Columbia University

Department of Physics
QUALIFYING EXAMINATION

Friday, January 12, 2018

10:00AM to 12:00PM
General Physics (Part I)
Section 5.

Two hours are permitted for the completion of this section of the examination. Choose
4 problems out of the 6 included in this section. (You will not earn extra credit by doing an
additional problem). Apportion your time carefully.

Use separate answer booklet(s) for each question. Clearly mark on the answer booklet(s)
which question you are answering (e.g., Section 5 (General Physics), Question 2, etc.).

Do NOT write your name on your answer booklets. Instead, clearly indicate your Exam
Letter Code.

You may refer to the single handwritten note sheet on 8 12 ” × 11” paper (double-sided) you
have prepared on General Physics. The note sheet cannot leave the exam room once the
exam has begun. This note sheet must be handed in at the end of today’s exam. Please
include your Exam Letter Code on your note sheet. No other extraneous papers or books
are permitted.

Simple calculators are permitted. However, the use of calculators for storing and/or recov-
ering formulae or constants is NOT permitted.

Questions should be directed to the proctor.

Good Luck!

Section 5 Page 1 of 7
 1. Consider a star of mass M and radius R. Assume that the star has a uniform density
and is composed of Hydrogen gas which is 100% ionized and well virialized. Assume the
gas obeys the ideal gas law. The star radiates energy and therefore gradually contracts.
(a) Estimate the star temperature in terms of mass M and radius R. Is the tempera-
ture increasing or decreasing with contracting radius R? How do you explain this
behavior?
(b) What is the electron de Broglie wavelength of the star’s gas in terms of temperature?
(c) Define the critical density of the star ρ0 as the density at which quantum effects
change the pressure. Express ρ0 in terms of the electron de Broglie wavelength.
Will the star continue to contract to ρ > ρ0 ?
(d) Using the above results, find an expression for the maximum temperature a star
can reach as a function of its mass. Estimate this temperature for a star of mass
M = 2 × 1033 g (mass of the sun).

For your numerical estimates you may find useful:

Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10−8 cm3 g−1 s−2

Planck constant h̄ = 1.05 × 10−27 erg s
Electron mass me = 0.91 × 10−27 g
Proton mass mp = 1.67 × 10−24 g
Classical electron radius re = e2 /me c2 = 2.82 × 10−13 cm
Proton radius rp ∼ 0.9 fm= 0.9 × 10−13 cm

Section 5 Page 2 of 7
 2. A system with two nondegenerate energy levels, E0 and E1 (E1 > E0 > 0) is populated
by N distinguishable particles at temperature T .
(a) What is the average energy per particle? Express answer in terms of E0 , E1 and
∆E = E1 − E0 .
(b) What is the average energy per particle as T → 0? Express answer in terms of E1
and ∆E.
(c) What is the average energy per particle as T → ∞? Express answer in terms of
E0 + E1 and ∆E.
(d) What is the specific heat at constant volume, cV , of this system? Express answer
in terms of ∆E.
(e) Compute cV in the limits T → 0 and T → ∞ and make a sketch of cV versus
∆E/kT .

Section 5 Page 3 of 7
 3. This is a problem on the one-dimensional Ising model. Consider a system with N + 1
spins with the Hamiltonian:
N
X −1
H = −J si+1 si (1)
i=0

where each si can take on only two possible values: +1 or −1. Let us define G ≡ βJ,
where β is the usual inverse temperature. Thus, the partition function Z takes the form
" N −1 #
X X
Z= exp G si+1 si (2)
{s} i=0

where the symbol {s} denotes all possible combinations of the values of the spins.
(a) Compute Z. You should be able to express it as an analytic function of G (and N ).
Hint: it is useful to define a variable ti ≡ si+1 si which also takes the values +1 or
−1. You might also want to assume first that s0 is fixed and consider a sum over
all possible combinations of t0 , t1 , ..., tN −1 ; then sum over s0 = ±1.
(b) What is the free energy F ? What is its low temperature (β → ∞) limit? Be careful
to distinguish between the J > 0 (ferromagnetic) and J < 0 (anti-ferromagnetic)
possibilities.

Section 5 Page 4 of 7
 4. In a system of electrons confined to a two-dimensional plane, the energy of the states of
electrons is represented as:
1
E[j, px , py ] = (p2 + p2y ) + jEz , Ez = 0.01 eV ,
2me x
where jEz , j = 0, 1, 2, . . ., represents the quantized energy of electron oscillations along
the z-direction normal to the (x, y)-plane, and (px , py ) are the components of electron
momentum in the (x, y)-plane. The (x, y)-plane has a (large) surface area A.
(a) Evaluate the density of states for each value of the quantum number j.
(b) Assume that the electron density is n = 1012 cm−2 . Find the chemical potential at
temperature T = 0 K. Describe qualitatively what happens when the temperature
is raised to T ∼ 100 K.

Some numerical values:

1 eV = 1.6 × 10−12 erg = 1.6 × 10−19 Joule, and equivalent to about 10000 K
me = 9.1 × 10−28 g
e = 4.8 × 10−10 esu=1.6 × 10−19 C
h̄ = 1.05 × 10−27 erg s = 1.05 × 10−34 Joule · s

Section 5 Page 5 of 7
 5. Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a wide range of gases including water vapor. Estimate
the ratio of the number of water molecules to the total number of gas particles (atoms
and molecules) in a cubic meter of air in typical ambient conditions using the following
information:

• Typical ambient temperature TA = 293 K and relative humidity ρ = 50%.

• Saturation vapor pressure of water approximately doubles with every 10 K rise in
temperature.
• Boiling temperature TB of water at typical ambient pressure is 373 K.

Section 5 Page 6 of 7
 6. Consider a system of N independent identical harmonic oscillators whose energy is given
by
XN
mi + 12 h̄ω,


E=
i=1

where mi = 0, 1, 2, . . . are the oscillator excitation quantum numbers. The harmonic

oscillators describe the motion of atoms in a solid. This model was introduced by
Einstein in 1905 to understand thermodynamic properties (e.g. the heat capacity) of
solids.
(a) Determine the number of ways, Ω(E), that this energy canP
be obtained. Hint: Ω(E)
can be understood as the number of ways of putting M ≡ N i=1 mi indistinguishable
balls in N labeled boxes.
(b) Find the entropy S in terms of N and M , assuming N and M are both large.
(c) Using the relation between entropy S, energy E, and temperature T , find T in
terms of N and M .
(d) Express E in terms of N and T . Which form does E take in the limiting cases
kB T  h̄ω and kB T  h̄ω?

Section 5 Page 7 of 7
Section 5 - Problem 1
Hailey
Section 5 - Problem 1
Hailey
 Section 5 - Problem 2
Hughes

PROBLEM 5-2 SOLUTIONS

E0 e−E0 /kT +E1 e−E1 /kT

(a) u= e−E0 /kT +e−E1 /kT

E0 +E1 e−∆E/kT
u= 1+e−∆E/kT

(b)

As T → 0, 1/kT → ∞

u = E0 − ∆E

(c)

As T → ∞, 1/kT → 0

u = 21 (E0 + E1 )

(d)

−∆E/kT
Etotal = N E = N E01+e
+E1 e
−∆E/kT

∂Etotal
CV = ∂T

−1 E1 e−∆E/kT (−∆E)E0 +(E0 +E1 e−∆E/kT )e−∆E/kT ∆E

CV = kT 2
N · (1+e−∆E/kT )2

−1 −(∆E)2 e−∆E/kT
CV = kT 2
N · (1+e−∆E/kT )2

N ·∆E 2 e−∆E/kT
CV = kT 2 (1+e−∆E/kT )2

(e)

In the limit T → 0, kT → 0 and e−∆E/kT → 0

CV = N ke−∆E/kT (∆E/kT )2

4
 Section 5 - Problem 2
Hughes

In the limit T → ∞, kT → ∞ and e−∆E/kT → 1

N k ∆E 2
CV = 4 ( kT )

5
 Section 5 - Problem 3
Hui

Statistical mechanics problem. This is a problem on the one-dimensional

Ising model. Consider a system with N + 1 spins with the Hamiltonian:
N
X −1
H = −J si+1 si (1)
i=0

where each si can take on only two possible values: +1 or −1. Let us define
G ≡ βJ, where β is the usual inverse temperature. Thus, the partition function
Z takes the form
" N −1 #
X X
Z= exp G si+1 si (2)
{s} i=0

where the symbol {s} denotes all possible combinations of the values of the
spins.
a. Compute Z. You should be able to express it as an analytic function of G
(and N ). Hint: it is useful to define a variable ti ≡ si+1 si which also takes
the values +1 or −1. You might also want to assume first that s0 is fixed and
consider a sum over all possible combinations of t0 , t1 , ..., tN −1 ; then sum over
s0 = ±1.
b. What is the free energy F ? What is its low temperature (β → ∞) limit?
Be careful to distinguish between the J > 0 (ferromagnetic) and J < 0 (anti-
ferromagnetic) possibilities.
c. Compute the two-point correlation hsj sk i defined by:
" N −1 #
X X
−1
hsj sk i = Z sj sk exp G si+1 si (3)
{s} i=0

where you can assume j > k. What is its high temperature limit (β → 0 or
G → 0)? How about the low temperature limit?

Solution (Lam). This is a standard textbook problem, proposed by Lenz and

solved by Ising. Let’s rewrite Z:
" N −1 # −1
XX X X X NY
Z= exp G ti = exp [Gti ]
s0 {t} i=0 s0 {t} i=0
X
= (e−G + eG )N = 2(e−G + eG )N . (4)
s0

The free energy is

F = −β −1 ln Z = −β −1 ln 2 + N ln (e−G + eG ) .
 
(5)

1
 Section 5 - Problem 3
Hui

Note that F scales linearly with N in the large N limit, as expected. For J > 0,
the low temperature limit corresponds to G → ∞, which gives F → −N G/β =
−N J. For J < 0, the low temperature limit corresponds to G → −∞, which
gives F → N G/β = N J. These give the expected ground state energy in the
ferromagnetic case and antiferromagnetic case respectively (i.e. it is −N |J| in
both cases). By the way, the ln 2 is the entropy of the lowest energy level (i.e.
there are 2 possible ground states). The two-point correlation is
" N −1 #
X X
−1
hsj sk i = Z sj sk exp G si+1 si
{s} i=0
" N −1 #
X X
−1
=Z (sj sj−1 )(sj−1 sj−2 )...(sk+2 sk+1 )(sk+1 sk ) exp G si+1 si
{s} i=0
−1
" N
#
XX X
= Z −1 tj−1 tj−2 ...tk+1 tk exp G ti
s0 {t} i=0

XX N
Y −1
= Z −1 tj−1 tj−2 ...tk+1 tk exp [Gti ]
s0 {t} i=0

= Z −1 2(−e−G + eG )j−k (e−G + eG )N −(j−k)

j−k
e − e−G
 G
=
eG + e−G
= ( tanh G)j−k . (6)

In the high temperature limit G → 0, hsj sk i → 0 i.e. the spins become

uncorrelated as expected. In the low temperature limit, for J > 0, we have
G → ∞, and so hsj sk i → 1; for J < 0, G → −∞ instead, in which case hsj sk i →
(−1)j−k . This is consistent with the expectation that, at zero temperature, all
spins align in the ferromagnetic case, whereas the spins alternate in the anti-
ferromagnetic case.
Some extra comments: it is useful to define (assuming G > 0 for simplicity)

e−2λ ≡ tanh G (7)

such that

hsj sk i = e−2λ(j−k) , (8)

where 1/(2λ) has the interpretation of a correlation length. Note the curious
duality, that the roles of λ and G can be reversed: e−2G = tanh λ. The mapping
allows one to connect the 1D Ising model to a quantum mechanics problem of a
single spin (see the corresponding problem in the quantum mechanics section).

2
 Section 5 - Problem 4
Pinczuk

Section 5: General Physics, part I

In a two-dimensional electron system the energy of the states of electrons can be

represented as:

E[j, px, py]= (j+ ½) Ez + (1/2mo) (px2 + py2)

Where (j+ ½) Ez represents the energy for motion along the z-direction that is normal to
the (x,y) plane. px and py are the components of electron momentum in the (x,y) plane.
Ez = 0.01eV. The allowed values of the quantum number j are j= 0, 1, 2 … . The allowed
values of electron momentum are subject to quantization within a square of area A=L2,
where L is the length of the sides of the square.

(a) Evaluate the density of states.

(b) Assume that the areal electron density is n= 1012cm-2. Find the chemical potential at
the temperature T=0K. Describe qualitatively the changes that occur when the
temperature is raised to 80K.

Some numerical values:

1eV = 1.6 x 10-12 ergs = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules, and equivalent to about 10000K degrees
1nm = 10-7 cm
mo = 9.1 x 10-28 g = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
e = 4.8 x 10-10 esu = 1.6 x 10-19 C
! = 1.05 x 10-27 ergs sec = 1.05 x 10-34 Joules sec
 Section 5 - Problem 4
Pinczuk
Physics Qwals 2018

Section 5 Problem # 4

Solution

(a) Assume that electron 5=42 Then

spin is .

for

j
number the
each Value
of
the
quantum

DOS
given by
is

de - =
I
T.tt

(b) At the chemical

T=ok
potential is the

Fermi electrons
energy .
If all the

the state
populate the Fermi
J=O energy

would he :

Ep = 3.8 me V

Because this Value G= is lass than

of
me✓
Ez = ro the state with
1=0 is the
 Section 5 - Problem 4
Pinczuk
electrons
only populated by at
one
IOK .

8meV
When the
temperature is raised to 80 Ke

States
electrons will
populate with

J=i .
 Section 5 - Problem 5
Sahin

Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a wide range of gases including water vapor. Estimate the ratio of
the number of water molecules to the total number of gas particles (atoms and molecules) in a cubic
meter of air in typical ambient conditions using the following information:

i. Typical ambient temperature TA and relative humidity 𝜌 are 293∘ K and 50%, respectively.
ii. Saturation vapor pressure of water approximately doubles with every 10∘K rise in water
temperature.
iii. Boiling temperature TB of water at typical ambient pressure is 373∘ K.

Solution:

At the boiling point, saturation vapor pressure of water becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.
Since 𝑇= − 𝑇? = 80∘ 𝐾, we can express the ratio of the saturation vapor pressure of water vapor 𝑃D at
the ambient temperature to the atmospheric pressure 𝑃? as:

𝑃D
= 2EF .
𝑃?

The number of particles in a given volume is proportional to partial pressure of those particles.
Therefore the above ratio is equal to the ratio of the number of water molecules to the total number of
gas particles in a saturated atmosphere.

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio partial pressure of water to the saturation vapor pressure of
water. Therefore we can write:

𝑛H 𝑃D
=𝜌 = 2EI .
𝑛? 𝑃?

The numerical value is ~ 0.2%

 Section 5 - Problem 6
Will

Quals 2018
Problem Suggestion 2
Statistical Mechanics

Sebastian Will
Columbia University
(Dated: November 26, 2017)

1
 Section 5 - Problem 6
Will

QUANTUM HARMONIC OSCILLATORS IN AN EINSTEIN SOLID

Consider a system of N independent identical harmonic oscillators whose energy in a

microcanonical ensemble is given by

1
E = ~ωN + ~ωM.
2

The harmonic oscillators describe the motion of atoms in a solid. This model was introduced
by Einstein in 1905 to understand thermodynamic properties (e.g. the heat capacity) of
solids.

(a) Determine the number of ways, Ω(E), that this energy can be obtained. Note that
N
X
M= mi ,
i=1

where mi is the occuation number (0, 1, 2, . . . ) of a given harmonic oscillator. Hint:

Ω(E) can be understood as the number of ways of putting M indistinguishable balls
in N labelled boxes. It is also the number of ways of arranging N − 1 partitions and
M indistinguishable balls along a line. 6 mins

(b) Find the entropy S in terms of N and M . Use Stirling’s approximation ln(N !) ≈
N · ln(N ) − N to simplify the expression for S. 4 mins

(c) Find the temperature T . 8 mins Optional information: Note that

 
1 ∂S
= .
T ∂E N

(d) Express E in terms of N and T . In order to simplify the expressions, assume that
M + N − 1 ≈ M + N . Which form does E take in the limiting cases kB T  ~ω and
kB T  ~ω? 6 mins