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Note: All metal oxides are bases. Oxides of K, Na, Ca dissolve in water to form the hydroxides which
are known as alkalies.
Metals usually react with dilute mineral acids like HCl & H2SO4 to form their respective salts & H2
gas.
Metal + Acid � Metal salt + H2
HCl � H + + Cl -
H + + 1e - � H
(from metal) (atom)
H + H � H2
1. Sodium & Potassium react violently with dilute HCl & H2SO4 to form the respective salt & H2
gas.
2 Na + 2 HCl � 2 NaCl + H 2
2 K + 2 HCl � 2 KCl + H 2
2Na + H 2 SO4 � Na2 SO4 + H 2
2. Ca reacts less violently but forms a salt & H2 gas.
Ca + H 2 SO4 � CaSO4 + H 2
3. Mg reacts rapidly with dil HCl forming MgCl2 & H2.
4. Al metal reacts slowly with dil HCl due to the presence of a layer of Al2O3 on its surface. But
when their outer layer gets dissolved in the acid then Al is exposed which reacts rapidly with dil
HCl.
2Al + 6 HCl � 2 Al Cl3 + 3H2
5. Zn reacts with dil HCl to give ZnCl2 & H2.
Zn + 2 HCl � ZnCl2 + H 2
6. Fe reacts very slowly with cold dil HCl to give Fe (II) Cl2 & H2
Fe + 2 HCl � FeCl2 + H 2
7. Cu does not react with dil HCl or H2SO4 at all, as it is below H2 in the activity series. However it
reacts with dil HNO3 because Cu has greater redox potential when compared to HNO3.
8. Ag & Au do not react with dil acids.
When a metal reacts with dil HNO3, H2 gas is not evolved, as HNO3 is strong oxidizing agent,
oxidizes H2 to H2O, as soon as it is liberated & it itself will get reduced to any of the oxides of N2.
Very dil HNO3 will react with Mg & Mn to evolve H2 gas.
Mg + 2 HNO3 � Mg ( NO3 ) 2 + H 2
(very dil)
Aqua Regia is a freshly prepared mixture of Conc HCl & Conc HNO3 in the ratio 3: 1 which is used to
dissolve Ag, Au & Pt.
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS:
A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its aq. salt solution.
Eg. When an iron nail is placed in a blue coloured solution of CuSO 4 & left alone for 20 mins, it will
be observed that the colour of the solution changes to green & there is a brown coloured, soft & dull
deposit on the nail.
Fe ( s ) + CuSO4 ( aq ) � FeSO4 ( aq ) + Cu ( s )
(bule) (green) (brown)
It can be seen that Fe being more reactive than Cu displaces Cu from CuSO 4.
On the contrary when Cu wire is placed in green coloured FeSO4 sol & left for 20 mins, no reaction
takes place.
Fe being more reactive than Cu could not be displaced from FeSO4 sol
Cu + Fe SO4 � no reaction.
REACTIVITY SERIES:
The arrangement of metals in the decreasing order of their activity is called reactivity series. Based on
their chemical reactivity metals are arranged in the decreasing order of their activity.
K
Na
Ba
Ca Most reactive
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe
Pb Medium reactivity
[H]
Cu
Hg
Ag Least reactivity
Au
Pt
2. MgCl2
Mg – atomic no/ = 12
EC – 2, 8, 2
has 1e- in the valance shell. It tends to gain 1e- & attain stable EC of that of Argon (2, 8, 8)
Cl � Cl -
2,8,7 2,8,8
When Mg & Cl react Mg loses 2e- & Cl gains 1e-. Mg reacts with 2 atoms of Cl so that 2e- are gained
bu Cl.
3. MgO
Mg – atomic no/ = 12
EC = 2, 8, 2.
� has 2e in the valence shell. It tends to lose these 2e- to attain stable EC like that of Ne (2, 8)
-
Mg � Mg 2 +
2,8, 2 2,8
O – atomic no/ = 8
EC = 2, 6
� has 6e- in the valence shell. It tends to gain 2e- to attain stable EC like that of O(2 6)
-
+2 e
O ��� � O 2-
2,6 2,8
When Mg & O react Mg loses 2e- & O gains 2e- resulting in the formation of MgO.
1. Ionic compounds are solids & are somewhat hard due to strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the + ve & the –ve ions.
These compounds are generally brittle & break into prices when pressure is applied.
2. Melting & Boiling points:
Ionic compounds have very high melting & boiling points hence considerable amount of
energy is needed to overcome these forces of attraction.
3. Solubility:
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water & insoluble in solvents such as kerosene,
petrol etc. (non – polar solvents).
4. Conduction of electricity:
Ionic compounds conduct electricity only is the molten state or in the solution form, however
they cannot do so in the solid state as movement of ions is not possible due to the rigid structure.
In the molten state the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged
ions are overcome due to heat. Hence the ions move freely & conduct electricity. A
solution of ionic compound contain ions which move to the opposite electrodes &
conduct electricity.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON – METALS:
1. Reaction with oxygen:
Non – metals react with oxygen to form acidic or neutral oxides. These acidic oxides dissolve in
water to form acids.
1) C + O2 � CO2
CO2 + H 2O � H 2CO3
2) S + O2 � SO2
2SO2 + O2 � 2SO3
SO3 + H 2O � H 2 SO4
N 2O5 + H 2O � 2 HNO3
3) 4 P + 5O2 � 2 P2O5
P2O5 + H 2O � 2 H 3 PO4
4) 2C + O2 � 2CO
5) N 2 + O2 � 2 NO
2. Reaction with water:
Non – metals do not react with water.
3. Reaction with dilute acids:
Non – metals do not react with dilute acids.
4. Reaction with salt solutions:
Non – metals are capable of displacing the other non – metals from their salt solutions.
METALLURGY:
EXTRACTION
Ore
Metal
refining
oxide of metal
Pure metal
reduction
refining
pure metal
The three steps followed in the extraction of metals from their ore are:
Enrichment of the ore
Reduction
Refining.
MINERAL: The inorganic compounds of metals that are available in the earth’s crust are known as
minerals. Eg: Al2O3 .2 H 2O, Fe2O3 , Fe3O4
ORE: A mineral that contains very high % of a metal & the metal can be profitably extracted is called
the ore of the metal.
Eg: Al2O3. 2H2O (Bauxite) for aluminium.
GANGUE:The sand, soil & other impurities present in the ore are called gangue.
Medium reactivity:
The concentrated ores of these metals are usually in the form of their oxides or sulphides or
carbonates. Before their extraction of metals, these are subjected to the process of calcination or
Roasting as described below.
Calcination is the process of heating a carbonate ore strongly in the absence of excess of air, such that
it decomposes to form the metal oxide. Calcination removes excess moisture from the wet ore &
makes the ore porous & expels volatile impurities from the ore.
D
ZnCO3 �� � ZnO + CO2
Roasting: The process of heating the concentrated sulphide ore in the presence of excess of air such
that it changes to a metallic oxide is called roasting.
2 ZnS + 3O2 � 2ZnO + 2SO2
The conversion of metal oxide into metal is called reduction. The oxide ore is mixed with carbon or
carbon monoxide which acts as a reducing agent.
ZnO + C � Zn + CO
ZnO + CO � Zn + CO2
Sometimes, highly reactive metals such as Na, K, Ca, Al are also used as reducing agents because
they can easily displace metals of low reactivity from their compounds.
Mn is obtained from MnO2 by heating with Al powder. The reaction is highly exothermic in nature &
the metal is obtained in the liquid form.
3MnO2 + 2 Al � 2 Al2O3 + 3Mn ( l ) + D
In this reaction a mixture of iron (III) oxide and Al powder is placed in a small pot having a hole at
the base. The reaction takes place when the mixture is ignited & iron is given out in the liquid form
because of exothermic nature of the reaction. This reaction is used to fill the gaps in the railway tracks
or tracks in the machine parts.
Fe2O3 + 2 Al � Al2O3 + 2 Fe ( l ) + D
Electrolytic refining of metals is the process by which the metallic impurities are removed from the
metal by using electrolytic process.
Electrolyte is made up of soluble ionic salts of the metal which is to be refined. An acid is
added to it to make it a better conductor.
Anode consists of impure metal which needs refining.
The cathode consists of strip or rod of pure metal.
On passing electric current impure metal dissolves in the electrolyte in the form of its ions &
pure metal deposits on the cathode.
The soluble impurities of the metal will dissolve in the electrolyte whereas the insoluble ones
will get collected at the base of the anode as Anode mud.
Electrolytic defining of copper:
It is the purification procedure for impure copper rod obtained after extraction of the metal.
The electrolyte consists of an aq. Solution of CuSO4. It is acidified to make it a better conductor of
electricity & to prevent hydrolysis of CuSO4.
The cathode consists of a thin strip of pure Cu metal connected to the – ve terminal of the
battery.
Anode consists of impure cylindrical rod of Cu connected to the + ve terminal of battery when
current is passed the following reactions take place.
Anode: pure Cu atoms from impure Cu anode lose to e- s to become Cu ions which enter the
electrolyte.
Cu � Cu 2+ + 2e -
Electrolyte:
The electrolyte splits to form Cu2+ & SO42- ions. The Cu2+ ions from the electrolyte move towards the
cathode. The sulphate ions combine with Cu2+ ions from the anode to form CuSO4 again.
2-
CuSO4 � Cu 2+ + SO4
2-
Cu 2+ + SO4 � CuSO4
Cathode: The Cu2+ ions that have moved from the electrolyte accept the 2e- s & get reduced to Cu
atoms. Over a period of time, the anode becomes thinner whereas the cathode gets deposited with the
metal. The anode is replaced periodically. The soluble impurities go into the solution whereas the
insoluble ones get deposited below the anode as Anode mud.
Alloys:
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more metals or a metal & a non – metal. An alloy is
prepared by mixing various metals in molten state in required proportions & cooling the mixture to
room temperature. The properties of an alloy are different from its constituents.
Alloys are stronger than the metals from which they are made.
Alloys are resistant to corrosion.
They have low melting point.
They have lower electrical conductivity than their pure metals.
Eg: stainless steel – Iron + Nickel + Chromium
It is tough, strong & does not rust at all.
Brass – Copper + Zinc.
It is more malleable & stronger than pure Cu. Colour is more golden. It is used to make nuts,
screws, wire, electrical fittings etc.
Bronze – Copper + Tin
It is very tough, highly resistant to corrosion & is used for making statues, coins, medals,
cooking utensils etc.
Solder – lead + Tin
Its melting point is less than that of pure metal. It is used for soldering electrical wires.
Amalgam – Mercury + any other metal.
It reduces the chemical reactivity of the metal.
Alloys of gold
Pure gold is 24 carat & it is very soft due to which it is not used for making jewellery. It is
generally alloyed with silver & copper to make it hard. This harder alloy of gold is suitable for
making ornaments. In India , we have 22 carat gold ie, 22 parts of pure gold with 2 parts of silver or
copper (18 carat gold is 18 parts of gold & 6 parts of silver or copper).
7. What type of oxides are formed when non – metals combine with oxygen?
Ans. Acidic oxides are formed when non – metals combine with oxygen
C + O2 � CO2
CO2 + H 2O � H 2CO3
8. Give reasons.
a) Platinum, gold & silver are used to make jewellery.
� Gold, silver & Platinum are used to make jewellery as they are highly lustrous, malleable
& ductile.
b) Sodium, Potassium & Lithium are stored under oil.
� This is because, these metals are highly reactive & catch fire readily when they come into
contact with oxygen & moisture.
c) Al is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make utensils for cooking.
� Al forms an oxide layer on its surface & protects it from getting corroded.
d) Carbonate & sulphide ores are usually concerted into oxides during the process of extraction.
� This is because it is easy to reduce an oxide as compared to carbonates & sulphides.
9. You must have seen tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or tamarind juice. Explain
why these sour substances are effective in cleaning the vessels.
Ans. CuCO3 formed on the Cu vessel is basic in nature & will react with acid present in lemon juice &
gets dissolved & removed.
10. Differentiate between metals & non – metals on the basis of their chemical properties.
METALS NON - METALS
� Metals can lose e s easily forming +ve ions � Non – metals can gain e- s easily forming –ve
-
ions.
� Metals form basic oxides. � Non – metals form acidic oxides.
� Metals can displace hydrogen from dilute � Non – metals cannot displace H2 from dilute
acids. acids.
� Reactive metals can displace H2 from water � Non – metals cannot displace H2 from water
11. A man went door to door posing as a goldsmith. He promised to bring back the glitter of old &
dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a set of gold bangles to him which he dipped in a
particular solution. The bangles sparkled like new but their weight was reduced drastically. The lady
was upset but after a futile argument the man beat a hasty retreat. Find the sol used.
Ans. The solution is aquaregia, which is a mixture of freshly prepared conc. Solution of HCl & HNO3
in the ratio 3 : 1. Gold got dissolved in it.
12. Give reasons why Cu is used to make hot water tanks & not steel (an alloy of iron).
Ans. Cu is a better conductor of heat than steel. Cu does not react with water.
1. Ritesh was asked to determine the melting point of a given organic solid. Foe this, he used a
bath containing conc. H2SO4. When he was looking at the thermometer, he lost his
concentration and became a little casual. The beaker containing boiling H 2SO4 fell on his
clothes. His clothes were burned and he got burns on hands. His friend saw this and he
immediately rushed him to doctor.
2. Ramu was asked to purify a sample of copper extracted by a suitable method. He constructed a
cell in which a rod of impure copper was made a cathode while that of pure copper was made
anode. The electrolyte was CuSO4 (aq) solution. On passing current nothing happened. His friend
looked at the apparatus set up and corrected his mistake and connected electrodes in the
reverse order. He was quite successful in his mission.
3. A lady wanted to give a coating of white wash to her room. She purchase quicklime from the
market and dissolved it in water and immediately applied the same ion the wall. In this process,
she spoiled her hands and even suffered minor burns. Her friend advised her not to be in haste and
keep it over night before applying on the wall. She followed her advice and there was no problem.
Worksheet
Chapter - 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Classification:
Hydrocarbon
Aliphatic Aromatic
Alkane series:
The series of hydrocarbons with a single bond between carbon atoms are known as alkanes. The
general formula is CnH2n+2 (where ‘n’ is the no. of carbon atoms).
Hydrocarbons can be named as follows according to number of carbon atoms:
C1:Meth
C2:Eth
C3:Prop
C4:But
C5:Pent
C6:Hex
C7:Hept
C8:Oct
C9:Non
C10:Dec
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
Hexane C6H14
Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
If in a given hydrocarbon one pair of carbon atoms are linked to each other by a double or a triple
covalent bond, then such a hydrocarbon is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Eg; Ethene C = C
Ethyne C �C
Alkene series:
Alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons characterized by a double covalent bond in a
straight chain of carbon atoms. The general formula is CnH2n. the name of the alkene can be obtained
by attaching ‘ene’ to the greek no. of carbon atoms in its molecule.
Butene C4H8
Pentene C5H10
Hexene C6H12
Alkynes series are the homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by the presence
of a triple bond in the chain of carbon atoms. The general formula is CnH2n-2. The name of the given
carbon compound can be obtained by attaching ‘yne’ to the greek no. of carbon atoms in its molecule.
Propyne C3 H 4
Butyne C4 H 6
Pentyne
C5 H 8
Hexyne
C6 H10
=O =O
-C - H R - C -H
Aldehyde Suffix ‘al’ Methanal, Ethanal
HCHO, CH3 CHO
=O
Carboxylic Acid -C - OH Suffix ‘oic acid’ Methanoic acid, Ethanoic acid
=O
R - C - OH HCOOH , CH3 COOH
O
O
P P
-C - R-C - R
Ketone Suffix ‘one’ Propanone, Butanone
CH3-CO-CH3 C2H5-CO-CH3
-X
Halo Alkane (X= F,Cl, Prefix ‘Halo’ Chloromethane, Bromoethane
Br,I) R–X
CH3 Cl C2 H5 Br
Ethane Ethanol
C2H6 C2H5OH
Propane Propanol
C3H8 C3H7OH
Butane Butanol
C4H10 C4H9OH
Pentane Pentanol
C5H12 C5H11OH
Hexane Hexanol
C6H14 C6H13OH
Propane Propanal
C3H8 C2 H5 CHO
Butane Butanal
C4H10 C3 H7 CHO
Pentane Pentanal
C5H12 C4 H9 CHO
Hexane Hexanal
C6H14 C5 H11 CHO
Butane Butanone
C4H10 C2H5 COCH3
Pentanone
Pentane C3H7 COCH3
C5H12
Hexanone
Hexane C4H8 COCH3
C6H14
- For aliphatic hydrocarbons the no. of carbons in the parent compound is denoted by proper –
prefix
- Meth, eth, prop, buta, penta, hexa for 1,2,3,4,5,6 carbon atoms respectively. Then the suffix is
added to specify the bond between carbon atoms.
- Groups attached to the parent chain are indicated by their names & counting the no. of
carbon atoms on the parent chain to which they are attached are written as prefix.
- The counting of carbon atoms is done in such a manner that the substituent or functional
group gets the lowest possible no.
- When there are 2 or more functional groups in the same molecule then they are of the same
kind. Then they are named by putting the groups in the alphabetical order.
Isomerism is a phenomena due to which there can exist 2 or more organic compounds with different
physical & chemical properties due to their structure but have same molecular formula.
Substitution Reaction:
Organic compounds particularly saturated hydrocarbons, one or more hydrogen atoms in the
molecule get substituted by other atoms.
For eg: Which Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight, chlorine can replace the H 2
atoms one by one. A number of products are usually formed by higher homologues – of alkanes.
CH 4 + Cl2 ���
sunlight
� CH 3Cl + HCl
Note: Saturated compounds undergo substitution reactions.
Ethanol:
It is a major constituent of all alcoholic beverages such as whisky, beer etc.
It is a very useful solvent for organic compounds.
It is used in medicines such as tincture of iodine, cough syrups & tonics.
It is used as an antifreeze.
Ethanol is soluble in water in any proportion.
Intake of small quantity of pure ethanol or absolute alcohol can be lethal.
Physical properties:
Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a characteristic smell, alcoholic smell.
It boils at 351 K & melts at 156 K.
It is neutral towards litmus.
A solution containing 95% alcohol & 5% water is called rectified spirit.
Ethanol is highly soluble in water.
Chemical properties:
The chemical properties of alcohols are because of OH group.
Reaction with sodium metal:
Ethanol reacts with sodium leading to the evolution of Hydrogen gas.
2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2
Sodium ethoxide
Reaction with concentrated H2SO4 to give unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Ethanol reacts with concentrated H2SO4 at 443 K & it results in the dehydration of ethanol to give
rise to ethene.
Conc. H 2 SO4
C2 H 5OH CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O
443 K
Conc. H2SO4 acts as a dehydrating agent.
Denatured Alcohol:
Alcohol supplied to the industries is rendered unfit for human consumption by adding substances
such as CuSO4, methanol, pyridine & dyes. The colour of the alcohol is changed to blue so that is can
be identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.
H O
I II
Ethanoic Acid: H - C - C - O - H
H
= O
Compounds containing C O- H
group attached to the carbon atom of the alkyl chain are called
carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids are weak acids as they are not completely ionized when dissolved
in water. Ethanoic acid is a monobasic acid.
CH3 COOH CH3 COO- + H+
CH3 COOH + H2O CH3 COO- + H3O+
It has only one replacable hydrogen atom.
Physical Properties:
It is miscible with water in all proportions & forms a homogenous mixture.
It is a colourless liquid with sour taste and typical vinegar – like smell.
Ethanoic acid boils at 391 K & freezes at 290 K.
5 to 8% solution of ethanoic acid in water is called vinegar & is used as a preservative in
pickles.
Pure ethanoic acid is called as glacial acetic acid.
Ethanoic acid is also called glacial acetic acid as it freezes at 290 K & forms an icy mass which
looks like glaciers.
Chemical Properties:
Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute alcohol in the presence of an acid, to give ester
Ester are sweet – swelling substances that are used in making perfumes & flavouring agents.
C2H5OH + CH3 COOH �� acid
�� CH3 COOC2H5 + H2O
Ethanol Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate (ester)
Ester Hydrolysis:
Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol & the carboxylic acid.
acid / NaOH
CH3 COOC2H5 ����
+ H 2O
� CH3COOH + C2H5OH
During cleaning, the hydrocarbon tail attaches itself to the oily dirt. When water is agitated the oily
dirt tends to lift off from the dirty surface & dissociates into fragments. This gives an opportunity to
the other tails to stick to oils.
Soap in the form of micelle will be able to clean since the oily dirt will be collected in the centre. The
micelle stay in the solution as a colloid & will not come together to precipitate because of ion – ion
repulsion. Thus the dirt suspended in the micelle is also rinsed away.
Detergents:
They are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The cleansing action of
detergent is considered to be more effective than a soap. The charged ends of the detergent do not
form insoluble precipitates with calcium & magnesium ions in hard water. Hence they remain
affective in hard water. Detergents are generally used to make shampoos & products for cleaning
clothes.
Answer the following:
1. What would be the electron dot structure of Carbon dioxide.
Ans. Atomic number of carbon is 6. It has 4 valence electrons. In order to achieve octet & stable
electronic configuration like that of neon, it has to share 4 electrons.
Oxygen’s is atomic number is 8. It has 6 valence electrons. Needs 2 more to complete the octet
& attain a stable electronic configuration like that of Neon.
Carbon shares 2 electrons each with 2 atoms of oxygen in the formation of CO2.
O :: C :: O:
2. What would be the electron dot structure of sulphur which is made up of 8 atoms.
Ans.
Sulphur with atomic number 16 has 6 valence electrons. In order to achieve the nearest stable noble
gas configuration, each sulphur atom shares 2 electrons with 2 atoms of sulphur.
3. What are the 2 properties of carbon which lead to the huge number of carbon compounds we see
around us?
Ans. The properties of carbon are:-
Catenation
Tetravalency
Catenation:
Carbon has a unique ability to form bonds with the other atoms of carbon to form compounds having
long chains, branched chains or rings of carbon atoms.
Tetravalency:
Carbon has the capability to form bonds with 4 other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other
monovalent elements.
4. What will be the formula & electron dot structures of cyclo pentane?
Ans.
Carbon has 4 valence e-. It shares its electrons with hydrogen & chlorine to acquire stability.
12. Write the electron dot structures of
c) Propanone d) F2
Ans. Soaps are molecules in which 2 ends have two different properties. One end is hydrophilic &
the other end is hydrophobic, when soap is added to water, the polar end dissolves in water where as
the non – polar end does not. Inside water these molecules have a unique orientation that keeps the
hydrocarbon portion out of water. This is achieved by forming clusters of molecules in which the
hydrophilic tail are in the interior of the cluster & the ionic end is on the surface. This formation is
called micelle.
15. Why are carbon & its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
Ans. Carbon & its compounds undergo combustion & release a lot of heat energy along
with evolution of CO2 & H2O. Hence used as fuels.
C + O2 � CO2 + heat & light
CH4 + O2 � CO2 + 2 H2O + heat & light
They are available in nature in large amounts at affordable prices.
16. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red / blue)?
Ans. Incase of blue litmus paper it remains Red litmus paper turns blue as soap is basic in nature
because of presence of free / unreacted NaOH.
17. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Ans. The addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbon in presence of a catalyst like Nickel or
palladium to give saturated hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation.
Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains. This reaction is used for hydrogenation of liquid vegetable oil to get
vanaspathi or ghee.
Ni / Pd
��� �
18. Which of the following undergo addition reaction C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2, CH4?
Ans. Unsaturated hydrocarbonsa: alkenes & alkeynes show addition reaction & they have
general formula CnH2n & CnH2n – 2. Hence only C3H6 (propene) & C2H2 (ethyne) undergo
addition reaction.
1. Why does carbon form varieties of compounds? Explain with examples.
2. Differentiate between soaps & detergents.
3. What is allotropy? What are allotropic forms of carbon? Differentiate between the two.
Answers:
1. Carbon forms varieties of compounds due to two factors:
Catenation:
Carbon has a unique ability to form bonds with the other atoms of carbon to form compounds
having long chains, branched chains or rings of carbon atoms.
Tetravalency:
Carbon has the capability to form bonds with 4 other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other
monovalent elements.
Small size:
This helps in the formation of strong bonds by carbon. It enables the nucleus to hold on to the
shared pairs of electrons strongly. The bonds formed by elements having larger atoms are much
weaker.
2. SOAPS DETERGENTS
Soaps are Na or K salts of long chain They are NH4 salts or sulphonate salts
carboxylic acid. of long chain carboxylic acid.
Ineffictive in hard water. Effective in hard water.
3. The property by which the element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with widely
varying physical properties is known as allotropy. Both diamond & graphite are formed by carbon
atoms.
DIAMOND GRAPHITE
It is the hardest known substance. It is smooth & slippery.
It is a bad conductor of electricity. It is a good conducts of electricity.
12. A salt X is formed and a gas is evolved when ethanoic acid reacts with NaHCO3.Name the
salt X and gas evolved. Describe an activity and draw the diagram of the apparatus to prove that
the evolved gas is one which you have named. Also write the chemical equation for the reaction.
13. Write an activity to demonstrate the reaction between ethanol and ethanoic acid.
14. Write the name and molecular formula of an organic compound having its names suffixed with
‘ol’ and having two carbon atoms in the molecules. With the help of a balanced equation,
indicate what happens when it is heated with excess of concentrated H2SO4.
15. An ester has the molecular formula C4H8O2. Write its structural formula. What happens when
this ester is heated in the presence of NaOH solution? Write the balanced chemical equation for
the reaction and name the product. What is a saponification reaction?
16. Distinguish between saponification and esterification reactions of organic compound.
17. An organic compound ‘X’ is a liquid which often freezes during winter time in cold countries. It
has the molecular formula C2H4O2. On warming it with ethanol in the presence of few drops of
concentrated H2SO4 a compound ‘Y’ with a sweet smell is formed.
(a) Identify X and Y.
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reactions involved.
18. A compound ‘X’ has molecular formula C4H10. It undergoes substitution reaction rapidly than
addition reaction. It burns with a blue flame. It is present in LPG. Identify ‘X’ and give
balanced equation for its combustion and substitution reaction with Cl2 in the presence of
sunlight.
1. What is meant by functional group in an organic compound? State in tabular form the
structural formula and the functional groups present in
i) ethanol and ii) ethanoic acid
2. Two carbon compounds P and Q have the molecular formula C3 H 6 and C3 H 8 respectively. Which
one of the two is most likely to show addition reaction? Justify your answer. Also give the chemical
equation to explain the process of addition reaction in this case.
3. What are functional groups? Write the formula of the functional group present in alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids.
4. Write the structural formula of ethanol and list its two physical properties. What happens
when it is heated with excess of conc. H 2 SO4 at 443 K? State the role of conc. H 2 SO4 in this
reaction.
5. Give reason why carbon neither forms C 4+ cations nor C 4- anions, but forms covalent
compounds which are bad conductor of electricity and have low melting and low boiling
points.
6. Why homologous series of carbon compounds are so called? Write chemical formula of two
consecutive members of a homologous series and state the part of these compounds that
determines their i) physical properties, and ii) chemical properties.
7. a) Differentiate between alkanes and alkenes. Name and draw the structure of one
member of each.
b) Alkanes generally burn with clean flame. Why?
8. What happens when:
a) ethanol is burnt in air,
b) ethanol is heated with excess conc. H 2 SO4 at 443 K,
c) a piece of sodium is dropped into ethanol?
9. What is meant by isomers? “We cannot have isomers of first three members of alkane
series.” Give reason to justify this statement. Draw the structures of two isomers of pentane,
C5 H12 .
10. A carboxylic acid C2 H 4O2 reacts with an alcohol in the presence of H 2 SO4 to form a compound
‘X’. The alcohol on oxidation with alkaline KMnO4 followed by acidification gives the same
carboxylic acid, C2 H 4O2 . Write the name and structure of
i) carboxylic acid, ii) alcohol and iii) the compound ‘X’.
11. What are oxidizing agents? Write their role in the carboxylation to ethanol and give the
chemical equation.
12. Describe the structure of a soap molecule with the help of a diagram.
13. Write the equation for reaction when acetic acid and ethyl alcohol are warmed together in
the presence of conc. H 2 SO4 Name the reaction. Also write the reaction by which acetic acid
and ethyl alcohol can be obtained back from the product formed. Name this reaction also.
14. Why is scum formed only with hard water? Mention the disadvantages of the formation of
scum.
15. A compound ‘X’ is formed by the reaction of carboxylic acid C2 H 2O4 and an alcohol in the
presence of Conc. H 2 SO4 This alcohol on treating with alkaline KMnO4 gives the same carboxylic
acid used in the reaction. Give the name and structure of carboxylic acid, alcohol. Write the
reaction involving formation of ‘X’.
16. Complete the following equations:
NaOH
i) CH 3COOC2 H 5 ��� �
ii) CH 3COOH + NaHCO3 �
iii) CH 2 + Cl2 ����
Sunlight
17. What are isomers? Draw the structures of two isomers of butane, C4 H10 . Why can’t we have
isomers of first three members of alkane series?
18. Define homologous series of organic compounds. List its two characteristics. Write the name
and formula of the first member of the series of alkenes.
19. Complete the following equations:
i) CH 4 + O2 �
ii) C2 H 5 + OH ������
Hot Conc . H 2 SO4
H C C C H
P
H O H
c) Name the gas evolved when ethanoic acid is added to sodium carbonate.
How would you prove the presence of this gas?
46. Complete the following reactions:
i) CH 3COOH + NaOH �
ii) R R
C=C + H 2 ��
Ni
�
R R
iii) CH 2 = CH 2 + Br2 �
iv) CH 3COOC2 H 5 + NaOH �
v) CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O ���
H 2 SO4
�
47. i) Why do we add ethanol to petrol in these days?
ii) Give one use of ethanol in medicines.
iii) Why is vinegar used in pickles?
48. How would you name the following compounds?
H H H H H
H H H H
H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co&Ni
position of Isotopes
Position of isotopes could not be explained as isotopes are atoms of same element having similar
chemical properties but different atomic masses. If the elements are arranged according to their
atomic masses then isotopes would be placed in different groups of the table. The occurrence of
isotopes posed a threat to the Mendeleev classification.
Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going one element to the next. So, it was
not possible to predict how many elements could be discover between the 2
elements.
Cobalt with atomic mass 58.936u was placed before Nickel with atomic mass 58.71u
Tellurium was also placed before Iodine.
Activity 5.3
1. How were the positions of cobalt & nickel resolved in the modern periodic table?
A: Cobalt has atomic number 27 & Nickel has atomic number 28. as a basis for classification in
modern periodic table is atomic number- Cobalt with atomic number 27 has to be placed before
Nickel with atomic no 28.
2. How were the positions of isotopes of various elements decided in the modern periodic
table?
A: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same atomic no. but different mass no. since the
atomic no. is the same, they need not be given separate position in the modern periodic table.
3. Is it possible to have an element with atomic number 1.5 placed between H & He?
A: Atomic number is the number of proton a whole no. & it increases in regular order. Hence, it is not
possible to have an element with atomic number 1.5 placed between H2 & He
I period H 1
He 2
II period Li 2, 1
Be 2, 2
B 2, 3
C 2, 4
N 2, 5
O 2, 6
F 2, 7
Ne 2, 8
III period Na 2, 8, 1
Mg 2, 8, 2
Al 2, 8, 3
Ci 2, 8, 4
P 2, 8, 5
S 2, 8, 6
Cl 2, 8 7
Ar 2, 8, 8
IV period K 2. 8, 8, 1
Ca 2, 8 8 2
Activity 5.4
1. Look at the group 1 of the modern periodic table & name the elements present in it.
A: H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
2. Write down EC of the first three elements of group one.
A: H - 1
Li - 2, 1
Na - 2, 8, 1
3. What similarity do you find in their EC?
A: All the elements have 1 electron in their valence shell?
1. How many valence electrons are present in these 3 elements?
A: 1
Activity 5.5
1. Write down the EC of Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
A: Li - 2, 1
Be - 2, 2
B - 2, 3
C - 2, 4
M - 2, 5
O - 2, 6
F - 2, 7
Ne - 2, 8
2. Do these elements contain the same number of valence e-?
A; No
2. Do they contain same no. of shells?
A. Yes (2 shells)
Activity 5.6
1. Li Be B C N O F Ne
+1 +2 +3 +4 -3 -2 -1 0
The valence increases to 4 & then decreases to zero. (period)
2. group 1 the valency remains same while going down in a group
Li 2, 1
Na 2, 8, 1
K 2, 8, 8, 1
Activity 5.7
1. Period II elements B Be O N Li C
Atomic radii (pm) 88 111 66 74 152 77
Li Be B C N O
152 111 88 77 74 66
2. the largest atom is lithium & the smallest atom is oxygen.
3. the atomic size decreases while going across in a period.
Activity 5.8
1. Li Na K Rb Ci
152 186 231 244 262
2. Largest atom – Cs & smallest atom – Li
3. the atomic size increases as we do down in a group. Because the number of shells are increasing
Activity 5.9
1. Classify the elements of third period as metals & non metals.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Metal: Na, Mg, Al Non- Metals: Si, P,S,Cl inert gas: Ar
Metals are found on the left side & non – metals are found on the right side.
ACTIVITY 5.10
1.How does tendency to lose electrons change in a group & a period?
A: The tendency to lose electrons will
increase in a group
decrease in a period
ACTIVITY 5.11
1. How would the tendency to gain electrons change as you go from left to right across a
periods?
A: Increases in a period
2. How would tendency to gain electrons change in a group?
A: Tendency to lose electrons decreases in the group of non – metals.
Modern Periodic Table.
In the modern periodic table the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic no. in the
horizontal rows called periods.
Elements with the same no. of valence electrons have been placed one below the other so that all the
elements having the same no. of valence electrons come in the same vertical column or group.
Modern periodic Law
The law states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic no.
Atomic no. given us the no. of protons in the nucleus of an atom & this no. increases by 1 in going
from one element to the next. Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more
precision when the elements are arranged on the basis of increasing atomic no.
Explanation of the Anomalies of Mendeleev’s classification.
explanation for the position of isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the
same atomic no. as the atomic no. is the same they can be put an one place in the same number of the
periodic table.
Explanation for the position for cobalt & Nickel. The atomic no. of cobalt is 27 & that of Nickel
is 28. since the elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic no. cobalt of lower atomic no.
should come first & Nickel of atom no.28 as to come later, even if their atomic masses are in the
wrong order.
Explanation for position of hydrogen. Hydrogen has been placed at the top of group 1 above
the alkali metals because the electronic configuration of hydrogen is similar to those of the alkali
metals. However many properties of hydrogen are different from those of the alkali metals and
similar to those of halogens. Therefore while discussing the properties of group I hydrogen is never
included. In some periodic tables hydrogen is treated as a very special element & is placed alone in
the beginning of the periodic table.
The number of elements in a period is fixed by the maximum no. of electrons which can be
accommodated in the various shells of an atom . All the elements of agiven period have different
number of valence electrons in their atoms.
The vertical columns in a periodic table are called groups. There are 18 groups. There are 18
groups in the long form of periodic table.- The elements in a group do not have same atomic no.
groups one to two & 13 to 17 contain normal elements. In the normal elements all the inner shells are
completely filled with electrons. Only the outermost shell is incomplete groups 3 to 12 contain
transition elements. In these elements the outermost shells as well as the penultimate shells are
incomplete & are in the process of being filled with electrons.
Answer the following.
1. Name two elements that would show chemical reactions similar to Mg. What is the
basis of your choice?
A: Two elements that would show chemical reactions similar to magnesium are calcium & barium as
they belong to the same group & have same number of valence electrons.
2. Name.
a) 3 elements having a single electron in their outermost shell
sodium, potassium & lithium
b) 2 elements having 2 electrons in their outermost shell
beryllium & magnesium
c) 3 elements with filled outermost shell
helium, neon, argon
3) a) Lithium, sodium, potassium are all metals that react with water to liberate H2 gas. Is there any
similarity in the atoms of these elements?
Li, Na, K lose electrons easily & hence are all highly reactive.
b) Helium is an un reactive gas & neon is a gas of extremely low reactivity. What if anything, do their
atoms have in common?
Both He & Ne have completely filled outermost shell.
4) In the modern periodic table, what are the metals among the first 10 elements.
A: among H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne Li, Be & B are metals
5. Which of these have maximum. metallic properties
Ga, Ge, As, Se, Be
A: Ga followed by Be, Ge, As, Se as metallic properties increase in a group & decrease in a
period.elements with atomic no. 57 to 71 are called lanthanoid series because their first element is
lanthanum.
Elements with atomic no. 89 to 103 are called actinoid series because their first element is actinium.
There are 2 series of elements having similar properties & they have been placed in 2 rows at the
bottom of the periodic table so that the period table can fit into one page.
In the modern periodic table the elements are roughly divided into metals & non-metals. The
elements on the left side are metals right side are they are separated non-metals some elements called
metalloids, which are placed diagonally in the periodic table. They are boron, silicon , germanium,
Le, Po & Sb. The properties of metalloids are an intermediate between metals & non metals. The
noble gases are placed on the extreme right side of the periodic table.(group 18).
Periodicity of properties down a group:
1. Valence electrons – all the elements of a groups of periodic table have the sence no. of valence
electrons.
for eg: group I group II
Li 2,1 F 2, 7
Na 2, 8, 1 Cl 2, 8, 7
K 2, 8, 8, 1 Br 2, 8, 18, 7
2. Valency – as the no. of valence electrons in a group are the same, all the elements in a group have
same valency.
For eg:- group I – ( Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) have 1 valence e-. hence their valency is +1.
group 17- (F, C l , Br, I) have 7 electrons & exhibit a valency of -1
3. Atomic size : on going down in a group the size of the atom increases as atomic radius increases.
The smallest atomic size will be found at the top of the group & largest atomic size will be found at
the bottom of the group.
Li the size increases as new shell are being added as we go down the
Na Group. This increases the distances between the nucleas & the outer
K most electron. So that the atomic size increases, inspite of increase in
Rb the nuclear charge.
Cs
Fr Size increases
4. Metallic character – as we go down in a group of periodic table the metallic character of element
increases. The size of atom increases. The size of atom increases as we go down in a group. Due to
this the valence electrons become more & more far away from the nucleus. Hence the attraction of the
nucleus on the outermost electrons decreases. Due to this the atom can lose electrons easily & form
+ve ions. Electropositive character increases as we go down in a group.
On going down in a group of non – metals in a periodic table, the non – metallic character decreases.
This decreases in the electronegative character of elements on going down in a group of periodic
table can be explained on the basis of increase in the size of the atom. As the size of the atom
increases, the attraction of the nucleus for the incoming electron decreases due to which the atom
cannot form negative ions easily. Hence electronegative character decreases. The tendency of an atom
to gain electrons decreases on going down in a group.
5. Chemical reactivity – the chemical reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group for eg:
In group I, the chemical reactivity increases from Li to Fr. The tendency of their atoms to lose
electrons increases & hence their chemical reactivity also increases.
The chemical reactivity of non – metals decreases on going down in a group. For eg: group 17, the
chemical reactivity decreases from F to I, as we go down the tendency of their atoms to gain electrons
creases hence their chemical reactivity also decreases.
6. Nature of oxides – on going down in a group of periodic table there is no change in the nature of
oxides of elements.
2. Atomic size- Atomic radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus of an isolated atom from
the outer most shell containing the e-s. The atomic size decreases from left to right in a period. In a
period as we move from one from left to right the electrons are being gradually added in the same
shell which is the valence shell. As the nuclear charge increases the electrons experience more
attraction towards the nucleus. As a result the atomic radii of the element decreases from left to right
in a period.
3. Metallic and Non-metallic properties.
The metallic character decreases because the ability of an element to loose e- decreases from left to
right in a period. Hence metals are present on the right side.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Metals Non metals
The non-metallic character increases across the period because the tendency of gain e- increases due
to their decreased size.
4. Nature of the oxides
Along a period the basic character of the oxides of the element decreases while their acidic character
increases.
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO2 Cl2O7
Strongly Basic amphoteric Weakly acidic Strongly very
Acidic acidic strongly
acidic
CONTRAST
MENDELEEV MODERN
1. An creasing order of atomic masses was 1.Increasing order of atomic no. was taken as
3. The group no.is decide by the similarity in 3. group no. is decided by the number of
4. Inert gases were not included 4. Inert gases have been given a separate
HOTS
1. In the following table are given eight elements A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H of the modern
periodic table with the atomic numbers of the elements in parenthesis.
Period Group-1 Group-2
2 A (3) E(4)
3 B(11) F(12)
4 C(19) G(20)
5 D(37) H(38)
4. Two elements X and Y belong to groups 1 and 2 respectively in the same period.
Compare them with respect to
a) The number of valance electrons
(b) Valency
(c) Metallic character
(d) Size of the atom.
(e) Formulae of their oxides and chlorides
1. A patient was suffering from high BP and cholesterol. He went to the specialist. He enquired
about his eating habits.The patient told the doctor that he consumes Dalda and Desi Ghee and also
drinks milk with full fat. The doctor asked him to immediately stop these and instead use
vegetable oil and also drink fat free milk.
(a) What was wrong with the eating habits of the patient?
(b) How did the doctor help him?
2. One category of students in a class marked ‘A’ carry paranthas, butter and pickles while the
other category of students marked ‘B’ bring chapattis, vegetables, salad and fruits, for lunch.
Whereas students ‘A ’do not like to share their food, students ‘B’ would like to share it.
(a) Which acid is present in pickles?
(b) Which group of students bring healthy food and why?
(c) Which group of students bring unhealthy food and why?
(d) Which group of students have better value system and why?
3. Teacher asked Hema to perform test for unsaturation in the laboratory for Ethylene gas. She
took some chlorine water in a tube and passed the vapours of the gas. Nothing happened. Teacher
asked her to pass the vapours of the gas into bromine water. The yellow colour of bromine
immediately discharged.
(a) What was the mistake committed by Hema?
(b) How did teacher help her?
(c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction?
1. Two elements X and Y belong to group 1 and 2 respectively in the same period. Compare
them with respect to
a) the number of valence electrons
b) valency
c) metallic character
d) size of the atoms
e) formulae of their oxides and chlorides.
2. A metal M forms an oxide having the formula M2O3. It belongs to the third period in the
modern periodic table. Write the atomic number and valency of the metal.
3. Two elements X and Y have atomic number 12 and 16 respectively. Write the electronic
configuration for these elements. To which period of the modern periodic table do these two
elements belong? What type of bond will be formed between them and Why?
4. An element X (2, 8,2) combines separately with (NO3 ) ( SO4) and (PO4)3− radical.
− 2−
Write the
formulae of the 3 compounds so formed. To which group of the periodic table do these elements X
belong? Will it form covalent or ionic compounds? Why?
5. a) What is meant by Periodicity in properties of elements with reference to the periodic
table?
b) Why do all the elements of the same group have similar properties?
c) How will the tendency to gain electrons change as we go from left to right across a
period? Why?
6. a) Name the element present in the third period and classify them into metals and
Non-metals.
b) On which side of the table do you find the metals?
c) On which side of the table do you find the non metals?
7. Name the elements present in second period and write their electronic configuration. Do these
elements contain the same number of valence electrons? Do they contain same number of shells?
8. Name the elements present in the group 1 of the modern periodic table. Write the electronic
configuration of the first 3 elements. What similarities are seen in their electronic configuration?
How many valence electrons are present in these 3 elements?
9. Calcium is an element with atomic number 20.
a) Is it a metal or non metal
b) Will its size be more or smaller than that of Potassium?
c) Write the formula of its chloride
10. How were the positions of different isotopes divided in the modern periodic table?
11. On the basis of periodic classification, identify each set belonging to either a group or a
period?
a) Na, Mg, Al b)Na, K, Rb c)B, C, N d)Al, Ne, Ar
12. In the following table are given eight elements A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H of the modern
periodic table with the atomic numbers of the elements in parenthesis.
Period Group-1 Group-2
2 A (3) E(4)
3 B(11) F(12)
4 C(19) G(20)
5 D(37) H(38)
(a) What is the electronic configuration of F?
(b) Why did she suffer from burns?
(c) Write the size of the atoms of E, F, G, and H in the decreasing order?
(d) What is the number of shells in the atom of F?
(e) State whether F is a metal or non metal.
(f) Out of the three elements B, E and F which one has the biggest atomic size?
13. Atomic number is considered to be more appropriate parameter than atomic mass for
classification of elements in a periodic table. Why? How does metallic character of elements
vary on moving from?
(a) Left to right in a periodic table
(b) From top to bottom in a group
14. An element has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.
a) To which group and period of the long form of periodic table does it belong?
(b) What is atomic number of this element?
(c) Is it metallic or non metallic and Why?
(d) Identify the element.
(e) Name an element chemically similar to this element.
15. Two elements X and Y belong to groups 1 and 2 respectively in the same period. Compare
them with respect to
(a) The number of valance electrons
(b) Valency
(c) Metallic character
(d) Size of the atom.
(e) Formulae of their oxides and chlorides
The basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this earth are called
life processes.
Basic life processes common to all living organisms are:
Basic life Function
processes
Nutrition Taking of food inside the body and converting it into smaller molecules which can be
absorbed by the body.
Respiration The process which releases energy from the food absorbed by the body.
Transport The process in which a substance absorbed or made in one part of the body is moved
to other parts of the body.
Excretion The process in which the waste materials produced in the cells of the body are
removed from the body.
Control and A process which helps the living organisms to survive in the changing environment
coordination around them
Growth The process involves the changes from a smaller organism to a big organism.
Movement The organism either moves from one place to another or moves its body parts.
Reproduction The process involves the making of more organisms form the existing once.
Nutrition in plants:
Green plants are autotrophic and synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
The process, by which green plants make their own food from carbon dioxide and water by
using sunlight energy in the presence of chlorophyll, is called photosynthesis.
Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
The process of photosynthesis can be represented as:
Experiments:
The experiments on photosynthesis depend on the fact that green leaves make starch as food and
the starch gives a blue –black colour with iodine solution.
The process of respiration which releases energy takes place inside the cells of the body. So, it is also
known as cellular respiration.
Respiration is essential for life because it provide energy for carrying out all the life processes which
are necessary to keep the organism alive.
Breathing and Respiration:
Breathing Respiration
The mechanism by which organisms obtain Respiration includes breathing as well as the
oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide is oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to
called breathing. release energy.
Breathing is a physical process. Respiration includes physical as well as
biochemical process of oxidation of food.
The process of breathing involves the lungs of the The process of respiration involves the lungs and
organism. mitochondria of the cells.
Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cells. Thus, the breakdown of pyruvate to give
carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.
Anaerobic Respiration:
The respiration which takes place without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.
The microscopic organisms like yeast and some bacteria obtain energy by anaerobic respiration
(which is called fermentation).
In anaerobic respiration, the microorganisms like yeast break down glucose (food) into ethanol and
carbon dioxide, and release energy.
Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy which gets stored in the ATP molecules.
Sometimes, when there is lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the breakdown of
pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (which is also a three-carbon
molecule) with the release of small amount of energy.
Respiration in Plants
Like animals, plants also need energy. The plants get this energy by the process of respiration. Plants
also use oxygen of air for respiration and release carbon dioxide.
The respiration in plants differs from the animals in three respects:
Respiration in plants Respiration in animals
All the parts of a plant (like root, stem and leaves) An animal performs respiration as a single unit.
perform respiration individually.
During respiration in plants, there is a little Respiratory gases are usually transported over
transport of respiratory gases from one part of long distance inside an animal during respiration.
the plant to the other.
The respiration in plants occurs at a slow rate. The respiration in animals occurs at a much faster
rate.
Plants get Oxygen by Diffusion:
Plants have a branching shape, so they have quite a large surface area in comparison to their volume.
Therefore, diffusion alone can supply all the cells of the plants with as much oxygen as they need for
respiration.
Diffusion occurs in the rots, stems and leaves of plants.
Respiration in Roots:
Air occurs in soil interspaces. Root hairs of the roots are in direct contact with them.
Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair and reaches all internal cells of the root for
respiration.
Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.
In water-logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of oxygen, metabolic activity of
the root declines and the plant may wither.
Respiration in Stems:
The stems of herbaceous plants have stomata. The oxygen from air diffuses into the stem of a
herbaceous plant through stomata and reaches all the cells for respiration.
The carbon dioxide gas produced during respiration diffuses out into the air through the same
stomata.
In woody stems, the bark has lenticels for gaseous exchange.
Respiration in Leaves:
The leaves of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. The exchange of respiratory gases in the leaves
takes place by the process of diffusion through stomata.
Net gaseous exchange in the leaves of the plant:
During day time, when photosynthesis occurs, oxygen is produced. The leaves use some of this
oxygen for respiration and rest of the oxygen diffuses out into air.
Again, during the day time, carbon dioxide produced by respiration is all used up in photosynthesis
by leaves. Even more carbon dioxide is taken in from air.
Thus, net gas exchange in leaves during day time is: O2 diffuses out ; CO2 diffuses in.
At night time, when no photosynthesis occurs and hence no oxygen is produced, oxygen from air
diffuses into leaves to carry out respiration. And carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out
into air.
Thus, net gas exchange in leaves at night is: O2 diffuses in; CO2 diffuses out.
Respiration in Animals
All the respiratory organs have three common features:
All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
All the respiratory organs like skin gills, and lungs have a rich blood supply for transporting
respiratory gases.
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in water (aquatic
animals) need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in the air, the
rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.
Respiration in Amoeba:
Amoeba is single-celled animal. Amoeba depends on simple diffusion of gases from breathing.
The exchange of gases in Amoeba takes place through its cell membrane.
Amoeba lives in water. This water has oxygen dissolved in it. The oxygen from water diffuses
into the body of Amoeba through its cell membrane.
Since the amoeba is very small in size, so the oxygen spreads quickly into the whole body of
Amoeba.
This oxygen is used for respiration inside the Amoeba cell. The process of respiration produces
carbon dioxide gas continuously. This carbon dioxide gas diffuses out through the membrane
of amoeba into the surrounding water.
Respiratory system in Humans
In human beings, many organs take part in the process of respiration. These organs are called
organs of respiratory system.
The main organs of human respiratory system are: Nose, Nasal passage, Trachea (wind pipe),
Bronchi, Lungs and Diaphragm.
The human respiratory system begins from the nose. The air then goes into nasal passage. The
nasal passage is lined is lined with fine hair and mucus.
When air passes through the nasal passage, the dust particles and other impurities present in it
are trapped by nasal hair and mucus so that clean air goes into lungs.
The part of throat between the mouth and wind pipe is called pharynx.
From the nasal passage, air enters into pharynx and then goes into the wind pipe. Trachea
does not collapse even when there is no air in it because it is supported by rings of soft bones
called cartilage.
The trachea runs down the neck and divides into two smaller tubes called bronchi at its lower
end.
The bronchi are connected to the two lungs. The lungs lie in the chest cavity or thoracic cavity
which is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called diaphragm.
Each bronchus divides in the lungs to form a large number of still smaller tubes called
‘bronchioles’.
The pouch-like air sacs at the ends of the smallest bronchioles are called alveoli.
The walls of alveoli are very thin and they are surrounded by very thin blood capillaries.
It is in the alveoli that gaseous exchange takes place.
Mechanism of Respiration:
When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm. And the chest cavity becomes
larger as a result. Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.
The alveoli are surrounded by thin blood vessels called capillaries carrying blood in them. So.
The oxygen of air diffuses out from the alveoli walls into the blood.
The oxygen is carried by blood to all the parts of the body. As the blood passes through the
tissues of the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses into the cells.
The oxygen combines with the digested food present in the cells to release energy.
Carbon dioxide gas is produced as a waste product during respiration in the cells of the body
tissues. This carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood.
Blood carries the CO2 back to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli.
When we breathe out air. The diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs relax due to which
our chest cavity contracts and becomes smaller. This contraction movement of the chest pushes
out CO2 from the alveoli of lungs into the trachea, nostrils then out of the body into air.
Note: During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a
residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the
carbon dioxide to be released.
Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the
dissolved form in our blood.
Rate of breathing:
The process of breathing pumps in oxygen into our body (and removes CO2).
Breathing occurs involuntarily but the rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory system
of brain.
The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per minute. This
breathing rate increases with increased physical activity.
Oxygen required for breathing and respiration is carried by haemoglobin pigment present in
our blood. The normal range of haemoglobin in the blood of a healthy adult person is from 12
to 18 grams per deciliter of blood.
The deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the oxygen carrying capacity
of blood resulting in breathing problems, tiredness and lack of energy.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The human circulatory systems consist of the heart, arteries, and veins. The lungs also form an
important component of the circulatory system. It has been discussed previously in our article
on human respiration.
The heart, a muscular organ is the centre of the human circulatory system. The heart is located
in the chest, towards the left side. It contains four chambers- the right atrium, the right
ventricle, the left atrium and left ventricle. The left atrium and ventricle are connected in series
and form the left side of the heart. The left heart receives blood (oxygenated) from the lungs
and pumps it to various parts of the body. The pulmonary veins, four in number, ?bring
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. The outflow from the left heart goes into a
large blood vessel (in fact, the biggest blood vessel in the body) – the aorta. The aorta has many
branches at different levels that supply blood to the various organs.
The right side of the human circulatory system consists of the right atrium and ventricle that
are connected in series. The right heart receives deoxygenated blood from the various parts of
the body and pumps it through the pulmonary artery into the lungs. Within the lungs, by the
process of simple diffusion, oxygen is taken in by the haemoglobin present in red cells, and the
carbon dioxide is excreted out into the air. This entire process is called respiration.
The heart pumps blood through the body continuously. It never stops during a person’s
lifetime. The pumping action of the heart is finely co-ordinate. The atria relax to receive the
blood. Once it is filled up, the atria contract, pushing the blood into the ventricles. During this
process, the ventricles are in a relaxed state. Once the ventricles fill up with blood, they
contract, pumping the blood into the blood vessels. The pumping action of the heart is
noticeable in many ways. We can feel the heart pumping if we put our hands over the left side
of the chest. The heart produces sounds while pumping blood. The heart sounds are of two
types- lub and dub. These sounds are heard by placing a stethoscope on our chest. A doctor is
trying to listen to the heart sounds when (s) he is listening to your chest.
The function of the heart can also be felt by feeling the pulse. When the heart pumps blood, it
does so in waves. These waves are palpable be putting our finger on any artery. The
commonest way to palpate a pulse is by placing a finger on the wrist where the radial artery is
palpable.
Thus, to summarize, the human circulatory system is a system consisting of a central pump
(the heart) that is connected to a network of tubes (the blood vessels). It functions to transport
nutrients, oxygen and waste products through the body.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM:
As a result of various metabolic activities taking place in the body, various waste substances are
produced. If these waste substances accumulate in the body, it would poison body cells and this
would result in the death of the organism. Hence it is important for our body to get rid of these
toxic waste products.
The elimination of metabolic wastes, excess of salts and water from the body is called
EXCRETION.
The organs concerned with the process of excretion are called excretory organs. The major
excretory organ in man is the kidney. Other organs such as the liver, lungs, skin and large
intestine also eliminate wastes besides performing their normal functions. They are called the
additional excretory organs.
The excretory system in human beings consists of:-
A pair of kidneys
A pair of ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Kidneys :-
A pair of reddish brown, bean shaped structures which lie along the posterior
abdominal wall one on either side of the vertebral column.
The right kidney is placed slightly lower than the left kidney as the right kidney is
pushed down by the large liver.
The outer margin of the kidney is convex and the inner margin is concave.
On the inner concave side of the kidney is present a notch called hilum. This leads to
space called the renal sinus.
The renal artery, renal vein, ureters, enter or leave the kidney from the hilum.
Ureters :- They arise from within the renal sinus of the kidneys at the hilum. The anterior part of each
ureter is a funnel shaped structure, the pelvis.
The ureters transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Each ureter opens into the urinary bladder by an aperture.
Valves at the openings of the ureter prevent the back flow of urine.
Urinary Bladder:-
This is a muscular sac like structure which temporarily stores urine.
It is situated in the lower end of the abdomen.
The neck of the urinary bladder is surrounded by sphincter muscles which remain closed till the
time of urination.
Urethra :-
It is a short muscular tube which arises from the neck of the urinary bladder and leads to the outside
The opening of the urethra is also guarded by a ring of sphincter muscle. It relaxes during urination.
Renal artery:-
This is a branch of the Aorta which enters the kidney at the hilum. It brings with it oxygenated blood
containing nitrogenous waste.
On entering the kidney, the renal artery divides repeatedly to form thin vessels called afferent
arterioles.
Renal vein :-
It is formed by the union of the renal venules in the kidney.
The renal vein leaves the kidney at the hilum carrying with it deoxygenated blood, free from all toxic
waste products.
The renal vein returns blood to the inferior vena cava.
Structure of the Nephron
Each kidney has about 1.25 million highly coiled tubules called uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
Each nephron is differentiated into two parts-
1. Malpighian corpuscle or renal capsule
2. Renal tubule
1. Malpighian corpuscle : it lies in the cortex of the kidney. It is further differentiated into two parts
a. Bowman’s capsule
b. Glomerulus
a. Bowman’s capsule :It is a double walled, cup shaped structure made of thin semi-permeable
squamous epithelial cells.It forms the dilated blind end of a nephron.
b. Glomerulus :It is a knot of capillaries present in the cup of the Bowman’s capsule. The afferent
arteriole( incoming blood vessel)enters the Bowman’s capsule and branches to form a network of
capillaries. This network is called glomerulus .These capillaries reunite to form the efferent arteriole
(outgoing blood vessel).
2. Renal tubule or nephric tubule: The Bowman’s capsule leads into a coiled part of the nephron
called Renal tubule. It can be divided into three major regions:-
a. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
b. Loop of Henle
c. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
a. Proximal convoluted tubule: It is the initial highly coiled tubular part that lies in the cortex. The
cells lining this part are made of columnar epithelium and have microvilli on their free surface which
appears like a brush border. This increases surface area for absorption.
b. Loop of Henle: it is a ‘U’ shaped part of the renal tubule. It consists of a descending limb, hair pin
loop and ascendinglimb. It is found in the medulla of the kidney. The descending limb is lined with
squamous epithelial cells, while the ascending limb is lined with cuboidal epithelium.
c. Distal convoluted tubule : It is again highly coiled part found in the cortex of the kidney. It is lined
by cuboidal epithelium . It opens into the collecting tubule.
The open ends of so many nephrons open into a wider tube called collecting tubule. These tubules
open into a larger tube called the collecting duct. They extend from the cortex to the medulla. They
are present in groups called pyramids. The collecting duct receives the contents of many renal
tubules and pours it as urine in the pelvis, which leads into the ureter.
MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION
As result of deamination in the liver, nitrogenous waste products are formed. Ammonia is one of the
main nitrogenous wastes. As this is very toxic, urea is formed from ammonia and carbon di oxide in
the liver cells. Urea is less toxic and highly soluble in water. This is then transported by the blood to
the kidneys along with small amounts of uric acid, excess of water, mineral salts, bile pigments etc.,
for elimination in the form of urine.
The formation of urine is accomplished in the following three steps:-
A. ULTRAFILTRATION :
Definition : The filtration of blood under tremendous hydrostatic pressure in the malpighian
corpuscle is called ultrafiltration.
When blood passes from the afferent arteriole having a larger diameter to the efferent arteriole
having a smaller diameter, a pressure is built up in the capillaries of the glomerulus.
Due to this hydrostatic pressure, all the substances in the blood that can pass through the
capillary walls get filtered out and enter into the Bowman’s capsule.
This occurs because the walls of these capillaries have fine pores and most of the substances in
the blood are small enough to pass through these pores, into the Bowman’s capsule.
As blood cells, fat droplets and proteins are too large to pass through, they remain in the
blood. Hence, the blood in the efferent arteriole is thicker than the blood in the afferent
arteriole.
The fluid filtered into the Bowman’s capsule is called glomerular filtrate or nephric filtrate or
primary urine. It consists of useful substances such as glucose, salts, various elements and a large
amount of water. It also contains nitrogenous waste products such as urea, uric acid, ammonia etc.
In man about 180 litres of glomerular filtrate is formed each day.
B. TUBULAR REABSORPTION :
Definition : Selective tubular reabsorption is the process of absorption of all useful substances from
the glomerular filtrate into the blood running through the secondary network of capillaries.
The glomerular filtrate entering the renal tubule contains several useful substances such as
glucose, amino acids, certain salts (esp. of Na+ and K+ ) and water.
All these substances have to be reabsorbed in to the blood so that the normal concentration
and fluidity of the blood is restored.
The process of reabsorption is brought about by two processes – simple diffusion and active
transport.
In the PCT , 65-80% of water, glucose, amino acids, and minerals like Na, Ca and K is
reabsorbed In the descending limb, 5% water is reabsorbed by the process of osmosis, as it is
permeable to water.
In the ascending limb, only minerals, mainly-Na+ , Cl are reabsorbed by active transport.(It is
the movement of molecules against a concentration gradient which requires energy). This part
of the limb is impermeable to water.
In the DCT and collecting ducts, Na+ is reabsorbed under the influence of hormone
Aldosterone. Water is reabsorbed under the influence of the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic
hormone or vasopressin)
C. TUBULAR SECRETION:
Definition : The secretion of harmful substances from the blood into the filtrate through the walls of
the DCT is called tubular secretion.
This process is the converse of tubular reabsorption. While tubular reabsorption removes
substances from the filtrate into the blood, tubular secretion adds materials to the filtrate from
the blood.
The tubules secrete specific enzymes that mediate active transport of substances like creatinine
and elements like K+ and H+ from the blood into the filtrate.
Certain drugs like penicillin and other antibiotics are also removed from the blood in this
manner.
Thus, this process helps rid the body of certain toxic substances and also helps in maintaining
the acid-base balance(PH) of the body.
The filtrate left after tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion is called urine.
At the end of the process 180 litres of glomerular filtrate changes to 1.0-1.5 litres of urine per
day.
OSMOREGULATION
The process of maintaining the water and salt contents constant in the body is called osmoregulation.
The kidneys along with certain hormones is responsible for maintaining osmoregulation in our body.
ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
When one kidney is damaged or removed for some reason, a person can still survive with one
kidney.
But if both kidneys fail, it would lead to death. In such cases an artificial kidney or a dialysis machine
is used, which filters the blood of a patient. The patient is said to be put on dialysis and the process of
purifying blood by an artificial kidney is called haemodialysis . Here the patient’s blood is led from
the Radial artery in the arm into the machine where the urea and excess salts are removed and the
purified blood is returned to a vein in the same arm.
Life Processes
1. Which chemical reactions are necessary to produce energy rich compounds?
Oxidation-reduction reactions are the most common reactions which cause breakdown of food
to produce energy rich compounds.
Oxygen obtained from outside the body is used for such reactions.
2. Why do unicellular organisms not require specific organs for taking in food, exchange of gases,
and transport of substances and, removal of wastes?
Since, the entire surface of unicellular organisms remains in contact with the environment;
specific organs for these functions are not required.
Their general body, surface helps in procurement of food, exchange of gases and removal of
waste.
3. Which process helps in producing carbon-based food? Which source of energy is utilised to
produce food? Name the organisms which are involved in the process.
The process is known as photosynthesis.
Solar energy is utilised in converting CO2 and water into the form of carbon-based food like
carbohydrates by green plants, i.e., autotrophs.
4. Do all organisms fulfill requirement of food in the same way?
Plants use inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water to produce food and other
substances.
Other organisms like animals take complex food molecules from plants or animal sources and
break them into simpler substances so that they are absorbed easily.
5. Why are processes like intake of food,, exchange of gases, removal of wastes not possible
through the general surface when the body size increases and, becomes more complex?
Multicellular bodies are more complex as they are made up of a large number of cells.
Complexity increases with the increase in the size of the body.
Cells are organised in groups called tissues.
All the cells can not be in direct contact with outside environment, and through diffusion, it
will take a long time for a molecule to reach its place of action.
Therefore, such processes require a definite organised system.
6. How do multicellular organisms accomplish the various life processes?
In multicellular organisms, there are various body parts or organs which are specific in their
functions.
These organs have specialised tissues which are suitable for specific functions.
Intake of food and oxygen from outside is also the function of specialised tissues.
Intake of food and digestion occurs in the alimentary canal while the intake of oxygen occurs
through the lungs.
7. What are maintenance processes?
Maintenance processes are the processes to perform various functions in the living organisms.
These are (i) nutrition, (ii) respiration, (iii) transportation and (iv) excretion.
For this, organisms need energy, which is made available from the food obtained through the process
of nutrition.
Oxygen is taken in and the food is oxidised to provide energy.
Oxidation-reduction processes help in producing essential molecules needed for the- growth
and development of the body.
Transport of the molecules fulfills the needs of the actively growing cells of the body"
Unwanted substances are excreted outside the body.
8. Why is the process of nutrition necessary for living organisms?
Nutrition is necessary for living organisms because of the following reasons:
It provides substances which release energy needed to do work. . It helps in the growth and
development of the body.
It provides materials to repair worn out cells of the body.
It provides substances to the body which help to fight diseases.
It provides substances which regulate different body processes and maintains life"
Essential cellular products, such as enzymes, and other important substances like hormones
are produced from the food molecules.
9. Why the leaf is considered the most suitable plant organ for photosynthesis?
Leaves are the site of photosynthesis.
The palisade tissue present below the upper epidermis is made up of cells having chloroplasts.
These cells obtain carbon dioxide through stomata and water through xylem of the veins.
Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments of the chloroplasts.
The solar energy is used to combine carbon dioxide and water in the chloroplasts, with the
help of enzymes, to produce Glucose.
Glucose is stored in the form of starch.
Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is released through stomata into the atmosphere.
10. How do plants obtain food? Give the equation for photosynthesis.
Green plants are autotrophs and synthesise their own food by the process of photosynthesis. It
means synthesis of food in the presence of sunlight.
It is a process in which plants use sunlight, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water to
synthesise food.
13. How is oxygen produced during photosynthesis? What happens to the oxygen thus produced?
Water splits during photosynthesis into hydrogen and oxygen.
While hydrogen is needed for reducing carbon dioxide, oxygen escapes into the atmosphere to
be utilised by the living organisms to produce energy.
14. Why do plants require minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and, magnesium?
These are required to produce proteins and other chemical substances needed by plants.
These are components of cells and enzymes.
15. Why do heterotrophic organisms depend for food on autotrophs?
Heterotrophic organisms cannot prepare their own food and thus they depend on autotrophs,
which are also known as producers.
The only food available to herbivores is plants and plant parts.
The carnivores, in turn, feed on herbivores and other carnivores for their food.
16. Why are variegated leaves chosen to prove that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis?
Variegated leaves show two regions, one green region containing chlorophyll, and the other non
green region that does not contain chlorophyll.
17. Answer the following questions based on experiments on photosynthesis:
(i) Why are the leaves boiled in alcohol while testing for starch?
(ii) Why is the plant kept in dark for about three days while performing an experiment to show
that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis?
(iii) Why should the leaves be kept in boiling water for a few minutes before putting them in
alcohol for testing for starch?
(i) Leaves are boiled in alcohol so that chlorophyll from the leaves leaches out into alcohol.
(ii) The plant should be kept in the dark for three days to destarch the leaves.
(iii) Leaves are boiled in water so that the enzymes are destroyed and they do not show further
activity.
18. If a green plant is placed in air, free of oxygen, would it live longer in light or in darkness?
Why?
The green plant would live longer in 1ight even without oxygen in air as it can use carbon
dioxide and water during photosynthesis and evolve oxygen in the air.
This will be utilised during respiration to release carbon dioxide and energy.
But in the dark, there will be no photosynthesis and no evolution of oxygen.
Since oxygen is not present in air, the plant will not undergo respiration.
Energy will not be made available for various activities and the plant will die after some time.
19. Which events occur during the process of photosynthesis? What happens to excess of
carbohydrates which are not utilised by plants and animals?
The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:
Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll molecules.
Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates and release of oxygen into tire atmosphere.
Excess carbohydrates, which are not used by plants, are stored as starch in the storage organs
of the plants.
Excess carbohydrates in animals are stored as glycogen
20. During an experiment to demonstrate that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis, why
were the following steps taken:
(i) Why was a potted plant with variegated leaves taken?
(ii) Why was the plant kept in dark for three days?
(iii) Why was the potted, plant kept in sunlight for six hours?
(iv) Why were the experimental leaves boiled in alcohol?
(v) Why were these leaves treated, with iodine?
(i) Variegated leaves have some green areas containing chlorophyll and some non-green areas which
are without chlorophyll
(ii) Since the potted plant was actively photosynthesising, it was kept in dark for three days to
destarch the leaves.
(iii) After destarching, the potted plant was kept in sunlight for six hours so that starch could be
produced by photosynthesis.
(iv) Experimental leaves were boiled in alcohol to dissolve chlorophyll from them.
(v) These leaves were treated with iodine to show the presence of starch in green areas of the leaves.
Blue-black colour appears in the chlorophyll containing parts of the leaves.
21.Describe an experiment to prove that carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
(i) Take two potted plants, nearly of the same size.
(ii) Keep them in the dark for three days to destarch them.
(iii) Take two separate glass plates and put one potted plant on each of them.
(iv) Put a Petri dish or watch glass containing potassium hydroxide on one of theglass plates along
with the potted plant, as seen in the experimental setup A.
(v) Cover both plants separately with bell jars.
(vi) Apply Vaseline to seal the bottom of the bell jar to avoid leakage of the carbon dioxide produced.
(vii) The experimental setups should be kept for about two hours in sunlight"
(viii) Pluck one leaf each from the two plants and test for the presence of starch by boiling first in
water, then in alcohol and finally, treating it with iodine.
(ix) A leaf from experimental setup B showed blue-black colour.
(x) The leaf from experimental setup A, containing potassium hydroxide, did not show any blue-
black colour potassium hydroxide absorbs CO2, which was not available for photosynthesis, proving
that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
22. Why is photosynthesis regarded, as the sole mechanism for the conversion of solar energy into
other suitable forms of energy?
This is the only process where the chlorophyll molecules present in the leaves can convert
solar energy to chemical energy which is stored in the food molecules.
The food thus produced is utilised by all organisms in one way or the other. No other
organism can perform this process as they do not contain chlorophyll.
23. What is the importance of photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process of food production by green plants. They are known as primary
producers, as they provide food to alt living organisms.
Solar energy is trapped as chemical energy, which is stored in food molecules only try the
process of photosynthesis. This energy is then distributed to all living organisms to sustain life.
Photosynthesis is the only natural process during which carbon dioxide is taken in and life
sustaining oxygen is released.. This helps in balancing the concentrations of both the gases.
24. Describe the process of digestion of food in man.
(i) Mouth (buccal cavity): Three pairs of salivary glands present in the buccal cavity secrete salivary
juice which mixes with food.
Salivary amylase present in saliva digests starch into sugar.
(ii) Stomach: Food enters the stomach through the oesophagus"
The gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach secrete gastric juice containing HCl,
which provides acidic medium for the action of pepsin.
Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller molecules. (Partially digest proteins).
Mucus protects the lining of stomach from the action of HCI. Partially digested food- Chyme
now enters small intestine.(duodenum)"
(iii) Small intestine:
Pancreatic juice contains trypsin, which breaks proteins into smaller molecules' amylase,
which digests starch into sugar, and lipase, which changes fats, emulsified by bile salts, into
fatty acid and glycerol.
The bile salts secreted by the liver make the medium alkaline for the action of pancreatic
enzymes.
The intestinal juice secreted in the small intestine, completes the digestion of proteins into
amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose -and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
The digested food is absorbed by blood vessels present in the finger-like projections known as
vil1i.
(iv) Large intestine:
Excess water and minerals, from the unabsorbed and undigested food is absorbed by the walls
of the large intestine.
Undigested food is removed through anus.
25. Explain the following:
(i) Emulsification of fats.
(ii) Gall bladder.
(iii) Function of the large intestine.
(iv) Peristaltic movements.
(v) Use of muscular sphincter in the stomach.
(i) Bile salts break large fat globules in the small intestine into smaller molecules for better action of
the enzymes" This process is called emulsification of fats.
(ii) Gall bladder is a sac-like structure present in the liver. It stores bile juice.
(iii) Large intestine is meant for absorption of water from the undigested food and making it more
solid. This waste is then excreted through the anus.
(iv) Walls of the organs of the alimentary canal are provided with muscles which contract
rhythmically causing peristaltic movements which push the food forward.
(v) Muscular sphincter, located at the end of stomach, regulates the movement of small amounts of
food into the intestine -for its proper digestion.
26. Describe the process of nutrition in Amoeba.
Amoeba engulfs food in solid form.
Following are the steps in the process of nutrition by Amoeba:
INGESTION: Amoeba captures its prey by means of the pseudopodia (false feet). It forms two
pseudopodia encircling the prey. The two pseudopodia fuse completely, forming a bag like structure
containing the food particle or prey. This is called the food vacuole. And the process of engulfing
food particle is known as ingestion.
DIGESTION: The enzymes present in the food vacuole digest the food, the process is known as
digestion.
ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION: The digested material diffuses or absorbed into the
cytoplasm by a process known as absorption, where it is assimilated to form new protoplasm.
EGESTION: The food vacuole also known as residual vacuole containing undigested waste is
brought to any point on the surface of the cell and then it is released outside by a process known as
EGESTION.
27. What are the different modes of heterotrophic nutrition? Describe them.
Heterotrophic nutrition: Organisms which derive food from the other organisms show heterotrophic
nutrition. Such organisms are called heterotrophs. All animals, including man, are examples of
heterotrophs.
Heterotrophic nutrition is of the following types:
(i) Parasitic nutrition: In this type of nutrition, the organisms (called parasites) depend on the body of
other living organisms (called their host) for getting their food. Many viruses, bacteria, fungi and
animals have this mode of nutrition.
The organisms which depend on other living organisms (host) for food are called as parasites.
Parasites of two types:
a) Ecto parasites b) Endo parasites
Ecto parasites: Ecto parasites are those parasites which obtain their food from their host by remaining
outside the body of their host. For example, mosquitoes, ticks, lice and bed bug.
Endo parasites: Endo parasites are those parasites which obtain their food from their host by
remaining inside the body of their host. For example, Ascaris, plasmodium vivax and tape worm.
(ii) Saprophytic nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the living organisms thrive on dead and
decaying organic matter of plant and animal origin. This type of nutrition is seen in fungi, such as
bread moulds, mushrooms and yeast.
(iii) Holozoic nutrition: Some animals eat whole plants, whole animals or their parts and digest
them. The digested material is subsequently absorbed and utilised. Holozoic nutrition is seen in most
of the animals like Amoeba, cockroach, man, etc.
28. Describe an experiment to demonstrate that salivary amylase digests starch.
(i) Take two test tubes A and B and take 1 ml of starch solution in each test tube.
(ii) In test tube A, add 1 ml, of saliva. Keep the two test tubes undisturbed at room temperature for
20to 30 minutes.
(iii) Add a few drops of iodine in each test tube.
(iv) Blue-black colour will appear only in test tube B. There will be no colour in test tube A.
(v) This shows that salivary amylase from saliva in test tube A has acted on starch and changed it to
sugar. Hence, there is no colour.
29. How is dental caries caused? What precautions should you observe to avoid dental caries?
What will happen if plaque formation is not removed?
Bacteriaacting on sugars produce acids that soften or de-mineralise the enamel. Bacterial cells
together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. Saliva cannot reach the tooth
surface to neutralize the acid as plaque covers the teeth. As a result dental caries or tooth decay
occurs. Brushing the teeth after eating removes the plaque. If plaque formation is not removed,
microorganisms may invade the pulp causing inflammation or infection.
30. How is Respiration different from breathing?
Breathing is the physical process of respiratory gaseous exchange between the organism and the
environment by diffusion. It takes place in the lungs. On the other hand, respiration involves
oxidation of food and release of energy which takes place in the cells along with respiratory gaseous
exchange.
31. Breathing and Respiration in humans
Respiration may be divided into two steps.
• Breathing involves inhalation of air containing oxygen and exhalation of carbondioxide.
• Cellular respiration is responsible for release of energy by oxidation of food(glucose), and its
conversion into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)—The energy module.
32. Name the parts of human respiratory system.
Respiratory system of human beings has the following parts
• External nares or nostrils.
• Nasal cavities inside the nose.
• Internal nostrils opening into pharynx.
• Pharynx that leads into the wind pipe or trachea.
• Trachea divides into two bronchi (one bronchus) which lead into the two lungs.
The opening of the pharynx into the trachea is called glottis. Trachea is thin walled but its walls do
not collapse even when there is not enough air in it as it is supported by rings of cartilage. Trachea
bifurcates into bronchi.
Lungs enclose within them branches of bronchi called bronchioles which branch further and end in
very thin walled sac-like structures called air sacs or alveoli (sing. alveolus).
The voice box or larynx is present on the trachea
33. Explain the Mechanism of breathing or ventilation of lungs.
Lungs are located in the chest cavity or the thoracic cavity. Below the chest cavity is the abdominal
cavity. These two cavities are separated from each other by a dome-shaped (upwardly arched)
muscular sheet called diaphragm
The movement of diaphragm helps in breathing. Breathing, also called ventilation involves two
processes:
(i) Inhalation (drawing the air inwards) is the result of increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity.
This increase is caused by the changes that take place in the position of diaphragm and ribs.
• Diaphragm straightens out due to contraction of its muscles.
• Ribs are raised upward and outward and volume of chest cavity enlarges by contraction of rib
muscles. As the volume of chest increases pressure of air in it decreases.
• Atmospheric air rushes in and reaches the alveoli. It brings in oxygen which diffuses into the
capillaries from the alveoli.
(ii) Exhalation is the result of decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity.
This decrease in the volume is caused when:
• Diaphragm relaxes and resumes its dome shape, arching upwards.
• Ribs are lowered downwards and inwards.
• Thoracic cavity is compressed and the pressure inside the lungs is increased.
• The alveolar carbon dioxide diffuses out and is pushed out through the trachea and nose.
• This breathing out of carbon dioxide laden air is called exhalation.
34. Exchange of gases between blood and tissues:
Inhalation fills in the alveoli of lungs with oxygenated air. This oxygen has to reach the various
tissues of the body. Thus as the first step, blood capillaries on alveoli pick up oxygen from alveoli and
carbon dioxide brought by the capillaries from the tissues is exchanged for oxygen. Oxygen diffuses
into alveoli.
In the tissues, oxygen gets used up and carbon dioxide is accumulated which is now exchanged for
oxygen in blood. The carbon dioxide picked up by blood from tissues is carried to the heart by veins.
35. What path is taken by air when it travels from the nostrils to the lungs in the human beings?
Air from the nostrils reaches the alveoli in lungs by taking the following path through the various
organs:
Nostrils→Pharynx→Larynx→Trachea→Bronchi→Bronchioles→Alveoli
36. How is oxygen carried, to the-tissues, considering that diffusion pressure is not sufficient to
carry oxygen to different parts of the body?
Diffusion pressure is not sufficient to carry oxygen to different parts of the body. The respiratory
pigment, haemoglobin, is efficient to carry oxygen to the different parts of the body.
37. Why does aerobic respiration produce more energy than anaerobic respiration?
During aerobic respiration, there is complete oxidation of glucose molecules Therefore, large amount
of energy is released whereas in anaerobic respiration, glucose is only partially oxidised, releasing
little amount of energy.
38. What are the respiratory structures and, their role in flowering plant?
The main respiratory structures in a flowering plant are stomata present on the leaves. Stomata are
small openings, present on both the surfaces of the leaves. Oxygen moves into stomata by diffusion.
This oxygen is absorbed by the leaf cells. Carbon dioxide has more concentration in tissue-spaces
than the surroundings. When no photosynthesis occurs, carbon dioxide diffuses out through the
stomata.
39. What is the advantage of nose breathing over mouth breathing?
The air passes directly from the-mouth to the pharynx during mouth breathing while, during nose
breathing, the air passes through nasal passages and gets filtered, warmed up and moistened because
of the presence of mucus which traps dirt and foreign objects.
40. Food and oxygen, both are necessary for life. Will man be able to survive without food and
oxygen? Why?
Man can survive without food for a few days as the stored food molecules can be oxidised to give
energy. But without oxygen, energy rich compound ATP cannot be produced and energy will not be
available to carry on the life processes.
41. What will happen to aquatic animals if there is oil spilt in the ocean?
Oil spill spreads on the surface of water in the ocean, which does not allow oxygen to enter and get
dissolved in water. Aquatic animals will die in such conditions as no oxygen will be available to
them.
42. Name the organ of respiration in fishes. How does it help in the process of respiration?
Gills are the respiratory organs of fishes. The water enters through the mouth and spreads over the
gills, which are richly supplied with blood capillaries. Oxygen dissolved in water diffuses into the
blood. The blood contains carbondioxide, brought from the various parts of the body. This carbon
dioxide diffuses out in water" Water containing carbon dioxide is expelled out of the gills through the
gill slits.
43. Mention three differences between aquatic and terrestrial respiration.
i) Aquatic respiration occurs through organs like gills, as in fishes. In terrestrial respiration, lungs are
the respiratory organs.
ii) Very little oxygen is dissolved in water as compared to the oxygen present in the atmosphere.
Thus, the rate of breathing is much higher in aquatic organisms as compared to in terrestrial
organisms.
iii) Gills, which are the organs for aquatic respiration, are exposed to the outside but are covered with
operculum. Lungs, which are the organs for terrestrial respiration, are placed inside the organism
and are protected by the chest cavity.
44. What should be the characteristics of a gaseous exchange surface?
i) It should be a thin, delicate surface and should allow exchange of gases.
ii) It should have a large surface area.
iii) It should be richly supplied with blood vessels for easy transport of gases.
45. What is respiration? Mention the two types of respiration, occurring in living organisms'
describe briefly the two types of respirations. Write the equations for both the processes.
Respiration is a biochemical process which results in the production of energy, there are two types of
respirations occurring in living organisms. These are: (i) aerobic respiration and (ii) anaerobic
respiration.
(.i,) Aerobic respiration: Aerobic respiration occurs when food (glucose) is completely oxidised by
oxygen into carbon dioxide and water with release of lot of energy stored in ATP (Adenosine tri-
phosphate) molecules. This process occurs in mitochondria.
Equation for aerobic respiration:
(ii) Anaerobic respiration: The process occurring in the cytoplasm, without utilising oxygen is known
as anaerobic respiration. Food is partially oxidised into either ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Bacteria and
yeast undergo fermentation, producing ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, as shown in the equation.
46. What is pyruvate? How is it produced? What is its function in a cell?
Pyruvate is a three carbon molecule. It is produced by the breakdown of glucose molecules in the
cytoplasm
Function: Pyruvate, during aerobic respiration, enters into mitochondria, where it is oxidised by
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, accompanied by release of a large amount of energy.
During anaerobic respiration, in the yeast cell, pyruvate produces ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide
and, in our muscles, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid. A little amount of energy is released
during anaerobic respiration.
47. 'Respiration is the vital function of the body. 'Justify.
The process of respiration is the vital function of the body because;
i) It provides oxygen which is vital for life. Air, rich in oxygen, enters our body through the process of
breathing, which is an essential step of respiration.
ii) Oxygen oxidises food (glucose) in the cells, resulting in the production of large amount of energy,
which is vital to perform the various body activities.
iii) Oxidation of food results in production of large amount of carbon dioxide, a highly toxic gas,
which is expelled out by the process of breathing.
iv) During excessive need of energy, the rate of respiration increases to meet the extra demand.
v) Vital organs like the heart and the brain require oxygen, which is provided by respiration.
48. Mention the functions of blood.
The following functions are performed by the blood:
(i) Transportation: Blood transports various substances to different parts of the body such as:
(a) The digested food and other nutrients from the intestine are absorbed by the blood and
transported to all parts ofthe body.
(b) After the air enters the lungs, the oxygen from alveoli diffuses into the blood capillaries. It is then
transported by the blood to every cell of the body. Carbon dioxide, produced in the tissues due to
metabolic activities, is brought to the lungs so that it can be released outside.
(ii) Waste products like urea are produced in the various tissues of the body due to metabolism of
proteins. These are brought to the kidneys by the blood so that they can be expelled out.
(iii) Blood regulates body temperature.
(iv) It prevents loss of blood by coagulating it during an injury.
Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons,
approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s
capsule, and a long renal tubule.
Functioning of a nephron:
• The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries
associated with glomerulus.
• The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
• In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively
reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
• The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
• From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct.
Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.
• The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to
the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.
62. How is it beneficial to have large number of highly coiled nephrons in our kidneys?
* A large number of nephrons in the kidneys help in increasing the surface area for proper filtration.
* Highly coiled nephrons further increase the surface area which helps in proper reabsorption of,
useful substances.
* Filtration becomes more effective and fast.
1Q. Eating junk food results in several health problems including obesity and heart problems. Still lot
of children prefer to eat junk food. What suggestion you will give to avoid eating junk food.
2Q-. Regular physical exercise for 45 minutes is advisable for normal functioning of human body.
Comment upon the advantages of this statement/practice in daily life.
3 Q-. Rahul wants to build up his body very quickly without following right exercise regime and
balanced diet. Instead he started eating readymade food supplement. i). In your opinion was the step
taken by Rahul is right. Justify your answer. ii). What are the harmful effects of taking artificial health
supplement without consulting a physician.
4Q-. Om, Rohit and Kishore always remain in a hurry. One day, during lunch hour they all quickly
gulped food and went out to play. (i). Om suddenly developed stomach ache while playing. What
according to you might have gone wrong with him.
5Q-. Meena who is studying in Class-X gets tired very soon and her skin colour is turning pale, her
haemoglobin content in the blood is also low She is really confused about this situation. i). Which
disease is she suffering from. ii). What kind of diet should she take to overcome this problem.
6Q-. Sohan went to his town Agra 200 Km away from Delhi with his father in a car. On the way there
was lot of traffic jam. Sohan while reaching his town felt nausea and headache. He had inhaled lots of
toxic polluted gases. i). Which system/part of his body gets affected. ii). What steps could be taken to
reduce air pollution.
Ans 1. (i). Prefer and enjoy eating fruits and vegetables. (ii). Choose a diet that provide enough
calcium and iron and proteins to meet their growing body‟s requirements. iii. Add fresh vegetables
to pizzas, burger, if you can’t avoid eating them.
Associated Value : The learners will go for healthy food habit once they understand the harms of
taking Fast and junkfood.
Ans2. (i). A good, regular exercise keep diabetes under check. (ii). Exercise is also crucial to those who
are obese or overweight. (iii). Weight traning exercises increases uptake of calcium In the bones and
help in preventing osteoporosis (Bone disease). iv. Regular exercise also reduces bad cholesterol in
our body and helps in improving the function of the heart.
Associated Value : The learners will be motivated to take up sports activities more regularly to keep
them healthy.
Ans-3. (i). No the steps taken by Rahul was not right. (ii). It can lead to addiction and can affect the
health adversely.
Associated Value : The learners will be discouraged to get influenced trom other of taking any food
supplements that harm their health
Ans4.Om developed Stomach ache as he had not chewed his food properly. Chewing food properly
helps in proper breakdown of food and mixing it with saliva . Large food pieces if enter the stomach
might cause damage.
Associated Value : The learners will start chewing their food properly for healthy digestion.
Ans5. i. Meena is suffering from Anaemia. ii. She should take fruits and vegetables (Spinach) which is
rich in iron. Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin and is required for its proper functioning.
Associated Value : The learners will be motivated to take the balanced diet especially rich with
protein & Iron to keep their Haemoglobin level in the required range.
Ans6.(i). Respiratory system/lungs will get affected. (ii). a. Factories should treat harmful waste &
filter it before releasing it in the environment. b. Less polluting fuels like CNG should be used in
vehicles. c. Regular pollution check and proper service and maintenance should be done for private
vehicles. Associated Value : The learners will start taking up more eco-friendly transit system like
metro to travel besides advocating car pool among others.
5. Which of the following forces of water absorption is affected by opening and closing of stomata?
(a) Root pressure (b) Transpiration pull (c) Both of these (d) None of these
6. While preparing a temporary mount of a leaf put to show stomata, which stain is generally used?
(a) Safranin (b) Hematoxylin (c) Acetocarmine (d) Eosin
9. To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata, which type of leaf should be
selected?
(a) Turgid (b) Flaccid (c) Turbid (d) Flattened
11.The correct sequence, out of the following options. for focusing a slide of epidermal peel of a leaf
under a microscope to show the stomatal apparatus is
I. Observe under low Power II. Adjust mirror to get maximum light III. Place the slide on the stage IV.
Focus under high Power
(a) II, III, I, IV (b) I, II, III, IV (c) III, II, I, IV (d) III, II, IV, I
13. The diagrams of stomata shown below were drawn by four different students and the organelles
marked A and B were labelled as chloroplast and nucleus respectively.
15.Students observed the epidermal peel of a leaf under the high power of a microscope. The
following are the sketches made by them.
16. A student focused the leaf epidermal peel under the low power of microscope but could not see
all the parts. He should
(a) use the coarse adjustment knob again to focus the slide
(b) use the fine adjustment knob to increase magnification
(c) focus under high power using coarse adjustment knob
(d) focus under high power using fine adjustment knob
17. A well-stained leaf peel mount when observed under the high power of a microscope shows
nuclei in
(a) only epidermal cells (b) only guard cells (c) guard cells and epidermal cells (d) guards cells,
epidermal cells and stoma
18. To prepare a good temporary mount of the petunia leaf peel showing many stomata, the student
has to get the peel from the
(a) tip of the leaf (&) upper surface of the leaf (c) lower surface of the leaf (d) point of attachment of
the leaf to its petiole
19. While preparing good temporary mount of leaf peel to observe stomata, care should be taken to
avoid
(a) adding glycerine to the slide (b) staining the peel with safranin
(c) having air bubbles in the slide (d) using water to wash the slide
1. Which of the following is correct for boiling leaf in alcohol kept in water bath?
(a)Alcohol catches fire on heating directly (b) Alcohol is volatile (c) Alcohol leaves fumes (d) None of
these
2. Before removing chlorophyll, the leaf is boiled in which one of the following solvent
(a)formalin (b) water (C) alcohol (d) glycerine
3. Which of the following solutions is added to the leaf, after boiling it in alcohol and then washing it
with water?
(a)Benedict's solution (b) Brine solution (c) 1M sucrose solution (d) Iodine solution
4. We test for starch and not glucose to prove that photosynthesis has taken place because:
(a) Glucose is not produced during photosynthesis in variegated leaves.
(b) Glucose formed during photosynthesis gets stored as sucrose.
(c) Glucose formed during photosynthesis gets stored as starch.
(d) Glucose is a stable product and cannot be tested.
6. The figure which does not illustrate any of the steps of the experiment to show that light necessary
for photosynthesis is
(a) I (b) III (c) I and III (d) I, II and IV
7. A student covered a leaf from a de-starched plant with a black paper strip and kept it in the garden
outside his house in fresh air. In the evening, he tested the covered portion of the leaf for presence of
starch. The student was trying to show that
(a) CO2 is given out during respiration (b) CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis
(c) chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis (d) light is necessary for photosynthesis
8. The figures given below illustrate boiling of leaf to remove chlorophyll. This is one of the steps in
the experiment to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
III. Cover a leaf of the plant with a strip of black paper IV. Pluck the leaf and test it for starch.
The correct sequence of steps is:
(a) I, III, IV, II (b) I, IV, III, II (c) II, IV, III, I (d) II, III, I, IV
15. Under the high power objective of a microscope, an epidermal peel of a leaf shows
(a) stomata surrounding many guard cells.
(6) stomata surrounded by a pair of guard cells each.
(c) stomata surrounded by several epidermal cells.
(d) stomata surrounded by several guard cells each.
EXPERIMENT: 2 TO SHOW THAT CO2 IS RELEASED DURING RESPIRATION
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
1. Cell organelle in which respiration occurs is
(a) Chloroplast (b) Mitochondria (c) Golgi body (d) Lysosome
2. Given below to the diagram of the experiment set-up to show carbon dioxide is given out during
respiration. The part which is incorrectly labelled is
(a) KOH pellets (&) delivery tube (c) germinating seeds (d) lime water
3. The small test tube suspended inside the flask during experiment contains
(a) water (b) lime water (c) brine water (d) concentrated KOH solution
4. A student while setting up the experiment to show that CO2 is evolved during respiration,
committed some errors shown in the figure: what changes should be made in the set-up to get the
desired results?
(a) KOH solution should be taken in the small test tube inside the flask and germinating seeds in the
beaker.
(b) water should be taken in the beaker and KOH solution in the flask.
(c) KOH solution should be taken in the small test tube inside the flask and water should be taken in
the beaker
(d) water should be taken in the flask and KOH solution in the small test tube.
5. An apparatus was set-up to show that germinating seeds release carbon dioxide during
respiration. Which observation out of the following should be made to get correct results?
(a) Carefully observe if there is any change in the size of germinating seeds.
(b) See if the KOH in the test tube has absorbed CO2 released by germinating seeds.
(c) Check the change in the level of water present in the beaker.
(d) Check if CO2 is coming into the delivery tube.
6. The seeds used in the experiment to show that CO2 is given out during respiration are
(a) dry seeds (b) boiled seeds (c) crushed seeds (d) germinating seeds
7. Given below are four different set ups to show that CO2 is released during respiration.
12. Which one of the following is the correct set of three precautions for setting up the experiment to
demonstrate that carbon dioxide is evolved during respiration?
(a) Alright set-up; delivery tube dips in water in beaker; flask has seeds which have just germinated.
(b) Thread holding KOH test tube; airtight flask; delivery tube above surface of water in the beaker.
(c) Germinated seeds under water in the flask; experimental set-up not airtight; delivery tube above
water level.
(d) Delivery tube touching bottom of water; KOH test tube held by a thick wire; seeds covered by
water.
13. Before setting up an experiment to show that seeds release carbon dioxide during respiration, the
seeds should be
(a) dried completely (b) boiled to make them soft
(c) soaked in vinegar (d) kept moist till they germinate
14. In the experiment to show that CO2 is given out during respiration, in plants the student uses:
(a) lime water (b) alcohol (c) KOH solution (d) iodine solution
15. To demonstrate that CO2 is released during respiration the plant material that is taken is
(a) germinating seeds (b) detached green leaves (c) a plant with variegated leaves (d)a potted
plant with green leaves
CHAPTER 7: CONTROL AND COORDINATION
Living organisms respond and react to various stimuli like heat, light, cold, touch, pressure etc. Plants
and animals both respond to stimuli but in different manner.
Example : withdrawl of hand on touching a hot object.
Control and Coordination in Animals
It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main systems
a) Nervous System b) Endocrine System
Nervous System :
Functions
i) To receive the information from environment
ii) To receive the information from various
body parts. (Stimuli Response)
iii) To act accordingly through muscles and glands.
Stimulus : Any change in environment or within that bring about the reaction eg: touching a hot
plate.
Response : The reaction of our body to these changes. eg. withdrawal of our hand
How do we detect that we are touching a hot object?
Receptors : Are specialised tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from the environment
Neuron : Structural and functional unit of nervous system.
Synapse : The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the
dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.
Reflex Action
A quick, sudden, immediate response of the body to the certain stimuli that involves Spinal cord. eg.
(not brain) withdrawal of hand, knee jerk etc.
Reflex arc :The pathway through which impulses pass is called reflex arc.
Response
Responses are of three main types
Voluntary : Controlled by fore brain eg. Talking, Writing
Involuntary :Controlled by mid and hind brain eg. Heart beat, vomiting, regulation of heartbeat
Reflex action : controlled by spinal cord eg. Withdrawl of hand on touching a hot object.
Human Brain
Human brain has three major parts or regions
a) Forebrain b) Mid Brain c) Hind Brain
FOREBRAIN
Most complex/specialized part of the brain is CEREBRUM
FUNCTIONS :
1. Thinking part of the brain
2. Control the voluntary actions.
3. Store information (Memory)
4. Centre associated with HUNGER
5. Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it
Most of students suffer from exam stress and anxiety during exam days.
Suggest three good habits which students should adopt to tackle this problem.
Generally some of teenagers readily come under bad influences under peer group pressure.
(i). Why does teenagers readily come under this influence.
(ii). Suggest methods to overcome such problems
FLOWERS
Bisexual Flowers Both male and female reproductive part i.e., stamen & carpel present.
Eg. Hibiscus, mustard
Unisexual Flowers
Either male or female reproductive part is present. Eg. Papaya, Watermelon
A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla (Petals), Androecium
(Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).
Pollen grains of a flower transfer to stigma of the carpel of the same flower (Self-Pollination) or to the
carpel of the another flower (Cross-Pollination).
– This transfer of pollens is achieved by agent like wind, water or animals.
– After Pollination, the pollen grains reach to the egg cell in the form of a pollen tube.
Fertilization : The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It occurs inside the ovary.
Zygote is produced in this process.
Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed.
– Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
condition. This process is known as Germination.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
– Humans use a Sexual Mode of reproduction.
– It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of the germ cells ie, egg (ova) in the female and
sperm in the male partner & this period of sexual maturation is called Puberty.
– Human beings have a well developed male and female reproductive system.
– The formation of male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male reproductive organ)
– Actually a pair of testes is located inside scrotum situated outside the abdominal cavity. It is meant
to keep relatively a low temperature needed for the production of sperms by testes.
– Moreover testes release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose function is to:
1. Regulate the production of sperm
2. Brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
The sperms along with the secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicle together constitute semen,
which is released and made to enter into the female genital tract during Copulation.
The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is located in both side of
abdomen.
When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs.
At the puberty, some of these Eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of
the ovaries.
The Egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These two fallopian
tube unite into an elastic bag like structure known as Uterus.
The Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube
of female genital tract.
The fertilized egg also called zygote (2n) gets implanted in the lining of the Uterus, and start
dividing. Actually uterus is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo. If
zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus breaks which causes bleeding through vagina.
This process is called MENSTRUATION. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
The Embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the help of a special tissue called
PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother
to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from developing embryo are removed to mother's blood
through placenta.
The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus. After Nine
months (36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb. It is also called Gestation Period.
The sexual cycle in a woman continues up to the age of 45 to 50 years. After that the ovary
does not release egg. This stage is called Menopause. It a also marks the end of menstruation
in the woman.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive, ie., physical emotional,
social and behavioural.
Contraception : It is the avoidance of pregnancy. It can be achieved by various methods such as
Physical barriers, IUCD’s, Surgical methods, Chemical methods and natural method.
Healthy society needs a balanced sex ratio that can be achieved by educating the people to avoid
malpractices like female foeticide & pre-natal sex determination.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)
VIRAL STDs-----Eg. H.I.V. – AIDS, Genital Warts
Bacterial STDs----- Eg. Syphilis & Gonorrhoea
STDs are communicated during unsafe sexual contact.
1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Complete information of protein formation, responsible for making the body design, is kept in the
DNA molecule. The cells divide to produce gametes during reproduction. These newly formed cells
must receive its DNA molecule. This is made possible by making a copy of DNA from the original
DNA. These newly formed copies of DNA are similar to the original DNA molecule and are
responsible for carrying the features of the parents to the offspring, thus keeping the species alive.
2. Why are variations beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual? Illustrate
with, the help of an example.
A population lives in a particular niche which is suitable for it. If the conditions in a niche change
drastically, then most members of a population may not be able to survive. Only those members who
have suitable variations will be able to survive.
For example, many bacteria of a population living in temperate water may not be able to live in warm
water. Only a few of these bacteria will be able to survive due to the suitable variations they possess.
3. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
During binary fission, the nucleus and the body cell split only once. Each part grows into a mature
organism. In multiple fission, the nucleus and the body cell splits into many parts and each part then
grows into a mature organism.
4. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction? /
At the time of gamete formation, the germ cell along with its organelles divides into two cells.
Each cell receives its DNA which is obtained by making a copy of the original DNA.
Making the DNA copy is not absolutely accurate. This results in slight changes in the DNA
copy which would be similar but not identical This causes variations.
The coming together of two similar but not identical DNA molecules, from two different
individuals, helps in accumulating variations.
If variations are drastic, the individual will die along with the changed DNA because the new
DNA will not be able to work with the cellular apparatus.
If variations are not drastic, then they will accumulate helping in the survival of a species.
5. How are modes of reproduction different in unicellular organisms and, multicellular organisms?
Reproduction in Reproduction in
Unicellular Organisms multicellular Organisms
(i) Unicellular organisms mainly reproduce by Multicellular organisms mainly reproduce by
asexual mode of reproduction such as binary sexual reproduction.
fission, multiple fission, budding and spore
formation"
Single cell acts as the parent cell to reproduce Two parents. a male and a female parent, are
new organisms. involved in producing new organisms.
Gametes are not produced and reduction in Multicellular organisms produce two types of
chromosome number does not occur. gametes which have half the number of
chromosomes.
The offspring’s are exactly similar to each other Offspring produced are different from each other
and also to the parent cell. It does not help in and also from the parents, as variations have
evolution of species. occurred which may lead to evolution of the
species.
A large number of offspring’s are produced Usually one offspring is produced.
39. Mention the characters which develop at the time of puberty in a boy and a girl.
Characters which develop at the time of puberty in a boy are:
Development of facial hair as beard and moustache, thick hair under the armpits and the
genital area between the thighs.
Voice begins to crack.
Penis becomes enlarged and erect.
Secondary sexual characters that develop in a girl at puberty are:
Growth of hair under the armpits and around the genital area. . Breasts start to enlarge with
darkening of nipples.
Setting in of menstruation.
40. Describe the reproductive system of a human female
The following organs form the reproductive system of a human female:
(i) A pair of ovaries, (ii) a pair of oviducts or fallopian tubes (iii) uterus(iv) vagina and (v) urethra.
(i) Ovaries:
Two ovaries are the female sex organs located in the lower abdominal cavity.
A girl child carries thousands of immature eggs from birth.
One of the eggs, from one of the ovaries, starts maturing every month at the onset of puberty.
Estrogen is a hormone produced in a female at puberty which facilitates reproduction and
maintenance of pregnancy.
(ii) Fallopian tubes: Overhanging on the posterior end of each ovary is a funnel shaped structure
leading into a long convoluted fallopian tube or oviduct.
(iii) Uterus: The fallopian tubes from both the sides join into the muscular sac-like structure called the
uterus or the womb"
(iv) Vagina: Uterus opens into a tubular vagina through a narrow structure called the cervix. Vagina
opens to the outside through an opening called vaginal opening.
(v) Urethra: Urethra is a tubular structure and leads into the urinary opening, which is separate from
the vaginal opening.
41. Explain the menstrual cycle in a human female.
When a girl is born, she contains thousands of immature eggs in the ovaries.
As the girl reaches puberty, the ovaries of the girl start producing estrogen, which stimulates
the development of the egg (ovum).
One egg usually matures every month in either of the ovaries.
Oestrogen also stimulates the uterus to prepare itself to receive the developing embryo. It
becomes thick to nourish the embryo
The process of ovulation, i.e., release of ovum occurs" If fertilisation does not occur, the thick
lining of the uterus along with the blood capillaries starts breaking slowly and comes out of
the vagina in the form of blood and mucus.
This is known as menstruation and it lasts for about two to eight days.
These cyclic events occur every month and form the menstrual cycle.
42. Explain the process of fertilization and implantation of embryo in human beings.
In human beings, fertilisation is internal. The sperms produced in the testes of the male are
introduced into the vagina of the female during the sexual intercourse.
A large number of mobile sperms are deposited in the vagina of the female. The sperms move
up through the cervix and then move into the uterus. One of the sperms fertilises the egg or
the ovum in the fallopian tube.
The product of fertilisation, the zygote, immediately starts developing into an embryo in the
fallopian tube
The developing embryo gets attached to the uterus by a disc shaped tissue called placenta.
The process is called implantation. The embryo fulfils its nutritional and respiratory needs
from the mother's body through the placenta.
The waste substances produced during embryo development are removed by transferring
these to mother's blood.
43. Describe the events which occur during the development of the embryo in the uterus of the
human female till the birth of the child.
The zygote from the fallopian tube moves down into the uterus, gets attached tothe developed
uterine lining and makes a close contact with it. This process is called implantation.
Implantation stimulates the development of a special tissue between the uterine wall and the
embryo, known as placenta.
Placenta is a disc-shaped tissue, and is embedded in the uterine lining.
On the embryonal side, villi which remain surrounded by the mother's bloodpresent in the
spaces are produced.
The embryo meets its nutritional needs, such as glucose, and respiratory needs like oxygen,
through the placenta. The waste products produced during the development of the embryo
are removed by releasing them into the mother's blood through the placenta.
The development of the embryo is completed in about nine months.
1. The transmission of characters from parent to their off springs is known as heredity.
The study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.
Clones are those organisms which are the carbon copies of one another.
Variation in sexually reproducing organisms are caused due to the following factors like
environment, crossing over and recombination of genes and mutation.
The first study of inheritance was done by Gregor Mendel on garden pea.
Paired condition of chromosomes is known as diploid.
Unpaired condition of chromosomes is known as haploid.
DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid), RNA (Ribose Nucleic Acid) is the genetic material in all
organisms.
2. Mendel’s laws of inheritance are
(i) Law of Dominance
(ii) Law of Segregation (Law of purjty of gametes)
(iii) Law of Independent Assortment
3. Genotype is the composition of genes present in an organism and the characteristic which is visible
in an organism is called its phenotype.
4. When two parents cross (or breed) to produce progeny (or offsprings), then their progeny is called
F1-generation (First Filial Generation) and when the first generation progeny cross among themselves
to produce second progeny, then this progeny is called F2-generation or second Filial Generation.
Mendel conducted his famous experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum).
He used a number of contrasting characters like round / wrinkled seeds, tall/ short plants,
white/ violet flowers and so on.
5. During Monohybrid Cross
When tall pea plants are crossed with short pea plants then in Fi generation only tall plants
were obtained.
F2 progeny of F1 tall plants are not all tall but one quarter of them are short indicating that
both tallness and shortness traits were inherited in F1 but only tallness trait was expressed due
to dominance.
In dihybrid cross two pairs of contrasting characters were considered. Tall plant with round
seeds were crossed with short plant with wrinkled seeds. In Fi tall plants with round seeds
were obtained. On selfing these F, plants with F2 produced tall plants with round seeds, short
plant with wrinkled seeds and some new combinations (tall plant with wrinkled seeds and
short plant with rounds seeds) were also obtained. The tall/short trait and round wrinkled
traits are independently inherited.
The expression of a particular trait is controlled by gene.
6. DNA is the source of making protein in a cell.
The section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called gene.
7. Physical and Chemical Basis of Heredity
Mendel (1866) said that heredity was controlled by particles, called germinal units, or factors.
8 Sex determination is the process by which the sex of a person is determined.
All human chromosomes are not paired. 22 pairs are called autosomes. Women have a perfect pair of
sex chromosomes XX. But men have a mismatched pair XY.
9. Evolution
It is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over millions of
years in which new species are produced.
A. The evidences of evolution are :
i. Homologous organs,
ii. Analogous organs, and
Fossils
B. Theories of Evolution
Jean Baptiste Lamarck gave the first theory of evolution.
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) explained the evolutionary principle in his famous book
“The origin of species”. The theory proposed by him is popularly known as theory of natural
selection or Darwinsim.
The main features of the theory of natural selection are as follows:
(i) Over production
(ii) Limited food and space
(iii) Struggle for Existence
(iv) Variations
(v) Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest
10. Speciation : The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known
as speciation.
The factors which leads to speciation are :
Geographical isolation
Genetic drift and
Variations
11. Classification
Evolutions are of three types :-
(i) Convergent Evolution
(ii) Divergent Evolution, and
(iii) Parallel Evolution.
12. Fossils : The remains of dead plants or animals that lived in the remote past are known as fossils.
Various kinds of fossils are : Ammonite, Trilobite and Dinosaur.
13. Evolution by Stages : Evolution of complex organs have taken place bit-by-bit
over generations.
For example eye, feathers of birds have evolved because of survival advantage of intermediate stages.
Thus changes in DNA during reproduction are the main cause of evolution.
14. Human Evolution: All have beings belong to single speceis Homo sapiens, although there were
many races of humans.
They have originated in Africa, some ancestors left Africa and migrated to West Asia,
Central Asia, Eurasia South Asia, East Asia, Indonesia, Australia, America, while others stayed there.
Excavating, time-dating, studying fossils, determining DNA Sequences have been used for studying
human evolution.
1. How does the inheritance of traits depend, upon contribution by both mother and father? Or
How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the progeny?
Both mother and father contribute exactly equal amount of genetic material to the offspring. This
means that in the offspring, each trait will be represented by a pair of genes. DNA from the paternal
and maternal parents can influence the traits in the offspring.
2. Do offspring’s look different from each other and, also from their parents?
Variations exist among the offspring’s and so they look different from each other and also from their
parents.
3. How do variations arise in asexually reproducing organisms like bacteria?
The variations in asexually reproducing organisms, such as bacteria, arise due to minor or small
inaccuracies in DNA copying.
4. Is greater diversity generated by sexual reproduction?
Yes, sexual reproduction provides greater diversity in variations as these are inherited from both the
parents.
5. Do all the variations which have occurred in a species possess equal chances of survival?
Only some variations survive which allow the organism to survive in the changed environment.
Some variations which do not cause any harm to the organism maybe able to survive.
6. How do variations occur in asexually reproducing organisms and, self-fertilizing organisms?
Variations occur due to inaccuracies during the DNA copying mechanism in asexually reproduci.ng
organisms and self-fertilising organisms.
7. What is the modern molecular concept of a gene?
A gene is a hereditary unit and is a segment of a DNA molecule. It determines aspecific biological
function by the production of protein.
8. What is understood by similarities and dissimilarities of traits?
In an organism such as a child, all basic features similar to that of a human being are present but the
organism may differ in certain featu.res like the ear lobes-attached or free, or, difference in
complexion, height, etc.
9. On what rule inheritance is based?
Inheritance is based on the fact that both the parents contribute equal amounts of genetic material to
the offsprings.
10. Name the plant on which Mendel performed his experiments.
Mendel performed his experiments on the pea plant (Pisum sativum).
11. Which contrasting characters of pea plant were chosen by Mendel for his study of inheritance?
He had chosen contrasting characters like tall dwarf plants, round/wrinkled seeds,
White/violet flowers, yellow green seeds, etc.
12. What is the name given, to the first generation obtained from the cross between two true
breeding organisms with contrasting characters?
First generation is known as F, (filial) generation or F, progeny.
13. Were the tall plants of F1 progeny exactly same as the parental tall plants?
All the tall plants of F1progeny were exactly as tall as the parental tall plants.
14. How did Mendel's experiments prove that all tall plants of F1 generation were truly tall plants?
The F1 generation was allowed to reproduce by self-pollination.
15. What was the result of F2 generation?
F2 generation showed a phenotypic ratio of 3: 1 where tall plants formed three parts and dwarf plants
formed only one part.
16. What conclusion was derived after obtaining F2 generation?
In F2 generation, all tall plants of F, generation did not produce only tall plants; one-fourth plants
were dwarf.
17. What did the reappearance of dwarf plants in F2 generation indicate?
It showed that the factors for both tallness and dwarfness were inherited in F1 generation and
therefore two copies of the trait must be inherited by the sexually reproducing organisms.
18. Will the two traits inherited be identical or different?
The two traits can be identical or different, i.e., in F2 generation, tallness may be represented as TT or
Tt and dwarfness may be represented as tt.
19. How were tallness and dwarfness depicted in the crosses made by Mendel?
Tallness was depicted by a capital letter 'T' and dwarfness by a small letter ’t’.
20. What is a mono hybrid cross?
When one pair of contrasting characters is considered in a cross, it is known asa monohybrid cross.
21. A population of red, beetles, living in green bushes, is being eaten by the crows. During sexual
reproduction, a green beetle is found, in the progeny. What will be the fate of the new trait? Will it
be able to survive in the habitat?
The red beetles live in green bushes and are eaten by crows as they are easily visible to them. Among
the progeny, when a green beetle was found, it probably had escaped the attack of crows as it
camouflaged with the green colour of the bushes.
This new trait could be passed on to the next progeny" Gradually, the green beetles increased in
number and the number of red beetles decreased. So the new trait willbe able to survive in the
habitat.
22. Differentiate between homologous organs and, analogous organs.
Homologous organs Analogous organs
Homologous organs have the same basic Analogous organs do not have the same basic
structure. structure.
These organs are inherited by different organisms These organs have a different origin.
from the same ancestor.
The wings of birds and forelimbs of man have the In case of wings of birds and wings of insects,
same origin and structure, but in birds they are their origin and structure is different but their
used for flying and in humans they are used for function is the same.
picking things and hold things
23. How can, Mendel's experiment be proved, based, on the inheritance of genes? Explain by
depicting a cross.
According to Mendel's experiment, both the parents should contribute two factors, i.e', equal amount
of DNA or two genes, to the progeny during sexual reproduction.
To determine the trait, both the parents should contribute one gene each. This means' the germ cells
must receive only one gene or factor. When the two germ cells fuse, the offspring will receive both the
genes. Applying this, the germ cell from the tall parent will have gene T and gene t from the dwarf
parent. When these come together, the progeny will have Tt combination.
(i) Out of the two traits, tall and dwarf, tall is dominant as seen in F1 generation.
(ii) In F, generation, dwarf plants do not appear.
(iii) In F, generation, dwarf plants reappear, though in small ratio.
24. Mention the characteristics of a gene.
(i) Gene is a unit of inheritance.
(ii) It is a segment of the DNA molecule. The segments of DNA are different indifferent genes.
(iii) Gene is the unit of a specific biological function and usually expresses itself by producing a
specific enzyme or protein.
(iv) It can undergo inheritable changes due to inaccuracies occurring at the time of formation of
copies of the DNA.
25. What relationship occurs between genes and chromosomes? How does the behavior of
chromosomes help in proving inheritance of characters as proposed by Mendel?
(l) Each gene set is present, not as a single long thread of DNA, but as separate pieces each called a
chromosome. All the genes in an organism are present on chromosomes. Factors of Mendel are now
known as genes.
(ii) Each cell has two copies of each gene or two copies of similar chromosomes which bear pairs of
genes or factors, i,.e",TT or tt or Tt.
(iii) Each germ cell receives one gene or one chromosome from a pair during meiosis and so does a
factor, as depicted by Mendel either: as T or t. The chromosome and therefore gene or factor may be
either maternal or paternal in origin.
(iv) When the two germ cells combine, the paired chromosomes are restored and so are the two genes
or factors like TT" Tt or tt.
(v) Two characteristics, represented. by two pairs of genes or factors, such as RRrr (round, wrinkled
seeds) or YYyy (yellow, green seeds) are present on separate pairs of chromosomes and hence are
inherited independently.
26. What is the concept of evolution?
The concept of evolution is based on the following:
(i) Appearance of genetic variations in a population is due to' migration of members from one
subgroup to another subgroup.
Genetic drift which is elimination of some genes from a population due tonatural calamity or due to
drifting of the members of the population"
Change in chromosome number in a few members of a population change in genes due to
inaccuracies occurring during DNA copying mechanism.
Recombination of genes during sexual reproduction.
(ii) The variations spread in the subgroup of a population and as they help in survival in the
prevailing environmental condition, these get selected by the nature"
(iii.) If the two subgroups get separated further b5, some physical barrier, like a river, more variations
in subgroups will develop.
(iv) The accumulation of these variations in successive generations makes the two subgroups
sufficiently different in function and structure and they may not be able to reproduce among
themselves, causing reproductive isolation.
27. How does natural selection help in speciation? Explain with the help of an example.
A In a population, the two subgroups having variations get separated due to formation of a river or a
mountain or any other physical barrier. This causes geographical isolation. The level of gene flow
from one subgroup to another subgroup decreases considerably.
Nature selects the members with suitable variations which enable them to survive in the prevailing
environmental conditions. The members are able to grow and reprod.uce, thus passing the variations
to the next generation.
Natural selection also affects the two subgroups differently in the two geographically different
locations. For example, the subgroups of red and green beetles are geographically isolated. In the
territory of one subgroup, crows get eliminated by eagles. This means that green beetles are not
favoured or selected. In the territory of the other subgroup, crows were plenty in number and they
fed on red beetles, as they were clearly visible, giving a better chance of survival to the green beetles.
So, the green beetles reproduce profusely and survive by passing on the character to the successive
generation. This means that nature selected the green beetles. In due course of time, green beetles will
fail to reproduce with red beetles and a new species will be formed.
28. Can certain features acquired in the lifetime of an individual be passed on to the next
generation? Explain with the help of examples.
Any change which occurs in the non-reproductive tissues of an individual cannot be passed on to the
next generation as it is not incorporated in the DNA of the germ cells. Therefore, certain experiences
or change of features acquired in the lifetime of an individual cannot be passed on to the next
generation. For example, if we cut the tails of male and female mice and interbreed them, the new
generation will have tails. For the next few generations, the tails are again cut, but even after of
generations the mice produced will have tails. Another example is a person who gets less food to eat
and hence has low weight. This will not change the DNA of the germ cells. His next generation may
weigh less due to scarcity of food. But this trait cannot be inherited by the next generation.
11. A slide showing several Amoeba was given to a student and was asked to focus the amoeba
undergoing binary fission. What will the student look for to correctly focus on a dividing
Amoeba?
(a) An amoeba with many pseudopodia and a small nucleus
(b) A rounded amoeba with rounded nucleus
(c) An amoeba covered by a cyst and many nuclei
(d) An amoeba with elongated nucleus and a construction in the middle.
12. Which one out of the following diagrams correctly depicts an amoeba undergoing binary
fission?
(a) I and II
(b) I and III
(c) I and IV
(d) II and IV
20. Given below are some structural organs of animals
a) I
b) II
c) III
d) IV
28. The organs which have different basic structure but perform similar function are called:
a) Homologous organs
b) Analogous organs
c) Vestigial organs
d) None of the above
29. The organs which have same basic structure but perform different functions are called
a) Homologous organs
b) Analogous organs
c) Vestigial organs
d) None of the above
30. The wings of insect and the wings of bird are known as:
a) Homologous organs
b) Analogous organs
c) Vestigial organs
d) None of the above
CHAPTER 10: LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Light: “Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of sight”.
Optics: Optics is a branch of physics which deals with light and its properties.
Reflection of light: The process of returning the light to the same medium after striking a surface is
called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection:
1. The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence are in
the same plane.
Note: These laws of reflection are applicable for both plane and spherical mirror surfaces.
Image:
Image is an optical appearance produced when light rays coming from an object are reflected from a
mirror (or refracted through a lens).
Images are of two types: Real and Virtual images.
Differences between real and virtual images:
Real image Virtual image
1. When rays of light after reflection meet 1. When rays of light after reflection do not
at a point, real image is formed. meet at a point but appears to meet at a
point, virtual image is formed.
2. Real image is always inverted. 2. Virtual image is always erect.
3. Real image is formed in front of a mirror. 3. Virtual image is formed behind the mirror.
4. Real image can be obtained on a screen. 4. Virtual image cannot be obtained on a
screen.
Properties of the image formed by a plane mirror:
1. A plane mirror forms a virtual and erect image.
2. The image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
3. The size of the image formed by a plane mirror is equal to that of the object.
4. The image is laterally inverted.
Note:
The ratio of the height of image to the height of object is known as linear magnification (m).
h1
m=
h
h1
The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. m = = 1 or h1 = h .
h
Linear magnification has no units.
Spherical or curved mirrors:
A mirror whose reflecting surface is curved or spherical is called a spherical mirror.
Types of spherical mirrors:
i) Concave mirror: Concave mirror is the part of a hollow sphere whose outer surface is silvered and
the inner surface acts as reflecting surface. Concave mirror converges a parallel beam of light falling
on it, so concave mirror is also known as convergent mirror.
ii) Convex mirror: Convex mirror is the part of a hollow sphere whose inner surface is silvered and
the outer surface acts as reflecting surface. Convex mirror diverges a parallel beam of light falling on
it, so convex mirror is also known as divergent mirror.
Key Terms:
1. Pole (P) . The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is called the pole. It is
represented by ‘P’.
2. Centre of curvature (C) and Radius of Curvature (R): The centre of the sphere of which the
spherical mirror is a part is called the centre of curvature. The radius of this sphere is called the
radius of curvature.
3. Principal axis: The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature is called the principal axis of
the mirror.
4. Principal Focus (F): A point on the principal axis of a spherical mirror where the rays of light
parallel to the principal axis meet or appear to meet after reflection from the spherical mirror is called
principal focus.
5. Focal length (f): The distance of the focus from the pole is called the focal length of the spherical
mirror.
6. Normal: The line joining centre of curvature and the point of incidence is treated as normal in
spherical mirror.
Sign conventions for reflection by spherical mirrors:
1. The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the object falls
on the mirror from the left hand side.
2. All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3. Distance measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive, while distances
measured in a direction opposite to the direction of the incident light are taken as negative.
4. The upward distances perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive, while the down
ward distances perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.
Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At the focus, behind the Highly diminished, Virtual and erect
mirror point sized
Between infinity and the Between P and F, behind Diminished Virtual and erect
pole of the mirror the mirror
Mirror formula:
The relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror
is known as mirror formula. It is given by, 1 1 1
= +
f v u
h1 -v
Linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror: m= =
h u
If ‘m’ is positive, then the image is virtual and erect.
If ‘m’ is negative, then the image is real and inverted.
If m = 1, then the size of image is equal to the size of object.
If m < 1, then the image is diminished.
If m > 1, then the image is enlarged.
How to distinguish between a plane mirror a concave mirror and a convex mirror without touching
them:
When we bring our face close to each mirror;
i) A plane mirror will produce an image of the same size.
ii) A concave mirror will produce a magnified image.
iii) A convex mirror will produce a diminished image.
Refraction of light:
The phenomenon of bending of light at the surface separating two media is known as refraction of
light.
In the refraction of light, the angle of refraction is usually not equal to the angle of incidence.
The refraction of light is due to the change in the speed of light on going from one medium to
another.
When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.
When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal.
Some phenomena due to the refraction of light:
1. A stick held obliquely and partly immersed in water appears to be bent at the water surface.
2. A coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with water appears to be raised.
3. A pool of water appears to be less deep than it actually is.
4. When a thick glass slap is placed over some printed matter, the letters appear raised when
viewed from the top.
5. An egg or lemon placed in a glass filled with water appears to be bigger than its actual size when
seen from the sides of the glass.
Laws of refraction:
1. The incident ray the refracted ray and the normal to the surface separating the two media all
lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction (r) is a constant, for
the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.
Sin i
= constant
Sin r
This constant is known as the refractive index of the medium.
Refractive index:
The amount of change in the speed of light in a medium depends upon the property of the medium.
This property is known as refractive index of the medium.
Absolute Refractive index (n):
Absolute Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum or
C
air (c) to the speed of light in the medium (v). n=
v
where C = 3 X 108 m/s.
It is a pure number. It has no unit.
n1Sin i = n2 Sin r � ( 3)
1
Note: 1.) n21 = n
12
2.) Absolute refractive index of a medium is always greater than 1; because c > v.
However, relative refractive index of a medium may be less than 1.
Factors on which the refractive index of a medium depends:
i) Nature of the material of the medium
ii) Density of the medium
iii) Colour or wave length of the light.
Refraction through a glass slab:
On passing through a transparent slab with parallel faces, a ray is displaced parallel to itself.
The perpendicular distance between the original path of incident ray and the emergent ray coming
out of a glass slab is called lateral shift or lateral displacement of the emergent ray of light.
It depends on i) thickness of glass slab ii) incident angle ,iii) refractive index of glass slab,
iv) wavelength of incident light
In refraction through a glass slab, i > r and i = e
Key Terminologies:
1. Optical Centre (O): The centre point of a lens is known as its optical centre.
2.Principal axis: A line joining the centre of curvatures of two spherical surfaces forming a lens is
called principal axis.
3. Principal Focus (F): A point on the principal axis of a lens where all rays of light parallel to the
principal axis meet or appear to meet after passing through the lens is called principal focus of the
lens.
Focal length (f): The distance between the principal focus (F) and optical centre (O) of a lens is
known as focal length of the lens.
Note:
i) A lens has two foci. The two foci of a lens are at equal distances from the optical centre, one on
either side of the lens (F1 & F2).
ii) A convex lens has real focus.
iii) A concave lens has a virtual focus.
iv) First and second focal lengths are equal. That is , f1 = f 2
Sign conventions for refraction:
For lenses, we follow sign conventions, similar to the one used for spherical mirrors. We apply the
rules for signs of distances, except that all measurements are taken from the optical centre of the lens.
According to the convention, the focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is
negative.
1 P= 1 1
Where, P = , 1 f and P2 = f
F 1 2
Worksheet 1
1. Calculate the focal length of a concave mirror whose radius of curvature is 32 cm.
2. An object of 5 cm in size is placed at a distance of 20 cm from a concave mirror of focal length
15 cm. At what distance from the mirror, should a screen be placed to get the sharp image? Also
calculate size of the image.
3. A convex mirror used in a bus has radius of curvature 3.5 m. If the driver of the bus locates a car
at 10 m behind the bus, find the position, nature and size of the image of the car.
4. The radius of curvature of a convex mirror used on a moving auto mobile is 2m. A truck is
coming behind it at a distance of 3.5 m. Calculate the position, the size of the image relative
to the size of the truck and what will be the nature of the image?
5. A concave mirror produces three times enlarged image of an object placed at 10 cm in front
of it. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror.
6. Where should an object be placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm so as to obtain
real image two times magnified?
7. An object 5 cm tall was placed in front of a spherical mirror at 20 cm distance from the
mirror. If a virtual image of 10 cm tall was formed behind the mirror, find the focal length of
the mirror and the position of the image. Name the type of mirror used.
8. The speed of light in air is 3 X 108 m/s and the speed of light in water is 2.26 X 108 m/s. Find the
refractive index of water.
9. Find the refractive index of a material if angle of incidence of ray of light is 45 0 and angle of
refraction in the material is 300.
10. A 4 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length
20 cm. If the distance of the object is 30 cm from the lens, find the position, nature and size of
the image. Also find the magnification.
11. The image of an object formed by a convex lens is of the same size as that of the object. If the
image is formed at a distance of 50 cm from the lens, at what distance from the lens is the object
placed? Find the focal length and the power of the lens used.
12. What is the power of a convex lens of focal length 40 cm?
13. A concave lens has focal length of 20 cm. At what distance from the lens, a 5 cm tall object be
placed so that it formed an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size of the image
formed.
14. A needle placed 45 cm from a lens forms an image on a screen placed 90 cm on the other side of
the lens. Identify the type of lens. Determine its focal length and the power. What is the size of
the image if needle is 5 cm in height?
15. A convex lens forms a real image 4 times magnified at a distance of 60 cm from the lens.
Calculate the focal length and the power of the lens.
Work sheet 2
1. A rear view mirror used in a bus has a radius of curvature 3.5 m. If the driver of the bus
locates a car at 10.0 m behind the bus, find the position, nature and size of the image of the car.
2. What is the focal length of a plane mirror?
3. An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of 6 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length
12 cm. Find the position, nature and size of the image formed.
4. How far an object should be placed from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm to
1
form a real image whose size is the size of the object.
5
5. What is diffused reflection?
6. State the laws of reflection .
7. State the laws of refraction.
8. Why a convex mirror is used as the rear view mirror of a vehicle and not a plane mirror?
9. Define power of a lens. What is its unit? Define it.
10. A concave mirror is kept in water. Will there be any change in its focal length as compared to that
in air?
11. What kind of a wave is light?
12. Define refractive index of a medium.
13. What is the minimum value of refractive index possible?
14. Light enters from air into glass plate which has a refractive index of 1.5. Calculate the speed
of light in glass.
15. A convex lens has a focal length of 40 cm. Calculate its power.
16. List the physical quantities which remain constant when light travels from one medium to
another.
17. An object 50 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 20 cm tall image is
formed on the screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the
lens.
18. A concave lens has focal length 20 cm. At what distance from the lens a 5 cm tall object be placed
so that it forms an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size of the image formed.
19. An object 2.0 cm in size is placed 20.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10.0 cm.
Find the distance from the mirror at which a screen should be placed in order to obtain a sharp
image. What will be the size and nature of the image formed?
20. A convex lens has a focal length of 30 cm. Calculate at what distance should the object be placed
from the lens so that it forms an image at 60 cm on the other side of the lens. Find the
magnification produced by the lens in this case.
21. The radius of curvature of a convex mirror used on a moving automobile is 2.0 m. A truck is
coming behind it at a constant distance of 3.5 m. Calculate (i) the position and (ii) the size of
the image relative to the size of the truck. What will be the nature of the image?
22. Find the position of an object which when placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm
produces a virtual image, which is twice the size of the object.
23. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power + 1.2 D. Find the focal length of the lens to be
used. Is the lens converging or diverging? What would be the defect of the eye?
24. A small candle 2.5 cm in size is placed 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 0.36 m. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to
receive a sharp image? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer
to the mirror, how would the screen have to be moved to obtain sharp image?
25. A concave mirror of focal length 20 cm forms a real, inverted image of same size as that of the
object. Where is the object placed with respect to the mirror? Draw a diagram to show the image
formation?
CHAPTER 11: THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD
The retina is a delicate membrane having a large number of light sensitive cells called ‘rods’ and
‘cones’ which respond to the ‘intensity of light’ and ‘colour of objects’ respectively, by generating
electrical signals.
vii)Blind spot: The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye is blind spot. An image formed at
this point is not sent to the brain.
viii)Aqueous humour: A clear liquid region between the cornea and the lens is called aqueous
humour. It protects eye from the internal injuries.
ix) Vitreous humour: The space between eye lens and retina is filled with a liquid called vitreous
humour.
x) Optic nerve: Optic nerve is formed by the nerve fibres coming from the retina. It carries nerve or
electrical impulses or signals to the brain. The brain finally interprets the signal.
Working of human eye: The light coming from an object enters the eye through cornea and pupil.
The eye lens converges these light rays to form a real, inverted and diminished image on the retina.
The light sensitive cells of the retina gets activated with the incidence of light and generate electric
signals. These electric signals are sent to the brain by the optic nerve and the brain interprets the
electrical signals in such a way that we see an image which is erect and of the same size as the object.
Accommodation of the eye: The ability of an eye to focus the distant objects as well as the nearby
objects on the retina by changing the focal length of its lens is called accommodation.
Power of Accommodation: A normal eye has a power of accommodation which enables objects as far
as infinity and as close as 25 cm to be focused on the retina. It can be defined as the maximum
variation in the power of the eye lens. For a normal eye, the power of accommodation is about 4
dioptre.
Near point: The nearest point up to which the eye can see an object clearly without any strain, is
called the ‘near point’ of the eye. The near point of a normal human eye is at a distance of 25
centimetres from the eye. This distance is called the least distance of distinct vision.
Far point: The farthest point from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly is known as the ‘far
point’ of the eye. The far point of a normal human eye is at infinity.
Range of vision: The distance between the near point and far point of an eye is known as range of
vision. For a normal eye, the range of vision is 25 cm to infinity.
Persistence of vision: The image of an object seen persists on the retina for 1/16 second even after the
removal of the object. This continuance of sensation of eye for some timed is called persistence of
vision.
Colour Blindness: It is said to occur when a person cannot distinguish between different colours.
How does an eye focus objects at varying distances: To focus on distant objects the ciliary muscles
relax making the eye lens thin. As a result the focal length of the eye lens increases and we see the
distant objects.
But to focus on nearby objects the ciliary muscles contract making the eye lens thick. As a result the
focal length of the eye lens decreases and we see the nearby objects.
Note: Focal length of an eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain limit.
Defects of vision and their correction:
1. Myopia (short-sightedness or near sightedness):
Mypia is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the distant objects clearly (Though
he can see the nearby objects clearly). The far point of an eye suffering from myopia is less than
infinity.
Causes of Myopia:
i) excessive curvature of the eye lens (or) ii) elongation of the eye ball(short focal length of eye
lens).
Correction of Mypia:
To correct a myopic eye, the person has to wear spectacle with a concave lens of suitable focal length.
To correct myopia, a parallel beam is made divergent before it enters the eye, by putting a concave
lens infront of the eye. The focal length of the concave lens is so chosen that divergent rays entering
the eye focus on the retina, and they appear to come from the far point of the myopic eye. That
means, the focal length of concave lens used should be equal to the distance of the far point of the
myopic eye. The whole purpose of using a concave lens here is to reduce the converging power of the
eye-lens.
2. Hyper metropia (Long – sightedness (or) Far-sightedness):
Hypermetropia is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the nearby objects clearly
(though he can see the distant objects clearly). The near point of a hyper metropic eye is more than 25
centimetres away.
Causes of hyper metropia:
i) The focal length of eye lens is too long (or) ii) The eye ball has become too small.
Correction of hypermetropia: To correct a hypermetropic eye, the person has to wear spectacle with
a convex lens of suitable focal length. The convex lens of spectacles reduces the divergence of rays of
light entering the eye. Hence this lens makes the rays of light appear to come from the near point of
the defective eye. The whole purpose of using a convex lens here is to increase the converging power
of the eye-lens.
3. Presbyopia:
In old age, the ciliary muscles become weak and not able to contract enough to decrease the
focal length adequately. In this case also, objects at the normal near point are not focused on
the retina. When far-sightedness occurs due to this reason, it is called presbyopia.
Presbyopia defect is corrected in the same way as hypermetropia by using spectacles having
convex lenses.
It is also possible that the same person has both the defects of vision-myopia as well as
hypermetropia. A person suffering from myopia as well as hypermetropia uses spectacles
having bifocal lenses in which upper part consists of a concave lens ( to correct myopia) used
for distant vision and the lower part consists of a convex lens (to correct hypermetropia) used
for reading purposes.
4. Cataract:
Cataract is caused due to the formation of an opaque membrane over the eye lens.
This problem arises in old age.
This membrane reduces the intensity of light falling on the eye lens.
As opaque membrane’s thickness increases, no light falls on the eye lens and hence eye cannot
see anything.
Normal vision can be restored only after the affected eye lens is removed by surgery and an
artificial lens is planted in that place.
5. A stigmatism
The defect by which the person is notable to differentiate horizontal and vertical position, is called
astigmatism. It can be rectified by using cylindrical lenses.
Note: Reasons for having two eyes are,
i) It gives a wider field of view. A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150 0
with one eye and of about 1800 with two eyes.
ii) Having two eyes enables us to judge distances more accurately.
Refraction of light through a prism:
Prism is a homogeneous transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two non-
parallel surfaces inclined at some angle.
The angle between two non-parallel refracting surfaces is called angle of prism (A).
In refraction through a glass slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but in
refraction through a glass prism, the emergent ray is not parallel to the incident ray.
This is because, the opposite faces of the glass prism (where refraction takes place) are not
parallel to one another.
When a ray of light passes through a prism, it bends towards the base of the prism.
The angle between incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation.
Dispersion of light by a prism:
The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion.
The band of seven colours (VIBGYOR) formed on a white screen, when a beam of white light
is passed through a glass prism, is called spectrum of white light.
All colours of white light move with same speed in air.
All colours of white light move with different speed in glass prism.
The dispersion of white light occurs because the angle of refraction of light of different
colours is different when passing through the glass prism.
The red colour is deviated least, violet colour is deviated the maximum.
Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sun light. He tried to split the
colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar prism. However, he could not
get any more colours. He then placed a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to
the first prism. This allowed all the colours of the spectrum to pass through the second prism. He
found a beam of white light emerging from the other side of the second prism. This observation gave
Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven colours. Any light that gives a spectrum
similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.
Dispersion of light in Nature:
Rainbow:
When sunlight falls on a water drop refracted. The refracted sunlight dispersed into its constituent
colours. Thus, water drop suspended in air behaves as a glass prism. Now, each colour suffers
internal reflection (when light travels from denser to rarer medium incident on the interface
separating two media at an angle larger than a particular angle called critical angle, which is a
constant for a given pair of media; will be totally reflected back into the denser medium). The
reflected colours on reaching the lower surface of water drop are refracted again into the air. Thus,
we get a spectrum of seven colours, which is known as a rainbow.
Note: Rainbow is due to refraction, dispersion and internal reflection of light. Rainbow is observed
during a rainfall or after the rain fall or when we look at a water fountain provided the sun is at the
back of the observer.
Atmospheric Refraction: In the same atmosphere we have air layers having different optical densities
due to the difference in their temperature. The refraction of light caused by the earth’s atmosphere is
called atmosphere refraction.
Some optical phenomena in nature which occur due to the atmospheric refraction:
1. Twinkling of stars: The continuously changing atmosphere refracts the light from the stars by
different amounts from one moment to the next when the atmosphere refracts more star light
towards us, the star appears to be bright and when the atmosphere refracts less star light, then the
star appears to be dim. In this way, the star light reaching our eyes increases and decreases
continuously due to atmospheric refraction. And the star appears to twinkle at night. So, twinkling of
stars is due to atmospheric refraction of light by different layers of varying refractive indices.
Note:
Planets do not twinkle: Plants are nearer to us compared to the starts and therefore they are more
like extended objects. Light from different parts of the planet form an extended image at the eye, and
we are unable to detect the random shifts in the smaller portions of this image.
2. The stars seem higher than they actually are:
Consider an oblique ray from a heavenly body such as
4. The sun appears oval (or flattened) at sunset and sunrise but appears circular at noon:
At sunset and sunrise, the sun is near the horizon. The rays of light from the upper and lower
edge of the sun bend unequally while travelling through the atmosphere. As a result of this
phenomenon, the sun appears oval.
At noon, the sun is overhead. The rays of light from the sun enter the atmosphere normally and
hence they do not bend at all while passing through the atmosphere. Therefore, the sun appears
circular at noon.
Scattering of light: The phenomenon in which a part of the light incident on a particle is redirected in
different directions is called scattering of light.
Applications of scattering of light in daily life:
1. The colour of clear sky is blue: The scattering of blue component of the white sunlight by air
molecules present in the atmosphere causes the blue colour of the sky.
Note: i) Bluish colour of water in deep sea is due to the scattering of light.
ii) The smoke and dust particles in the atmosphere over cities scattered, orange and yellow
colours more than other colour of small wave lengths. Hence, the sky appears grayish.
2. Sky would appear black in day time of earth had no atmosphere: If earth had no atmosphere,
there would be no gas (no scatterer). So, there will be no scattering of light. Hence, the sky would
appear dark.
Note: For astronauts far from the atmosphere of the earth, the sky appears dark as there is no
scattering of light.
3. Danger signals are red in colour: This is because the red is least scattered by fog or smoke.
Therefore, it can be seen in the same colour at a distance.
4. Red colour of sun at sunrise and sunset: Light from the sun near the horizon passes through
thicker layers of air and larger distance in the earth’s atmosphere before reaching our eyes. However,
light from the sun over head would travel relatively shorter distance. At noon, the sun appears white
as only a little of the blue and violet colours are scattered. Near the horizon, most of the blue light,
and shorter wave lengths are scattered away by the particles. Therefore, the light reaches our eyes is
of longer wavelengths. This gives rise to the reddish appearance of the sun.
5. Clouds are in white colour: Clouds are made of water droplets of different sizes. The tiniest
droplets scatter more blue light than other colours. Droplets of size greater than the tiniest droplets
scatter more green light and the largest droplets scatter more redlight. As, all the colours are scattered
by the droplets in the clouds, so the resultant light is white. Hence, clouds appear white.
1
Note: Intensity of scattered light, Ia l 4 . Where ' l ' is the wavelength of the incident light. We know
that, wave length of red light is greater than the wave length of blue or violet light. Therefore, the
intensity of scattered red light is less than the intensity of the scattered blue or violet light.
Tyndall Effect: The phenomenon of scattering of light by dust, smoke and water droplets suspended
in air is known as Tyndall effect.
Tyndall effect is seen,
i) from dust particles in air when sun light comes through a window or a slit in a window.
ii) When sun light comes down through the clouds.
iii) when head light beams comes through fog and mist.
iv) when sunlight comes down through dense forest.
Experimental arrangement for observing the scattering
of light in a colloidal solution to show how the sky
appears blue,
and the sun appears red at sunrise and sunset:
Worksheet - 1
1. How does the focal length of eye lens change when we shift looking from a distant object to
a nearby object?
2. A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond a distance of 1.5 m. What would be the
power of the corrective lens used to restore proper vision?
3. The near point of a hyper metropic person is 75 cm. calculate the focal length and power of a
convex lens used in his spectacles.
4. How does the eye control the amount of light entering it?
5. Why can you not see an object clearly if it is placed very close to your eyes?
6. Name the component of white light that deviates the least and the component that deviates
the most while passing through a glass prism.
7. How can you recombine the components of white light after a prism has separated them?
8. A glass prism is able to produce a spectrum when white light passes through it but a glass slab
does not produce any spectrum. Explain why?
9. What are the conditions for observing a rainbow?
10. Name the part responsible for the power of accommodation of the human eye.
11. What kind of lens is present in the human eye?
12. Name one defect of vision which cannot be corrected by any type of spectacle lenses?
13. Why do we have two eyes instead of one eye?
14. A person is able to see objects clearly only when these are lying at distance between 50 cm and
300 cm from his eye.
i) what kind of defect of vision he is suffering from?
ii) what kind of lenses will be required to increase his range of vision from 25 cm to
infinity?
15. Explain why the colour of the sun looks different at different times of the day.
Worksheet - 2
corrected by lens?
4. Explain with the help of labeled ray diagram, the defect of vision called hyper metropia, and
Electricity is a source of energy that has an important place in modern society. It is a controllable and
convenient form of energy for a variety of uses in homes, schools, hospitals, industries and so on.
Electric Charge: Electric charge is a physical property of a matter or substance which causes it to
experience a force when placed near other matter or substance.
Electric charges are of two types: Positive charge and negative charge.
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
Any charged body has a total electric charge (Q) which is an integral multiple of charge on an
electron (e)
Q = �ne Where n = 1,2,3,…..
e = 1.6 X 10-19 C
6.25 X 1018 electrons constitute one coulomb of charge.
Conductors: Those substances through which electric charges can flow are conductors.
Examples: Metals, metal alloys, human body etc.
Insulators: Those substances through which electric charges cannot flow are insulators.
Examples: glass, rubber, most plastics, paper, wood, cotton etc.
Electric Potential: The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work
done in moving unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
Electric Potential difference: The potential difference between two points is defined as the
amount of work in moving a unit charge from one point to other point.
work done(W ) W
Potential difference (V) = ch arg e ( Q ) V =
Q
The conventional direction of electric current is from positive terminal of a cell to negative
terminal which is opposite to actual flow of electrons.
Electric circuit: A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.
Circuit diagram: Diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit have been
connected by using the electrical symbols is called circuit diagram.
Symbols of components in an electric circuit diagram:
Ohm’s Law: It gives the relation between current and potential difference. According to this,
“the electric current (I) flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature remains the same.”
Va I
V = RI
Where ‘R’ is called ‘resistance’ of the conductor.
Note: The graph between current and potential difference is found
to be a straight line passing through the origin.
V
Resistance of a conductor is the slope of graph between I and V. R = I
Resistance: It is the property of a conductor to oppose the flow of charges through it.
It’s SI unit is ohm ( W )
One Ohm: If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is IV and the current
1Volt
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 W . 1 Ohm = 1 ampere
Cause of resistance: When the electrons move from one part of the conductor to the other part
they collide with electrons and with the atoms, ions present on the body of the conductor. Due to
these collisions, there is some opposition to the flow of current through the conductor. So, electric
current is inversely proportional to the resistance.
A component used for regulating current without changing the voltage source is called
variable resistance or Rheostant.
Factors on which the Resistance depends:
i) The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (R a l).
ii) The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross – section (R a
1
)
A
iii) The resistance of a conductor depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor.
Iv) The resistance of all pure metals increases on raising the temperature and decreases on
lowering the temperature. But the resistance of alloys is almost unaffected by temperature.
1
Resistivity or specific resistance: From R a l and R a , We get
A
rl RA
R= �r=
A l
Where r is the constant of proportionality and known as the resistivity or specific resistance.
If A = 1 and l = 1 then r = R.
Thus, resistivity of a conductor is defined as “the resistance of the conductor of unit length and unit
area of cross – section.”
Unit of resistivity is Ohm metre ( W m )
Resistivity of a substance does not depend upon its length and area of cross section.
It depends on the nature of the material of which the substance is made up of.
Note:
We use copper, Aluminium wires for the transmission of electricity because these have low
resistivity.
Resistivity value is generally high for alloys than their original metals and alloys do not oxidise
readily at high temperature. For this reason, then are commonly used in electrical heating devices
like electrical Iron, toasters etc.
Classification of the substances on the basis of their electrical resistance:
Good Conductor: Those substances which have very low electrical resistance are called good
conductors.
Examples: Silver is the best conductor of electricity, copper and aluminium metals are also good
conductors.
Resistors: Those substances which have comparatively high electrical resistance, are called
resistors.
Examples: The alloys like nichrome, manganin and constantan.
Insulators: Those substances which have infinitely high electrical resistance are called insulators.
Examples: Rubber, Wood etc.
Resistance of a system of resistors:
Equivalent resistance of the series combination of resistance: Two or more conductors are said
to be connected in series if they are connected one after the other such that the same current flows
through each conductor when some potential difference is applied across the combination.
Consider three conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively connected in series across
a cell.
V V2
Using I = �P=
R R
V2
Thus, P = VI = I 2 R =
R
Units of power: SI unit of power is watt (W)
1 watt = 1 Volt X 1 ampere = V A
Definition of watt: Electric power is said to be 1 watt if 1 ampere current flows through a circuit having 1
volt potential difference.
Other units of power:
i) 1 kilo watt = 103 W = 1 KW ii) 1 mega watt = 106 W = 1 M W
iii)1 giga watt = 109 W = 1 G W iv) 1 horse power = 746 W = 1 hp
Note:
Electric energy = Electric power X time
Commercial unit of electrical energy: [Kilo watt hour (KWh)]
A kilo watt hour is the amount of electric energy consumed by 1000 watt electric appliance when it
operates for one hour.
Relation between KWh and joule:
1 K w h
J � J�
= 1 X 1000 X X 3600 S QW = �
�
S � S�
= 3600000 J
= 3.6 X 106 J
1 K W h = 3.6 X 106 J.
Note: Work out all text book questions and exercise questions from NCERT TEXT BOOK.
Worksheet - 1
1. Calculate the current in a circuit if 500 C of charge pass on through it in 10 minutes.
2. Calculate the amount of charge that would flow in 2 hours through an element of an electric
bulb drawing a current of 0.25 A.
3. An electric bulb draws a current of 0.2 A, when the voltage is 220 volts. Calculate the amount of
electric charge flowing through it in one hour.
4. Calculate the resistance of a conductor if the current flowing through it is 0.2 A when the
applied potential difference is 0.8 V.
5. We have a copper wire of resistance R. This wire is pulled so that its length is doubled
(temperature remains constant). Find the new resistance of the wire in terms of its original
resistance.
6. A cylinder of a material is 10 cm long and has a cross – section of 2 cm2. If its resistance along
the length be 20 ohms, what will be its resistivity?
7. A wire is 1.0 m long, 0.2 mm in diameter and has a resistance of 10 W . Calculate the resistivity
of its material.
8. Four resistors of 2 W each are joined end to end to form a square ABCD. Calculate the
equivalent resistance of the combination between any two adjacent corners.
9. A wire of resistance 20 ohm is bent in the form of a closed circle. What is the effective resistance
between two points at the ends of any diameter of the circle?
10. Calculate the amount of heat produced in an electric heater of resistance 1000 ohms if 6 A
current is passed through it for 10 minutes.
11. Calculate the electric energy consumed by a 1200 W toaster in 20 minutes.
12. An electric iron has a rating of 750 W, 220 V. Calculate the current passing through it and its
resistance, when in use.
13. An electric lamp is marked 100 W, 220 V. It is used for 5 hours daily. Calculate its resistance,
while glowing and the energy consumed in KWh per day.
14. When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the net resistance is 3 ohm. When
connected series, its value is 16 W . Calculate the values of R1 and R2.
15. A current of 4 A exists in a 10 ohm resistor for 4 minute. Find the charge and the number of
electrons that pass through any cross – section of the resistor in this time.
Worksheet - 2
1. Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge per second through any
cross section of a conductor.
2. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 C across two points having a potential
difference of 12 V?
3. How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V battery?
4. How many electrons pass through a lamp in one minute if the current be 200 mA?
5. Calculate the current supplied by a cell if the amount of charge passing through the cell in 4
seconds is 12 C?
6. A 2 Volt cell is connected to a 1 W resistor. How many electrons come out of the negative
terminal of the cell in 2 minutes?
7. A torch bulb when cold has 1 W resistance. It draw a current of 0.3 ampere when glowing from
a source of 3 V. Calculate the resistance of the bulb when glowing and explain the reason for the
difference in resistance.
8. A current of 0.2 ampere flows through a conductor of resistance 4.5 W . Calculate the potential
difference at the ends of the conductor.
9. A resistance of 6 ohms is connected in series with another resistance of 4 ohms. A potential
difference of 20 volts is applied across the combination. Calculate the current through the circuit
and potential difference across the 6 ohm resistance.
10. Resistors R1, R2, R3 having values 5 W , 10 W , 30 W respectively are connected in parallel across
a battery of 12 volts. Calculate
i) Current through each resistor ii) Total current iii) Total resistance
11. How can three resistances of 2 W , 3 W , & 6 W be connected to give the total resistance of
a) 4 W b) 1 W
12. An electric lamp, whose resistance is 20 W , and a conductor of 4 W resistance are connected to
a 6 V battery. Calculate
a) The total resistance of the circuit, b) The current through the circuit, and
c) The potential difference across the electric lamp and conductor.
13. What is a) the highest, b) the lowest total resistance that can be secured by combinations of
four coils of resistance 4 W , 8 W , 12 W , 24 W ?
14. A piece of wire having a resistance R is cut into four equal parts. How will the resistance of
each part of the wire will compare with the original resistance? If the four parts of the wire are
placed in parallel, how will the resistance of the combination compare with the resistance of the
original wire?
15. When two resistances R1 & R2 are connected in parallel, the net resistance is 3 W . When
connected in series, its value is 16 W . Calculate the value of R1 & R2.
16. An electric geyser has the ratings 2000W, 220V marked on it. What should be the minimum
rating in whole number of a fuse wire that may be required for safe use with this geyser?
17. A wire is stretched so as to make its length double. What is the effect on its resistivity and
why? Consumed if this bulb is lighted for 4 hours.
18. Name and state the law which relates the potential difference in a circuit to the magnitude of
current that flows through it. Give its mathematical expression and draw the theoretical graph
too.
19. A household uses the following electric appliances.
i) Refrigerator of rating 400 W for ten hours each day.
ii) two electric fans of rating 80 W each for twelve hours each day.
iii) six electric tubes of rating 18 W each for six hours each day. Calculate the electricity bill of
the household for the month of June if the cost per unit of electric energy is Rs. 3.00.
20. How much current will an electric heater coil draw from a 220 volt line, if the resistance of the
heater coil is 40 ohm?
SOLVED NUMERICLES:
1. If an electric lamp lights for 2 h drawing 0.4 A of current, calculate the amount of charge
that has passed through the lamp.
SOLUTION
Here
Current I = 0.4 A
Time t = 2 h = 2 x 3600 = 7200 seconds
Charge Q = ?
Now, Q = I x t
∴ Q = 0.4 x 7200 = 2880 = 2.88 x 103 C
2. How much current will an electric heater having resistance 45 ohm draw if it is connected to
a 220 V line ?
SOLUTION
Here
Resistance R = 45 Ω
Voltage V = 220 V
Current I = ?
According to Ohm's law,
I = V/R
∴ I = 220/45 = 4.89 A
SOLUTION Here
Voltage V = 12 V
Current I = 0.5 A
Resistance of the lamp R1 = 20 Ω
Resistance to be connected R2 = ?
If R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, then
R = V/I = 12/ 0.5 = 24 Ω
But, R = R1 + R2
∴ 24 = 20 + R2
∴ R2 = 4 Ω
SOLUTION
Let the three resistances connected in parallel be
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 = 15 Ω
If their net resistance is R, then
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
∴ 1/R = (1/10) + (1/5) + (1/15)
∴ R = 30/11 = 2.73 Ω
SOLUTION
Here the three resistances are
R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
Voltage V = 12 V
Let the currents passing through the three resistances be I1,I2,I3,respectively and the
equivalent resistance be R.
Using Ohm's law, we get
I1 = V/R1
∴ I1 = 12/5 = 2.4 A
I2 = V/R2
∴ I2 = 12/10 = 1.2 A
I3 = V/R3
∴ I3 = 12/30 = 0.4 A
Thus, net current I = I1 + I2 + I3
∴ I = 2.4 + 1.2 + 0.4 = 4.0 A
Again, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
∴ 1/R = 1/5 + 1/10 + 1/30
∴ 1/R = 1/3
∴R=3Ω
6. An electric iron draws a current of 5.0 A. If its resistance is 44 Ω, calculate the energy consumed in 5
minutes.
SOLUTION:
Here, current I = 5 A, resistance r = 44 Ω,
time t = 5 minutes = 5 x 60 = 300 seconds.
Now, W = I2 R t = (5)2(44)(300) = 330000 J
7. If an electric lamp draws 500 mA with voltage of 2.5 V, calculate the power and the energy
consumed in 1 minute.
SOLUTION
Here, voltage V = 2.5 V, current I = 500 mA = 0.5 A, time t = 1 min = 60 seconds
Now, power P = V x I = 2.5 x 0.5 = 1.25 watt
And energy consumed in 1 minute W = P x t
∴ W = 1.25 x 60 = 75 joule
8. A 100 W lamp glows for 2 hours per day calculate the energy consumed in 30 days.
SOLUTION
Here power of lamp P = 100 watt = 0.1 kW
time t = 2 x 30 = 60 h (2 h/day x 30 days)
W = P x t = 0.1 x 60 = 6 kWh
9. If 300 mA current passes through a lamp, how many electrons will pass through it in 1
minute ?
SOLUTION:
Here, current I = 300 mA = 0.3 A
time t = 1 minute = 60 seconds
Now, charge Q = I x t = 0.3 x 60 = 18 coulomb
and no. of electrons = (total charge)/(charge on 1 electron)
∴ no. of electrons = (18)/(1.6 x 10-19)
= 1.125 x 1020 electrons
10. If a current of 5 mA passes through a resistance of 2200 Ω, find out the voltage drop on it.
SOLUTION:
Here, current I = 5 mA = 0.005 A and resistance R = 2200 Ω
Now, voltage drop V = IR = 0.005 x 2200 = 11 V
Factors on which the force acting on the current carrying conductor depend:
The force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field depends upon:
Worksheet 2
Questions based on Activities.
I. Observe the diagram carefully and answer the following questions.
a) What do these concentric circles represent?
b) How can the direction of the magnetic field be found?
c) Does the direction of magnetic field lines get reversed if the direction
Of current in the copper wire is reversed?
d) What happens to the deflection of the compass needle placed at a given point if the
current in the copper wire is changed?
e) What happens if the current is increased in the conductor? What does it indicate?
f) What happens to the deflection of the needle if the compass is moved from the copper
wire but the current through the wire remains the same?
g) State 3 factors on which the strength of the magnetic field due to a current carrying
straight conductor depends?
II. Suppose a straight wire is bent in the form of a circular loop and current is passed through it as
shown in the fig.
a) What does concentric circles represents.
b) What happens to the concentric circles in the middle of the loop?
c) At the centre of the circular loop, the arc of these big circles would
appear as straight lines. What does it tell us?
d) What happens if the circular coils have n turns?
e) Name the scientist who first suggested that a magnet exerts an equal and opposite forces
on the current carrying conductor?
f) State 3 factors on which the magnetic field produced at the centre of a current carrying
circular wire depends?
III.Current is made to pass through A1 rod from end B to A. It is observed
that the rod is displaced towards the left.
IV. Take a hallow card board. Now wrap a coil of an insulated copper wire near left end of the
hallow card board. Connect this coil (called primary coil) with a battery through a one way key.
Wrap another coil of an insulated copper wire near right end of the hallow card board. Connect
this coil (called secondary coil) with a galvanometer as shown in the figure.
a) What happens in the secondary coil when current flows in the primary coil?
b) What happens in the secondary coil when current is removed in the primary coil?
c) Give detailed explain for (a) & (b)
d) Name this phenomenon
e) Define Electromagnetic Induction
f) State 3 factors on which induced current depends.
V. From the following simple experiment we can show that an electric current can be produced in
a closed circuit without the use of an electrochemical cell or battery but by moving a bar magnet
towards or away from the closed circuit. The coil is connected to a sensitive galvanometer as
shown in the figure. State the observation.
a) When a bar magnet with its north pole facing the coil was moved towards the coil.
b) When a bar magnet was moved away from the coil in fig 2
c) When the bar magnet was stationary near the coil
d) Name the scientist who performed this experiment.
Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed
from one form to another.”
For example,
i) if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the plate is converted mostly to sound
energy when it hits the ground.
ii) If we light a candle, the chemical energy in the wax is converted to heat energy and light energy
on burning.
Source of Energy: ‘A source of energy is one which can provide adequate amount of energy in a
convenient form over’. For example,
The potential energy of a rock high up on a hill cannot be used to cook food, but the chemical energy
in cooking gas (LPG) can, so, the rock is not a source of energy, but LPG is some common sources of
energy include fire wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas, flowing water, wind and uranium.
The sun is the ultimate source of all forms of energy available on the earth.
i) Which would do a large amount of work per unit mass or per unit volume.
iv) which is safe to handle and use v) which supply useful energy in a controlled manner
vi) which is easily available or accessible vii) which is cheap i.e, it should be economical
The materials which are burnt to produce heat energy are known as fuels.
A good fuel:
ii) should burn with out giving out any smoke or harmful gases.
vi) should have a high calorific value and proper ignition temperature value.
Calorific value of a fuel:
The amount of heat produced by burning a unit mass of the fuel completely is known as its calorific
value.
Example: hydrogen gas has the highest calorific value of 150 kilojoules per gram.
Note: i) Calorific value of a fuel is expressed as joule / gram or kilo joule / gram
ii) The minimum temperature to which a fuel must be heated so that it may catch fire and start
burning, is known as its ignition temperature.
Renewable sources of energy are those which can be generated by us or which are constantly being
generated by natural processes or whose supply is unlimited.
Examples: Wood, Hydro energy, Wind energy, Solar energy, Tidal energy, Ocean thermal energy,
Geo thermal energy, Biomass energy.
Non Renewable sources of energy: Non Renewable sources of energy are those which were
produced in the past by natural processes, whose supply is limited and which we cannot generate
ourselves.
Examples: Fossil fuels (Coal, Petroleum and Natural gases) and Nuclear fuels such as uranium.
Sources of energy that have been in use for centuries are called conventional sources of energy.
Examples: Wood, Coal, Petroleum and flowing water. Here, Coal and petroleum etc are non-
renewable conventional sources while sources like flowing water are renewable conventional sources.
Examples: Solar energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy, ocean wave energy, nuclear energy etc.
FOSSIL FUELS:
The combustible substances formed from the dead remains of the animals and plants which were
buried deep under the surface of the earth over millions of years are called fossil fuels.
COAL:
It is a mixture of carbon and compounds of carbon containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
A lot of heat is produced during the burning of coal which makes it a good fuel.
By heating strongly in the absence of air [destructive distillation], 98% carbon (coke) can be
obtained which is a better fuel than coal because it produces more heat and does not produce
smoke.
Uses of Coal: Coal is,
i) used as a fuel for heating purposes in homes and industry.
ii) used in thermal power stations.
iii) used in manufacture of fuel gases like coal gas, manufacture of petrol and synthetic
etc.
PETROLEUM:
Petroleum derived from Greak words petra (rock) and oleum (oil).
The crude oil petroleum is a complex mixture of several solid, liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons mixed with water, salt and earth particles.
Refining of petroleum by fractional distillation gives us: petroleum gas, petrol, diesel,
kerosene and fuel oil.
Fuel oil is a better fuel than coal because fuel oil burns completely and does not leave any
residue.
Domestic fuel LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) mainly consists of butane.
[ Its calorific value 50 KJ / g].
Natural gas:
It mainly consists of methane (about 97%) and small quantities of ethane and propane.
When natural gas in liquid form is subjected to high pressure, we get compressed natural gas
(CNG) which is being used increasingly as a fuel in transport.
Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.
Natural gas is used as a fuel in thermal power plants.
Oil or Coal is burnt in a furnace to produce heat energy. This heat energy is used to boil water in a
reservoir. The steam produced in water reservoir is allowed to fall on a turbine under high pressure.
The steam falling on the turbine rotates it with high speed. A generator or dynamo connected with
the Turbine through an axle rotates with high speed and produces electricity.
For a large hydroelectric plants, water from a river is diverted to a large reservoir; which is an
artificial lake to store water. A high dam is constructed on one side of the reservoir to hold back the
water. The generator is at the base of the dam, on its other side. Water flows down through pipes
from near the top of the dam to generator house below. It strikes the blades of a water turbine with
tremendous speed, making it rotate. The turbine rotates the shaft of a generator to which it is
connected. This makes the generator produce electricity.
A bio gas plant has a digester in which the bio mass is decomposed, a mixing tank for mixing the bio
mass with water, an out flow tank and a means of collecting gas.
The biomass eg: cow dung, is mixed with water in the mixing tank to form slurry. The slurry from
this tank flows into the digester, which is a sealed chamber. The biomass decomposes here and
expands, and the gas produced presses down the slurry. This causes the spent slurry to overflow into
the out flow tank. The spent slurry is used as manure.
The upper part of the digester has an out let for gas. To prevent excessive pressure build up, the gas
is removed from time to time.
Advantages of bio gas:
i) Bio gas has high calorific value.
ii) Bio gas is cheaper than most common fuels.
iii) A bio gas plant is quite simple and can be easily built in rural areas.
iv) Use of bio gas in rural areas leads to saving of fire wood, and reduces deforestation.
v) Bio gas burns without smoke and hence does not cause air pollution.
vi) Bio gas is a clean fuel that burns without producing ash and smoke.
vii)The spent slurry is good manure.
viii) There is no storage problem for bio gas as it is supplied by pipes directly from the gas plant.
Wind Energy:
Air in motion is called wind.
The kinetic energy of the wind is also known as wind energy.
A wind mill is a device in which the energy of the wind is used to rotate a set of blades, and the
rotational energy of the blades is used to do some work (mechanical energy).
It contains a special box in which the food to be cooked is placed. The box is made of an
insulating material such as plastic or wood. The box may be double – walled, with an
insulating material between the outer and inner walls. This reduces heat loss due to conduction
more effectively.
The inner walls are painted block to increase heat absorption. The box is covered with a glass
sheet. This reduces heat loss by radiation and traps heat, which increases the temperature inside
the box. The covered box is made airtight to reduce heat loss by convection. To increase the
amount of sunlight going into the box, a plane mirror is hinged at an angle at the top of the box.
The food to be cooked is taken in a vessel and placed inside the cooker. The temperature inside
the cooker reaches 100 – 1400 C in about 2 – 3 hours in summer.
2. Solar water heater:
In a solar water heater, sunlight is allowed to fall on a box made of a poor conductor of heat.
The glass top of the box lets in sunlight and traps heat. Water enters a tube that is painted black
to increase the absorption of heat. It is bent several times to increase its length inside the box.
This allows the water flowing through it sufficient time to absorb heat. Hot water collects in
the tank of the heater for use.
3. Concave reflector type solar cooker:
It consists of a large concave reflection or solar concentration. The sun rays are focussed by this
reflector at a point F. The intense beam of sun rays
increases the temperature of point F to
2000 C. The food to be cooked in container is placed at point
F. The concave reflector must be rotated so that it always
face the sun for effective cooking of food.
4. Solar Furnace:
It consists of a large number of movable plane mirrors and a parabolic reflecting surface.
Plane mirrors reflect the sun light towards the reflecting surface. This beam is focussed at a small
0
area where the temperature may be raised to 3000 C.
A water reservoir placed at F is heated to produce steam. This steam under high pressure is
used to rotate the turbine of a generator to produce electricity. A solar furnace when used to
produce electricity is known as solar power tower.
5. Solar cell:
A device which converts sunlight into electrical energy is known as solar cell.
Solar cells are made from semiconductor materials like silicon, Germanium having Gallium as
impurity which are able to conduct electricity much better. When sun light falls on a solar cell,
a potential difference of about 0.5 – 1 V develops across it. The power of solar cell depends on its
surface area.
Small solar cells are, therefore suitable for use in only those electronic devices that require very
little power such as calculators and watches. A typical cell can produce
0.7 W of electricity when exposed to the sun.
6. Solar Panel:
A group of solar cells are connected to each other in a certain pattern forms a solar panel.
During day time, sun light falling on the solar panel is converted into electrical energy which
is stored in a battery connected to it. As soon as sunlight stops falling on it, the battery begins to
supply current to the appliances connected to it.
Limitations of solar energy devices:
i) Food cannot be cooked on a cloudy day, at night time and Food cannot be cooked quickly with
solar cookers.
ii) Solar devices initial cost is high.
iii) They cannot used to operate heavy machinery
iv) The entire process of making solar cells is still very expensive. Since, the special grade silicon
is needed for making them. Silver wire is used to inter – connect solar cells for making solar
panels.
v) Solar cells efficiency is low. They can convert only about 25% of the light energy falling on
them into electricity.
Energy from the sea:
1. Tidal energy:
Due to the gravitational pull of mainly the moon on the spinning earth, the level of water in the
sea rises and falls. This phenomenon on is called high and low tides and the difference in sea levels
gives us tidal energy. Tidal energy is harnessed by constructing a dam across a narrow opening to
the sea. A turbine fixed at the opening of the dam converts tidal energy to electricity.
2. Wave energy:
The kinetic energy possessed by huge waves near the sea shore can be trapped to generate
electricity.
The waves are generated by strong winds blowing across the sea. A wide variety of devices have
been developed to trap wave energy for rotation of turbine and production of electricity.
3. Ocean thermal energy:
The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the sun while the water in deeper
sections irrelatively cold. This difference in temperature is exploited to obtain energy in ocean –
thermal- energy plants. These plants can be operated if the temperature difference between the
water at the surface and water at depths up to 2 km is 293 K (200 C) or more. The warm surface
water is used to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapours of the liquid are then used to
run the turbine of generator. The cold water from the depth of the ocean is pumped up and condense
vapour again to liquid.
Note:
The energy potential from the sea is quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation is
difficult.
Geo Thermal Energy:
Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions of earth’s crust are
pushed upward and trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots’. When underground water comes
in contacts with the hot spot, steam is generated. Sometimes hot water from that region finds out lets
at the surface.
Such out lets are known as hot springs. The steam trapped in rocks is routed through a pipe
to a turbine and used to generate electricity.
The cost of production would not be much, but there are very few commercially viable sites
where such energy can be exploited. There are number of power plants based on geothermal energy
operational in Newzealand and United States of America.
Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear Fission:
In nuclear fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium), when
bombarded with low – energy neutrons, can be split apart into lighter nuclei. When this is done, a
tremendous amount of energy is released if the mass of the original nucleus is just a little more than
the sum of the masses of the individual products. The fission of an atom of uranium, for example,
produces 10 million times the energy produced by the combustion of an atom of carbon from coal.
In a nuclear reactor designed for electric power generation, such nuclear ‘fuel’ can be part of a self –
sustaining fission chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate. The released energy can be
used to produce steam and further generate electricity. Indian Nuclear power reactors have the
installed capacity of less than 3% of the total electricity generation capacity of our country. However ,
many countries are meeting more than 30% of their electrical power needs from nuclear reactors.
Nuclear Fusion:
This is a safer process for nuclear energy generation.
“The process of two or more light nuclei combining to form a heavier nucleus is called nuclear
fusion.”
Eg: 1 H + 1 H � 2 He + + energy
2 2 3
n
(deuteron) (helium-3) (neutron)
In this reaction, the mass of the product nucleus is less than the combined mass of the
starting nuclei. The difference of mass is converted to energy, given by E = mc 2.
In a series of reactions, hydrogen of sun gets converted into helium. Such nuclear fusion
reactions are the sources of energy in the sun and other stars.
The hydrogen bomb – is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear bomb based on the
fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb. This nuclear
bomb is embedded in a substance which contains deuterium and lithium. When the nuclear bomb
(based on fission) is detonated, the temperature of this substance is raised to 107 K in a few micro –
seconds. The high temperature generates sufficient energy for the light nuclei to fuse and a
devastating amount of energy is released.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy:
i) It produces a large amount of useful energy from a very small amount of nuclear fuel
(like uranium – 235).
ii) There is no need for putting in nuclear fuel for two to three years if once the nuclear fuel is
loaded into the reactor.
iii) It does not produce gases like CO2 which contributes to greenhouse effect or SO 2 which causes
acid rain.
Dis advantages of Nuclear energy:
i) The waste products of nuclear reactions are radioactive which keeps on emitting harmful
nuclear radiations for thousands of years. So, it is very difficult to store or dispose off nuclear
wastage safely.
ii) The accidents in nuclear reactors lead to the leakage of radioactive materials which can cause
damages to the plants, animals, humans and the environment.
iii) The high cost of installation of nuclear power plants and the limited availability of uranium fuel
make the large scale use of nuclear energy prohibitive.
Environmental Consequences of the increasing demand for energy:
1. The combustion of fossil fuels is producing acid rain and damaging plants, soil and aquatic life.
2. The burning of fossil fuels is increasing the amount of greenhouse gas CO2 in the atmosphere.
3. Deforestation is causing soil erosion and destroying wild life.
4. Hydro – power plant construction is disturbing ecological balance.
5. Nuclear power plants are increasing radio activity in the environment.
How long will energy Resources of earth last?
We have been using energy resources of the earth at a very rapid rate in the past.
It has been estimated that the world’s known coal reserves are expected to last for another 200
years compared to around 40 years for the known petroleum oil reserves and around 60 years for
the known reserves of natural gas.
The steps which can be taken to reduce energy consumption:
1. Switch off electrical appliances when not needed.
2. Use energy efficient electrical appliances like CFL to save electricity.
3. Good quality stoves should be used.
4. Pressure cookers should be used to save fuel.
5. Solar cookers, Solar water heaters should be used
6. The use of biogas as fuel should be encouraged in rural areas.
7. Bicycles should be used for short distances.
Note:
Work out all NCERT Text Book Questions and Exercise Questions.
Worksheet - 1
1. Name two gases, other than carbon dioxide, that are given out during of fossil fuel and
contribute towards acid rain formation.
2. How is charcoal obtained from wood?
3. What is the main basic cause for winds to blow?
4. What is the minimum wind velocity required to obtain useful energy with a wind mill?
5. Name the factor which enables the ocean to act as a store house of energy.
6. Name the main constituent of a biogas and its approximate percentage content
7. Name two main combustible components of bio gas.
8. The mass number of three elements A, B and C are 2, 180 and 235. Which one of them is
suitable to make a hydrogen bomb?
9. Why is bio gas considered as ideal fuel for domestic use?
10. Justify the statement, “Hydrogen is a cleaner and better fuel than CNG.”
11. Out of two solar cookers, on was covered by a plane glass slab and the other was left open.
Which of the two solar cooker will be more efficient and why?
12. Why are many thermal power plants set up near coal or oil fields?
13. Why are solar heating devices painted black?
14. Write the problems faced in construction of big dams.
15. Why is nuclear fusion reaction considered better?
Worksheet- 2
1. Define renewable and non renewable sources of energy? Give examples.
2. What is a good source of energy?
3. What are the characteristics of ideal feel?
4. What is meant by conventional sources of energy? Give examples.
5. What is a fossil fuel? Give examples.
6. Name any four fractions obtained from petroleum which are used as fuels.
7. What is the composition of liquefied petroleum gas?
8. Explain why, natural gas is a good fuel?
9. State important uses of CNG these days.
10. Compare sun and the fossil fuels as the sources of energy.
11. With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the working of a solar cooker.
12. What are advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker?
13. State advantages and disadvantages of solar cells?
14. What is biomass?
15. What are the raw materials used for making biogas?
16. Why is biogas considered an ideal fuel for domestic use?
17. Explain how, geothermal energy is used to generate electricity?
18. Explain nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy?
20. What steps would you suggest to reduce energy consumption?
CHAPTER 15: OUR ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
The environment includes our physical surroundings like air (or atmosphere), water bodies, soil
(land) and all the organisms such as plants, animals, human beings and micro organisms like bacteria
and fungi (called decomposers).
The waste materials produced by the various activities of man and animals are poisonous to some
extent and can be divided into two main groups :
1. Biodegradable wastes, and
2. Non-biodegradable wastes.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things (plants, animals and decomposers), and
their non-living environment (soil, air and water). e.g. a forest, a pond, a lake, a green land etc.
There are two components of an ecosystem : biotic component and abiotic component.
Biotic component : It includes three types of organisms:
a) Producer
b) Consumer
c) Decomposer/saprophyte
Abiotic component
Consumers can be further divided into three groups : herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
Planktons are very minute or microscopic organisms freely floating on the surface of water in a
pond, lake, river or ocean. Planktons are of two types : Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons.
The microscopic aquatic plants freely floating on the surface of water are called
phytoplanktons.
The microscopic aquatic animals freely floating on water are called zooplanktons. The freely
floating protozoa are an example of zooplankton.
The micro-organisms which break down the complex organic compounds present in dead
organisms like dead plants and animals and their products like faeces, urine, etc. into simpler
substances are called decomposers.
Food Chains and Webs
The sequence of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes another
organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
A food chain is unidirectional where transfer of energy takes place in only one direction In aquatic
ecosystem of the biosphere, like fresh water ponds, lakes or sea, the food chain starts with
microscopic free floating plants (phytoplankton)
The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes place are called
trophic levels.
The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a network of relationships
between various species, is called a food web.
How do our activities affect the environment Global Warming
The addition of certain pollutants like the carbon dioxide gases increases the temperature of the earth.
The reduction in the forest cover also contributes to the heating of earth. This is called global
warming.
Ozone Layer formation and importance Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.
Ozone, is a deadly poison. It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the
Sun. This radiation is highly damaging to organisms.
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting on oxygen (O2)
molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free oxygen
(O) atoms.
The depletion of ozone layer is due to CFC (chloro fluorocarbons).
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
Flow of materials in an ecosystem is cyclic but flow of energy is unidirectional.
There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level of organisms to the next in a food
chain.
Ten percent law states that only 10 percent of the energy entering a particular trophic level of
organisms is available for transfer to the next higher trophic level.
The increase in concentration of harmful chemical substances like pesticides in the body of living
organisms at each trophic level of a food chain is called biological magnification.
The disposal of waste should be done in a scientific way. There are different methods of waste
disposal. The method to be used depends on the nature of the waste. Some of the important modes of
waste disposal are :
(i) Recycling
(ii) Preparation of compost
(iii) Incineration
(iv) Landfill
(v) Sewage treatment
1) ECOLOGY – The study of the interaction of living organisms with each other and their
surroundings is called ecology.
2) ENVIRONMENT – Everything that surrounds organisms and influences its life.
a) Biotic components of environment --- The living organisms .e.g. Plants and animals.
b) Abiotic components of environment --- The nonliving components like water, air, light, etc.
It is the sum total of all external conditions and influences that affect the life and the development of
organisms i.e.it includes all the biotic and abiotic factors.
3) ECOSYSTEM – All interacting organisms (Biotic components) in an area together with the
nonliving (Abiotic components) constituents of environment. (Functional unit of an environment)
Functions of ecosystem:-
a) Flow of energy
b) Cycling of nutrients (bio-geo chemical cycles).
4) PRODUCERS --- They make the energy from sunlight available to the rest of the ecosystem.
5) CONSUMERS --- Animals cannot manufacture their own food. They are called consumers.
6) BIODEGRABLE ---- Substances that are broken down (biologically) by the action of bacteria or
other saprophytes.
e. g. – Paper.
7) NONBIODEGRABLE --- Substances that are not broken down (Biologically) by the action of
bacteria or saprophytes. e. g. Plastic.
8) FOOD CHAIN ---- A succession of organisms in an ecological community that constitutes a
continuation of food energy from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in
turn is preyed upon by a higher member.
GRASS → GRASSHOPPER → FROG → SNAKE
Importance of food chain
1.It helps in transfer of food energy from one organism to another.
2.It is a pathway for the flow of energy.
3. It helps in understanding the interdependence amongst different organisms.
Trophic levels are the various steps in the food chain.
Producers --- first trophic level
Herbivores --- second trophic levels
Carnivores --- third trophic level
Top carnivores --- fourth trophic level
9) FOODWEB ----- It is a network of food links between populations in a community.
10) FLOW OF ENERGY -Ten percent law Energy available at each successive trophic level is 10 % of
the previous level. (Lindeman 1942)
The law states that, “only a 10 % amount of the total available energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the next. The rest 90% of energy is used up or lost to the surrounding.”
11) BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION --- Progressive accumulation of non biodegradable waste at
various trophic levels of food chain.
1. Differences between food chain & food web
Food chain
1. The process of eating & being eaten to transfer food energy.
2. It forms a part of food web.
3. It has limited populations.
Food web
1. It is a system of interconnected food chains.
2. It contains many food chains.
3. It has several populations of different species.
2. HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
Two major problems:-
a) Depletion of ozone layer
b) Disposal of waste Good ozone and bad ozone
The thick blanket of ozone layer in the atmosphere which forms a protective cover & prevents UV
radiation from reaching the earth‘s surface. This is called good ozone and is found in the
stratosphere. Ozone when present in the troposphere act as a pollutant. This harmful ozone is called
bad ozone.
3. Depletion of ozone layer: The ozone layer protects all the organisms from the harmful ultra violet
rays.
Ozone depleting substances: CFCs, N2O, CH4 , CCl4
These chlorine containing compounds are used in:
Aerosols, solvents, refrigerants and fire extinguishers.
Ozone hole developed over Antarctica.
4. Effects of ozone depletion on human health- Due to depletion of ozone layer UV radiations
reaches the earth and cause:
i) skin cancer ii) increased chances of cataract
iii) suppression of immune system . Managing the garbage we produce
5. Reasons for large production of garbage
i) Improvement in life style
ii) Changes in attitude (more things become disposable)
iii) Population explosion iv) Changes in packaging (non -biodegradable)
6.Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for
different tropic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without causing any
damage to the ecosystem?
Removal of all the organisms of a trophic level will affect the entire ecosystem of that area. Its impact
on different trophic levels will be different because of the organisms of a trophic level are directly
dependent on them while the organisms of other trophic level are indirectly depend on them for their
food. For example, killing of herbivores will increase the number of carnivores and killing of
carnivores will increase the number of herbivores. Most of the organisms will die of starvation.
7.How do flows of energy occur in tropic level?
Energy is used and conveyed from one trophic level to another is a food chain. This is called flow of
energy. Green plants capture about 1% of the solar energy during photosynthesis. A part of this
trapped energy is used by plants in performing their metabolic activities and some energy is released
at heat into the atmosphere. The remaining energy is chemical energy stored in the plants as
‘carbohydrates’.
When plants are eaten up by herbivores, the chemical energy stored in the plants is transferred to
these animals. These animals (herbivores) utilize some of this energy for metabolic activities, some
energy is released as heat and the remaining energy is stored.
8.What are the characteristics of energy transfer in the biosphere?
(i) Energy is supplied by the sun and it is not created in the biosphere. Energy is only converted from
one form to another in the biosphere.
(ii) There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next in a food chain.
(iii)At each trophic level, some of the energy is utilized by the organisms for their metabolic activities.
(iv) At each trophic level, some amount of energy is utilized for the composition of decomposers.
(v) At each trophic level, there is loss of energy, which goes into the environment and remains un-
utilized.
(vi) At each trophic level, the amount of energy available is less than that available at the previous
level.
9.Why is energy flow considered as unidirectional?
The flow of energy is unidirectional and non cyclic. The energy captured by the autotrophs does not
return to the sun, and the energy which passes to the subsequent levels does not come back to
autographs. The amount of energy goes on successively decreasing from the producers to the
carnivores.
10.What is biomass?
The amount of organic matter present in an organism is called biomass.
11.What will happen if we kill the organisms in one trophic level?
The balance in ecosystem will be disturbed because in an ecosystem every trophic level is interlinked
with the other. Thus, absence of any one trophic level will surely create problems for the other
trophic level dependent on the previous one.
12.Define biomagnifications?
The increase in concentration of a chemical per unit weight of the organisms with successive rise in
trophic level is called biomagnifications.
13.How does a food web an important factor of our environment? Describe its four benefits.
(i) Starvation: Food web does not allow any population to starve when members of lower trophic
level decrease in number.
(ii) Checking Overpopulation: Food web does not allow a species to overgrow as increased
availability will increase the chance of higher number of its predations.
(iii) Endangered Population: It allows endangered population to grow in size.
(iv) Stability: Food webs provide stability to ecosystems.
14.What is 10% Law?
The energy available at each successive trophic level is only 10 percent of the previous level.
15.How much energy will be available to hawks in the food chain comprising hawk, snake, paddy
and mice, if 1,000 J of energy is available to wheat plants from the sun?
Wheat plants represent the producer level. They trap only 1% of the sun’s energy falling on them. So,
the energy available in wheat will be 1% of 1,000 J which will be 10 J. We can now show the food
chain and apply ten percent law to it.
Wheat plant (10J) ------10%-----> Mice (1J)----10%-----> Snake (0.1J) -----10% ----> Hawk (0.01J)
Thus, the energy available to the hawk will be 0.01 J.
16. Differentiate between food chain and food web?
Food chain
1. Food chain consists of a single series of food relations.
2. It has maximum 4-6 trophic levels of different species.
3. Each organism uses a particular food.
4. Starvation is observed whenever the members of lower trophic level decrease in number.
Food web
1. Food web is a complex network of several series of food chains or food relations.
2. It has a number of trophic levels or populations of different species.
3. Each organism can use different types of type of food.
4. Food webs do not allow starvation and help in increasing the population of endangered species.
17.Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause of concern? What steps are being taken to limit this
damage?
Ozone layer has become a cause of concern because depletion of ozone layer can cause serious effects
on human body and other organisms of the environment like -
(i) Cancer in human beings.
(ii) Loss of immunity in humans.
(iii) Destruction of aquatic life and vegetation.
(iv) Temperature changes and rainfall failures.
Steps being taken to reduce it are:
(i) By reducing the use of CFCs — Many countries have already banned the use of CFCs.
(ii) By developing substitutes of CFCs — Scientists have already developed some substitutes which
are ozone-friendly.
18. Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer?
Ozone depleting substances like chlorofluorocarbons, hydrocarbon, N 2O, chlorine, etc. are
responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
19. Which disease is caused in human being due to depletion of ozone layer in the atmosphere?
Ozone layer is located in the atmosphere as a part of stratosphere. Skin cancer is caused in human
being due to depletion of ozone layer in the atmosphere.
20. How is ozone formed in the upper atmosphere? Which compounds are responsible for the
depletion of ozone layer?
The ozone layer occurs naturally in the stratosphere. The ozone layer is formed when intense UV
radiation from the sun reacts with ordinary molecules of oxygen (O2) in the stratosphere to dissociate
into single oxygen atoms (O). Single oxygen atoms are very reactive they combine with O2 to form
O3. The CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, nitrous oxide, methane, carbon tetrachloride and
chlorine are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer.
21. When is World Ozone Layer Preservation Day celebrated?
World Ozone Layer Preservation Day is celebrated on September 16.
22. What is green house effect?
The gases like CO2 and methane absorb infra red radiations of the sun and cause heating of the earth.
It is known as green house effect.
23. How is ozone layer formed in the atmosphere? What is the function of this layer?
The ozone layer occurs naturally in the stratosphere. The ozone layer is formed when intense UV
radiation from the sun causes ordinary molecules of oxygen (O2) in the stratosphere to dissociate into
single oxygen atoms (O). Single oxygen atoms are very reactive and combine with O 2 to form O3.
O2 +UVradiation→O+O
O + O2 → O3 (ozone)
Function: Ozone absorbs UV radiation from the sun, thus shielding the earth’s surface from the
harmful effects of this radiation eg: skin cancer.
24. Give an example to illustrate that indiscriminate use of pesticides may result in degradation of
environment.
The pesticide used in crop field are washed down into the water bodies. From water bodies these are
absorbed by the aquatic plants and animals of a food chain and thereby degrades the environment.
25. Explain the role of decomposers in the ecosystem?
Role of decomposers are as follows:
1. Return the nutrients to the nutrient pool.
2. Help in completing the different biogeochemical cycles, Thus they maintain balance in the
ecosystem.
VALUE BASED QUESTIONS:
1 a) It is often advised to stop our vehicles engine at red light and also to drive car / vehicles at
constant speed. Based on the above statement, answer the following question. 1. Which type of
fuel is used in vehicles? Is it renewable or non renewable?
b) How can you contribute towards saving these fuels at your level?
1 Fossil fuel – non renewable
Traveling in Metro (MRTS) / Public transport
Opting for CNG as a motor fuel instead of petrol & diesel.
Associated Value: The learners will adopt all these fuel saving techniques in their life.
2 Number of vultures is decreasing remarkably. Now a day’s which is a matter of concern?
a) Vultures belong to which category of animal.
b) What is their role in nature to maintain ecological balance?
i. Scavenger
ii. Help in recycling in nature by eating dead animals.
Associated Value: The learners will be able to understand and participate in maintaining ecological
Balance by not harming other creatures.
3 Newspaper reports about the alarming increase in pesticides level in packed food items Some of
states have even banned these food items.
a) What are the sources of these pesticides in these food items?
b) Name the biological phenomenon associated with accumulation of pesticide in the food chain.
1. Chemicals (Pesticides, Fertilizers) used in agricultural practices.
2. Biological magnification.
Associated Value : The learners will be able to apply rational approach while using such pesticides &
will be more careful towards using packaged food.
4 Ozone depletion / Ozone hole is a cause of concern now a days.
a) What are the causes of ozone depletion?
b) As students what steps will you advise to reduce ozone depletion?
1. Chloro fluoro carbon (CFCs) released into atmosphere disintegrate the ozone molecule.
2. Stop using devices that release CFCs.
Associated Value : The learners will be more educated and will be more vigilant & judicious towards
using equipments /chemical that produces CFCs in order to protect ozone layer.
5. Acid rain is causing damage to monuments / Buildings etc. and also harms the flora and fauna.
a) What is the cause of acid rain?
b) What essential changes in our daily life can lie done to prevent acid rain / damage caused by
acid rain?
1. Oxides of Nitrogen &sulphur released from vehicular & industrial emissions on mixingwith rain
water produces acid rain.
2. Traveling in metro (MRTS) instead of fossil fuel driven vehicles.
Associated Value: The learners will adopt Eco-friendly lifestyle so that lesser amount of (No)x and
(So)x released into atmosphere which are the main contribution factor causing Acid Rain.
6 Plastic production is increasing day by day in spite of the fact that plastic is harmful for the
environment. Based on the above statement answer the following:
a) What are the harmful effects of plastic usage?
b) In our day to day situation what are the alternatives that we can use instead of plastics.
ANS 6i Environmental pollution
Burning plastics can cause pollution
Plastic cause harm to the cattle / animals if enter inside their alimentary canal.
ii. Paper bags / jute bags can be used instead of plastic bag.
Any other relevant view of the student
Associated Value: The learners will be discouraged to use plastics as a source of packaging, storing
as it is non biodegradable.
7. (a) Some items decompose in nature very easily, as they are biodegradable and some items do not
decompose as they are non-biodegradable.
(b) We should replace non-biodegradable materials by biodegradable materials wherever possible. In
addition, non-biodegradable materials should be segregated from biodegradable materials while
disposing them.
(c) I will request the local municipality office to provide two separate waste disposal bins, one for
biodegradable waste and the other for non-biodegradable waste. Through the local counselor or
MLA, I will arrange a talk on safe disposal of waste to educate and encourage people totalize the
waste disposal bins to the optimum.
8. (a) Due to large scale removal of frogs, the population of frogs got reduced in the village. Due to
absence of frog in food chain, grasshopper/mosquito → frog → snake, the population of grasshoppers
and mosquitoes has gone up. Mosquitoes are the carriers of malaria vector and grasshoppers damage
the crop.
(b) Every organism has a very important role in nature and we should not disturb this food chain
artificially. If one link is removed from the food chain, the whole chain gets disturbed and new
problems arise.
(c) I will request him not to renew his contract for supply of frogs with the colleges. This will increase
the frogs population and population of mosquitoes and grasshoppers will decrease and a balance will
be attained soon.
9. (a) We should be very careful in using chemical insecticides and weedicides.
(b) We must wash food properly to remove any external pesticides. However, systemic pesticides
cannot be removed by washing.
(c) Use of organic pesticides such as neem oil and manure should be encouraged by government
though it’s various schemes.
10. (a) Due to ozone hole over Antarctica, harmful ultraviolet rays reach on earth which may have
caused skin cancer to Mr.Hazarika.
(b) We must protect the ozone layer by minimising the useof cholorofluorocarbons.
(c) By arranging street plays, painting competition, etc.
11 (a) Ayush can make few banners requesting tourists to keep the beach clean and put it in different
locations at the beach.
He can also mobilise a few volunteer from local people to start a cleanliness drive on the beach. The
volunteers should be motivated to do the cleanliness drive once or twice every month.
(b) The government can enforce law to prevent people from throwing items on the beach. Designated
place should be kept for eating at the beach. Plastics should not be allowed on the beach. Garbage
bins should be placed at proper distances for easy waste disposal.
CHAPTER 16: MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
1. Anything in the environment which can be used is called a natural resource.
Controlling system for the use of natural resources in such a way as to avoid their wastage and to use
them in the most effective way is called management of natural resources.
Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was formulated to reduce pollution load of river Ganga by more than 75%.
The water quality has been tested from time to time by checking Coliform (group of harmless bacteria
in human intestine) number/ 100 ml.
2. Forest and wild life :
Forests are vast areas, located far away from human inhabitation where wild plants of various
kinds grow and animals of different varieties live without the intervention of humans.
Forests are “biodiversity hot spots”.
A person with an interest or concern in something is called a stakeholder.
(A) To consider the conservation of forests, we need to look at the stakeholders who are :-
(i) The people who live in or around forests, are dependent on forest products for various aspects of
their life.
(ii) The Forest Department of the Government which owns the land and controls the resources from
forests.
(iii) The industrialists — from those who use `tendu’ leaves to make bidis to the ones with paper mills
— who use various forest produce.
(iv) The wild life and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine form.
A major programme called silviculture has been started to replenish the forests by growing
more trees and plants.
Steps for conservation of energy resources are :
(i) Save electricity, water etc by not using useless.
(ii) Use energy efficient electrical appliances to save electricity.
(iii) Use pressure cooker for cooking food.
(iv) Use solar cookers.
(v) Encourage the use of biogas as domestic fuel
(vi) Fuel efficient motor vehicle should be designed to reduce consumption of petrol and diesel.
3. Pollution
(A) When coal and petroleum based fuels (like petrol and diesel) are burnt, the products
of combustion are : Carbon dioxide, Water, Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides and if
combustion take place in an insufficient supply of air (or oxygen), then some carbon monoxide
is also produced. Out of all the products of combustion
of these fuels, only water is harmless and does not affect the environment. All other
products are harmful and hence pollute the environment.
(B) The harnessing of water resources by building dams has social, economic
and environmental implications. Alternatives to large dams exist. These are locale-specific and
may be developed so as to give local people control over their local resources.
The fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, will ultimately be exhausted. Because of this and because
their combustion pollutes our environment, we need to use these resources judiciously.
The destruction of forests affects not just the availability of forest products but also the quality
of soil and the sources of water.
Large scale killing of snakes disrupts the food chains in which snakes occur and creates and
imbalance in nature.
The various sources of water which are available to us are: Rains, Rivers, Lakes, Ponds, Wells,
Oceans and Glaciers (Snow mountains). Rain is a very important source of water.
The pollution of river water is caused by the dumping of untreated sewage and industrial
wastes into it.
The contamination of river water can be usually found from two factors :
(i) the presence of coliform bacteria in river water, and
(ii) measurement of pH of river water.
(a) Rain water harvesting is an age-old practice in India. Water-harvesting techniques
used depend on the location where it is to be used.
Various advantages of water stored in the ground are :-
(i) The water stored in ground does not evaporate.
(ii) The water stored in ground spreads out to recharge wells and provides moisture for crops
over a wide area.
(iii) The water stored in ground does not promote breeding of mosquitoes (unlike stagnant
water collected in ponds or artificial lakes).
(iv) The water stored in ground is protected from contamination by human and animal
1. How should substances like plastic, glass, metal, paper be recycled at individual or community
level?
Two steps required for recycling of material are:
. The waste material should he segregated so that it does not affect the recycling process.
. These substances should then be sent to recycling centres present in the city.
The recycling process needs energy.
2. What is reuse strategy? Why is the strategy of reusing the objects considered better than the
recycling strategy?
Any object which can be reused should not, be thrown away. Objects like used envelopes, plastic and
paper bags can be reused. Jam, pickle and squash bottles can be reused for storing kitchen items. It is
a better strategy than recycling of material as it does not require any energy or effort.
3. Do you think that the use of forest resources by, local people will lead to an exhaustion of these
resources?
The use of forest resources by local people cannot exhaust these resources because they have
developed practices to ensure that the resources are used in a sustainable manner.
4. Why do we need to use our resources carefully?
. Resources are limited.
. Human population is increasing at a tremendous rate due to improvement in health care. So, the
demand for these resources is increasing at an exponential rate.
5. What was the effect on local people when the British took over the management of forests?
Local people were forced to depend on very small areas of the forest. But, when the Britishers took
over the management of the forests, they overexploited the forests, and its resources, for their own
purposes.
6. Why are industries not interested in sustainability of any particular area of' a forest?
For industries forest is a source of raw materials. A big industry 1obbies for the contract of one
particular area, for example, the area where teak is growing at very low prices' Moreover, after
getting the teak, they leave this area barren and move on to the area further away from where they
will get more teak. They have nothing to lose and do not consider it their duty to ensure that one
particular area should have optimum amount of resources for the generations to come.
7. Which movement was the result of grass root level effort to end the alienation of people front
their forests?
Chipko movement or 'Hug the Trees movement' occurred in Reni village in Garhwal, high up in the
Himalayas, during the early 1970s. A logging contractor was allowed to fell the trees. His workers
came when men folk were not present, so the ladies together went to the forest and each lady hugged
one tree trunk and didnot allow the workers of the contractor to fell the trees.
8. What is Ganga Action plan?
People have now become aware of the unthinking exploitation of the natural resources. One of the
results of this awareness is the Ganga Action Plan. Ganga water has become polluted and a coliform
bacterium is found growing in the water indicating the presence of disease-causing organisms.
Coliform bacteria is present in our intestines also" The project for cleaning Ganga water, initiated in
1985, is a multi-crore project"
9. Check the pH of the water supplied" to your house by using universal indicator or litmus paper.
Check pH of the water of the local water-body pond, river, lake, and stream. Can you say whether
the water is polluted, or not on the-basis of pH of the local water body of your area?
As an activity you should check the pH of the water supplied to your house by using universal
indicator or litmus paper. You can also check pH of water of local water body like pond, river, lake or
stream. The pH of the water indicates its acidity or alkalinity' Increased acidity or alkalinity of water
causes harmful effects. The presence of acids results in the killing of microorganisms which releases
toxic substances that pollute water. Increased alkalinity causes algae to grow in abundance which
reduces the oxygen content of the water body, killing the organisms in the body and causing their
putrefaction, thus polluting the water.
10. Does prejudice against traditional use of forest areas have any basis? Justify your answer with
the help of an example.
There is no basis for prejudice against the traditional use of forest areas. The great Himalayan
National Park within its reserved area contains alpine meadows, which were grazed by sheep in
summer. Nomadic shepherds brought their flock to this alpine meadow in summer. When this
meadow was made into a national park this practice was stopped. The result of this action was that,
without grazing by sheep, the grass grew very tall and then fell over. This prevented fresh growth
frombelow.
11. How has water been made available to all the people in ancient India?
Local interventions like dams, tanks and canals were in use.
These were managed by local people who assured that the basic minimum requirement of water for
agriculture and daily needs were met throughout the year.
Use of stored water was strictly regulated and the system for cropping patterns was based on
availability of water. The cropping patterns were on the basis of experience gained through decades
and centuries. Maintenance of these irrigation systems was also done by the local people.
12. What are the uses of dams?
. Large dams ensure the storage of adequate water for irrigation.
. Dams also help in generating electricity.
. Canal systems leading from these dams have been able to supply water to far offplaces where there
is scarcity of water. For example, the Indira Gandhi Canalbrought water to large areas of Rajasthan
due to which it has now become agreen area to a great extent.
13. What are the three problems addressed, against the construction of dams?
There is strong opposition against the construction of large dams such as Tehri dam on river Ganga
and raising the height of Sardar Sarovar dam on Narmada-
This also led to the Narmada Bachao Andolan' The problems are:
. Large number of peasants and tribals are displaced without being adequately compensated'
. Large amount of money goes into the construction of large dams' while thebenefits obtained are not
high.
. Dam construction causes deforestation and loss of biodiversity, as large area: are required to
construct them.
14. What is watershed management? What is its aim? What are its benefits?
Watershed management emphasizes scientific conservation of soil and water so as toincrease the
biomass production'
Its aim is to develop primary resources of land and water and to produce secondary resources for
plants and animals to be used without causing ecological imbalance
Benefits of watershed management:
. Increase in the production and income of the watershed community'
. Decrease in the chances of droughts and floods'
. Increase in the life of the downstream dams and reservoirs
15. Why do we need to use our resources judiciously?
.Our resources are limited.
.Human population is increasing at a tremendous rate due to better healthcarefacilities. So, the
demand for all resources is increasing at an exponential rate.
.The management of natural resources requires a long-term planning to makethe resources last for
many generations to come, and also to stop short-termexploitation.
.Management should ensure that the resources are equally shared, so that thebenefits are given
equally to the poor people and the rich such that the powerfulare not the only people who are
benefitted.
.Precautions should also be taken to protect the environment, while theseresources are extracted or
used. For example, duri.ng mining, slag, a waste, isproduced which pollutes the environment.
16. What are conservationists and, wildlife enthusiasts doing for con serving forests and wildlife?
Have they involved the local people? Give an example of the participation of local people.
Conservationists and wildlife enthusiasts have a lot to say in the management ofthe forest and
wildlife. Primarily, aim of the conservationists was to protect largeanimals like tigers, lions, elephants
and rhinoceros. Later, they recognised theneed to preserve biodiversity as well. They also involved
local people for traditionalconservation of forests. One example has been cited here.
' For the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan, conservation of forests has been areligious work.
' Amrita Devi Bishnoi in 1731 sacrificed her life along with 363 other people forthe protection of
Khejri trees in Khejrali village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
' The Government of India has recently instituted an 'Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for
Wildlife Conservation' in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi.
17. How was sal forests revived?
The Forest Department in West Bengal recognised the threat by militant peasants A.K. Banerjee, a
forest officer, involved the villagers in reviving the sal forests in Arabari forest range of Midnapur
district. The local villagers were involved to protect the 1,272 hectares of badly degraded sal forests.
Villagers were employed in silviculture and harvesting programmes. They were also given 25% of the
final harvest and allowed to collect fuel, wood and fodder on payment of a nominal fee. With this
type of participation, the sal forests recovered remarkably by 1983 and the forest were valued at Rs.
12.5 crore.
18. What are the advantages of underground water?
. Advantages ofunderground water are:
. It does not evaporate.
. Recharging of the wells occurs as water goes downwards. . It provides water for vegetation over a
wide area"
. It does not provide conditions for breeding of mosquitoes like in stagnant water.
. It usually does not get contaminated by human and animal waste.
19. Coal is used in thermal power stations, and, petroleum products like petrol and diesel are used
as means of transport like motor vehicles, ships and aero planes. We cannot really imagine life
without a number of electrical appliances and constant use of transportation. Mention some ways
by which our consumption of coal and. petroleum products can be reduced.
Burden on coal and petroleum can be reduced by using public transport and carpooling; Cycling and
walking should be preferred. Fuels which do not cause any kind of pollution like alcohol, hydrogen
and water, will help in reducing the consumption of coal and petroleum.
.Cheaper fuels like CNG or LPG should be used. They produce less poisonous gases' wherever
possible, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy and solar energy should be used.
.Production of electricity requires coal and petroleum. So, instead of electricity other forms of energy
should be used like solar energy tidal energy, wind energy and atomic energy.
. Cooking, lighting and heating can be done by using biogas or solar energy.
.Systems like metro railways are a good means of transportation, these are very fast and cause very
little pollution.
20. What changes can you make in your habits to become more environment-friendly?
We should switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Water and food should not be wasted.
Close the tap when not in use. Dump the objects made of plastic and glass in designated recycling
boxes. Plastic, paper, or glass must be recycled or reused and not dumped with other wastes. This is
because objects made of plastic do not get decomposed easily. Besides soil fertility, they badly affect
our environment. We should dispose the wastes safely and not disperse in public places. These are a
few things that can be done to become more environment- friendly.
21. What would be the advantages of exploiting resources with short-term aims?
There should be a judicious use of natural resources as they are limited in nature. We should not
exploit resources for our short term gains as this would only lead to depletion of natural resources for
the present generation as well as generations to come. Hence, we can say that there are hardly any
advantages of exploiting natural resources for short term gains.
22. How would these advantages differ from the advantages of using a long-term perspective in
managing our resources?
In the case of a long-time perspective in managing our resources, these resources will last for the
generations to come. This management ensures uniform distribution among the people. It conserves
the natural resources for many years and not just for a few years, as in the case of a short-term
perspective in conserving natural resources.
23. Why do you think there should be equitable distribution of resources? What forces would be
working against an equitable distribution of our resources?
Natural resources of the Earth must be distributed among the people uniformly so that each and
every one gets his share of the resource.
Human greed, corruption, and the lobby of the rich and powerful are the forces working against an
equitable distribution of resources.
24. Why should we conserve forests and wildlife?
We should conserve forests and wildlife to preserve the biodiversity (range of different life-forms) so
as to avoid the loss of ecological stability. A large number of tribes are the habitants in and around
the forests. If the forests are not conserved, then it may affect these habitants. Without proper
management of forest and wildlife, the quality of soil, the water sources, and even the amount of
rainfall may be affected. Without forest and wildlife, life would become impossible for human beings.
25. Suggest some approaches towards the conservation of forests.
Some approaches towards the conservation of forests are as follows:
(a) People should show their participation in saving the forest by protesting against the cutting of
trees. For example, Chipko Andolan
(b) Planting of trees should be increased. Rate of Afforestation must be more than that of
deforestation.
(c) Some people cut precious trees such as Sandal wood to earn money. Government should take legal
steps to catch these wood smugglers.
(d) Habitants of forests must not be bothered by the forest officials. Otherwise, this would result in
the clash between tribal people and the government officials, thereby enhancing the naxal activities in
forests.
Find out about the traditional systems of water harvesting/management in your region.
One of the traditional systems of water harvesting used in our region is tanks.
Compare the above system with the probable systems in hilly/mountainous areas or plains or plateau
regions.
In plains, the water harvesting structures are crescent-shaped earthen embankments. These are low,
straight, and concrete.
In hilly regions, the system of canal irrigation called Kulhs is used for water harvesting.
This involves a collection of rain water in a stream, which is then diverted into man-made channels
down the hill sides.
26. Find out the source of water in your region/locality. Is water from this source available to all
people living in that area?
The source of water in our region is ground water. Water from the source is available to all the
people living in that area.
27. What changes would you suggest in your home in order to be environment-friendly?
Changes that can be undertaken in our homes to be environment-friendly are listed below:
(i)Switch off the electrical appliances when not in use.
(ii)Turn the taps off while brushing or bathing and repair the leaking taps.
(iii)Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins.
(iv)Construct composting pits.
(v)Food items such as jam, pickles, etc., come packed in plastic bottles. These bottles can later be used
for storing things in the kitchen.
28. Can you suggest some changes in your school which would make it environment-friendly?
Changes that can be undertaken in our schools to make it environment friendly are listed below:
(i) Electricity can be saved by switching off lights and fans when not required.
(ii) Turn the taps off when not in use.
(iii) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be thrown into separate bins.
29. We saw in this chapter that there are four main stakeholders when it comes to forests and
wildlife. Which among these should have the authority to decide the management of forest
produce? Why do you think so?
The forest department of the government should have the authority to decide the management of
forest produces. This is because the forest department is the care taker of the forest land and is
responsible for any damage to the forest.
30. How can you as an individual contribute or make a difference to the management of (a) forests
and wildlife, (b) water resources and (c) coal and petroleum?
(a) Forest and wildlife:
(i) We should protest against the cutting of trees (deforestation).
(ii) We should protest against the poaching of wild animals.
(iii) We should stop the annexation of forest land for our use.
(b) Water resources:
(i) Turn the taps off while brushing or bathing and repair leaking taps.
(ii) We should practice rainwater harvesting.
(iii) We should avoid the discharge of sewage and other wastes into rivers and other water resources.
(c) Coal and petroleum:
(i) We should take a bus or practice car pooling to avoid excessive use of petroleum.
(ii) We should stop using coal as a fuel (angithis).
(iii)We should use alternative sources of energy such as hydro-energy and solar energy instead of
depending largely on coal and petroleum.
31. What can you as an individual do to reduce your consumption of the various natural resources?
Natural resources such as water, forests, coal and petroleum, etc. are important for the survival of
human beings. The ways in which we can reduce the consumption of various natural resources are as
follows:
(i) We should stop the cutting of trees (deforestation).
(ii) We should use recycled paper to reduce the cutting down of trees.
(iii) We should not waste water.
(iv) We should practice rainwater harvesting.
(v) We should practice car pooling to avoid the excessive use of petroleum.
(vi) We should use alternative sources of energy such as hydro-energy and solar energy.
32. List five things you have done over the last one week to −
(a) conserve our natural resources
(b) increase the pressure on our natural resources
(a) To conserve our natural resources:
(i) Travel by a CNG bus for long distances and walk for short distances
ii) Use recycled paper
(iii) Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins
(iv) Plant trees
(v) Harvest rainwater
(b) To increase the pressure on our natural resources:
(i) Use non-renewable resources of energy
(ii) Waste water
(iii) Waste electricity
(iv) Use plastics and polythene bags for carrying goods
(v) Use escalators
33. On the basis of the issues raised in this chapter, what changes would you incorporate in your
life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our resources?
One should incorporate the following changes in life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our
resources:
(i) Stop cutting trees and practice plantation of trees.
(ii) Stop using plastic and polythene bags for carrying goods.
(iii) Use recycled paper.
(iv) Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins.
(v) Waste minimum amount of water while using and repair leaking taps.
(vi) Practice rainwater harvesting.
(vi) Avoid using vehicles for short distances. Instead, one can walk or cycle to cover short distances.
To cover long distances, one should take a bus instead of using personal vehicles.
(vii) Switch off electrical appliances when not in use.
(viii) Use fluorescent tubes in place of bulbs to save electricity.
(ix) Take stairs and avoid using lifts.
(x) During winters, wear an extra sweater to avoid using heaters.
3 Reena is a student of class X of a Govt. School she is a member of Eco club of her school. What
suggestions would like to give Reena to improve the environment in her school?
1. Growing plants and trees in the open area in the school. 2 Arrangement for water harvesting 3.
Reporting any kind of water leakage in the school. Associated Value : The learners will be motivated
to act like a eco-club members and participate actively in its all environment saving activities
4 Human population was less in early days. Men used to live in harmony with nature however, in
present time tremendous growth of population and science & technology is resulting in fast
depletion of natural resources. 1. Don’t you think, it is high time that humans should realize that
their own survival is in danger if they do not follow the path of sustainable development. 2. What
are the ill effects of unsustainable development?
1. Yes 2. Global warming, degradation of environment health hazards. Associated Value : The
learners will appreciate the fact that rational use of natural resourses is their responsibilities towards
saving has nature for future generations as well.
5 My sister is in habit of keeping the tap open while brushing her teeth. She loves to bathe under
shower. My neighbour uses hosepipe attached to drinking water supply pipe for washing his
scooter & car. According to me their way of handling the most precious source water is absolutely
wrong. 1. Do you agree with me or not? 2. What changes in the above situation can be done to
conserve water.
1. Agreed 2. One should minimize use of water, should not keep the taps open when not in use,
should use bucket of water for cleaning purpose for taking bath, as these practices consume less
water. Associated Value : The learners will start using water resources more judiciously to avoid its
waste
6 Govt. of India has recently instituted an Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for wildlife
conservation in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi. Who sacrificed her life along with 363 others
for the protection of khejri trees near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. Based an the above statement answer
the following question. 1. How trees are important to us? 2. How can you protect trees? 3. What is
the significance of Van Mahotsava?
1 Trees are the basis of human and animal life; no life can exist without them. We are directly or
indirectly dependent on the trees for all our requirements. 2. We can protect trees by taking care of
these. By reducing our needs and by not wasting the paper. 3. mahotsava is the festival celebrated to
enhance the plantation of trees. Associated Value : Same as in 1.
7 Sneha and Sugandha are friends. Sneha belongs to a rich family and she believes in throwing
and discarding the things after use while Sugandha does not like wastage and she reused the
things. Based on above information answer the following questions :- 1. How reusing the things
avoid wastage. 2. List any two examples where you can reuse the things. 3. What change can you
make in your habits to become more Eco-friendly.
1. Reusing means using the things again and again thus without wastage of any energy we can use
the things. 2. Old envelop can be reused. Old news papers can be used to make cards, pots,
decorative pieces etc. 3. By adopting the principles of three „R‟s we can make ourselves Eco-Friendly.
Associated Value : The learners will be motivated to adopt 3 R‟s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) in their life
to save her environment.
8 Business is not only about accumulating wealth and glory. It is not about growth for the sake of
size. It is about being a good corporate citizen and the admirer of the environment. How can you
say that being a good citizen is more important than becoming a successful businessman? How
can you become a good and responsible citizen?
Being a good citizen is more important than becoming a successful business man because if we are
not good citizen our action will take our country towards destruction. Associated Value : The
learners will appreciate the fact that one should not involve in any business gain activity which may
also harm the environment.
9 Water is one of our most precious commodities and no life can survive without it. It has been
predicted that water scarcity will become the subject of “Wars” is the near future. 1. Write any two
ways in which water is getting polluted? 2. Write any two measures to stop water pollution at your
level?
1. By industrial waste. By human activities. By not throwing waste materials and garbage into water.
2. By sensitizing people about harmful effects of water pollution. or any other methods. Associated
Value : The learners will become more responsible by discouraging any activity in their life that may
cause water pollution.
10 Tourism sector is a major source of income for Govt. To obtain more income the hills are being
converted into tourist places where rest houses and resorts are made and millions of tourists visit
those hills. They throw plastic covers, bottles and other litter there and destroy them. As a
responsible citizen of the country what two precautions you would take while visiting tourist
place.
While visiting to tourist places we should not throw garbage and waste materials. 1. We should not
try to temper with the natural beauty of that place. Associated Value : The learners will appreciate
the very idea of keeping the tourist spot clean whenever they visit their as these are our natural
heritage.
11 Human actions are leading to environmental problems. But we need not feel powerful or
helpless as there are many things we can do to make a difference. Keeping in view the above
statement answer the following questions:- 1. What are the three R’s which can make a difference
in our environment. 2. How can you contribute at your own level to save the environment.
1. Reduce reuse and recycle 2. By becoming Eco-friendly By planting trees, by not throwing garbage
etc.
12. There is a garbage bin installed near your school gate where children and other staff of the school
throw waste food, tetra pack, plastic, waste paper, empty mineral water bottle, etc. The bin is cleared
by municipality every day which they dump in a landfill area.
a) Can you suggest any improvement in this waste disposal system of your school?
b) What action will you take in your school to conserve energy?
c) Give an idea which can discourage travelling of students by personal car.
13. Rapid industrialisation of the world is associated with rapid deforestation and extinction of
various species. Large scale felling of trees, poaching, etc have disturbed the ecological balance. Total
forest coverage in the world is decreasing at an alarming rate and combined effort from all the stake
holders to stop deforestation is the need of the hour. Unless forest cover is restored, biodiversity is
preserved; the civilization will not last long.
(a) Who is your favourite environmentalist?
(b) What are the environmental issues he is associated with?
(c) How would you like to contribute towards conservation of nature?