The Ship Model Towing Tank at M.I.T.

'
BY M A R T I N A . ABKOWlTZ, M E M B E R , 2 AND ]. RANDOLPH PAULLING, JR., 2
STUDENT ~[EY[BER 3

TOPICAL OUTLINE

P A R T 1.Description of Facilities
Introduction
Philosophy of Design
Facilities
The Towing Tank
The Dynamometer
The Towing Force
The Towing Speed
Shallow Water Tests
Auxiliary Apparatus
Operating Procedure
The Wave Generator
Conclusion
P A R T 2. The Use of Hydrofoils to Reduce the Wavemaking Resistance of Ships
Introduction
Description of the Research Project
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Practical Aspects of the Deviee
Work Completed to Date
Discussion of Results to Date
Conclusion
References
PART 1
DESCRIPTION OF FACILITIES

INTRODUCTION partment proceeded with plans to obtain a ship

The Department of Naval Architecture and model towing tank. Although the designs for the
Marine Engineering of the Massachusetts Insti- tank were formulated with the intention of keep-
tute of Technology was officially formed sixty ing costs down, the proposed facilities were be-
years ago, in 1893. In the early 1920's after ac- yond financial accomplishment. Later attempts
quiring the P r a t t Building to house itself, the De- to create a towing tank at M.I.T. met the same
fate. In 1938, the Propeller Tunnel became the
I Paper p r e s e n t e d at the Spring Meeting of the Society of N a v a l
Architects and Marine Engineers in Boston, Mass., on M a y 7 and 8, first hydrodynamic research facility acquired b y
1953.
Assistant Professor of N a v a l Architecture, Massachusetts In- this department, temporarily satisfying the need
stitute of Technology. Supervisor of the Ship Model Towing Tank.
S. B. in N a v a l Architecture and Marine Engineering, Massachusetts for such research. Again in 1945, active steps were
I n s t i t u t e of Technology, 1940. Winner of the American Bureau of taken b y the Department to obtain a ship model
Shipping Prize, 1940. M a s t e r of Science in Physics, H a r v a r d Uni-
versity, 1949. Presently studying for a Doctorate in Physics at
H a r v a r d University. Assistant N a v a l Architect, D a v i d W. Taylor
towing tank. This time it was to be within finan-
Model Basin, 1940-1942, working on special ship problems. Ship cial accomplishment because the tank was to be
M a i n t e n a n c e and Repair Officer, U. S. Army, 1942-1946, U. S. con-
tinental and foreign service. Finished active d u t y with the A r m y of modest size, and because M.I.T. was soon to
in 1946 with the r a n k of Captain. Physicist, 1946-1949 (with some
l e a v e of absence to attend H a r v a r d University), David Taylor Model initiate a large Development Fund campaign in
Basin, in charge of section on stability and control of underwater
bodies. 1949. The Society of Naval Architects and Ma-
Graduate student and Teaching Assistant of Naval Architecture, rine Engineers was one of several donors to the
M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Technology. S . B . in Naval Architecture
and Marine Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Development Fund for the specific use in the con-
1952. Winnerot American Bureau of Shipping Prize, 1952. Massa-
chusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology Overseas S u m m e r Fellowship for struction of a towing tank. In June 1951, the
work at Lindholmens Vary, Gothenburg, Sweden, 1952. Society
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Graduate Scholarship for Ship Model Towing Tank at M.I.T. was dedi-
study in naval architecture at Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Tech-
nology. cated.
65
66 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K A T Ni.I.T.
GENERAL VIE~,V OF THE SHIP M O D E L TOWING T A N K
PHILOSOPHY O F DESIGN
The towing tank is of modest size; being 108 ft
long. Although financial considerations were
prominent in determining the size, there are
several decided advantages to having a small rather
than a large towing tank at an educational insti-
tution.
In an establishment such as M.I.T. the primary
purposes of laboratory facilities are for student
instruction and staff and student research.
A larger towing tank would require larger models,
a larger number of operating personnel, and larger
overhead and maintenance costs. A student
carrying out a thesis project which requires the
construction of a model could construct a 5-ft
model and perform the desired tests within the
working time allowed for thesis. The construction
of a 15- or 20-ft model would be completely be-
yond the time and funds for a thesis project.
Many times it m a y be necessary for the student
or staff member to perform tests in the tank
alone; a small tank m a y be designed for accurate
one-man operation. Academic institutions do not
have funds available for maintenance and opera-
tion of large facilities such as a large towing tank.
Consequently, the necessity of maintaining a
sustained schedule of outside work m a y lead to a
disadvantage for the student by denying him the
use of the tank a good portion of the time. Also,
it m a y decrease the time the staff m a y devote to
the student. In a smaller tank, outside work could
be accepted on the basis of the benefit to the edu-
cational process of staff and student, and the
amount of outside work can be adjusted to slack
periods in the tank schedule.
The relatively low Reynolds number which is
imposed on a small model basin is a major dis-
advantage, resulting in larger scale effect errors
on full scale predictions and a restriction on cer-
tain types of research. Although the major re-
search effort of a tank at an educational institu-
tion is not the routine ehp and self-propulsion
tests bent toward accurate full scale predictions, a
small tank should endeavor to do the best t h a t it
 THE SHIP MODEL
FIG. 1 . - - V I E W SH()'~VING THE GLASS PANELS AND FOLDING PLATFORM AT THE M I D - L E N G T H OF THE TANK
can within its facilities toward the a t t a i n m e n t of
this end. A t a n k at an educational institution,
therefore, requires accuracy, simplicity, flexibility,
and economy of both funds and time for opera-
tion.
FACILITIES
The Towing Tank. The Ship Model Towing
T a n k is rectangular in cross section, 108 ft long,
8 ft 7 in. wide, with a normal water depth of 4 ft.
The size of the t a n k limits the length of ship
models which can be used for normal type resist-
ance tests to between 4 and 6 ft, depending on the
fineness of the lines.
Three large glass panels, extending the full
depth of the tank, m a k e 30 ft of the wall of the
t a n k transparent at the t a n k midlength. By
means of the glass panels the underwater portion
of a model m a y be photographed; also, the shape
and size of the waves generated b y a w a v e m a k e r
m a y be observed and photographed.
The t a n k b o t t o m is essentially level to facilitate
shallow water testing. Sloped gutters on each
side of the tank provide drainage. Embedded
TOWING TANK AT M.I.T. 67
in the t a n k b o t t o m at regular intervals are
threaded brass anchor pieces. T h e anchor pieces
provide a ready means of securing auxiliary ap-
paratus to the t a n k b o t t o m such as canal walls
for restricted water tests.
In order to calm the water quickly in the t a n k
after each run, wave dissipators are installed along
each side and across each end of the tank. T h e
dissipators consist of long cylindrical metal tubes,
61/~ in. in diameter, mounted with the axis hori-
zontal so as to have the upper periphery just
piercing the surface of the water. This creates a
gently sloping beach surrounding the water in
the tank. The height of the dissipators m a y be
adjusted to the desired position by means of turn-
buckles. When preparing for tests in which the
dissipators are not desired, the tubes m a y be
dropped quickly to the b o t t o m of the tank.
T h e water in the towing t a n k is filtered through
a diatomaceous earth type filter. W a t e r m a y be
either added to the tank through the filter or the
water in the t a n k m a y be circulated through it.
F r o m time to time an anti-algae compound is
added to the water to reduce the organic matter.
68 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
The wooden flooring in way of the glass panels
lifts and folds over to provide a pit for photo-
graphic apparatus and seats for observers. Fig. 1
shows the glass panels and the folded platform.
The Dynamometer. The dynamometer system
used in the towing tank is referred to as the "grav-
ity" type since the towing force is supplied through
a system of falling weights. This system was
chosen for the following reasons:
(a) High degree of accuracy of force and speed
measurements on resistance tests of models
of surface ships
(b) Simplicity, economy in construction, main-
tenance and operation
(c) Adaptability to seaworthiness tests of a
model in waves
Since tests involving submerged models and the
measurement of side force and moment cannot be
performed effectively on a "gravity" type dyna-
mometer, plans for future instrumentation in-
clude the construction of a monorail carriage to
increase the versatility of the tank.
In the " g r a v i t y " type dynamometer, a known
force is applied to the system and the resulting
speed is measured. By a variation of the applied
force a range of model speeds ean be investigated.
The precision of measurement of a resistance
coefficient for a model depends on the precision
of the measurements of the following quantities:
(a) The force applied to the system
(b) The force absorbed by the friction of the
dynamometer system. (Items (a) and (b)
can be combined into one item entitled
"the net towing force applied to the
model")
(c) The speed of the model through the water.
(This item may be described as the two
items of speed over the ground and the
amount of water current in the tank)
The resistance coefficient is conventionally de-
fined by
R towing speed of 4-0.001 knot produces an error
Ct ~ " - -
1/~ oSv ~
where R is the total resistance force, o the density
of the fluid, S the wetted surfaee area and v the
velocity, all expressed in a consistent set of units.
Since the dynamometer is not involved in the ac-
curacy of determination of o and S, the accuracy
of the measurement of R and v only are attributed
to the dynamometer. The error involved in the
measurement of G is therefore equal to the error
in the measurement in R plus twice the error in
the measurement of v. The orders of magnitude
of these quantities for a 5-ft model are approxi-
mately
R = 0.05 to 0.60 lb
V
- - = 0 . 4 tol.1
V = 0.9 to 2.5 knots
where V is the speed in knots, and L is the length
of the model in feet.
If the speed is measured with complete accuracy
but the towing force is measured to 4-0.001 lb,
the error in Ct would be approximately 2 % in the
low-speed range, 0.6% at about design speed,
and 0.2% at the highest speeds. In the range
of Reynolds number in whieh a 5-ft model is
tested, the residuary resistance 4 comprises ap-
proximately 20% of the total resistance except
in the extreme wavemaking region. Hence the
error in 5 Cr would be about 10% at the low speeds,
3% at design speeds, and 1.0% at the highest
speeds. I t must be remembered that the measure-
ment of C~ is the purpose of the normal type of
model resistance test.
If the speed is measured to +0.01 knot and the
towing force is measured with complete accuracy,
the error in G would be approximately 2% at the
low speeds, 1.1% at design speeds, and 0.8%
at the highest speeds. The error in Cr would be
10% at the lowest speeds, 5.5% at design speed,
and 4 % at the highest speeds.
A dynamometer measuring a towing force on a
small model to 4-0.001 lb and 4-0.01 knot could
experience an error in Ct of 4 % at the lowest
speeds, about 2% at design speed, and 1% at the
highest speeds. This indicates a possible error in
C, of the order of 20% at the lowest speeds, 10%
at design speeds, and 5% at the highest speeds.
In the opinion of the authors, the accuracy of
4-0.001 lb and ±0.01 knot is not only inadequate
for research work, but also for routine resistance
testing.
One-tenth of the error discussed above is much
more suitable for small model operation. An error
in the towing force of 4-0.0001 lb and in the
in Ct of approximately 0.4% at low speeds, 0.2%
at design speeds and 0.1% at highest speeds.
The error in C, would be about 2% at low speeds,
1% at design speeds and 0.5% at highest speeds.
The design of the dynamometer in the Ship
Model Towing Tank at M.I.T. has the goal of
measuring the towing force to 4-0.0001 lb and
the towing velocity to 4-0.001 knot. This goal
has been attained in operation.
4 A s defined b y a n y given frictional extrapolator.
5 R e s i d u a r y resistance coefficient
 Idler Pulley 7.t
Drive Pulley Towing Cord~% TowBng Cord~..% Towing Cord~.~, ~-............ -~71-- i.~i"
T-. . . . . . . . . . ~ % ! / z/

TowingCord-..~ Towing Bracke*~

'°°°-'"x°°°°"~'°'~,
t.~
Towing Cord~..~ i /~.'..~
))/
/
! :X

Model ~//" W L. 21
Dynamometer
Cabinet--

Weight
Pan

f~

'Z ©
Weight Pan
Cord
i :Z
i
, B
>
Pan I • ' ?2
I, Resf ~
I j I -" -We,ghf >
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i el
Il --
- - .
Pan
, Ace ss I :: ,~
I Hole I -~------
-" Courifer welghf
~.~! J~--,, "~. Line

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FIG. 2 . - - A S C H E M A T I C S K E T C H O F T H E "C:,RAVIT¥" T Y P E D Y N A M O M E T E R

~D
70 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
The Towing Force. Fig. 2 is a schematic sketch
of the gravity type dynamometer. The system
consists of two pulleys, one mounted at each end
of the tank. A continuous towing cord, under
tension, double spans the length of the t a n k pass-
ing around the pulley at each end. The model is
attached to the cord b y means of a towing bracket.
The towing force is provided to the system
through the weight pans which are suspended from
cords wrapped around the shaft of one of the
pulleys and are mounted so t h a t one pan moves
downward while the other moves upward. The
torque produced on the system equals the differ-
ence between the weights in the pans multiplied
b y the working 6 diameter of the pulley shaft.
The pulley to which the weight pans are at-
tached will be referred to as the drive pulley and
the remaining pulley will be referred to as the
idler pulley.
e Working diameter is t h e d i a m e t e r f r o m center of cord to c e n t e r
of cord u n d e r the proper t e n s i o n .
FIG. 3 . - - T H E DRIVE PULLEY ASSEMBLY
The drive pulley shaft working diameter is ex-
actly one-tenth the diameter of the pulleys; hence,
the force acting on the system at the towing
cord is equivalent to one-tenth the force acting
through the weight pans.
In order to obtain the desired accuracy in the
towing force, it is necessary to keep the friction of
the system small; also, it must be consistent in
its magnitude. To help accomplish the desired
effect, the shaft ends of each of the pulleys are
supported on two circular disks of such dimensions
t h a t the disks rotate at one-twelfth the speed of
the pulleys. The disk shafts are supported in
precision ball bearings of small size. T h e system
resembles a sort of single reduction gear arrange-
m e n t (without gear teeth) and is shown in Fig. 3.
A system of even greater reduction m a y be used,
further reducing the rotational speed of the bear-
ings, but this m a y lead to a condition of so slow a
motion of the bearings as not to be completely
in the rolling friction range. Bearings, which m a y
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
operate partly in the starting friction range, prob-
ably will not give a consistent friction calibration.
The friction force of ball bearings is a function
of the loading and the rotational speed. I t is
desirable from an operating standpoint to have
the friction of the system depend On speed alone
since the speed is a quantity which is obtained
directly during a test. This end is accomplished
by (a) having the towing cord under the same
initial tension as when the system was calibrated
for friction, and (b) maintaining the same total
force in the weight pans b y removing a given
weight from one weight pan and placing it in the
other to provide the desired unbalance of force.
Under this system, the total loading on the dyna-
x
L.
2
o
E
E~
C
1.0
Speed in Knots
FIG. 4.--DYNAMOMETER FRICTION CALIBRATION
71
mometer bearings is the same at all speeds and
has the same magnitude as when the calibration
was performed. This results in the dynamometer
friction being a function of the speed only.
Calibration is performed" by applying a series of
very small weight differences on the pans and ob-
serving the steady state speeds of the system
when the model is not attached to the towing
cord. A calibration curve of the friction of the
system versus towing cord speed for normal op-
erating conditions is shown in Fig. 4. For normal
operating conditions, the cord is under 5 lb ten-
sion and the weight pans have a total of 10 lb of
towing weights. Since the weight of the weight
pans and towing weights can be measured to a
##/ ,
/ /
+ I x 10-4Lb ""*'/*~
,, -lxlO-4Lb
20 5.0
72 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
high degree of precision b y means of a chemical
balance, the precision of the d y n a m o m e t e r de-
pends on the precision to which the friction of the
system is measured.
I t can be observed from Fig. 4 that the fric-
tion calibration is within 4-0.0001 lb. The cali-
bration for 4z/~ lb cord tension is within 4-0.0001
lb of the calibration for 5 lb tension. Therefore,
an error in the cord tension of 1 ~ lb will still give
the required accuracy of 4-0.0001 lb. The preci-
sion of this calibration is due to the accuracy of
the speed-measuring device which will be de-
scribed in detail later.
In order to have the same weight of weight pan
cord attached to each pan throughout the entire
model run, a counterweight line connects the two
weight pans. I t was found that if the same cord
as t h a t used with the weight pan were used for
counterweight purposes, the counterweight cord,
not being under tension, would tend to foul
around the weight pans during the run. To over-
come this trouble, the counterweight cord now
consists of a thin nylon line upon which small glass
beads are mounted intermittently so as to have the
required weight per unit length. This beaded
line can be seen in Fig. 5. If compensation were
not made for the cord weight, there would be ap-
proximately 0.0003 lb difference in the towing
force between the middle and end of a model run.
Although not very large, this difference is very
important when calibrating for d y n a m o m e t e r
friction.
Accelerating weights, temporarily attached to
one of the weight pans at the beginning of a run,
consist of tungsten-ballasted cylindrical tubes.
The purpose of the accelerating weights is to
bring the model quickly up to speed so as not to
waste precious distance of travel along the tank
before the recording portion of the run. These
weights are removed once the model reaches the
vicinity of the speed which the weights in the
weight pan would produce. The acceleration
weights are removed after any desired distance of
model travel b y floating them off by means of two
mercury pools previously set at the desired posi-
tion. Fig. 5 shows weight pan, accelerating
weights, and mercury pools. Floating off the ac-
celerating weights reduces shock on the system
and prevents significant vibration of the towing
cord.
The normal direction of towing of the model is
from the idler end to the drive end. I t is desirable
to be able to tow the model in the opposite direc-
tion, such as in tests simulating following seas
when the w a v e m a k e r is in operation. This is
easily accomplished in the following manner.
The accelerating weights and support arm on one
weight pan are interchanged with a counterweight
on the other weight pan. At the same time the
mercury cups are rotated away from alinement
with the first weight pan and into alinement with
the other weight pan simply b y removing a pin
from one hole and setting it into another.
The weight pans, accelerating weights, and
mercury cups are housed in a d y n a m o m e t e r cabi-
net extending from the under portion of the drive
pulley assembly into a d y n a m o m e t e r pit 12 ft
deep and 3 ft in diameter. The d y n a m o m e t e r
cabinet and pit are shown in Fig. 6.
Tile Towing Speed. The speed of the model is
measured electronically to 4-0.001 knot b y means
of the following system. The working diameter
of the pulleys is such that 1 rps is 2.000 knots to a
high degree of precision. Attached to the rim of
the idler pulley is a black anodized sheet alumi-
num annular disk. Two thousand equally spaced
radial slits 0.008 in. wide and 1/~ in. long are milled
around the disk. Hence, the number of slits pass-
ing a fixed position in exactly one second is the
number of thousandths of a knot of speed. A
light source mounted on one side of the slotted
disk is beamed through an optical system and
focused on the disk. On the other side of the
disk, in line with the light source, is a photoelec-
tric cell which records each slit as it passes. The
impulses from the photo cell are amplified and
transmitted to a special electronic device mounted
at the drive end of the tank.
The special electronic device consists of a dec-
ade scaler and a sort of crystal clock. The dec-
ade scaler records the number of impulses which
come from the photocell and flashes the number
of the count on a five-bank number panel. The
crystal time gate, using the phenomenon of the
natural oscillation of crystals, allows the scaler
to count through exactly one second with an ac-
curacy of the order of a few millionths of a second.
At the end of counting for one second, the count
is illuminated on the numeral panel. The speed is
readily given to +0.001 knot; one need only
move the decimal point on the scaler unit three
places over. Fig. 7 shows the idler pulley with
light source, photo cell, and slotted disk. Fig.
8 shows the decade scaler panel registering a
2.523 knot speed. The scaler is equipped with a
recycling switch which allows the unit to count
through one second, hold the count on the board
for one-half second, and then count again through
the next second, and so on. By this means, one
obtains a speed reading every second and a half
with an accuracy of ±0.001 knot. Hence, one can
visually observe whether the model is accelerating,
decelerating, or has reached constant speed. If
the speed has remained constant, it is recorded;
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T 73

I~IG. 5 . - - T H E TOWING AND ACCELERATING WEIGHT SYSTEM

A. Drive Pulley Assembly" F. Accelerating Weights
B. Shelf G. Mercury Pools
C. Weight Pan H. Counterweight Cord
D. Towing Weights I. D y n a m o m e t e r Cabinet
E. Support Arm
74 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.

if not, the accelerating weights can be adjusted nitely. By throwing off the time gate, one need
accordingly and a re-run made. rotate the pulley 20 times and observe a count of
The electronic time gate can be set to count 40,000 (within 20) to be sure every slit on the disk
through either 0.01, 0.10, or 1.00 second or indefi- is recording. The time gate has a built-in check

FIG. 6 , - - T H E DYNAMOMETER CABINET AND PIT

 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T. 75

system. By throwing the test switch, a 100,000 generator which will be installed soon in the tank.
per second count is sent into the unit and the unit T h e electronic unit was built b y the Berkeley
should record it as such. Hence, the time gate Scientific C o m p a n y of Richmond, Calif., and the
can be checked in the m a t t e r of seconds. B y at- d y n a m o m e t e r pulleys were built b y the Instru-
taching an integrator and plotting pen to the mentation Laboratory at The Massachusetts
speed-measuring unit, a continuous record of the Institute of T~chnology.
speed m a y be plotted. When a model is tested in The speed, as measured b y the scaler unit, is
a train of waves, the cyclic variation of the model • speed over the ground. In order to have the neces-
speed can be plotted automatically. T h e scaler sa W accuracy in the m e a s u r e m e n t of speed
can be used also to measure a period of time very through the water, sufficient waiting time m u s t be
accurately in the following manner. T h e time allowed before each run to allow the water cur-
gate is p u t on the "off" position and the test rents generated in the t a n k to die out. The wait-
switch is closed. The unit will count at the rate of ing time between runs m a y be increased accord-
100,000 counts a second provided the external ing to the accuracy desired; the usual waiting
gate switch is closed. Hence, the count registered time is 8 to 10 min. Since the energy in the water
on the scaler is the n u m b e r of 100,000's of a second currents is dissipated mostly at the boundaries
the switch was closed. This system will be used of the tank, the small model basin is relatively a
to measure accurately the period of a water wave better current dissipator than the larger tank.

FIQ. 7 . - - T H B IDLER PULLEY SYSTEM

A. Idler Pulley Assembly E. Slotted Disk
B. Shelf F. Photoelectric Cell
C. Vertical Rails G. Towing Cord
D. Light Source
76 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
FIG. 8 . - - T H E SPEED INDICATOR SHOWING A SPEED OF 2.523 KNOTS
Shallow Water Tests. In preparing for a shallow
water test, the water level in the t a n k is lowered
to the desired height. The entire d y n a m o m e t e r
system also is lowered to the desired height b y
means of electric power. This is accomplished by
having the pulley system and d y n a m o m e t e r
cabinet at the drive end and the pulley system
at the idler end attached to shelves which ride
vertically on machined rails secured to the tank
wall. By connecting a reversing drill to threaded
rods engaging the shelves, the system can be
lowered quickly to the desired level and remain
alined and ready for shallow water operation.
A slit in the wall at the drive end, normally cov-
ered b y a watertight gasket, allows the towing
cord to pass through the wall for shallow water
testing.
Auxiliary Apparatus. T h e towing bracket
which attaches the model to the cord is shown in
Fig. 9, in the starting position against the releasing
magnet. Loosening the setscrew in the forward
end of the upper bar allows the towing cord to act
against a spring located inside this bar. 3[atch-
ing the length of the extended spring to a gage
readily checks the towing cord for the proper
a m o u n t of tension. The stern end of the upper
bar is composed of soft iron which is held against a
releasing magnet in the starting position. The
model m a y be released b y a switch at the drive
end, at the idler end, or at the middle of the tank.
The releasing at the drive end is normally used
for model testing, and the switch at the center is
usually used when photographing.
T h e model is stopped b y allowing it to run into
a very flexible, wide rubber strip stretched across
the tank near the drive end. T h e stop can be
seen in the Frontispiece. T h e stop can be readily
lowered to accommodate shallow water tests.
The models are between 25 and 45 lb in
displacement and are weighed on a platform
scale graduated in 0.01 lb.
Operating Procedure. One person at the drive
end of the tank can perform the normal model
resistance test in quite a simple fashion according
 -THE S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K A T M . I . T .
FIG. 9 . - - T H E MODEL IN STARTING POSITION SHOWING THE TOWING BRACKET AND MAGNETIC RELEASE
to the following procedure. A given weight is
transferred from one weight pan to the other and
the model is m o v e d into the starting position.
The accelerating weights are set at a predeter-
mined distance. The releasing switch is thrown
and the speed readings are observed throughout
the run. If the model has reached constant
speed during the run, it is recorded. If it is still
accelerating or decelerating at the end of the run,
the model is returned b y hand to the starting
position and the accelerating weights are adjusted
in the proper direction for the next run. H a v i n g
reccrded a constant speed, the towing force is
measured as one-tenth the difference of the
weights on the pans minus the calibrated friction
for the speed observed. A calculation for Ct for
the run m a y be made from these data during the
waiting period before the next run.
The Wave Generator. The investigation of the
rough water performance of a ship design b y
means of model tests requires the use of a wave
generator to produce trains of water waves and
perhaps some other rough water effects in the
77
towing tank. At the time of the writing of this
paper, the component parts of the w a v e m a k e r to
be installed at the M.I.T. t a n k have been built,
b u t assembly, installation and calibration have not
as yet been accomplished. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to describe the wave generator in terms of
the expectations of the design.
The wave generator is expected to create a
train of waves of a n y wave length between 1.2
and 20 ft. Also, the amplitude of the waves m a y
set to a n y desired value from zero up to a maxi-
m u m of approximately 1 ft double amplitude in
the case of the longest waves. The range of wave
lengths covered is from one-fourth to four times
the model length. The range of wave heights
covered is from zero up to one-twentieth of the
largest wave length.
Both the wave length and the wave height m a y
be changed while the wave generator is operating.
This combination produces a flexibility in the
operating procedure which results in versatility of
use and economy of time and effort in operation.
These benefits will be discussed later.
 O0

nechngRod%,

aleShaft

Connechng

~'.°i
% .
-
~ B e a c h ~ % ~
't: ©
m

"i

0
,..]
~Z
,'4
.o.
:i

F I G . 1 0 . - - S C H E M A T I C SKETCH OF WAVB GENERATOR

 T H E SHIP M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K AT M.I.T. 79

Fig. 10 is a schematic sketch of the wave gen- the frequency for the desired wave length, set the
erator located near the drive end of the tank. amplitude at zero and start the wavemaker. H e
It also shows the beach for eliminating the waves then slowly brings the amplitude to the desired
and preventing reflection at the idler end. The size b y observing the wave against a grid mounted
waves are produced by the oscillation of a paddle b y the glass panel. When the desired wave train
which is motivated b y the rotating eccentric is obtained, the model is released, the photographs
through the connecting rods and the intermediate taken, and the speed is plotted on the r e c o r d e r - -
shaft. The paddle has an adjustable curved lip, all this being accomplished b y controls at the
just above the still water surface, in order to shape center of the tank. Setting a different amplitude
the wave into a more nearly trochoidal pattern for the next run is the simple job of turning a
[1]. ~ The clearance between the paddle ends rheostat, I t is possible for one person to conduct a
and the wall is minimized b y having wooden seaworthiness test without too complicated a
strips, mounted on the paddle ends, rub against procedure.
the tank wall. This arrangement prevents the There is another advantage in having an ap-
flow around the paddle edges which usually pro- paratus in which the frequency and the wave
duces an undesirable secondary wave along the length can be varied while it is running. The fol-
crests. The shaft which forms the base of the lowing analysis indicates this advantage. The
paddle is mounted in ball bearings specially housed velocity of a trochoidal wave is given by [2 ]
for underwater operation. Fig. 10 shows the
connecting rods between the paddle and the inter- ~/gX g
mediate shaft in the normal position. At this v,, = ~ -- 2~rf
setting, the wave lengths and heights desired in
the usual seaworthiness test can be obtained. where vw is the wave velocity, g is the acceleration
The two other positions for these connecting rods of gravity, h is the wave length, and f is the fre-
are provided for additional flexibility in the small quency, all expressed in a consistent set of units.
amplitude range and for extension to larger am- The lower frequency, longer wave will travel
plitudes. faster than the higher frequency, shorter wave.
In order to vary the amplitude while the wave If the frequency of the wave generator is lowered
generator is in operation, the amount of ec- while the wavemaker is running, the lower fre-
centricity on the flywheel must be controllable. quency waves will overtake the higher frequency
This is accomplished b y having the eccentric, waves that were just previously produced. This
(which rides on guide rails attached to the fly- condition would cause an irregular sea situation
wheel) move in and out along the flywheel diame- in the tank. If a specific frequency variation is
ter b y means of a threaded rod engaging the ec- programmed into the speed control unit, a certain
centric. The threaded rod is rotated b y means type of irregular sea may be set up in the tank.
of an electric motor and gear system which are Specific frequency programs coupled with specific
also mounted on the flywheel and rotate with it. amplitude programs m a y be able to produce a
Electric power and external control are fed to this large variety of irregular sea conditions which
system by means of slip rings on the flywheel hub. could be duplicated from model to model if the
The position of the eccentric at any time is trans- programming is done b y cams.
mitted through the slip rings to the control sta- The speed of the model in waves will be plotted
tion. on an electric recorder operated from the decade
The wavemaker is powered by a 5-hp electric scaler through an integrator unit. This speed-
motor and the frequency of the wavemaker is con- measuring system has been described earlier in
trolled b y a Link-Belt P.I.V. (positive, infinitely this paper. The pitching and heaving motion of
variable) gear system equipped with a vernier the model is to be recorded by photography.
speed adjustment. This system allows a very fine It is planned to employ the Edgerton high-speed
and positive adjustment of the rotational speed multi-flash, type of photography which will result
of the flywheel while the unit is in operation. The in one photograph showing the model in a closely
desired control of the frequency and the length of spaced series of pictures as it rides the waves.
the wave generated can be accomplished b y this The enlargement and analysis of this print should
arrangement. furnish a fairly simple method for obtaining the
The amplitude control is to be located by the pitch and heave data.
glass panels at the center of the tank as well as at The beach at the idler end of the tank can be
the drive end of the tank. The operator can set adjusted in height and slope allowing for a
change to a position best suited for the type of
N u m b e r s in b r a c k e t s refer t o R e f e r e n c e s l i s t e d a t t h e e n d of t h e
paper, wave being generated.
80 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
CONCLUSION
T h e Ship Model Towing T a n k at M.I.T. cur-
rently is serving well its intended purposes.
Student instruction is carried on in a regular
fashion in the form of laboratory experiments.
Numerous thesis projects have been performed
in the t a n k b y the students. M a n y of these were
accomplished with one m a n operation of the tank.
Research projects, initiated b y the staff, and proj-
ects sponsored from outside M.I.T. are also part
of the t a n k program. Several resistance tests on
models of a specific design have been carried
out in the t a n k for several different commercial
companies. In m a n y of these tests, engineers
from the c o m p a n y involved participated in the
performance of the tests at our inyitation. The
instrumentation has attained the accuracy which
was desired. I n addition, the instrumentation
has shown itself to be flexible and rugged, with an
insignificant a m o u n t of maintenance and repair
PART 2
THE USE OF HYDROFOILS TO REDUCE THE WAVE ~AKING RESISTANCE OF SHIPS
INTRODUCTION
The bulbous bow has an advantageous effect
on the resistance characteristics of ships in the
range of V/'V/L of 0.8 to 1.0 [3, 4, 5, 6]. There
have been several explanations for this phe-
nomenon. The two most common ones are:
(a) T h e shift of the bluntness of the bow away
from the waterline toward the keel moves the high-
pressure area a w a y from the waterline, resulting
in less bow wave than t h a t created b y the normal
bow form.
(b) T h e bulb sets up its own wave pattern
which interferes with the wave pattern of the
hull. This produces a resultant wave which is
less than t h a t produced b y the normal form within
a certain speed range.
The above explanations are true, b u t they do
not tell us what is happening hydrodynamically
at the bulb. An insight into the fluid mechanics of
the phenomenon m a y be obtained from the pres-
sure distribution in the vicinity of the bulb as re-
ported b y Eggert [7]. An analysis of the pres-
sure distribution plots indicate t h a t a low-pressure
region is developed on the upper part of the bulb
slightly aft of the fore foot. This low-pressure
region is felt at the surface as a wave hollow aft
of the bulb. The higher the speed, the farther
work having been required to date. This is a wel-
comed condition, since students, never h a v i n g
seen the t a n k previously, are given the respon-
sibility of performing a test with just a few min-
utes of instruction in the method of operation.
The authors wish to express their acknowledg-
m e n t to Mr. C. H. Hancock of the H y d r a u l i c
L a b o r a t o r y of the Newport News Shipbuilding
and D r y Dock C o m p a n y for his m a n y helpful
suggestions with regard to instrumentation, and
to Mr. N. L. Ficken, of the M.I.T. staff, for his
services in the design, installation, and calibra-
tion of the towing t a n k equipment.
P a r t 2 of this paper is a report on a research
project which is currently being pursued b y the
staff of the S~ip Model Towing Tank. I t is an
example of one of the m a n y types of naval archi-
tecture research projects which can be performed
effectively in a small model basin at an educational
institution b y staff research and student theses.
aft the hollow occurs. At certain speeds, this wave
hollow moves into a position where it combines in
an advantageous manner with the h u m p of the
normal bow wave. At a higher speed it moves out
of position and some of the effect is lost.
Explanation (a) does not deal directly with
what the bulb does, b u t stresses the effects of a
more slenderized ship a t the waterline, while ex-
planation (b) deals with what the bulb does on its
own accord, b u t does not take into account the
effect of the slenderized waterline which usually
goes with the bulb. An explanation embodying
the two concepts could be as follows. Since
the bulb usually is not located forward of the for-
ward perpendicular, the wave hollow produced b y
the bulb is somewhat aft of the stem. The finer
lines at the bow, besides helping to reduce the
bow wave, permit the bow wave to move farther
aft into a position in the vicinity of the hollow
produced b y the bulb, with the resulting favorable
effect.
DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT
In the opinion of the authors, the m o s t im-
p o r t a n t effects of the bulb are the magnitude of
the low-pressure region (wave hollow) caused b y
the bulb, and its location relative to the high-
pressure region (wave hump) caused b y the bow
at the waterline. This is considering the bulb
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
action by itself. Since we are looking for a large
low-pressure region and some control over its
longitudinal position, the hydrofoil at an angle of
attack, as an appendage, should be promising
from a hydrodynamic point of view.
The investigation of a properly placed hydro-
foil, as an anti-wavemaking device, is under way
at the present time in the Ship Model Towing
T a n k at M.I.T. T h e over-aU project can be con-
veniently divided into three phases. It should be
stressed at this point that the investigation is
purely from the hydrodynamic point of view.
Phase 1. As in the initial investigation of any
physical phenomenon, the order of magnitude
of the effect must first be established before too
much effort is devoted to specific details. Hence,
the initial phase of the program is to investigate
orders of magnitude. Several hydrofoils, arbi-
trary in size, shape and location, are attached to
specific ship models (arbitrary shapes) and re-
sistance tests with and without hydrofoils are com-
pared in their wavemaking characteristics.
Phase 2. A hydrofoil at the bow can produce
two effects with respect to the seaworthiness prop-
erties of the ship; these are slamming and pitch
damping. The possibility of slamming is a major
disadvantage; but the fin may produce suf-
ficient damping to cut down the over-all pitching,
thereby reducing the probability of slamming.
The over-all performance of a ship equipped with a
hydrofoil (fin) at the bow and also equipped with
hydrofoils at the bow and stern are to be investi-
gated. The investigation is aimed toward deter-
mining whether the hydrofoil may act also as an
anti-pitching fin. This would be a beneficial by-
product to its still water, anti-wavemaking proper-
ties.
Phase 3. Once orders of magnitude have been
determined in Phase 1 and certain practical as-
pects checked in Phase 2, the determination of
specific design information b y means of theo-
retical calculation, using potential theory, will be
attempted.
The use of potential theory to calculate the
wave profile of ships has been presented by several
• authors. 8 Recently Guilloton [8] has presented a
convenient method for this calculation, using the
offsets of the hull. T h e wave profile along the
hull and the wavemaking resistance, as calculated
by potential theory, are not in close agreement
with those as measured because of the neglect of
viscosity. When the thickness of the boundary
layer is taken into account, the result of the theo-
retical calculation is brought closer to agreement.
However, the shape of the wave profile at the
bow, as calculated b y potential theory, checks
a See bibliography in reference [8].
81
fairly well with the measured profile because of
the very thin frictional boundary layer in this
region [9]. The effect of a submerged hydrofoil
on the shape of the water surface possibly m a y
be approximated b y potential theory. An analysis
of the results of both bow and hydrofoil calcula-
tions should indicate the proper size and loca-
tion of the hydrofoil.
The authors realize that Phase 3 is a large under-
taking which m a y not prove successful. There-
fore, Phase 3 will not be attempted unless the first
two phases of the project produce favorable re-
sults.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF TtIE DEVICE
Although the investigation of the hydrofoil as a
ship wave reducer is purely an academic hydro-
dynamic project, some practical applications m a y
be possible. Mental meanderings by the authors
on the practical applications of the device produce
the following items:
(a) If anti-pitching fins should be required on a
ship design to improve the seaworthiness char-
acteristics, these fins can be properly placed and
designed to give the best still water performance
under the circumstances.
(b) If a plentiful supply of power should be-
come available, such as atomic propulsion, there
may be a reluctance to build ships larger and
larger to remain at the conventional speed/length
ratios. The hydrofoil may be used to advantage
should ship speeds move into the large wave-
resistance range.
(c) The hydrofoil may allow a fuller bow than
the bulb allows at the L W L , with a possible im-
provement in the seaworthiness properties of the
ship.
There are several major disadvantages associ-
ated with the practical aspects. These are:
(a) Possibilities of heavy slamming
(b) Structural difficulties
(c) Difficulties in handling the anchors
WORK COMPLETED TO DATE
The investigation to date has followed the gen-
eral outline of Phase 1 as presented earlier.
A 4.409 ft L B P modeP representing a 485-ft,
17,077-ton passenger-cargo ship was chosen from
the group of models on hand at the M.I.T. tank
and used for all of the testing work. This par-
ticular model appeared to be the best available;
and, although the observed results indicated t h a t
greater improvement could be expected with a
g Other general characteristics of Model No. 2: B e a m = 7.64
in.; d r a f t = 3.00 in.; scale ratio = 110; block coeff. = 0.642; pris-
m a t i c eoeff. = 0.657.
82 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
design executed specifically for the hydrofoil-hull
application, the performance was quite satis-
factory when used for comparison with and with-
out the hydrofoil.
A series of resistance tests were run on this
model without appendages, and the results were
extrapolated to full scale in accordance with
standard procedure. The bare-hull resistance of
the ship, as estimated, was used as the basis of
comparison throughout. At the same time,
photographs of the wave profiles were taken over
a wide range of speeds to provide a record of these
wave profiles for later use in selecting and lo-
cating the hydrofoil to be attached to the model.
The range of speeds tested included the design
speed of 18.5 knots (V/X/L = 0.840) and went
up to approximately 26 knots on the prototype
(V/V'i. = 1.18).
The next step was to study the hollow produced
by a lone hydrofoil moving submerged beneath a
free surface. For reasons previously stated, a
theoretical analysis was not carried out at this
time. Instead, it was decided to construct a
group of hydrofoils of different proportions and
FXG. ll.--WAVE PROFILEOF A HYDROFOILOF 6-IN. SPANAND5-IN. CHORDAT A DEPTHOF 2.25 IN., ANGLEOF ATTACK
OF 5 ° A N D A SPEEDOF 1.969 KNOTS
sizes and to test them with the facilities available.
From this group, the member indicated b y the best
results could then be chosen and combined with
the hull for further testing and comparison.
Accordingly, a series of hydrofoils was made up
of NACA-M-6 section in spans ranging from
0.094L (5 in.) to 0.151L (8 in.) and chords of
0.047L (2.5 in.) to 0.132L (7 in.), L being the
length of the model, 4.409 ft.
Since the towing arrangement in the M.I.T.
tank does not allow a completely submerged ob-
ject to be towed alone, some means had to be de-
vised for maintaining the hydrofoils at the de-
sired depth. This was accomplished b y support-
ing the hydrofoil from below and behind with an
arrangement of vertical and horizontal struts
mounted at the bow of a ship model. The ship
model was then attached to the towing apparatus
and towed in the usual manner. The arrange-
ment was such that the hydrofoil was ahead of
the flow field of the model and also away from
any surface effects of the supporting struts.
In addition, the attachment was such that the
depth of the hydrofoil and the angle of attack
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
could be readily varied. In operation, the rig
performed quite satisfactorily, although at the
higher speeds the lift of the hydrofoil combined
with the large m o m e n t a r m was enough to cause
appreciable change of trim.
T o facilitate photographing the wave profile, a
thin aluminum sheet approximately 4 in. )< 18
in. was attached directly above the hydrofoil and
in the vertical fore-and-aft plane of the model.
T h e lower 18-in. edge of this sheet was submerged
a b o u t 3/~ in. when the model was at rest and
provided an excellent background for recording
wave data. See Fig. 11. Tests run with the
hydrofoil removed from the rig showed t h a t the
surface disturbance produced b y this sheet was
negligible over the entire range of speeds tested.
Based on the results of the hydrofoil tests, a
0.094L chord b y 0.113L span hydrofoil was se-
lected for combination with the model. Tests on
the hydrofoil alone had shown t h a t depth had no
appreciable effect on the wave hollow produced
over the range of depths tested~°; therefore, the
hydrofoil was located as low as possible without
projecting below the keel line of the model. The
hydrofoil was located as deep as possible for the
least probable slamming.
Since the phenomenon investigated is based
entirely upon wave cancelation effects, it was
expected t h a t the longitudinal position and the
angle of attack of the hydrofoil would be the
critical variables. Hence, several series of tests
were run on the hydrofoil-hull combination to
determine the effect of these variables on the over-
all performance of the hydrofoil.
In addition to studies on bow hydrofoils, one
further research project in the M.I.T. t a n k deals
with a hydrofoil located at the stern for the pur-
pose of damping out the first h u m p in the stern
wave train of high-speed vessels [10]. This work
originated with a study of the Lursson rudder ef-
fect which was noticed on the World W a r I I Ger-
man E-boats. This work is in its preliminary
phases and warrants no further discussion at this
time.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS TO DATE
To date, enough of Phase 1 has been completed
to give some indication of the properties of the
hydrofoil as a wave reducer.
As expected, the low-pressure region above the
submerged hydrofoil produces a wave hollow at
the water surface aft of the hydrofoil. T h e wave
hollow moves farther aft when the speed is in-
creased. T h e depth of the hollow increases with
increasing angle of a t t a c k of the hydrofoil. The
l0 D e p t h range 0.019L, 0.038L, 0.057L (1 in., 2 in., 3 in.).
83
relative size of the hollow produced can be seen
in Fig. 11. T h e photograph shows the wave
hollow produced b y the 0.113L span, 0.094/, chord
(6 in. b y 5 in.) hydrofoil at an angle of a t t a c k of
5 °, a velocity of 1.969 knots, and a depth of sub-
mergence of 2 ~ in. n T h e wetted surface area of
this hydrofoil represents about 11% of the wetted
surface area of the ship model used in the in-
vestigation.
Fig. 12 shows the wave profile of Model No. 2
at a speed of 1.986 knots ( V / X / ' L = 0.945).
Fig. 13 shows the resulting wave pattern when
the combination of model and hydrofoil was towed
at 1.944 knots ( V / ' X . / L = 0.926). The hydrofoil
was attached to the ship model at a water depth
of 3 in. (keel depth) and an angle of attack of 5 °, at
a longitudinal position where the bow wave h u m p
would essentially coincide with the wave hollow of
the hydrofoil. Figs. 12 and 13 show the wave level-
ling effect of the hydrofoil. The wave hollow
produced b y flow a b o u t the model just aft of the
area of transition from entrance to middlebody
on the model is aft of the influence of the hydro-
foil. This appears to be the main hull design fea-
ture t h a t could be improved for better perform-
ance with the hydrofoil, but additional tests will
be necessary to substantiate this. In addition, the
diverging or Kelvin wave is delayed in its forma-
tion when the hydrofoil is used. T h e hydrofoil
used with the model represents an increase in
wetted surface area of about 11 per cent. One
can conclude from a qualitative analysis of Figs.
12 and 13 t h a t the effect of a hydrofoil as a ship
wave reducer is of the proper order of magnitude.
When the effects of the hydrofoil are considered
quantitatively, one m u s t compare the reduction
of wavemaking resistance caused b y the hydro-
foil to the added resistance force of the hydrofoil
due to its own skin friction and form drag. Fig.
14 shows the effects of the hydrofoil on the re-
sistance characteristics of a ship. 12 All the re-
sistance coefficients are based on the bare hull
wetted surface area in order to enable a direct
comparison of resistance coefficient of the ship
with and without hydrofoils. T h e center position,
referred to in Fig. 14, is the position giving most
favorable results for the combination of the specific
hydrofoil with the specific hull shape, for hydro-
foil mounted at keel depth. This location is
with the hydrofoil mounted with its leading edge
approximately one-third of a chord length for-
ward of the forward perpendicular. In this posi-
tion, an angle of attack of 3 ° appeared to be the
most favorable.
n 3 in. is the draft for the ship model used in the investigu~ i,m.
12 Model No. 2 extrapolated to full size.
84 T H E SHIP M O D E L TOWING T A N K AT M.I.T.

FIG. 1 2 . - - W A V E PROFILE OF MODEL NO. _9 AT 1 . 9 8 6 KNOTS ( V / V / L = 0.945)

FIG. 13.--V~'AVE PROFILE OF ~ O D E L NO. 2 WITH HYDROFOIL ATTACHED AT A 5 ° ANGLE OF ATTACK AND 1 . 9 4 4 KNOTS
( V / X / L = 0.9_96)
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T. 85

An analysis of Fig. 14 shows t h a t at low speed/
length ratios the resistance with the hydrofoil is
greater, than without the hydrofoil, with the re-
sistanc e increasing with the angle of attack of the
hydrofoil. This is to Be expected since the hydro-
foil adds wetted surface area and also has its own
form d r a g which increases with angle of attack.
At the high speed/length ratios, all the resistance
curves with the hydrofoil are below the bare hull
curve. T h e hydrofoil has reduced the wave re-
sistance b y much more than it has increased the
skin friction and form drag. When the hydrofoil
is m o v e d into the after position (0.02 of the model
length aft of the center position) the wave re-
sistance effects of the hydrofoil are substantially
reduced, as can be seen b y a comparison of curves
Nos. 2 and 3 in Fig. 14. This is due to the hydro,
foil-produced wave hollow being out of phase with
the bow wave.
The reduction in the wavemaking resistance
of a given ship design .by' a n arbitrary size and
shape of hydrofoil, as shown in Fig. 14, is quite
significant, especially since the effects were at-
tained without the slenderizing of the bow w a t e r
lines near the surface, which usually a c c o m p a n y
the bulbous bow. One can expect better results
when the hull is designed in conjunction with the
hydrofoil.

~J
. • LEGEND f
I No Hydrofoil 1~
2 Hydrofoil Cfr Position ot = 5 °
3 Hydrofoil Aft Position (x = 5 ° L_- ,
4 Hydrofoil Ctr Posihon ~ = 3 ° / f j_ /
5 Hydrofoil Ctr Position c ~ 0 °
cx= Aug e of A f f a c k J
J
Hydrofoil Modnfed a t Keel
Results E x t r a p o l a f e d f r o m ~.~/~
\
Tests on Model No 2 2--
~: 5

. / ~ -5
× 4
3 -"" "'-'/

. ~ ~ ~.... ~ ~
~ 3

0
O4 05 06 0.7 0.8 0.9 I0 I.I. 1.2
Speed Length Ratio, V//V"
~

FIG. 1 4 . - - T H E EFFECT OF THE HYDROFOIL ON SHIP RESISTANCE

86 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of Phase 1 of this investigation
was to determine the order of magnitude of the
wave-resistance reduction capabilities of a hydro-
foil. The order of magnitude has been found to be
significant. Therefore, Phase 1 will be continued
with the testing of other hull designs and other
hydrofoils in combination, in order to give more
REFERENCES
[1] Heinricks, C. E., and Moore, K., " W a v e
Generating Devices," S.B. Thesis, N a v a l Archi-
tecture and Marine Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 1950.
[2] Rossell, H. E., and Chapman, L. B.,
"Principles of Naval Architecture," Vol. II,
Chapter I. Published by the Society.
[3] Taylor, D. W., "Some Model Basin
Investigations of the Influence of Form of Ships
upon Their Resistance," Transactions, The So-
ciety of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
Vol. 19, 1911.
[4] Bragg, E. M., "Results of Experiments
upon Bulbous Bows," Transactions, The Society
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol.
38, 1930.
[5] Rossell, H. E., and Chapman, L. B.,
"Principles of N a v a l Architecture," Vol. II,
Chapter I I.
[6] Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost,-L.,
DISCUSSION
DR. F. H. TODD, ~,llember: This description of
the new towing tank at M.I.T. demonstrates the
care t h a t has been taken in all phases of design
and development both of the facility itself and the
instrumentation.
The authors have set themselves a very high
goal as regards the accuracy of speed and resist-
ance measurements. So far as the mechanical
methods of m e a s u r e m e n t are concerned, they ap-
pear to have attained it. However, I a m t e m p t e d
to wonder whether, in aiming for an accuracy of
0.0001 lb in resistance they have not perhaps set
their target too high. Is the resistance of a
model constant within this limit, when we take
into account changes in surface condition, varia-
tions in the turbulence of the basin water, the
effects of turbulence stimulation and other factors ?
I t would be interesting to know if the authors
have any model experiments which show repeat
quantitative information on the hydrofoil-hull
combination.
In addition, the results produced to date a p p e a r
to justify proceeding with Phase 2, i.e., a sea-
worthiness study on the "device. This work will
get under way as soon as the wave generator is in
operation and testing procedures have been de-
veloped.
Koning, J. G., "Resistance, Propulsion, and Steer-
ing of Ships," Chapter I.
[7] Eggert, E. F., " F u r t h e r F o r m Experi-
ments," Transactions, The Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol. 47, 1939.
[8] Guilloton, R., "Potential Theory of Wave
Resistance of Ships with Tables for Its Calcula-
tion," Transactions, The Society of N a v a l Archi-
tects and Marine Engineers, Vol. 59, 1951.
[9] Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Jacobs,
W. R., "Preliminary Application of Guilloton's
Method to the Calculation of Ship W a v e Profile
and W a v e m a k i n g Resistance," Experimental
Towing Tank, Stevens Institute of Technology,
Report No. 478.
[10] Kozlowski, H., " H y d r o d y n a m i c Control
of T r i m and W a v e m a k i n g at High Speeds," S.M.
Thesis, N a v a l Architecture and Marine Engi-
neering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
1952.
results within these fine limits. As regards speed
measurement, too, are the currents set up b y
successive runs of the model negligible when
speeds are measured to such a high standard?
The visual record from which the constancy of
speed can be judged is an i m p o r t a n t factor in
saving time on running and on analysis. T h e
arrangement made to enable the model to be
controlled either from the end or middle of the
basin is an excellent one.
The w a v e m a k e r also shows some valuable fea-
tures, including the means adopted to alter the
wave height during or between runs. T h e ability
to do this from mid-length, thereby enabling one
m a n to run seaworthiness tests, is a very good
point, and in general the whole design shows
advances over the usual flap-type wavemaker,
where adjustments in wave height are u s u a l l y
quite a time-consuming affair. We have recently
 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K AT M.I.T. 87

I 1 I i ence term must be negative and numerically

DIA.OF BULB = 8.33 FT.
greater than the resistance of the sphere, both
BULB CENTRE=20.8 FT. BELOW L.W.L
+15 wave, form and frictional. He carried out calcu-
lations for three different positions of the bulb,
with the nose 31.25 ft forward of the stem (for a
z
to
~+5
tr
\ 400-ft ship), with the nose at the stem and finally
75 ft aft of the stem. The results are shown in
Fig. 15. Experiments carried out on models
generally confirmed the calculated results although
z
the model tests were made with hemispheres
w
7
O f faired into the hull on their after sides by generally
1I
"1" cylindrical shapes.
o From his work Wigley drew certain conclusions
which are of interest in the present case.
+ NOSE OF B U L B 31.25' FWD.OF BOW (1) The best position of the bulb is with the
-I0 - o NOSE OF BULB AT BOW center of the sphere at the forward perpendicular
,x NOSE OF BULB 75'AFT OF BOW and therefore with a projection forward of the

0.6 0.8 1.0

I
1.2
I
1.4
I
1.6
I
1.8
hull.
This agrees remarkably closely with the state-
V ment by the authors on page 83 that the best
,/-ff
location for the hydrofoil is with its "leading edge
F I G . 1 5 . - - C A L C U L A T E D C H A N G E S IN R E S I S T A N C E FOR approximately one-third Of a chord length for-
4 0 0 - F T S H I P FOR D I F F E R E N T F O R E - A N D - A F T POSITIONS OF ward of the forward perpendicular."
BULB
(2) At low speeds, the resistance of the bulb
increases the total resistance of the hull. At
put a new wavemaker into the 140-ft tank at higher speeds, the wavemaking resistance of the
Taylor Model Basin which is of pneumatic type. bulb itself decreases and the interference term in-
This has similar advantages as regards ease of creases numerically but is negative. At about
control, since both wave length and height can V/'v/~L = 0.8 the total resistance with the bulb
be set at any desired value by adjusting the speed in the forward position becomes less than t h a t of
of the valve and blower motors, respectively. the bare hull (see Fig. 15). At higher speeds, the
The proposal to use hydrofoils for suppressing interference term begins to grow less and m a y
the bow wave and thereby to reduce resistance is change sign and become positive again. Thus
an intriguing.one. I t is in m a n y ways analogous
to the use of a bulbous bow for a similar purpose,
above V/x/L = 1.9 no benefit would be expected
from the use of a bulb.
and it is therefore of interest to consider the latter
Although in the present experiments the authors
in some detail. Considerable mathematical work
did not reach such high speeds, Fig. 14 indicates
has been done on this problem. In 1928 Havelock
that the hydrofoil also increases the total resist-
calculated the surface disturbance due to a deeply
ance at low speeds, and in the best location be-
immersed sphere, and found t h a t the wave pat-
comes effective in reducing the total power at a
tern always began with a wave trough just aft of
the sphere. Wigley, aware of the use of a bulb in speed about V/V~ of 0.87, not far from t h a t
some high-speed ships, developed methods of found for a spherical bulb.
calculation to find the change in resistance due to At a V/'v/.L of 1.2, the hydrofoil reduces the
the addition of a sphere or bulb to the forefoot of total resistance by some 14% (see Fig. 14), which
a ship in order to cancel the bow crest. ~3 compares with a reduction of some 70-/0 with the
The hull and the sphere, considered alone, each sphere (Fig. 15), and therefore appears to give
give rise to some wavemaking resistance. When promise of being more efficient as a wave suppres-
combined, Wigley found t h a t the total resistance sor.
was made up of the sum of these two separate As is usual with such devices, the bulb and the
resistances, together with an interference term. hydrofoil show the largest gain in those cases
This latter m a y be either positive or negative, de- where the wavemaking resistance of the original
pending upon the position of the bulb on the hull hull is high, either because of a poor form or be-
and upon the speed. If there is to be any net cause it is being driven to high and uneconomical
gain from the presence of the bulb, this interfer- speeds. The ship for which Fig. 14 was drawn has
a block coefficient of 0.642 and its designed speed
l~ " T h e T h e o r y of the B u l b o u s Bow a n d I t s Practical A p p l i c a t i o n , "
C. Wigley, Trans. N . E . C . Inst. 1936. would therefore not exceed about 0.85 V/x/~L, at
 88 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K AT M.I.T.
which speed neither the hydrofoil nor bulb would
show to any advantage. The usefulness of either
would be realized most profitably in cases where,
due to economic or military reasons, a ship has to
be driven to very high speeds where wavemaking
resistance is becoming predominant.
There are, of course, m a n y practical difficulties
in the application of hydrofoils in this way, due
to the liability to damage in rough water, but the
authors show t h a t they are well aware of these,
and they are to be congratulated on developing a
new and useful idea in such a systematic way.
Their future experiments in a seaway will be
awaited with great interest.
PROFESSOR B. V. KORVIN-KROUKOVSKY,Mem-
ber: The authors are to be congratulated both on
the development of the towing tank and of its
ingenious equipment, and on the excellent de-
scription of it. The section of the paper dealing
with the accuracy of observations needed and of
the precautions taken to obtain this accuracy is
very illuminating and instructive. The use of a
hydrofoil at the bow to improve the resistance
and probably improve the seaworthiness, as de-
scribed in the second part of the paper, is ex-
tremely interesting. With the continuous in-
crease of the power available and of ship speeds in
a seaway, it becomes more and more difficult to
attain the required performance by the design of
the hull shape alone; naval architects are very
likely to be forced to use auxiliary devices in the
design of ships just as aircraft designers have been
forced to accept controllable pitch propellers and
high lift devices as a necessary part of a present-
day airplane. Already the control of the roll is
being accomplished in m a n y ships by Denny-
Brown stabilizers and it is likely that the longi-
tudinal motions of a ship m a y be controlled in the
same way. In this connection it m a y be of inter-
est to quote J. L. Kent, Ref. (11)*: " . . . , it was
desired to prevent all pitching oscillations on a
model of an aircraft carrier of naval design, and a
well-immersed horizontal fin placed transversely
at each end of the model, proved most effective
in damping out all pitching in regular waves under
synchronous conditions, and added very little to
the power required to drive the model." In con-
nection with the last sentence it should be noted
t h a t the drag of fins in a seaway probably will be
balanced by the reduction of the hull resistance
associated with the reduction of pitching.
The above is quoted merely to encourage the
authors in their belief in the usefulness of fins in
* Kent, J. L., " T h e Design of Seakindly Ships," Transactions of
N o r t h - E a s t Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, 1950,
p a g e 431.
connection with seaworthiness. The preliminary
data presented in the paper are concerned only
with the resistance in smooth water. Quite spec-
tacular reduction of resistance is indicated on Fig.
14 for speed-length ratios in excess of 0.95, but
only a small reduction is found at the design speed,
which in this case can be taken somewhere around
0.90. In the present stage of development, how-
ever, it was important only to show that fins do
have a large and beneficial effect. With further
development the conditions at the design speed
m a y be improved also.
The bow fins were conceived as means of pro-
ducing areas of reduced pressure similar to those
of the bulbous bow and their beneficial effect is
ascribed primarily to the wave interference. I t
should be noted, however, that changes of trim
are also significant. I t is well known that the
rapid rise of the resistance curve is accompanied
by an increase of bow down trim. This has been
demonstrated by special tests in towing tanks in
which the reduction of resistance was obtained by
restraining the model so as to prevent this change
of trim. I t is probable that for each speed there
exists as optimum trim. I t is suggested therefore
that the authors plan their future experiments so
as to separate the effects of the fin as wave pro-
ducer from the effects of trim changes. This
separation m a y help in a more rational design of
fins. It m a y also be desirable to experiment with
fins. at bow and stern for ships with fine stern
lines, particularly in regard to behavior in seaway.
~{R. EDWARD V. LEWIS, ~/[ember: One is cer-
tainly impressed in reading this interesting paper
with the great pains taken in the design and con-
struction of the M.I.T. tank to attain a high level
of precision in the measurement of experimental
quantities. There can be little doubt that this
level is more than ample for the purpose, and having
attained it, the authors are in an exceptionally
strong position to turn their attention to other
aspects of model testing which are also of vital
importance in connection with precision--in par-
ticular, test procedures for minimizing scale effect
in full scale predictions of ship resistance.
In discussing the philosophy of design on page
66, the authors appear somewhat more apologetic
than need be regarding the potentialities of the
small model basin when they say, "The relatively
low Reynolds number which is imposed on a small
basin is a major disadvantage, resulting in larger
scale effect errors on full scale predictions and a
restriction on certain types of research." Actu-
ally, I think the authors would agree that scale
effect is a problem common to all models, and that
the more we learn how to control and correct for
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T. 89

it, the less i m p o r t a n t it becomes as a factor the proposed visual method of setting the ampli-
affecting the accuracy of full scale predictions of tude of the wave generator (for obtaining regular
both large and small tanks. Speaking as a com- waves) m a y not prove practicable. This sugges-
parative newcomer to model testing work, it tion is not made b y way of criticism, but merely
appears to me t h a t the small basins already have with the thought t h a t it m a y be helpful in working
gone far enough in this direction so, t h a t certain out testing techniques with the new wavemaker.
inherent advantages of the small t~nk have be- I t is very difficult to judge the heights of moving
come felt. Some of these advantages are the close waves against a grid, and since a high degree of
control possible of water t e m p e r a t u r e and general precision is needed to insure reproducibility and
turbulence, the uniformity of finish obtainable comparability of test results, a more accurate
with small wood models and the avoidance of method would be desirable. Still photographs of a
difficulties in maintaining their shape, the close single wave have proved unsatisfactory because of
observation and control of all aspects of the tests slight variations in heights of successive crests. A
made possible b y the simplicity of a p p a r a t u s and continuous record is needed, so t h a t the complete
the small size of the test set-up. In short, I feel wave profile will be available for study. Either
t h a t the small t a n k has been proved to be an moving pictures of the wave or electricalJ0zater
entirely satisfactory tool for predictions of full- elevation recorders are satisfactory for this pur-
scale resistance, a tool t h a t is being continually pose. To avoid a great deal of trial and error
sharpened b y work such as this at M.I.T. adjustments, a calibration of the amplitude set-
T h e s t a t e m e n t on page 75 t h a t an interval of 8 tings would be highly desirable, the continuous
to 10 min is necessary in order to allow water record being made only as a check. I t is essential
currents to die out is open to some question. In t h a t means be provided to insure that, for a n y
particular, I should like to suggest the warning particular wave size, the amplitude is always
t h a t too much attention to precision of measure- brought up to the desired value at exactly the
m e n t m a y possibly reduce the over-all accuracy. same rate, t h a t the model is released at exactly
I t is believed at the E T T t h a t the interval between the same time after starting the wave generator,
runs is an essential factor in the control of laminar etc. Otherwise, slight differences in the wave pat-
flow around the model. With an interval of 2 terns m a y obscure the differences between models
min, for example, the general turbulence level of tested.
the water in a small basin is considerably higher In conclusion, it is hoped t h a t the authors will
than after 8-10 rain. Consequently, the interval not set their sights too low in considering the
is one of the factors in the turbulence problem and future capabilities of the fine test laboratory they
therefore m u s t be given primary consideration now have available.
from t h a t point of view. Any slight error in
speed which results will undoubtedly prove to be DR. L. LANDWNBER, Member: This paper
secondary in importance if laminar flow has been reaffirms the great value of small model basins,
controlled thereby. not only for interesting and training students in
There are, as the authors suggest, some restric- • the field of ship hydrodynamics, but also for
tions on certain types of experimentation in small pursuing certain .researches uninhibited b y the
tanks, but it should be mentioned t h a t there are cost and scheduling difficulties usually associated
other types of research for which the small basin with larger model basins.
is to be preferred. A notable example of this is The present discusser, who, together with the
resistance testing in waves, a subject which is late J. G. Thews, developed and operated the
given considerable attention in the paper. Dy- 80-ft Model Basin at the Washington N a v y
namic forces, which predominate strongly in tests Yard during the thirties, concurs with the
in waves, are almost b y definition not subject to authors t h a t accuracies of 4-0.0001 lb and 4-0.001
scale effect, and consequently all of the advantages knot are both necessary and attainable. H o w -
lie with the small t a n k for this type of work. ever, the procedure for attaining this accuracy in
Furthermore, since wave testing of necessity re- the M . I . T . t a n k has not been fully described in
quires m a n y runs to be made, a given program can several essential respects.
be completed m u c h more quickly in a small T h e accuracy of the speed measurements de-
tank. pends upon the precise determination of the pro-
The M.I.T. wave generator design is of particu- portionality constant between towline speed and
lar interest; and the possibility of creating com- the angular velocity of the drive pulley. T h e
plex wave patterns b y systematic variation of fre- authors state t h a t " t h e working diameter is such
quency and amplitude is most intriguing. Experi- t h a t 1 rps is 2.000 knots to a high degree of pre-
ence with wave testing at the E T T suggests t h a t cision." W h a t is this degree of precisi6n and how
90 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K A T Yi.I.T.
was it determined? In the discusser's experience
it was not sufficiently accurate to measure the
diameter of the pulley with an allowance for the
thickness of the towline. A better method was
to measure the travel of a point on the towline for
(say) ten revolutions of the driving pulley. If
the authors have not employed the latter method,
it is recommended that they do so as a check on the
value of the constant that they presently use.
The accuracy of the f6rce measurements de-
pends upon the precise determination of the ratio
between towline force and scale pan load. The
authors state that "The force acting on the system
at the towing cord is equivalent to one-tenth the
force acting through the weight pans." How was
this"die-termined and to what precision? Here
also, in the discusser's experience, it was not suffi-
ciently accurate to rely upon measurements of
wheel and axle diameters, with allowances for
towline thickness. I t was more accurate to meas-
ure the distance travelled by the scale pan for
(say) ten revolutions of the driving pulley. It is
again recommended, that if this method was not
used, that it be tried as a check. Both of the
aforementioned measurements depend slightly on
the type and age of the towline and it is suggested
that it m a y be desirable to check the values of
these constants from time to time.
The accuracy of the force determinations also
depends upon the calibration of the dynamometer
friction. In the 80-ft Model Basin it was
found that the internal friction of the dyna-
mometer varied during the day, presumably due
to changes in temperature and humidity. For
this reason it was customary to make several tare
runs during the day to determine the level of the
friction curve. W h a t is the experience of the
M.I.T. tank in this regard?
The authors have recognized that, because of
the relatively low Reynolds numbers attainable
in a small model basin, flow conditions m a y not
be similar to those for higher Reynolds numbers.
Nevertheless the discusser concurs that there are
important fields of ship hydrodynamics such as
ship motions in waves, and the present investiga-
tion of the effect of bow planes on the resistance,
in which the governing laws can be conveniently
and satisfactorily investigated in a small model
basin.
MR. JOHN P. COMSTOCK, :tlernber: I t was just
20 years ago this Spring that the Newport News
ship model towing tank was put into operation,
and I have been an advocate of small models for
ehp testing ever since. So I cannot let pass with-
out comment the statement on page 66 t h a t :
"the relatively low Reynolds n u m b e r which is
",\
imposed on a small model basin is a major dis-
advantage, resulting in larger scale effect errors on
full scale predictions and a restriction on certain
types of research." I subscribe to the last clause
above, but not to the rest. The situation is some-
what analogous to the well-known medical dictum
that one way to live to an old age is to have a bad
heart and take good care of it. The small-model
operators know they have to live with laminar
flow, and that they can never assume that it is
negligible, as the large-model people did for so
m a n y years. In fact what really aroused the
large-model tanks a few years ago to the recogni-
tion that their tests were liable to measurable
laminar-flow effect was the fact that i n certain
cases, such as the Liberty Class, small models
with turbulence incitation Were getting more
consistent results than were large models without
"turbulence incitation. By small models I mean
models between 4 and 6 ft long, and I am speaking
only of ehp or towed resistance tests.
With proper precautions, scale effect discrepan-
cies between ehp tests of corresponding small and
large models are no greater than experimehtal
discrepancies between small models alone or be-
tween large models alone. I t follows that scale
effect errors on full scale ehp predictions in general
need be no larger with small models than with
large models. I am convinced that this is true.
Small-model testing does have its limitations, but
this is not one of them.
One major limitation at present is the inability
satisfactorily to do self-propelled work. However,
it seems possible that by using small standard
propellers behind the model for obtaining wake,
thrust-deduction, and relative rotative efficiency
only, and large propeller models in a propeller
tunnel for propeller characteristics, as has been
advocated b y Professor Lewis (1) TM and Allan
M u r r a y (2) and as was done during the design
of the Queen 2lfary (3), this limitation m a y be re-
moved. This would of course require a carriage.
I have examined the design of the apparatus
with special interest because it follows in m a n y
respects that at Newport News. The differences
are all improvements. The speed indicator shown
in Fig. 8 seems especially desirable. I have only
one comment, and that refers to the wavemaker
shown in Fig. 10. Some device, perhaps a raft,
will be necessary behind the paddle to quash the
violent commotion which will occur when the wave-
maker is operating.
M.I.T. is fortunate to have this facility, and we
are fortunate to have such a complete description
of it in our Transactions.
14 N u m b e r s in parentheses designate references at the end of this
discussion.
 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K A T NI,I.T.
REFERENCES
(1) Discussion of "Small Models for Studies in
Naval Architecture," 1941, Transactions, The
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engi-
neers, page 118.
(2) "Self-Propulsion Tests with Small Models,"
1951, Transactions, The Society of Naval Archi-
tects and Marine Engineers, page 133.
(3) Special June 1936 number "Shipbuilder and
Marine Engine Builder," page 26.
MR. ANSELM L. BEAL, Student Member: As a
student of Naval Architecture at M.I.T. I have
had the pleasure of working with the authors of
this paper and I wish to take this opportunity to
compliment them on the excellent work they have
done.
Having had no previous experience in tank
operation, I have no basis for comparison with
other towing tanks but I would like to relate some
of m y views concerning the ease of operation of
this installation. M y first introduction to the
M.I.T. towing tank came in 1952 in a regularly
scheduled laboratory exercise. The formal intro-
duction consisted of a short tour of the equipment
and an equally short lecture on operation. At
this point the instructor left us to our own de-
vices. This confidence in the equipment and its
ease of operation shown by all instructors con-
nected with the towing tank has not been mis-
guided. Since the tank has been in operation, I
know of no instance when a major disruption of
student work has occurred due to failure of any
part of the equipment. Failures that have oc-
curred have taken very little time to repair. I
once had the dubious distinction of breaking the
towing cord a few minutes prior to an inspection
tour of a p a r t y of interested visitors. To me it
seemed a major catastrophe, but a phone call to
Professor Abkowitz brought the simple, direct
solution--"Fix it." The repair was easily ac-
complished and the readjustment of tension took
only two or three seconds. I think the ease with
which the repairs were made impressed the in-
spection party, and I can say that it certainly
impressed me.
I have conducted tests alone in this tank and
have found that the installation is more than ade-
quate for one-man operation. The preparation of
the model and its a t t a c h m e n t to the towing
bracket are the only phases of the testing process
which cannot be done at the dynamometer end of
the tank. All processes leading to the recording'
of data and the calculation of results can be
accomplished within a 5-ft circle. The photograph
on page 66 of the paper points out that the proc-
91
esses of setting the towing force, adjusting the
acceleration, and recording the speed of the model
can be done with a minimum of movement.
W h a t cannot be seen in the picture is the electric
calculating machine whereon rapid calculation of
results can be performed while the currents and
waves in the tank are being dissipated between
tests.
The addition of a model release switch at
the center of the tank enables a student to
take photographs easily. The dynamometer can
be set up for the desired test, the student can
move to the center of the tank, set up photo-
graphic equipment and, when all is in readiness,
release the model and take his photograph. By
this, and m a n y more such items, it can be seen
that the Department of Naval Architecture has
made the carrying out of student projects as free
from unprofitable detail as possible.
Though the wave generator has not been com-
pletely installed at this writing, I have every
reason to believe that this too will be set up for
the ease of one-man operation. All evidence to
date points to this.
This ship model towing tank at M.I.T. has
proved to be a great asset to the student and to
the Institute. With a continuation of the present
departmental policy concerning the emphasis on
student use of this installation, I am sure it will
remain a source of pride and satisfaction to all
concerned.
CAPTAIN HAROLD E. SAUNDERS,U.S.N. (RET.),
Vice-President: The authors state t h a t the bot-
tom of the small M.I.T. model basin is "essen-
tially" level to facilitate shallow-water testing.
Our experience at Carderock with models which
often almost scrape the bottom, as happens with
ships in m a n y restricted channels of the world, is
that to be approximately level is by no means
adequate. Variations in bed clearance, when this
clearance is a small fraction of the model draft,
are manifested in rather large fluctuations in
resistance, so much so that it is at times impossible
to determine a mean value of resistance. The
bottoms of shallow-water basins need to be prac-
tically perfectly flat, certainly to within about
plus and minus 0.03 in. for the M.I.T. basin. So
far as this discusser is aware, concrete construc-
tion engineers have not yet learned how to achieve
this.
The wavemaker illustrated in Fig. 10 and de-
scribed in the paper displays ingenuity and
adaptation to the basin needs, particularly in the
provision for changing speed and stroke from a
distant point while the gear is running.
However, if the drawing is any indication of the
92 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K AT 5I.I.T.
relative size of the parts, then the various scant-
lings are considered to be much too small. The
working parts, particularly the paddle, deflect
under load and introduce harmonics or distortions
which render the waves only approximations of
those actually desired. If we go to great pains to
damp out all surface waves and t o wait for
residual currents to fade out in a basin intended to
represent smooth, stationary water, we can at
least make a wave that is an equally good repre-
sentation of the one in the reference books. This
discusser has seen a great many wavemakers in
America and in Europe but in his opinion only
one is sturdy and rigid enough to render the
mechnanical distortions negligible. This is the
unique wavemaker installed in the special model
basin at Paris, devoted to the study of ship mo-
tions in waves. I t is perhaps not strange that this
Paris wavemaker is also the quietest of them all.
I t is considered too early in the investigation
to comment at length on the hydrofoil experiments
described by the authors. One might ask, how-
ever, for the reasons behind their statement that
"The hydrofoil may allow a ful!er bow than the
bulb allows at the LWL, with a possible improve-
ment in the seaworthiness properties of the ship."
Practical experience in all the waters of the
world with m a n y bulb-bow naval vessels with fine
waterlines forward indicates no need to give them
fuller entrance waterlines to improve their wave-
going performance.
MR. ALEXANDER J. TACtlMINDJI, Associate
Member: The paper is a valuable contribution
to the testing and instrumentation of small
models and the results that can be expected from
them. In Part 2 the authors present some results
obtained at the M.I.T. tank and it is on this part
that t h e c o m m e n t s will be directed.
As the authors have pointed out, this investiga-
tion is being considered purely from an academic
point of view, consideration being given to the
effect of angle of attack, position and aspect
ratio. In agreement with the experimental r e -
sults, the best vertical location will be the lower-
most position on the hull. This can be explained
by the fact t h a t when the hydrofoil is near the keel
the positive pressure produced by its face will not
add an additional pressure gradient on the ves-
sel's bow. At that position the only effect on the
bow is one of negative pressure.
The depth being fixed, the angle of attack can
be determined from considerations of the best
lift-drag ratio at t h a t depth. I t must be noted,
however, t h a t such best angle is directly a func-
tion of the depth-chord ratio and decreases as the
hydrofoil approaches the surface. TM The follow-
ing expression c a n b e used for relating the angle
of attack for the best lift-drag ratio in an infinite
fluid to that obtained when the hydrofoil is near a
free boundary:
1.2 0.15
~/c = ,~ (d/c) + (d/c)
~
assuming that the depth of the water under the
hydrofoil is'larger than 5c. In the case of the hy-
drofoil used by the authors, the best lift drag ratio
is 21 and occurs at an angle of attack of 5 °, when
there is no free boundary effect. At a d/c =
0.45, as used in the tests, the best angle is com-
puted to be ,3.17° . This value agrees closely with
the angle used to obtain curve 4 in Fig. 14. The
value of L I D at that angle of attack and depth is
estimated as about 25. Let us now consider the
effect of depth upon the lift. This can be con-
sidered as a measure of the area of negative pres-
sure on the back of the hydrofoil. I t is known
that at a large immersion of 4 to 5 chords, lift and
drag approximate the values of those obtained in
an infinite fluid. As the immersion is decreased,
lift and drag are individually decreased although
L / D is increased. This decrease in lift is accom-
panied by a decrease of the negative pressure on
the back of the hydrofoil. The result is a positive
pressure wave directly over the hydrofoil as
shown on Fig. 11, in which case the advantage of
the negative pressure is substantially lost and the
hydrofoil acts merely as a guide vane. In that
case, movement of the hydrofoil beyond the for-
ward perpendicular is necessary in order to utilize
the wave hollow following the positive pressure,
but all advantages of the hydrofoil are, however,
lost~ I t appears, therefore, that the chord of the
hydrofoil should be substantially decreased to a
value which would allow the direct utilization of
the negative pressure.
The above considerations are only valid in the
range of large wavemaking resistance. Around
the design conditions other parameters will have
to be considered. Observing Fig. 13 it is apparent
that the resultant wavemaking is one originating
from the shoulder wave. A natural step would be
to concentrate the ship's wavemaking features as
much as possible to the effective region of the
hydrofoil. The section area curve would have an
easy shoulder and an increased tangent at the
forward perpendicular. This m a y show that the
beneficial results of the hydrofoil m a y be reached
within the design speed range.
I t would be interesting to know whether the
authors are contemplating placing the hydrofoil
at an .angle to the keel, and investigating that
t~ N A C A R e p o r t s L - 7 5 8 a n d L-766.
 T H E SHIP- M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K A T M . I . T .
additional effect. Such a position m a y show cer-
tain advantages on t h e w a v e m a k i n g qualities.
We would like to thank the authors for a most
interesting paper, a n d sincerely hope that this is
the first of man3~ from the M.I.T. tank.
DR. GEORGE C. MANNING, Alember." T h i s
paper brings out clearly that the suitability of
small towing tanks and small models for studies
in the propulsive characteristics of ships requires
instrumentation of high precision. This is par-
ticularly true in regard to the measurements of
force. This may be illustrated by comparing the
speeds and forces at the same Froude number of a
5-ft and a 20-ft model. The speed of the 20-ft
model is only twice that of the 5-ft one. The
absolute precision of the speed measurement for
the small model need only be twice t h a t for the
large one. T h a t is, a residual error of ±0.001
knot for the 5-ft model gives the same percentage
uncertainty in the speed as a residual error of
±0.002 knot for the 20-ft model. The resistance
of the large model is of the order of 04 times that
of the small one. For equal relative precision, the
resistance measurement of the 5-ft model must,
therefore, have an absolute precision which is 64
times that of the 20-ft model. A resistance meas-
urement on the large model which has a residual
error of ± 0.0064 lb gives approximately the same
percentage of uncertainty as ±0.0001 lb for the
5-ft model.
I t would be highly desirable if all towing tanks
would give as a part of their report, the results of
a precision study indicating the experimenter's
estimate of the uncertainty in the results.
MR. HENRY KOZLOWSKI, Associate Member: I Although it is not stated in the paper, I pre-
should like to emphasize how well did "the
philosophy" of the design of the M.I.T. tank work
in practice. As someone who did work in the
M.I.T. tank single handed, I can readily vouch
for the versatility and ruggedness of the appa-
ratus, particularly, that I was partly guilty of
having made some of the small a m o u n t of repair
work necessary.
There is an aspect other than the technical
aspect of the tank, however, for which the people
running it, and Prof. Abkowitz in particular,
should be credited. The general atmosphere and
opportunity for work are, I believe, quite un-
matched and perhaps even unprecedented. Due
to the policy of "Students and Research Definitely
First" this tank has been virtually thrown open
as " y o u r own" to a n y b o d y who genuinely wanted
to do work and treat it as such. In t h a t sort of
atmosphere, the sky is the limit and all of us were
aiming high. I can speak not only for myself but
95
also for the co-author of the paper when saying
that work was done in this tank at hours only
limited by enthusiasm and that. meant sometimes
past midnight. For that thrill of unhampered
research work, direct approach to all in the de-
partment, complete lack of commercialism and
no bureaucracy; for all that, I think the M.I.T.
tank is a shining example of what an educational
institution really can become to the people
associated with it.
Turning to the second part of the paper the
authors should be congratulated on the extreme
caution with which they presented the results.
In these days of expensive and elaborate tank tests
to shave off an extra 2 or 3% of the resistance of a
ship it is worth having in mind that the authors
present us with results in which the wavemaking
resistance is effectively cut by up to 25%. What-
ever the numerous practical objections and quali-
fications, this in itself shows t h a t the field is wide
open. Little can be done in perfecting the hull
shapes of ships, in which sphere we have reached the
stage of diminishing returns. I t may well be that
by conscious means of cutting down wave resist-
ance the authors bring us in to a.field where re-
turns will richly reward our efforts.
Personally I am afraid t h a t the authors' caution
goes too far when they present us with Fig. 14. A
direct comparison of a performance of a ship with
and without the hydrofoil may be a good illustra-
tion, but I do not believe t h a t it is either fair or
illuminating to calculate the total resistance
coefficient of the ship with hydrofoil using the
wetted surface of the bare hull only; this just
goes against the whole idea of a standard coeffi-
cient brought to a unit surface area.
sume the resistances were extrapolated using the
actual wetted surface of the ship with hydrofoil,
so as to obtain the correct value of the frictional
component at the Reynolds number of the proto-
type. This being so, why revert to an artificiality
and introduce a fictitious wetted surface area?
Anyhow, I think it will enhance the value of the
paper and illuminate the authors' point if we were
given in their reply a comparative plot of actual
residuary resistance coefficients
"reflecting the extent of reduction in wavemaking
when a hydrofoil is used.
If I m a y be permitted a stray idea: the hydro-
foil is acting so much out of the boundary layer
of the ship that it seems frictional resistance will
be determined by its local Reynolds number and
not the average R e y n o l d s number of the whole
94 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
model. This Reynolds number will be about 1/~0
in magnitude (for the model in the region of 106;
for the hydrofoil at 105) boosting up the frictional
drag at t h e model size; unless, of course, laminar
flow was in existence along the hydrofoil because
of the extremely low Reynolds number and as
no turbulence stimulation was used on the hydro-
foil.
I should like to add a few words about the proj-
ect mentioned in the paper (Reference [10]) and
on which I was engaged. Although the starting
point of this investigation was very different from
that of the authors, in its final conclusions it
served as an underwriting of some of their prem-
ises. A hydrofoil similar to that used by the
authors was placed behind the transom of a semi-
planing hull. Definite interference with the stern
wave p~ttern was observed with corresponding
effects on resistance at speeds below the design
speed (this is while the gains registered by the
authors are far above their vessel's design speed).
I shall follow the caution of the authors by stating
merely that, as expected, the longitudinal position
of the hydrofoil was of importance and encourage-
ment for. further work with stern hydrofoils for
high-speed vessels can be expressed. The reduc-
tion of trim was spectacular : up to 75% of the free
running trim could be eliminated depending on
the s p e e d . . I n this respect the horizontal hydrofoil
was less effective than the Lurssen rudders, used
successfully in practice b y the Germans on their
wartime E-Boats, but in these tests at least the
horizontal hydrofoil proved to create much less
extra drag and actually gave slight gains in re-
sistance at speeds well below the design speed.
MESSRS. J. E. KI~RWIN and BJORN STANGE, 16
Visitors: As students who are presently using the
M.I.T. Towing Tank for an undergraduate thesis,
we have found the facilities most convenient for
student use. The small model size made it pos-
sible for us to prepare one for a seaworthiness test
in a relatively short length of time. Naturally,
running tests with models of that size is quite
simple.
Although a few minutes of instruction is all
that is needed to learn to operate the tank, we
believe a fair a m o u n t of experience is needed be-
fore highly accurate results can be obtained.
Erratic readings caused b y improper placing of the
acceleration weights, or by partial laminar flow
must be recognized as such and discarded. For
this reason we have experienced that student
class experiments have been frequently ` quite
inaccurate. However, carefully run tests deft-
1~ Students, Massachusetts Institute of. Technology.
nitely do produce vet;y satisfactory results. The
tank thus constitutes a very valuable piece of
teaching equipment, both in giving the students
laboratory practice and in giving them an oppor-
tunity to carry out Original research independently
at low cost in the relatively short time allotted for
a thesis in their senior year.
VICE ADMIRAL E. L. C O C H R A N E , Past-Presi-
dent: Perhaps because I am over now at Tech and
associated over there with a number of depart-
ments, including one in biology, I am rather
conscious perhaps of the difficulty of the figure of
speech that I want to use, namely, that this little
tank which you have heard described here this
morning is, in fact, the lineal descendant of three
parents. Just how one does t h a t - - I am certainly
not going to get into any problem of deciding
which are mothers and fathers, but it is clear that
without the most generous, most complete con-
tributions from the Newport News Tank, the
David Taylor Tank, a n d t h e Stevens Tank, what
has been described to you and the success that
has been attained could not have developed.
I think, while the authors indicate their in-
debtedness to Mr. Hancock of Newport News, I
must re-emphasize and say he was most generous
in giving to us not only the detailed plans of the
mechanics of the Newport News Tank, but also
the most complete discussion of their experience
and the things they would like to do differently if
they were rebuilding their tank. The efforts were
most generous and the conferences there and here
were most complete.
Dr. Davidson in his work and the conviction he
developed in all of us of the possibilities of small
tanks and small models helped greatly.
M y discussion would be far from complete if I
did not speak of Professor Abkowitz, who is one
of the authors and could, therefore, not speak of
his own work, for the success of his job. Part of
it, I am sure, stems from his association with
Captain Harold Saunders, and, of course, Captain
Saunders' work in developing the Taylor Basin to
its maximum capabilities is well known.
There has been some discussion, and I share the
view that perhaps we have striven too far, but, in
m y own experience in the Navy, I have found t h a t
it is quite easy to miss the target even when it is
set. The job is to set the target sufficiently
sharply and accurately so that one can hit it if
needed.
I think there are perhaps some interesting
things which m a y be amusing to naval architects
which have happened to us. As you known, the
Carderock T a n k is built on solid rock foundation.
Prof. Troost described to me just recently the
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
fact that the Bonn Tank is on good hardpan.
Unfortunately, M.I.T. is almost afloat in a sea of
soupy mud. The Hydrodynamics Building,
is in fact, a ship afloat in this sea of mud. I t has
no piling under it. I t has a concrete mat 5 ft
deep at the bottom, and it sits there. Originally,
we proposed to build a 100-ft tank and put a 200-
ft extension on it. The fact immediately came up
about this foundation, and we decided that the
only thing to 'do was to build our tank entirely
i n b o a r d - - a n d that is what it is.
Mr. Beal has spoken of the work in connection
with the student body. T h a t was, of course, our
objective. I t was primarily to be an aid to teach-
ing. The fact that we didn't have one over the
years~ I think, came from the fact t h a t we set our
sights too high, so when we finally came to get this
one, we said we'd settle for anything from a
b a t h t u b up, so long as it would hold water and
float models.
DR. R. S. GUILLOTON,17 Visitor: In the first
part of the paper regarding the detail arrange-
ments of the towing tank, the paper is of great
interest since it covers a number of novel experi-
mental devices. However, the authors have not
described the equipment, used to measure- the
waves generated b y the various models or acces-
sories tested in the tank.
The writer supports the fundamental procedure
which provides, in his opinion, reasonably exact
measurements of surface variations and waves,
and he believes that the day will come when such
measurements will be the most important ones
carried out in model tanks, since they form the
only element common to both the model and the
actual ship on which one can really count. This
is why the ingenuity of experimenters and manu-
facturers of test equipment should be applied with
great care to the problem of wave measurement.
In its second portion, the paper deals with a
study of the action of hydrofoils installed on a hull.
The authors are manifestly working in the right
direction since hydrofoils permit the correction of.
wavemaking without material addition to the
resistance. They also permit augmentation of
the wake, as is found with the propeller. I t
seems that an interesting program of tests on this
subject could include the systematic measurement
of waves produced by a series of hydrofoils tested
alone as indicated in Fig. 11. For more accurate
measurements these hydrofoils could be tested at a
larger scale.
Thus, the manner in which a wave generated by
a hydrofoil is superimposed on the wave produced
t7 Engineer, S a i n t - D e n i s / S e i n e , France.
95
by the bare hull can be shown. In this manner a
method for the study of reduction of wave-making
resistance by the use of hydrofoils can be estab-
lished. Since there are many papers on the sub-
ject of wave-making resistance (in particular "A
Note on the Experimental Determination of
Wave Resistance," INA, London, 1952), a sys-
tematic means for improvement of hull resistance
is available.
MR. 1V[.A. ABKOWnZ AND J. R. PAULLING, JR.:
The authors wish to thank the discussers for a
kind reception of the paper, a very informative
discussion, and for the m a n y helpful suggestions
which they have made.
In the following paragraphs, the authors will
a t t e m p t to answer the specific queries which the
discussers have posed.
As Dr. Todd mentions, the model roughness,,
the-turbulence stimulatidfl, the currents and the
water turbulence, may affect the model resistance
by a greater amount than the accuracy of the dy-
namometer. This is a greatly desired condition.
For example, if the effect of water currents is sub-
stantially greater than the error in the dynamom-
eter system, then the .dynamometer can be used
to investigate the reduction o f w a t e r currents as a
function of waiting 'period between runs. Simi-
larly, the effects of turbulence in the basin can be
investigated. With a high precision in the dyna-
mometer measurements one is confident that
whatever results are obtained can be attributed to
the hydrodynamics without the usual worry about
instrumentation error. The only repeat tests
which have been conducted to date are the tests on
the 4-ft and 6-ft Lucy Ashton models. The two
models were tested by each of two students two
weeks apart, and the results were worked up in-
dependently. The total resistance coefficient de-
rived from each test of both the models agreed over
the speed range within less than 1/~ per cent on the
average. Only one point, from the test of both
models had a maximum deviation from the mean
of just slightly greater than 1/~ per cent. An error
of N0 per cent in the speed and n0 per cent in the
towing force would produce approximately 1/~ per
cent in the total resistance coefficient. Of course,
a sufficient time between successive runs must be
adhered to in order to produce the accuracy de-
sired
The authors are indeed grateful to Dr. Todd for
bringing to their attention the work of Havelock
and Wigley in investigating the effect of a bulb at
the bow. Dr. Todd's comparison of the results of
Wigley's work and the tests described in the paper
is very enlightening.
The authors agree with Professor Korvin-Krou-
" 96 T H E S H I P M O D E L T O W I N G T A N K A T NI.I.T.
k o v s k y that the modern ship designer must con-
sider resorting to auxiliary devices to accomplish
the desired ship performance. T h a t the bow hy-
drofoil does contribute to a large reduction in
pitching is confirmed by preliminary tests in
waves in the M.I.T. Ship Model Tank of the model
described in the paper, tested with and without
hydrofoils. A smaller loss in speed in waves ac-
companies the pitch reduction.
The suggestion to investigate the change in
trim of the model when hydrofoils are used in
future experiments is a good one. However, the
authors feel that the lifting effect of the hydrofoil
is small compared to the phase relationship of
the wave hollow produced. Fig. 14 of the paper
shows the marked effect of changing the longitu-
dinal position of the hydrofoil slightly. "Vet the
lift and trimming moment are about the same for
both conditions. The authors appreciate the
encouragement given by both Dr. Todd and Pro-
fessor Korvin-Kroukovsky. Further research is
presently being carried out on the bow hydrofoil
in calm water and waves.
Mr. EdwardV. Lewis and Mr. John P. Comstock
have corrected our statement, " T h e relatively low
Reynolds number which 'is imposed on a small
basin is a major disadvantage, resulting in larger
scale-effect errors on full-scale prediction . . . . "
The authors wholeheartedly agree with both the
discussers in this correction. The authors had
intended to convey in the original statement the
scale-effect errors of self-propulsion. Presently
the scale effect in self-propulsion is being investi-
gated seriously by small towing tanks, significant
progress already having been made in this direc-
tion. The authors, along with Messrs. Comstock,
Lewis, and Landweber, are enthusiastic and con-
fident about small model-basin capabilities.
The authors disagree with Mr. Lewis with re-
gard to the a m o u n t of waiting time between model
runs. Experience in the M.I.T. tank shows sig-
nificant currents in the tank after a 2-min waiting
interval and these can affect substantially the
accuracy of the test results. Neglecting currents
in the tank in the hope of using the turbulence
level to reduce the laminar flow over the model is
sort of saying two wrongs make a right. Currents
and laminar flow are two different ailments which
should be dealt with separately. If we must re-
duce turbulence level at the same time currents
are reduced, then one must accept this combina-
tion. By placing turbulence stimulators (such as
sand strips) on the model, one can stimulate tur-
bulence independent of the turbulence level and
current condition in the tank. A correction for
the parasitic drag of the stimulator must be
made. In a great many tests conducted at the
M.I.T. tank, the parasitic drag of the stimulator
(sand strips) as measured have been extremely
consistent. There fore, we have great confi-
dence in the procedure described. The authors
welcome the description of the experience that the
Experiental Towing Tank has had with its wave
generator.
Mr. Landweber's questions pertain to the
checking of the accuracies of measurement ob-
tainable with the M.I.T. dynamometer. The ac-
curacy of speed measurement was determined by
rotating the pulley exactly 20 times (40,000 count
on the E P U T meter) and measuring the travel of
a point on the tow line. This experiment was
performed several times. In all cases, the dis-
tance of travel checked within }i0 per cent with the
E P U T count. A similar check was made on the
ratio of scale-pan travel to tow-line travel, and
agreement was obtained within 1//0 per cent. The
experiment repeated with a well-used cord gave
the same accuracy. A change in diameter of the
cord sufficient to produce significant errors would
cause a relatively large increase in cord length
which is easily detectable.
The M.I.T. Ship Model Towing Tank has had
very satisfactory experience in the calibration of
and consistency of the pulley-friction forces.
When deceleration methods were used to cali-
brate the friction, very erratic and often incon-
sistent results were obtained. Consistent, ac-
curate, and dependable results were obtained us-
ing the equilibrium method wherein a small weight
difference was established on the weight pans, and
the resulting equilibrium speed observed. De-
termining whether the equilibrium speed had been
reached or whether slow acceleration was still in
progress had formerly been difficult to determine.
However, the accurate and repetitive speed indi-
cation of the E P U T solved this difficulty. Hence,
the accuracy and flexibility of the speed measure-
ment increased the accuracy of the force measure-
ment. Check on the friction calibration can be
made quite easily and quickly. There has been no
effect of humidity and temperature on the friction
calibration. This may be so because bearings are
completely sealed in oil and pulley disks are
periodically cleaned with carbon tetrachloride.
To Mr. Comstock and The Newport News
Towing Tank the authors are indeed grateful.
M a n y o f the ideas for equipment in the M.I.T. tank
were borrowed from the Newport News tank and
from the experience of its staff. As mentioned
before, the authors participate with Mr. Corn-
stock in his confidence in the small model tank.
The M.I.T. tank does have a raft behind the wave
paddle as suggested by Mr. Comstock to keep the
splashing to a minimum.
 THE SHIP MODEL TOWING TANK AT M.I.T.
I wish to t h a n k Messrs. Beal, Kerwin, Kozlow-
ski, and Stange, who, as students using the facili-
ties of the M.I.T. tank, have shown appreciation
for this research tool in their educational program.
These students have demonstrated two points:
(a) T h a t one-man operation of the facility is
easily accomplished. T h e w a v e m a k e r has been
put in operation since the writing of the p a p e r and
again one-man operation of tests in waves is an ac-
complished fact. (b) By far the more i m p o r t a n t
item, is the fact t h a t the M.I.T. towing t a n k has
definitely become a highly useful instruction and
research tool for the education of the profession
and for research within the profession. Such an
opinion held b y students and staff both justifies
and realizes the ambitions and goals of the people
who worked to make this t a n k possible.
Captain Saunders warned of the care necessary
in maintaining a level t a n k b o t t o m for shallow-
water work The b o t t o m of the M.I.T. tank is as
level as the concrete workers could construct it.
This m a y not be sufficiently level for test purposes,
as Captain Saunders suspects. Shallow-water
tests have not as y e t been performed in the tank.
When shallow water testing is initiated in the
tank, it is planned to lay a very watery cement
coating on the t a n k floor allowing m a n y days for
the hardening process. This procedure should
allow the t a n k b o t t o m to set level. Although the
scantlings of the wave generator m a y look small
and subject to bending, one need only to look to
the final result to determine whether the design is
proper. The wave generator is in operation at
the present time. There is little noise and the
waves produced are among the smoothest and
most consistent t h a t have been observed from a
wave generator. The wave generator is operating
to our complete satisfaction.
The authors know of at least one instance
where a designer would have liked to go to larger
bulb to improve calm-water performance but ac-
cepted a moderate bulb because of the expected
poor sea-keeping characteristics of the larger
bulb. Also, the experiences of a certain passen-
ger ship with a large bulb in rough seas confirm
this contention.
T h e authors wish to t h a n k Mr. A. J. Tach-
mindji for his analysis of the effect of shallow sub-
mergence on the lift characteristics of a hydrofoil.
Although the keel-depth location is necessary
from the consideration of the avoidance of slam-
ming, this location has a beneficial h y d r o d y n a m i c
by-product, as indicated b y the discusser. H y -
drofoils with smaller chord dimensions were tried,
but they succeeded only in nipping off the top-
most part of the bow wave. The authors feel
t h a t a smaller chord length will not depress the
97
surface over a sufficiently great length of the ship.
The authors agree with Mr. Tachmindji that bene-
fits from the hydrofoil can be improved greatly b y
designing the hull in conjunction with the hydro-
foil. Swept-back hydrofoils also have been tried,
giving slight i m p r o v e m e n t and at the same time
being structurally more feasible.
One can observe from the analysis of precision
presented by Dr. Manning t h a t accuracies of
measurement in the total resistance coefficient of a
model m a y be greater on a smaller model than on
a larger model depending on the precision of the
measuring apparatus. If, in addition, the friction
line is established accurately in the small-model
speed range and laminar flow eliminated, small
model E H P predictions m a y exceed the accuracy
of t h a t predicated from the larger model tests.
The authors wish to mention t h a t Dr. Manning's
persistent efforts as a m e m b e r of the M.I.T. faculty
played a significant p a r t in the establishment of
the M.I.T. Ship Model Towing Tank.
Mr. H e n r y Kozlowski has very nicely described
the atmosphere and spirit of the M.I.T. tank; an
atmosphere which we hope will be maintained in
the future. Mr. Kozlowski mentions the extreme
caution which the authors pursued in comparing
the ship with and without hydrofoil. The authors
feel, in discussing quantitatively the advantages of
a novel device, t h a t all questions of procedure
should be decided against the device in the process
of expanding the model data to the ship. In this
way, the significance of a favorable result cannot
possibly be questioned. In Fig. 14 of the paper,
for example, the comparison would still hold even
if the model hydrofoils were in complete laminar
flow. The discusser asks the authors for a com-
parative plot of actual residuary resistance co-
efficient based on actual wetted surface. This
comparison can be obtained readily from Fig. 14
b y reducing the resistance coefficient b y the
factor 1/1.11 for the ship with hydrofoil.
The authors welcome Admiral Coehrane's re-
marks giving additional information a b o u t the
background, planning, and construction of the
M I T tank.
Dr. Guilloton would like to be informed as to
the method used to obtain wave profiles. T h e
method presently used for wave-profile measure-
ments is to obtain a high-speed photograph of the
wave profile against a grid on the model. T h e
authors wish to t h a n k Dr. Guilloton for the en-
couragement t h a t he has given t h e m in the possi-
bilities of the wave-suppressing hydrofoil.
The authors also are grateful to the Society
for the o p p o r t u n i t y to present this paper. T h e y
wish again to t h a n k the discussers for their
remarks which have added greatly to the paper.