Panes = 2 Pass = 6" | “y @) Heat balance: 08, @ = £9,800 X 0.545(858 — 100) = 6,980,000 Bia ‘Water, Q = 238,000 X 1.0(190 — 90) = 6,080,000 Btu382 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER FLOW ARRANGSMBNTS POR INCREASED REAT RECOVERY 183 Oat: Feet fd: shal vide, 28.5" APT oit Cold fit: tbe eda, aber Hot Wud Cond Pui Dis. (40) Tebe-wall temp: (40) Au = Xe x 1D/0D = 970 35] ite Toop | 0 | oe | nett pte 0 tee oan) XO7L8 = 707 Be. 1 100 | Lower'Temp | 90 10 a 98 + op Fay OS 98) = 108 : = — ai) Atte (21) Correction umneceaary for water. 388 | Dillesonoes had me 400 Task an = 473/000 ScD = OF pases = carijarays 19 Te aad SD aE ann RaBass s- 2 ona - % aS ; Pe tar xcoua = 7 Bavomydunen) ‘ed Sd nt intra oo PI tng 34 ener inpentine, > a. (636) eee TerD Soe nde one ran) (AP) Clean ovecall sonticient Uct @) Mandi: Cem hiheg = FTE, = 101 Beo/ ia) OF) (0.38) = = 008 K,=047 PF, = 0.25 (Fig. 17) {4} Design overall coeficiant Up: Ta = 100 + 0.25038) = 165°F 628) af = 0.2018 ifn fe (lable 10) = Os 0a800) = oP ots ry . ‘Total surtsoo, A= 454 X 120" X 0.9618 — 1428 A ‘Water will fow in the tubes to prevent corraion ofthe abel, On = 8, = ROM, = Tas BevroRNER Hol fvid: ahd side, 92S°APY of Cold fide wide, water OP Dit eter ee yy wo —78 (A) a = GUD X CB) /144P r (aoodtfied | (4) oj = 0.456 int Mable 10), Ben a,” = = 0.0088 (hu) NC") /Bea (6.18) fora 34 exchanger) {Ha.(7-0)] [01 = Nei/itn = XS x 05 X 7/144 = 450% 0.486/144 x 6 = 0.200 10 X 198 = O17 te OG = w/a, ECAH] OG= wa - = 49,¢00/0.17 = 238,000/0.380 - = 999,000 Th en) = £75,000 t/t V = G,/atOe = 0715000 /2000 % 62.5 7489 pe (6) ALT, = 186, 0) aby = or, By obtaining X and ¥ in Fig, 14 from| py = 0.73 X 242 = 1.77 25/04) Ce) gina data, « = 3.12 ep Big. 10 S12 XD = 27 D/its) — | D = 070/13 = 0.08898 |Table 10} Dy = 090/12 = 0.0825 {t Fig. 28)| (Resin fr pressure drop onty) eo cos x aananyari = inh | + = OOS x eTpN/LT = mn = 00825 x Le 4 = 0.0888 x rr (1) Jn = 525 ig. 38] (0) For Re = 8000, f = 0.00215 1/7." | (8) For Res = $4,900, ALF. = een eno LI ; Tig. 29]|7 = 0.000105 4? e238) ‘op/) “= 0.20 Bea i Sin 1) No. of rome, 8 +1 = 10/8 |) AP, = Ba. (74511 : Me. 16) . tee Gam BBX 10Bep, 8) Ae sie Cul (Ba, (0.150)}] @) be ~ 2010 x 0.96 = 12x 197 = 301 - » 7 970 Bta/Qiey QW) Hg. 25) Say 31 por pees or 42 for bundle x % ~ 098 x 0.20/0080 = 127 Dem Sy 390 tt = soe += 089 Te. 6)184 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER PLOW ARRANGEMENTS POR INCREASED HRAT RECOVERY 185 Proasare Drop 2 SEED mon |nermen om mm ost piich, The bindlos are aricged fortwo tube pases with segmental bul spaced 6 opt “How mony. of theil- 2 exchangera should be iostaded in sericat aie ret era cs wo : fata = ia seare Ato 2. = 8a Alowable &Pe = 10.9 pal ¥ ieee an? A BIPG, A i 4 / onsen 4 / Aiong, Q= 00000 x 08780 10) = 6 150600 Bras oie to Tes0u0 50 Bt = 0} = 586000 Besar GE in serien. “Any arrangament whichis an even mltiplo of two shell passes such as 2-4, 48,eto, may be fulfilled.by a nuniber of 1-2 exchangers or half as many 2-4 exchangers. ‘The cfloulation for proeess oonditions requiring more than one shell | pass follows the method tusod for 3-2 exohangers‘excopt that the entire group of exchangers is.treated as s unit. £ Beamgle: 82. Calertation-of an AcetonéZAcate Acid Rychenger. Acetove $5, = 0.70) nt 250°F fs to be next to stornge nt 100°F and et « rate of 60,000 Bh fae. wll be reocived by 185,000 Ib /hr of 100 percent acetic acid (¢ = 1.07) coming ~ ome at OOFF tnd hated to 160°F, Pressure drops of 10.0 psi are availble ‘iuida/ and a combined dirt factor of 0.004 abeuld be provided. “etl Ge services» nrg ausnber of 1. exchange having 20% i ‘DD abelle with 270 tubes 34 is: OD, 14 BWG, 26'0" long and laid out on Tein, square1188, PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 5292 % ih, OD, 14 BWG, 170° lofig dubes arvonged fox eight peases. Vertically out 7 ate in reasure Srops and dirt factor willbe obtained? % 35,4002 fi of ni i cofning from a scaotar under promure at BASF in 2 to be cooled to.d6u"F by phelteating | car 100 tone, 5 ‘ a B spacing, in. a : ¢ Spee bat of hot fad in deviations, Beu/(D)CF) WOW ARRANGEMENTS FOR INCREASED HBAT RECOVERY 180 Ere topper ee ta en el err angen pe, "F oe SEMieaa ebsites dead ak rises ‘Tompetature at end of fret pass, “FGASES corrected by the method of Wateon and Smith.’ These corrections will tat be sienicant, however, unless the preamre of the ein great. ‘Except at high vacuums the conductivities of gases are not affected by the pressure. Calculation of the density or specific volume of a gas by CHAPTER 9 . the pefoct gas Law ig uitable for moderate preses but nay be in eror ‘at high preseures.-"if actual comipreasion data are available, their use is GASES preferable at high prescures, or the prfoct gas law may be replaced by 9 Introduction, ‘The calculation for the heating or cooling of a gaa differs nt « small. The thermal conductivities of gases, with the exception of hydro more acceptable equation of state such as that of Van der Waals or gen, are about one-fifth the values usually obtained for organic liquids ‘Beottie-Bridgman. and about one-fifteenth ofthe values for water and aqueous solutions. Pressure Drop. Equations (7.44) and (7.45) and friction factors ‘The specific heats of organic gases and vapors are only slightly lower obtained from Figs. 29 and 26 can be used for the calculation of the pres- than those of organic liquids. With the exception of hydrogen the sare drop on the shell or tube sides of gas heaters or coolers when the aver ‘specific heate of inorganic gases and light hydrocarbon vapors range from ‘ago value of the inlet and outlet specific gravities of the gas relative to water 02 to 0.5 Btu/Qb)(°K). Although the. specific heat, viscosity, and ie used. It is apparent in the ease of any gas that the specific gravity ‘thiermal conductivity of a gas increaso with temperature, the Prandtl varies considerably with ite operating pressure. The specific gravity of number c1/k shows little dependence upon temperature except near the air in an exchanger operated at 160 pais is very nearly ten times the critical. The value of cz/k calculated at any single temperature serves specific gravity when operated at atmogpheric pressure, and for a given ‘sufficiently well for the solution of problems involving the same gas at mass velocity the preseure drop will only be one-tenth as great. Moving ‘nother temperature within reasonable proximity. The values of cx/k in the other direction, air at 734 pais has a density one-half that of the ‘are given in Table 9.1 for the common gases, atmosphere, and the presaure drop for » given maas velocity becomes While most of the viscosity, specificheat, and conductivity data on greater'ss the operating pressure decreases, an unfavorable consideration gases are tabulated for atmospheric pressure, corrections to other pres- in vacuum processes. When a gas is operated at high pressure, however, ‘sures may be made by established methods. Viscosities may be corrected. a relatively large mass velocity can be used without obtaining a pressure by means of the correlation of Comings and E¢ly! given in Fig. 130 or by drop of an impractical order. When a gas is operated under vacuum, a ‘employing the method of Othmer and Josefowitz.* Specific heata may be pressure drop of 0.5 pei may represent a very large poftion of the entire + Comings, E. W., and R. 8. Egly, Ind. Eng. Chom, 82, mene 1) headl available to move the gxs through the exchanger. *Othme, D-F, snd 8 Jota, Ind. Bop, Chom, 8,1 * Watson, K. M., and R. L. Smith, Nall. Ptrolewm News, July, 1696.192 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER GASES 198 zi ‘Film:Cobfficjents, ‘Film Yan bo efalusted with reasonable - + Gases to be sooled-or heated st moderate pressures-are usually placed accuracy throught thenssibl the tien Stace Sin intidng or Pign. 2g in the shell of shell-and-shbe; equipment to lecalize corrosion resulting ind 24. No ‘need he zistle Yor the vipeosity ratio: unless the | ‘rom the cooling water onstoam cqndenaste, At higher pressures, how- temperature razige ts qrocedingly Brest, As siéntionkd xbove, the:low ‘ever, Ht igeustomary to placejthe gas in the tubes where the pressure is webb vl insane mr ren i vay ‘letive only upon the tubes. small rags velocities:arg Large values of jz are'the result, but the ‘bemple 0. Catena sie Camper Aerie ammonia correspéndingly dow | Bonduativity. gives film coefficients ‘below gpa At 83 pain and at a rate of 9872iIb /ar ia discharged from coupes °F ‘those obtained for. at equal mass velocities or at equal values of and fs to befed to a reactor: ‘codling water from 86 to 95°F. A pressure fuvnted sn Chap. 16. pcaton kn nd fom, wich wil be a medium. speported in the: i Shalt Tide wide Many of the date in the‘litorature for turbulent-flow heat” TD = 28K Nusaber and length 20180" transfer make use ofthe following transformation: . Balla spree = 12 ‘OD, BWG, pe = $f ay 0 BWC, tyne BD (ay* wc (on™ ye : “ EAR) Doe ~@Xk, ony (1) Hast balance: Ammonia gas, Q = 9872 X 0.63(245 — 95) = 785,000 Bia/hr 3) A new factor j ‘hon defined as vu ‘Woter, @ = 78,500 1(05 — 88) ~ 785,000 Béu/hr we aay ¥ (9.2) @) ar: plotted a8 function of Re. All the convestion equations —= oe and is a8 com equat given t heretofore can be plotted:as-fs va."Re in place of ju va. Re by simply 25 _|'eigher Temp | 08 j_ 0 Gividing the values of jx, a8 given in Figs. 28 and 24 by their respective 95 [tomer Temp | 95 0 ~values of Re. Alternate equations are obtained thereby. ‘There is iwonsiderable-merit to the use of jx in preference to jx whén 150 || Ditrwicee | 10 | Ho ‘correlating gaees. Using jx, cx/k is » constant, but k in Eq. (6.18a) and (6-150) must be obtained at the bulk temperature to obtgin h, and con- LMID = 518°F am ductivity data are sparsofor gases. Using js, cat is a condtant, but only po! a5 ‘cisrequired in Bq (1) 1) to obtain h, and this will have been required for w 7 nas a 7 000 the hest fond as well. Tro eam as ‘When gases enter an adiabatic compressor, ‘their isotherms follow the 5 2) equation po = constant, where p is the absolute preamure of the gaa,» at et a eo i tin Wee wil ite mpécifo volume,rand ‘y {be ratio of the spotific heats of the gas at constant proseure je‘conatant volume, ‘Applying the perfect gas In Hot id: ell sid, ammonia of 83 pris Col ji ae is, water the variation of seis pressure with temperature becomes e- Dx Conary fq. @.1))) (0) 04 = 0.862 in.* “ [Table-10} = 3.25 X 0.1875 x 12/ a/14d a = Nai/din @), -@" 92) xosa7 | = 308% 030/44 36 = aoe ).. = 03st194 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER Het fit: shel ede, ammonia ot 8B poia Cold fuid: bbe ede, woter OG = Wie. Bq. 723)) () @, = w/a = 9872/0388 = 78,500/0.0054 + 25,400 b/ci) 88) = 828,000 b/d) FH) V = G20» = ‘saspne/sem * m5 = 3.85 foe W) ALT, = VF, Ae = 997, = 0018 X 249 = 0.009 b/(0H) Qa) = O82 X 2.42 = 1,99 lb/(it) (hr) Pe. 53] Bs. 14) Dy = 0.55/12 = O88 ft D = 082/12 = 0.0517 (Table 10) Re, = Diba [Bq. (72))] Res = DG,/u (Bee ie for preseure drop = 0.0458 X 26,400/0.029 = 40,200 La 0) ju = 118 ‘Big. 38]] ~ 0.0517 x 828,000/1.99 = wan = 1YF, E = 0917 Bea/a)(NCR/A) {Table 6} (eu/ky = 0.58 X0.029/0.017" = 0.97 7 em Saf (FY x1 Be (6180] & A = S00 BEACH) Fe 25 428 Bea/ Cor} C\CF) QO) 2") 2) Viscosity correction fa (40) Ae ~ ke XID/OD fa. (6.51) ‘unpoootey. = 000 X 089/075 = TH (8) herr cet es Ue = By — TES OA BUENA — 638) (14) Design overall coefciont Uo: a ws 0.1068 sin (Table 10) ‘Total murface, A o $64 X 0" x 0.1003 = 572 10 Go = gy = gap gg 7 87 Brae NC ne Yegtt = BESTT soon atencry B61) ‘volume. ‘The compression of a saturated gaa raises the dew point above196 mocks Waar reansrat ‘be- maintained in the reduced.gas volume only if some

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