11 COR N REG

09-Mar-18
Correlation
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Correlations: Measuring and Describing Relationships
• A correlation is a statistical method used to

measure and describe the relationship
between two variables.
• A relationship exists when changes in one
variable tend to be accompanied by consistent
and predictable changes in the other variable.
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Correlations: Measuring and Describing

Relationships
• A correlation typically evaluates three aspects

of the relationship:
– the direction
– the form
– the degree

Relationships
• The direction of the relationship is measured

by the sign of the correlation (+ or -). A
positive correlation means that the two
variables tend to change in the same
direction; as one increases, the other also
tends to increase.
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Relationships
• The most common form of relationship is a

straight line or linear relationship which is
measured by the Pearson correlation.
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Relationships
• The degree of relationship (the strength or

consistency of the relationship) is measured
by the numerical value of the correlation. A
value of 1.00 indicates a perfect relationship
and a value of zero indicates no relationship.
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Relationships
• To compute a correlation you need two

scores, X and Y, for each individual in the
sample.
• The Pearson correlation requires that the
scores be numerical values from an interval or
ratio scale of measurement.
The Pearson Correlation
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Example
Student X Y
A 0 4
B 2 1
C 8 10
D 6 9
E 4 6
Scatter plot
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HIPOTESIS
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Reporting
• A correlation for the data revealed that score

subject X and score subject Y were not
significantly related, r=0.86, n=5 , α = 0.05 two
tails.
SPSS
Correlations
X Y
X Pearson Correlation 1 .861
Sig. (2-tailed)
.061
N 5 5
Y Pearson Correlation .861 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.061
N 5 5
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r=0.861
Strong correlation but not significant
(α = 0.061)
EXAMPLE 2: Question 14 pg#559
Student X Y
A 11 14
B 6 7
C 16 15
D 4 7
E 1 3
F 10 9
G 5 9
H 3 8
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Scatter Plot
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SPSS
Correlations
XX YY
XX Pearson Correlation
1 .904**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.002
N
8 8
YY Pearson Correlation
.904** 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.002
N
8 8
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
r=0.904
Strong correlation and significant
(α = 0.002)
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SPSS
CORRELATION
Pearson correlation
For interval or ratio scale
DATA STRUCTURE
What is the correlation on Math test

score for Jan and Dec?
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scatterplot
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r=0.791
Strong correlation
and significant
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SPSS
CORRELATION
Spearman correlation
For ordinal data
• Likert Scale
Data
• Convert to
ordinal
data
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Original data
Converted to ordinal data
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Correlations
AFTER BEFORE
AFTER Pearson Correlation 1 .830**
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 12 12
BEFORE Pearson Correlation .830** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 12 12
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r=0.830 ( strong correlation)

And significant
BUT
Illegal
Why?
Correlations
AFTER BEFORE
Spearman's rho AFTER Correlation 1.000 1.000**
Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) . .
N 12 12
BEFORE Correlation 1.000** 1.000

Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) . .
N 12 12
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r=1 ( strong correlation)

And significant
What is the correlation on favourite

teacher for Jan and June?
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r=0.838
Strong correlation
and significant
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The Point-Biserial Correlation and the Phi Coefficient

• The Pearson correlation formula can also be used to
measure the relationship between two variables
when one or both of the variables is dichotomous.
• A dichotomous variable is one for which there are
exactly two categories: for example, men/women or
succeed/fail or Yes/No
• Assign numerical values to the two categories of the
dichotomous variable(s). Traditionally, one category
is assigned a value of 0 and the other is assigned a
value of 1.
The Point-Biserial Correlation
• In situations where one variable is

dichotomous (nominal or ordinal)and the
other consists of regular numerical scores
(interval or ratio scale).
– Example:
• Yes/No vs Income
• Gender(Male/Female) vs Math Score
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Phi Coefficient correlation
• When both variables are dichotomous.

– Example:
• Gender(male/female) vs agreed/disagree
• Yes/no vs men/women
• Like/dislike vs gender(male/female)
SPSS
CORRELATION
The Point-Biserial Correlation
For dichotomous vs interval/ratio
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DATA STRUCTURE
What is the correlation between

Gender and Math Jan test score?
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r=0.212
weak correlation
and not significant
SPSS
CORRELATION
Phi (ф) -coefficient
For dichotomous vs dichotomous
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What is the correlation between

Gender and like Math teacher?
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r=-0.287
weak correlation
and not significant
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Partial Correlation
• A partial correlation measures the relationship

between two variables (X and Y) while
eliminating the influence of a third variable
(Z).
• Partial correlations are used to reveal the real,
underlying relationship between two variables
when researchers suspect that the apparent
relation may be distorted by a third variable.
Partial Correlation (cont.)
• For example, there probably is no underlying

relationship between weight and mathematics
skill for elementary school children.
• However, both of these variables are positively
related to age: Older children weigh more
and, because they have spent more years in
school, have higher mathematics skills.
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Partial Correlation (cont.)
• As a result, weight and mathematics skill will

show a positive correlation for a sample of
children that includes several different ages.
• A partial correlation between weight and
mathematics skill, holding age constant,
would eliminate the influence of age and
show the true correlation which is near zero.
X= Mathematics Skills
Y= Weight
Z=Age
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Not Appropriate
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Z=1
Z=2
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Z=3
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Without control With control variable

variable
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Introduction to Regression
Introduction to Linear Regression
• The Pearson correlation measures the degree

to which a set of data points form a straight
line relationship.
• Regression is a statistical procedure that
determines the equation for the straight line
that best fits a specific set of data.
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Introduction to Linear Regression (cont.)
• Any straight line can be represented by an

equation of the form Y = bX + a, where b and a
are constants.
• The value of b is called the slope constant and
determines the direction and degree to which
the line is tilted.
• The value of a is called the Y-intercept and
determines the point where the line crosses
the Y-axis.
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Introduction to Linear Regression (cont.)
The equation for the regression line is
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Example
X Y
2 3
6 11
0 6
4 6
5 7
7 12
5 10
3 9
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SPSS
Regression
DATA STRUCTURE
What is the equation for the regression

line of Math test score for Jan and Dec?
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SPSS
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Y=0.568X + 43.087
Multiple Regression
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Introduction to Multiple Regression with Two

Predictor Variables
• In the same way that linear regression

produces an equation that uses values of X to
predict values of Y, multiple regression
produces an equation that uses two different
variables (X1 and X2) to predict values of Y.
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Introduction to Multiple Regression with Two

Predictor Variables (cont.)
• For two predictor variables, the general form of the

multiple regression equation is:
Ŷ= b1X1 + b2X2 + a
• The ability of the multiple regression equation to

accurately predict the Y values is measured by first
computing the proportion of the Y-score variability
that is predicted by the regression equation and the
proportion that is not predicted.
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Example (pg#582)
Person Y(dependent) X1(independent) X2(independent)
A 11 4 10
B 5 5 6
C 7 3 7
D 3 2 4
E 4 1 3
F 12 7 5
G 10 8 8
H 4 2 4
J 8 6 10
J 6 2 3
Example
Person Y(dependent) X1(independent) X2(independent)
A 11 4 10
B 5 5 6
C 7 3 7 SPx1y=52
D 3 2 4
E 4 1 3 SPx2y=47
F 12 7 5
G 10 8 8 SPx1x2=35
H 4 2 4
J 8 6 10
J 6 2 3
My=7 Mx1=4 Mx2=6
SSy=90 SSx1=52 SSx2=64
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SPSS
Multiple Regression
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DATA STRUCTURE
What is the equation for the regression line

of Math test score for Jan, Jun and Dec?
SPSS
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SPSS
Z=-0.037X + 0.775Y + 26.596

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www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Correlations: Measuring and Describing Relationships

• A correlation is a statistical method used to

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Correlations: Measuring and Describing

• A correlation typically evaluates three aspects

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Correlations: Measuring and Describing

• The direction of the relationship is measured

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Correlations: Measuring and Describing

• The most common form of relationship is a

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Correlations: Measuring and Describing

• The degree of relationship (the strength or

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Correlations: Measuring and Describing

• To compute a correlation you need two

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The Pearson Correlation

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www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

• A correlation for the data revealed that score

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EXAMPLE 2: Question 14 pg#559

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www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

What is the correlation on Math test

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www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

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Converted to ordinal data

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Sig. (2-tailed) .001

BEFORE Pearson Correlation .830** 1