SRINATH PAI Page 1 28/Apr/2018

BASIC THERMODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Introduction:

Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with energy in all its forms and the
laws governing the transformation of energy from one form to another. The form of energy
are mechanical, thermal or heat, chemical, electrical etc.
Thermodynamics deals with the behavior of gases and vapours i.e., the working
substances when subjected to variation of temperature and pressure and the relationship
between heat energy and mechanical energy commonly referred to as work.
Energy transformation takes place when a substance undergoes a change from one
condition to another in a process. The processes are heating or cooling and expansion or
compression in the cylinder or passages with or without production or supply of mechanical
work. The laws of thermodynamics based on the experimental results obtained from the study
of gases and vapours are useful in the design of boilers, steam engines, steam turbines, I.C
engines, gas turbines, refrigerating machines and air compressors.
Working substances or thermodynamic medium is one which has the ability to
receive, store and reject energy as required by the particular process. The medium may be in
any one of the four physical states namely solid, liquid vapour and gaseous. The vapours and
gaseous substances are sometimes termed together as gases.
Matter may be defined as that which has mass and occupies space. It is made up of a
large number of particles known as molecules or atoms. Matter may exist as solid, liquid or
gas. When enough energy is added then solid may be converted into liquid phase and again if
sufficient energy is added to the liquid phase to overcome the binding force between the
molecules, the molecules breakaway from each other and the vapour and gaseous phase
results. Thus energy has to be defined more appropriately as that which causes some effects
on matter rather than the capacity to do work. In most of the work producing and work
absorbing devices the working substance is a gas or vapour and sometimes vapour and liquid
in equilibrium. Example: Steam in steam engine, Freon or Ammonia in refrigerator, Air-fuel
mixture in I.C engine.

Work producing and work absorbing devices:

Work producing devices Work absorbing devices
a) a) Steam power plants a) Cold storages
b) b) Nuclear power plants b) Central air conditioning and heating
plants
c) c) Petrol and diesel engines c) Domestic refrigerators
d) d) Gas turbine for aircraft propulsion and d) Room air conditioners
power generation
e) Jet propulsion engines for aircrafts e) Ice plants
f) Rocket engines f) Food freezing and freeze-drying plants
g) Fuel cells, Solar cells, thermoelectric g) Air liquefaction plants and separation
generators etc. plants
h) Thermoelectric refrigerators
Macroscopic and Microscopic aspects:
The description of a system or matter using a few of its measurable bulk properties
constitutes a point of view called Macroscopic. The measurable properties are pressure,
volume, temperature etc. The state or condition of the system is completely described by
means of above large scale characteristics or properties of the system. Such properties are
called macroscopic properties and these describe the system from macroscopic point of view.
The study of the behavior of the gas described by summing up the behavior of each
molecule is microscopic or statistical thermodynamics. The thermodynamic system is
assumed to consist of a very large number of identical particles all having the same mass and
each moving with an independent velocity when a microscopic point of view is adopted. The
description of the position of each molecule requires three coordinates and three velocity
components. At least six variables are required to describe the state of each molecule. Each
kg of air contains molecules in the order of 1025 in number. To describe the state of all
molecules is almost impossible. The pressure due to the air is assumed to be caused by the
moving molecules striking the wall. To determine the pressure, the changes in momentum of
all the molecules striking the wall per unit area should be summed up. Similarly to find the
internal energy of the system, the kinetic energy of all the molecules should be summed up.
Though the microscopic study of a system may provide data for fixing the state, it is very
complex for ordinary purposes. The macroscopic point of view is sufficient as far as the basic
and applied thermodynamics is concerned.

Engineering thermodynamics:
It deals with the laws that govern the conversion of one form of energy into another.
The scope is restricted to the study of heat and work and the conversion of one into the other.
Thermodynamic laws are applied to the work producing and work absorbing devices in order
to understand their functioning and improve their performance. In these days of fuel shortage
and energy crisis the importance of such a study is well appreciated. Also there is need to
study new work producing devices using nonconventional energy sources like solar energy.
Efficient practical apparatus have to be designed and developed using such energy sources.
This will be possible only with a basic understanding of thermodynamics.

Some practical applications:

1. Steam power plant:-
A steam power plant comprises of the following four units-
i) Boiler or steam generator
ii) Steam turbine
iii) Condenser
iv) Boiler feed pump
In the boiler the water is heated to a temperature equal to the boiling temperature of
water. The water is then evaporated into steam. Steam is further heated above its boiling
point in the super heater to get the superheated steam. The heat is supplied to the boiler by
burning the fuel in the furnace.
The high pressure and high temperature steam from the boiler enters the steam
turbine. On passing over the blades, the steam expands and imparts it’s momentum to the

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turbine blades and hence to the rotor, thus converting the heat energy into mechanical energy.
The turbine is coupled to an electric generator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

The low pressure steam leaving the turbine now enters into a condenser, where it is
cooled and condensed back to water. The condensate is then raised to the boiler pressure by a
boiler feed pump and sent back to the boiler as feed water. Steam power plant is also
provided with an air pre heater to supply hot air to the combustion chamber. Air pre heater
makes use of heat of flue gases to heat the air.

2. I.C Engines:-
Air is used as working substance in case of I.C Engines.

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 In diesel engines air is taken into the cylinder during suction stroke and is compressed
to a very high pressure. Fuel oil is injected at the end of compression stroke and gets ignited
thus developing heat energy. This heat energy is converted into mechanical energy by the
reciprocating piston. Connecting rod, which connects piston to the crankshaft, help in
converting the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
In case of petrol engines the air and fuel mixture is taken in during suction stroke. The
fuel is ignited by the spark produced at the end of compression stroke by spark plug.

3. Gas turbines:-

In case of gas turbines the combustion of the fuel is carried out with compressed air in
a separate combustion chamber. The products of the combustion enter the turbine and impart
their momentum to the turbine blades before being exhausted. Gas turbine units are used in
very small aircrafts for propulsion through a propeller. These are also used in stationary gas
turbine power plants for power generation.

Thermodynamic system:
In the analysis of energy interaction, it becomes convenient to define and restrict
study to a region. Such a specified region where transfer of energy and/or mass is to be
studied is known as system.

Fig. System, surroundings and boundary

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 The envelope enclosing the system which may be real or imaginary is known as
boundary of the system. The boundary may be rigid or flexible. Everything outside the
system which has direct bearing on its behavior is known as surroundings. The transfer of
mass and energy takes place between the system and the surroundings through the boundary.
The system and the surroundings together are known as universe.

Classification of thermodynamic systems

a) Isolated system: These systems cannot have either energy or mass transfer with the
surroundings. This system is of purely theoretical interest to study and analyse
thermodynamic principle and laws.

b) Control mass or closed system: Across the boundary of a closed system the transfer of
energy (Work and/or heat) takes place but transfer of mass does not takes place. E.g.: Piston
and cylinder.

Fig. Closed System

Fig. A Closed System with moving
boundary

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SRINATH PAI Page 6 28/Apr/2018
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Figure shows a gas confined between a cylinder and piston. The gas is considered as
the system. The enveloping broken line is the system boundary. When the gas is heated, it
will expand and the piston will rise. Then the boundary of the system moves. It is seen that
heat energy flows into the system and as the piston rises mechanical work is done by the
system. The reverse will happen, if instead, the gas is cooled. The system has the following
characteristics:
i) It has fixed mass, also called control mass.
ii) Energy both in the form of heat and work can cross the boundary.
iii) The boundary can move.

c) Control volume or open system: In this system mass and energy both may be transferred
between the system and the surroundings. E.g.: Gas turbine, Steam turbine, Compressor,
Boiler etc.
 Fig. An Open System with one inlet and one exit
Figure shows a turbine as the open system. Here the mass of the system is not fixed.
In this case we specify the system in the form of a control volume that encloses the
equipment. The boundary that remains fixed in space, enveloping the control volume is called
the control surface. The control volume may be either stationery or moving in space. The
system has the following characteristics:
i) The system has fixed volume called control volume and a fixed control surface.
ii) Both heat and work can flow across the control surface.
iii) Mass can also enter and leave the control surface.

Thermodynamic properties:
The variables which determine state or exact condition of a substance or system is
called as its properties. The various properties of thermodynamic system are pressure,
temperature, specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc.

Definitions and units:

a) Pressure: Pressure may be defined as normal force per unit area. In S.I system the unit of
pressure is pascal (Pa).

1Pa = 1N/m2; 1kPa = 1000Pa; 1MPa = 106Pa =

1000kPa

1 standard atmospheric pressure = 1.01325bar = 101.325kPa = 101325Pa = 760mm of Hg

1mm of Hg = 0.1333kPa = 13.6mm of H20

1bar = 105Pa = 100kPa; 1N/mm2 = 106N/m2 = 106Pa = 1000kPa

The pressure exerted by atmosphere on earth surface is known as atmospheric

pressure, measured by barometer. At the sea level and at 00C, 760mm of Hg is known as
standard atmospheric pressure.

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 Fig. Absolute, gauge and vacuum pressure
The pressure of fluids is measured by means of an instrument called gauges. They
measure pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. Gauges which measure pressure
greater than atmospheric are called pressure gauges and the pressure is known as gauge
pressure. Gauges measuring pressure less than atmospheric pressure are called vacuum
gauges and the pressure is known as vacuum pressure. Vacuum pressure is negative pressure.
The actual pressure of the working substance is called the absolute pressure.

For gauge pressure or positive pressure,

Pabsolute = Patm + Pgauge
For vacuum or negative pressure
Pabsolute = Patm - Pgauge
OR

b) Volume: The space occupied by the substance is called volume. It is measured in m3.
1litre = 1000cc = 10-3m3

c) Specific volume: Specific volume of a substance is its volume per unit mass. Its unit is
m3/kg.
Density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Unit - kg /m3.

Specific volume

d) Temperature: It is a thermodynamic property which determines the degree of hotness or

the level of heat intensity of a body.

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 A body is said to be at a high temperature or hot if it shows a high level of heat
intensity in it. Similarly a body is said to be at low temperature or cold, if it shows a low level
of heat intensity in it.
Usually temperature is measured by thermometer. Very high temperature is measured
by pyrometer. Small and precise changes in temperature can be measured by resistance
thermometers or thermocouple.

e) Energy: Energy may be defined as the capacity a body possesses for doing work. All
forms of energy are mainly classified as i) Stored energy ii) Transient energy or energy in
transition or transient energy.
Stored energy is the energy possessed by a system within its boundaries. E.g., K.E,
P.E, and I.E.
Transit energy is the energy possessed by a system which is capable of crossing its
boundaries. E.g. Heat and Work.

f) Heat: Heat is defined as the energy transferred without transfer of mass across the
boundary of a system due temperature difference between the system and the surroundings.
The energy in transition is called heat. Heat energy cannot be stored in a system. Unit for heat
and any other form of energy is joule (J).
Heat flow into a system is positive and heat flow out of a system is negative.
g) Work: Work is defined as the energy transferred without transfer of mass across the
boundary of a system because of intensive property difference other than temperature that
exists between the system and the surroundings. Work also cannot be stored in a system. Unit
of work done is N-m or joule.
Work done by the system is positive and work done upon the system is negative.

h) Internal energy: It is the energy possessed by a body or system due to its molecular
arrangement and motion of the molecules. It is the sum of internal K.E and internal P.E of the
molecules. It is a function of temperature and can be increased or decreased by adding or
subtracting heat to or from the substance. Absolute value of the I.E cannot be measured but
change in I.E can be measured when a substance undergoes a change of state from 1 to 2. It
can be expressed in general way as;
du = u2 – u1

i) Enthalpy: Enthalpy is nothing but total heat and heat content. Enthalpy or total heat =
Internal energy + Product of absolute pressure and volume.
h = u + pv
Absolute value of enthalpy cannot be measured, only change in enthalpy can be
measured.

dh = h2 – h1 = (u2 – u1) + (pv2 – pv1)

j) Entropy: Entropy means transformation. Entropy is a thermodynamic property of a

working substance which increases with the addition of heat and decreases with the removal
of heat. It is represented by the symbol ‘s’. Small increase of entropy ‘ds’ of a substance is
defined as the ratio of small addition of heat dQ to the absolute temperature T of the working
substance at which the heat is supplied.
𝑑𝑄
ds= 𝑇 or dQ = T.ds
Unit of entropy is J/kg/K.

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Classification of properties:

Fig. Criterion to differentiate Intensive and Extensive properties

In general the properties are classified into two groups. They are:

1.Extensive property: The properties of the system, whose value for the entire system is
equal to the sum of their values for the individual parts of the system, are called extensive
properties. These properties depend on the mass of the system. E.g. K.E, P.E, I.E, Total
volume, Total mass, Enthalpy, etc.

2. Intensive properties: It is the property of the system whose value for the entire system is
not equal to the sum of their values for the individual parts of the system. This property does
not depend on the mass. E.g., temperature, Pressure, Density, Specific volume, etc.

Thermodynamic state of a system/substance:

Fig. A System at two different states

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 The thermodynamic state of a system/substance at any given instant of time is its
condition as characterized by certain identifiable/observable thermodynamic properties, i.e.
the set of properties completely determine the state of a system. In other words the exact
condition of a system/substance is called state.
Consider a gas confined in a cylinder and piston arrangement as shown in Fig (a). The
gas has a certain volume and certain mass. It exerts certain pressure on the walls of the
cylinder and piston. Thus it has certain thermodynamic properties which characterize its state,
say initial state 1.
Let a force be exerted on the piston to compress the gas to the position shown in Fig
(b). In this position it is the same mass of gas, but the specific volume, temperature and the
pressure now are different. Thus it has a new set of properties which characterize the final
state 2.

Thermodynamic process:
When one or more of the thermodynamic properties of a system change, we say that
there is a change of state of the system. This change of state of a system is referred to as
thermodynamic process.
Since the state of a system can be defined only when it is in equilibrium, we say that a
process is any transformation of a system from one equilibrium state to another. A process
occurs as a result of heat and work interaction between system and surroundings.
In the Fig above 1 is a state and 2 is another state. 1-2 is a process. The curve or line
connecting two states is the path. The change of state from1 to 2 can be attained by different
processes which can be shown by different paths.

Fig. A Process between state 1 and state 2 and process path

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Point function v/s path function:
Consider the change of state of a system from initial state 1, defined by certain
properties, say p1 and V1 to final state 2 defined properties, and say p2 and V2 as shown in
Fig.

It can be seen that state 2 may be reached from state 1 by following many different
paths such as A or B or C. The state 2 irrespective of the path will have same values of
properties p2 and V2. Thus the values of properties of system in a given state are, therefore
independent of the path followed to reach the state and are called point functions.
The converse of the above is also true viz, any quantity whose change is
independent of the path is a point function and hence is a property. Thermodynamic
properties are point functions, since for a given state; there is a definite value for each
property. The differentials of point functions are exact or perfect differentials and the
integration is simply
2 2
∫1 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑝2 – 𝑝1 And ∫1 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑉2 – 𝑉1
The process is a path. The quantity, the value of which depends on the path followed
during a change of state is a path function. In the illustration above, the area under 1-A-2 or
1-B-2 or 1-C-2 are different and therefore the quantity which depends on path is also
different for different paths. Work and heat are path functions. For a path function, we can
write,
2 2
∫1 𝑑𝑊 = 1W2 or W1-2 And ∫1 𝑑𝑄 = 1𝑄2 or Q1-2
Here dW and dQ are inexact or imperfect differential.

NOTE: Area under P-V diagram is WORK and area under T-s diagram is HEAT.

Quasi-static process:
Properties describe the state of a system only when it is in thermodynamic
equilibrium. A process takes place when the equilibrium is disturbed. The intermediate states
of a system along the path of a process are explained by quasi-static process.

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A quasi-static process is one in which the deviation from equilibrium is infinitesimally small.
All the states through which a system passes during a process can be considered as a
succession of equilibrium states. In the system shown in Fig if the weights are removed
slowly, one at a time and the system is allowed to come to equilibrium after every removal of
weight, the system should be considered as undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static
process. A quasi-static process is also called reversible process. If, on the other hand all the
weights are removed suddenly, the piston will jump up and strike the stoppers. It may come
to equilibrium after many oscillations. However it is not possible to describe the path i.e. the
intermediate states through which the system passes. Such a process is non-equilibrium
process.
Thus quasi-equilibrium process takes place very slowly. If one property remains
constant during a process, the prefix “iso” is used to describe such a process.

E.g. Isothermal process – Constant temperature process

Isobaric process – Constant pressure process
Isochoric process – Constant volume process.

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Reversible and irreversible process:
A process is called a reversible process if it can be completely reversed and the
system and the surroundings come back to its original states. It implies that when carried out
in opposite direction the system follows the same path or succession of states as it followed in
the forward direction. A quasi-equilibrium process without friction is a reversible process.
A process which cannot be exactly reversed and the system cannot be brought back to
the initial state without leaving a net change in the surroundings is called irreversible process.

Thermodynamic cycle:

When a number of processes in sequence bring the system back to its initial state, then
the system is said to have undergone a thermodynamic cycle.
In Fig 1-2-3-4-1 is cycle consisting of four processes. The change in value of any
property is zero for a cyclic process.

∮ 𝑑𝑝 = 0, ∮ 𝑑𝑉 = 0,

Thermodynamic equilibrium:
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is not capable of a finite spontaneous
change to another state. According to this definition all thermodynamic properties have the
same value at all points of the system in equilibrium. Complete thermodynamic equilibrium
implies the following:
i) Thermal equilibrium
ii) Mechanical equilibrium
iii) Chemical equilibrium
When a system is in contact with its surroundings across a diathermal wall and if
there is no spontaneous change in any of the properties of the system, the system is said to
exist in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. For thermal equilibrium to exist between
two systems or between a system and the surroundings, the temperature must be same.
A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, when there is no unbalanced force
acting on any part of the system or the system as a whole. For mechanical equilibrium to exist
between a system and the surroundings the pressure must be same.
A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium, when there is no chemical reaction
within the system and also there is no movement of any chemical constituent from one part of

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the system to the other. For chemical equilibrium to exist the intensive property called
chemical potential must be same.

Diathermal wall and Adiabatic wall:

The envelope or boundary or surface enclosing a system may be a conductor or
insulator. If this contacting wall or surface is a conductor which allows heat energy to pass
through it, then it is called diathermal wall. A diathermal wall is an idealized case of good
thermal conductor. Here the wall is made of thin conducting material.
If the conducting wall is an insulator which does not allow the heat to flow across the
boundary, then it is called adiabatic wall. It represents an idealized case of good thermal
insulator.
Through a diathermal wall both heat and work energy can flow, but an adiabatic wall
permits the energy transfer in the form of work only.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

Statement: When two systems have thermal equilibrium with a third system, they in turn
have thermal equilibrium with each other.

In Fig systems A and C are separately in thermal equilibrium with system B.

Experience shows that in such a situation system A and C are in thermal equilibrium with
each other. It is thus equivalent to system A and C being coupled to each other via diathermal
wall.

Thermometer and thermometric property:

The Zeroth law provides the basis for the measurement of temperature. The third body
3 in Zeroth law is called the thermometer. It is brought into thermal equilibrium with a set of
standard temperature of a body 2 and is thus calibrated. Later when body 1 is brought in
thermal communication with the thermometer, we say that the body 1 has attained equality of
temperature, with the thermometer and hence with the system 2.
The properties of the materials that are functions of temperature and are used for the
measurement of temperature are called thermometric properties. Some of the thermometric
properties which are used in variety of thermometer are listed below:

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 THERMOMETER THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY
1. Alcohol or mercury in glass Length
2. Electrical resistance Resistance
3. Thermocouple Electromotive force
4. Constant volume gas Pressure
5. Constant pressure gas Volume
6. Radiation (Pyrometer) Intensity of radiation

An electrical resistance thermometer consists of a resistance wire of suitable material.

The resistance varies with temperature. By knowing the resistance we can find the
temperature of the body or system.
A thermocouple works on the principle of See beck effect. It comprises of a couple
formed by two dissimilar materials. One of the junctions called cold junction is kept at low
temperature say ice and other end called hot junction is made to touch the body whose
temperature is to be measured, then an emf is generated and hence a current flows through
the wires. By knowing the emf generated and the temperature of cold end we can find the
temperature of the hot end. Some common thermocouple materials are copper-constantan,
iron-constantan, platinum-iridium, etc.

Temperature scales:
We know that temperature is a function of resistance R, emf E, pressure P, volume V
and radiation intensity I in case of electric resistance thermometer, thermocouple, constant
volume thermometer, constant pressure thermometer and radiation thermometer respectively.
In establishing a temperature scale we need a relationship between the temperature and the
thermometric property. For the purpose the function ‘f’ can be expressed in the following
different mathematical forms:
Direct proportionality : t = Ax
Linear relation : t = ax + b
Quadratic relation : t = αx + βx + ϒ
2

Polynomial : A’ + B’x + C’x2 + D’x3 + ……..

In each relation certain numbers of constants are to be determined. These constants
can be determined in terms of any two fixed thermometric points or fixed temperatures.
Two commonly used scales for the temperature measurement are the Celsius
and Fahrenheit scale. Both the scales use ice point and boiling point or steam point as two
fixed points. In Celsius scale ice point is marked as zero and steam point as 100 and the space
between them is divided into 100 equal parts. In Fahrenheit scale ice point is marked as 32
and steam point as 212 and the space between them is divided into 180 equal parts.
The temperature of -2730C in Celsius scale and -4600F in case of Fahrenheit scale is
called absolute zero temperature. The temperature measured from this zero is called absolute
temperature.
The absolute temperature in Celsius scale is called degree Kelvin (K),

Similarly the absolute temperature in Fahrenheit scale is called degree Rankine (R),

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Problems:
1) Sir Isaac Newton proposed a linear temperature scale wherein ice point and normal human
body temperature were assumed as the two fixed points and assigned the temperature of 00
and 120 respectively. If the temperature of the human body on Fahrenheit scale is 980F, obtain
the relationship between the Newton’s scale and Fahrenheit scale.
2) Newton proposed a linear temperature scale wherein ice point and the normal human body
temperature were assumed as two fixed points and assigned the temperature of 00 and 1000
respectively. If the temperature of the human body on Celsius scale is 360C, obtain the
relationship between the Newton’s scale and Celsius scale.
3) A new temperature scale is designed with ice point at 00X and the boiling point at 10000X.
Derive a conversion between degree Celsius and degree X. What is the absolute zero in
degree X?
If instead the ice point is designated as 0 and the steam point as 75, what is the value
of absolute temperature?
4) The readings tA and tB of two thermometers A and B on the Celsius scale agree at the ice
point and steam point and are assumed to be related by the correlation:
tA =a + btB + ctB2
Where, a, b and c are constants. When the two are immersed in a well stirred oil bath,
A reads 510C and B reads 500C
a) Determine the reading on A when B reads 260C
b) Discuss which thermometer is correct.
5) The readings tA and tB of two Celsius thermometers A and B agree at the ice point and
steam point but elsewhere related by the equation:
tA =l + mtB + ntB2
Where l, m and n are constants. When the two are immersed in a well stirred oil bath,
A registers 510C and B 500C
a) Determine the reading on B when A reads 250C
b) Discuss which thermometer is correct.
6) A thermocouple with test junction at t0C on a gas thermometer and cold junction at 00C
gives output emf as per the following relation:
e = 0.20t – 5x10-4t2 mV
Where, t is the temperature. The mill voltmeter is calibrated at ice and steam points.
What is temperature would this thermometer show when gas thermometer reads 700C.
7) A Centigrade and Fahrenheit thermometers are both immersed in a fluid and the numerical
reading recorded in both the thermometers is the same. Determine the temperature of the
fluid expressed as 0K and 0R and also find that identical numerical value shown by
thermometers.
8) Classify the following into open, closed and isolated system:
i) Steam turbine ii) steam power plant iii) Water pump
iv) Radiator of a car v) Scooter engine vi) Thermo flask
vii) Pressure cooker viii) Condenser
9) Classify the following into intensive and extensive properties:
i) Molecular weight ii) Refractive index iii) Roll strength of a class
iv) Velocity of bullet v) Specific heat of a gas vi) Quality of steam
vii) Concentration of sugar in the milk viii) Entropy.
10) The temperature ‘t’ on a Celsius thermometric scale is defined in terms of a property ‘p’
by the relation p = e(t-B)/A, where A and B are constants. Experiment gives values of ‘p’ of
1.86 and 6.81 at the ice and steam point respectively. Obtain relation for ‘t’ and also find the
temperature ‘t’ for the reading of p = 2.5.

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11) The temperature scale of a certain thermometer is given by the relation t = a ln (x) + b
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants and ‘x’ is the thermometric property of the fluid in the
thermometer. If at the ice and steam point the thermometric property are found to be 1.5 and
7.5 respectively, what will be the temperature corresponding to the thermometric property
3.5?
12) A new scale N of temperature is devised in which the ice point is assigned 1000N and the
steam point is assigned 4000N. Establish the relation between the N-scale and the Celsius
scale.
At what temperature will both the Celsius and the new thermometer reading would be
identical numerically?
13) The resistance of the windings in a certain motor is found to be 80ohm at room
temperature (250C). When operating at full load, under steady state conditions, the motor is
switched off and the resistance of the windings immediately measured again, is found to be
930ohm. The windings are made of copper whose resistance at temperature t0C is given by Rt
= R0 [1 + 0.00393t], when R0 is the resistance at 00C. Find the temperature attained by the
coil during full load.
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SRINATH PAI, DEPT OF MECHANICAL ENGG. SSE Mukka. Page18