Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Contents
PAGE
1 The Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Planet Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5 Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
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Learning to learn
A B
ABOUT THIS BOOK
• Look at these illustrations.
Match them to the units
on the opposite page.
Then look at the book,
and check your answers.
Unit ......................... Unit .........................
C D E
F G H
I J K
L M N
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THE UNIVERSE
How many planets in our galaxy can you name?
THE EARTH
How long does it take the Earth to rotate on its axis?
And how long does it take to orbit the Sun?
INVERTEBRATES
Can you name six invertebrates?
PLANTS
Plants are autotrophic: they make their own food.
What is the name of the process by which plants do this?
THE HYDROSPHERE
Water is present on Earth in gaseous, liquid and
solid form. Name four different places where you
can find water in nature.
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MINERALS
Quartz is a mineral. Can you name any other minerals?
Can you say what each is used for?
1
UNIT
The Universe
What do you remember?
• What are the points of light in this photo?
• What is the difference between …
– a star and a planet?
– a moon and a comet?
STUDY A UNIT
Look at page 8, the first page of Unit 1
• What is the title of the unit? Content objectives Key language
In this unit, you will … Describing
What are they about? • Compare sizes: the Sun and the planets
• Create a constellation poster
The Earth is larger than Mercury
Giving instructions
Study the constellations.
Research more about them on the Internet.
Lenses or mirrors?
Telescopes with lenses are called refracting telescopes.
Lenses bend the light.
The largest telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses
Telescopes with mirrors are called reflecting telescopes.
Mirrors reflect light.
Look through
this end. The
things you
observe seem
closer!
eyepiece: lens
to view the image
focus adjustment:
move this to make
the image clearer
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Optical telescopes consist of a long tube, with one end narrower than
the other. They can “perceive” light, just like eyes.
tube
OOPS!
Wrong end!
Activities
1. Galileo Galilei invented the telescope. Why was this such an important
discovery? What did astronomers know about the stars before then?
2. Research. Have you heard of the Hubble telescope? When was it built?
Where is it? What pictures does it take?
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UNIT
1 The Universe
What do you remember?
• What are the points of light in this photo?
• What is the difference between …
– a star and a planet?
– a moon and a comet?
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M P L A N E T S
I G R L A A S A
L U A T S R P T
K N E L T T A E
Y S E N A H C L
W O H B R X E L
• Geocentric theory • Heliocentric theory
nd In 1542, Nicolas A T M S U N Y I
2 century BC: Ptolomy Y M O O N L G T
proposed that the Earth was Copernicus proposed
the centre of the Universe. that the Sun was at the K E S W C P A E
Galaxies are a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held together by the
gravitational attraction between the components. They appear in groups called
galaxy clusters. Scientists think the vast spaces between the galaxies are empty.
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to the Local Group galaxy cluster.
Stars form when clouds of gases are pulled together by gravitational forces. They
are so hot inside that they emit heat and light. A galaxy can have up to five hundred
thousand million stars. An enormous cloud of gas and dust, a nebula, surrounds
the stars.
Planets are bodies which orbit some stars. They do not emit light; they receive light
from the star. They make up planetary systems. Our planetary system is the Solar
System. It is made up of eight planets and one star, the Sun, as well as moons,
comets and asteroids. The Solar System is located on a spiral arm of the Milky Way.
Natural satellites orbit some planets. The Earth’s natural satellite is the Moon.
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ecliptic plane
rotational axis of
the Moon
rotational axis
terre
strial
orbit
lunar orbit
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The Earth is the only planet that has life on it. The other In 2004, the robots Spirit and Opportunity landed on
planets are too hot or too cold. Mars. They investigated the possible existence of water.
INNER PLANETS
Did you know that...? Terrestrial or rocky planets: the crust and mantle are
made of rock. The core is metallic
Pluto, Ceres and Eris are Mercury Venus Earth Mars
dwarf planets. Pluto used to Diameter (Earth = 1) 0.382 0.949 1 0.532
be considered a planet. In Diameter (km) 4,880 12,104 12,740 6,794
2006, the International Union Average surface
of Astronomers reclassified it temperature (ºC) ⫺180 to 430 ºC 465 ºC ⫺89 to 58 ºC ⫺82 to 0 ºC
as a dwarf planet. Atmosphere none CO2 N2+O2 CO2
Satellites 0 0 1 2
Rings no no no no
the smallest rotates in the only
Interesting very thin
and closest to opposite planet
characteristics atmosphere
Ceres the Sun direction with life
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Neptune
Diameter: 49,492 km
OUTER PLANETS
Activities
Gas giants: they consist mainly of gases
9. Which planet …
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
• has the most satellites?
11.209 9.44 4.007 3.883
142,984 120,536 51,118 49,492
• is closest to the Sun?
• supports life?
⫺150 ºC ⫺170 ºC ⫺200 ºC ⫺210 ºC
• is the largest in the
H2⫹He H2⫹He H2⫹He H2⫹He Solar System?
63 59 27 13 • spins on its axis in the
yes yes yes yes opposite direction?
largest planet, rotational axis is greatest distance 10. If you live on Venus, will
system of rings
most satellites almost horizontal from the Sun the Sun rise in the East
and set in the West?
H2 ⫽ hydrogen He ⫽ helium
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Pluto
Mercury Earth
Mars
comet
Neptune
Saturn
Jupiter Venus
Uranus
Asteroid belt
The Solar System. Observe the elliptic paths of the planets’ orbits around the Sun. Notice that the orbit of Pluto, a dwarf planet,
is more inclined.
• Asteroids are rocky objects which are irregular in shape. They can
be several hundred kilometres in diameter, but most are only
a few metres wide. Asteroids orbit around the Sun. Most of them
are between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This area is called
the asteroid belt.
• Comets are small bodies that travel around the Sun in highly
elliptical orbits. They are irregular in shape. The nucleus is made
up of a mass of ice, dust and gas. When comets travel close
to the Sun, some of the ice evaporates, creating the long,
bright tails of the comets.
Activities
11. Compare the main characteristics of the inner and outer planets.
Halley’s comet has a bright tail. It was
12. Describe an inner or outer planet. Your partner will identify it. named after the English scientist
Edmund Halley. He was the first
is smaller / larger than
This inner planet the Earth. scientist to calculate the orbit of this
is the largest / smallest.
This outer planet … satellites. comet. Halley’s comet will next be
has (no)
visible from Earth in 2061.
carbon dioxide.
The atmosphere is made up of helium.
…
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Hands on
Prepare a constellation poster
Constellations are imaginary patterns of bright stars.
All societies have invented constellations. The
Ancient Greeks invented the constellations we call
the twelve signs of the zodiac.
There are 88 official constellations. However, most
of them do not really look like the mythical figures
they represent.
Cassiopeia Orion
The night sky looks different in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. The position of the
constellations changes with the seasons because
of the movement of the Earth.
Activities
13. Look up the constellation for your sign 14. Choose another constellation.
of the zodiac. Research more about it on the Internet.
a. Find out where and when it is most clearly
visible in the sky. Is it in the Northern or the
Southern Hemisphere?
b. Write the dates associated with this sign.
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Activities
15. Label each diagram with the name of … 21. Talk about astronomical distances with a partner.
a. a theory of the universe How far away is … from …?
b. the person who proposed the theory. It is … km / … light-years away.
Duration on …
Activities Earth Mercury Jupiter
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• Astronomical unit (AU): the distance between the Earth and the Sun, about
Units of
150 million kilometres.
measurement
• Light-year. The distance that light travels in one year: about 9.5 trillion kilometres.
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Could Mars support life?
First, list the factors that make life possible on Earth.
Then, investigate this website: http//solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars
WEB TASK: Do you want to visit Mercury, Jupiter or Mars?
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UNIT
2 Planet Earth
What do you remember?
• In this photo, what does each colour correspond to?
• Is the Earth an outer or an inner planet?
• What is the interior of the Earth like?
• Where does life exist on Earth: in the geosphere or the biosphere?
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Photo of the Earth and the Moon taken by satellite. Volcanoes are proof of intense geological activity.
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Sun’s rays
complete the revolution. This is one year.
Summer
Solar rays strike perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface and produce more heat.
ay
D
ht
rotational axis Nig
23.5° South Pole
Southern
Hemisphere
The rotation of the Earth. It is day on the half of the Earth facing
the Sun. It is night on the half facing away from the Sun.
Spring. The days get longer and the Spring equinox Winter. The days get longer and the
nights get shorter until 21st June - 21st March nights get shorter. On 21st March,
the longest day. day and night are the same length.
Summer Winter
solstice solstice
21st June 21st December
Summer. The days get shorter and the Autumn Autumn. The days get shorter
nights get longer. On 22nd September equinox and the nights get longer until 22nd
day and night are the same length. 22nd September December- the shortest day.
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4
5
Activities
3. Draw a diagram to show the phase of the
The same side of the Moon always faces the Earth. The red dot Moon in the Northern Hemisphere today.
indicates the dark or hidden side. It is never visible from Earth.
4. When is there a New Moon?
5. Draw a diagram of the phases of the
Moon in the Southern Hemisphere.
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Hands on
Reproducing eclipses
If the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, and blocks
off the sunlight, a solar eclipse occurs.
If the Moon passes behind the Earth, so the Earth prevents sunlight
from reaching the Moon, a lunar eclipse occurs.
Materials
1. Reproduce a solar eclipse. Position the planets: the Moon should block the Sun’s light
and project a shadow on the Earth.
2. Reproduce a lunar eclipse. Position the planets: the Earth should block the Sun’s
light and project a shadow on the Moon. Remember: a lunar eclipse can only take place
during a full moon.
3. In your notebooks, copy the diagrams for both eclipses.
umbra penumbra umbra penumbra
Sun Sun
Activities
6. Find out when the next solar and lunar eclipses will
take place.
Visit this site:
http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/eclipse.html
7. How must you protect your eyes when observing a
solar eclipse?
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The geosphere
The geosphere consists of three concentric layers: the crust,
mantle and core. The crust and the upper mantle make up
the lithosphere.
The crust is the outer layer of The mantle is the middle layer,
rock. The most abundant below the crust. It lies
minerals are silicates. 2,900 km below the
• The continental crust surface. It is made up
makes up the of mostly solid rock
continents. Granite material. The
is the most temperature is
mantle higher here, from
common rock.
• The oceanic outer 1,000ºC to
core
crust makes up (liquid)
4,000ºC, so
the ocean floor. some areas are
It was created inner melted rock.
core
by intense (solid)
volcanic activity The core is the
at mid-oceanic centre of the
ridges. Basalt, a Earth, below the
volcanic rock, is the mantle. It is made
most common rock. up mainly of iron.
The temperature is
over 4,000°C. The outer
core is liquid. The inner
core is solid.
Activity
8. Show the three layers of the
geosphere in a diagram. Label each
layer: main components,
temperature and state: solid or liquid.
oceanic crust
continental crust (thickness varies Label the two types of crust.
(thickness varies from 7 to 70 km) from 7 to 10 km)
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submarine volcano
mid-oceanic ridge
continental shelf
abyss
oceanic trench
abyssal plain
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The biosphere
The biosphere includes all the living things which inhabit
the Earth. Living things influence the physical and chemical
changes in the Earth. For example:
• In the Earth’s crust: Animals live in the ground and plants
take mineral salts from the soil. Plant roots can break up
rocks.
• In the atmosphere: Microorganisms which live in the soil
produce nitrogen. Oxygen is produced during
photosynthesis by plants, algae and some bacteria. Many
living things cause evaporation.
• In the hydrosphere: Living things contain water. Plants
take water from the ground. Many organisms live in aquatic
environments.
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Activities
12. Draw the Earth. Include an arrow pointing in the 18. The Moon has a dark side because each time
direction in which it revolves. When does the Sun it completes a turn around the Earth, it rotates
rise where you live? on its own axis. This takes 28 days.
With a partner, demonstrate the movement
13. Draw the Earth and its orbit. Show four positions. of the Moon around the Earth.
a. Indicate the solstices and the equinoxes. Divide
the orbit into four parts: one for each season in 19. What are the main differences between
the Northern Hemisphere. the continental crust and the oceanic crust?
b. Colour each season a different colour. Tip:
summer begins with the summer solstice and 20. Match each phrase to: geosphere, hydrosphere,
ends with the spring equinox. atmosphere or biosphere.
• water in a river
14. Why is the Sun higher over the horizon at noon • waves in the sea
in summer than in winter? Does this occur
• sand on a beach
at the same time of year in both hemispheres?
• fish, birds, plants or other living things
15. Think about the seasons. Use this information: • the air you breathe
Solstices. summer / winter • clouds
Equinox. spring / autumn. The Sun is above
21. Two friends are collecting rocks. Who is right? Why?
the Equator. Day and night are the same length.
Girl: These rocks belong to the geosphere.
a. When it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere,
what season is it in the Northern Hemisphere? Boy: No, they belong to the lithosphere.
And when is it spring there?
22. Think about the Earth’s rotation and answer.
b. What causes this difference in the seasons?
a. Why are days longer in the summer?
16. Match each picture of the Moon with a number b. Why do days and nights last for six months
in the diagram below. at the poles?
A B C D c. How are day and night produced? Make a drawing
to show this.
8 1
7 2
6 3
5 4
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• Rotation. The Earth rotates on its axis. The axis is tilted 23.5º. This
Movements
The Moon takes almost 28 days to orbit the Earth. It takes the same length
THE EARTH
• Solar eclipse: the Moon blocks the light from the Sun.
• Lunar eclipse: the Earth blocks the light from the Sun so it does not
reach the Moon.
The gravitational attraction or “pull” of the Moon on the oceans causes the tides.
– Oceanic crust: makes up the ocean floor. The Earth’s surface is made
up of continental features and ocean floor features.
• Mantle: the middle layer of the Earth, made of rock.
• Core: the centre of the Earth, made up of metals. Outer core: liquid. Inner
core: solid.
Atmosphere: the layer of air which surrounds the Earth. It consists of a
mixture of gases.
Hydrosphere: all the waters on the Earth.
Biosphere: the part of the Earth where living things exist. Living things can
be aquatic or terrestrial.
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think about the geosphere.
• Shake together a mixture of gravel, cork and water. Allow this to settle. Observe the separation in layers by density.
• Compare with the diagram of the geosphere on page 23. Identify the crust, mantle and core represented
in your experiment.
WEB TASK: Find out about artificial satellites.
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ha n t f lo s s f e r n f ungi
e le p we o
og ra em
fr nt
bu y tre
tte
r f lymon ke
3. Now put them into three different groups. Explain why you chose them.
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eyepiece
tube nosepiece
stage
iris fine
4. Match each task, a-f, to its diaphram focusing
corresponding part of the knob
microscope.
a. This magnifies the specimen
b. This increases the amount of light source base
light
c. This is where you put the
specimen Optical microscope
d. This is where you look through
e. This is where you change the
magnification
f. This is used for fine focusing
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UNIT
3 Living things
What do you remember?
• Can you name any of these living things?
• Classify them into groups: plants, animals, vertebrates, invertebrates.
• What do all living things do?
• What is the animal kingdom?
• What kingdom do human beings belong to?
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1. What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth in all its Biodiversity varies tremendously throughout the
forms. Biodiversity is the result of a slow process world. It is influenced by climate zones and
called evolution. Evolution began with the first habitats. For example, more than half the world’s
life forms and still continues today. Species change, species live in tropical rain forests and coral reefs.
and adapt to the environment. Some countries have many different climate zones
Scientists believe there may be more than thirty and habitats. As a result, they have more biological
million species. Approximately two million species diversity. For example, Spain has more biological
have been classified. diversity than other European countries.
Destruction
of habitats
caused by
deforestation,
the construction
of roads, Pollution of water, soil and the atmosphere, caused
dams, etc. by agricultural, industrial and urban development.
2 4
Uncontrolled
hunting and
fishing
endangers
many species: Introduction of
for example the exotic species
Iberian lynx can destroy
(Lynx pardinus) local species.
is in danger of For example,
extinction. the river crab.
Activities
Did you know that...? 1. True or false? Biodiversity refers to all living things.
Rain forests 2. Why does biodiversity vary throughout the world?
have the
3. Match each photo with a factor that reduces
greatest biodiversity.
biodiversity.
a. pollution
b. destruction of habitats
c. uncontrolled hunting
d. introduction of exotic species
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Inorganic substances
Inorganic substances do not contain carbon. They • Water is the most abundant substance in living
are present in living things and non-living things. things. Living things obtain water directly
The principle inorganic substances are: by drinking it, or indirectly from substances
• Mineral salts have various functions: they make that contain water. Plants obtain water
up different structures, like shells, bones and from the environment. Water is necessary for
teeth. They are present in internal fluids, like chemical reactions and to transport all other
tears, sweat and blood. substances.
Organic substances
Organic substances are unique to living things. Carbon is their
principal element. Organic substances present in living things are:
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nucleus
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
organelles
organelles
cell
cell membrane
genetic membrane
material
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. They have • Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, separated
no nuclear membrane. Genetic material is from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. They are Algae, protozoa, fungi, animals and plants have
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells. eukaryotic cells.
Bacteria are made up of prokaryotic cells.
that is passed from one cell to the daughter cell. DNA nucleus yes no
makes up the chromosomes. complexity complex simple
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Nucleus. Contains
genetic material.
Cytoplasm.
Contains
the organelles:
mitochondria,
vacuoles…
Vacuoles.
Like bags, surrounded
by membranes where
substances, mainly
water, accumulate.
Mitochondria.
Where energy Chloroplasts.
is obtained from These store a green
nutrients. pigment,
chlorophyll,
which absorbs
the Sun’s energy
Cell wall. to elaborate
A thick, rigid wall organic matter
made of cellulose. during photosynthesis.
Activities
10. Make a Venn diagram: show the similarities and differences
between animal and plant cells.
11. Draw and label an animal cell with all its parts.
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Hands on
Making a hypothesis. Using a microscope to study cells
A hypothesis is a proposal. It is used as a basis Cellulose is a rigid substance that holds the cell
for reasoning. Scientists use experiments and parts together in a polyhedral shape.
observation to test the validity of a hypothesis. Resulting hypothesis: If you observe cells through
Hypotheses show the relationship between two a microscope that are polyhedral in shape and joined
or more facts. For example: we know that cell walls together by thick walls, you know they are plant cells.
in plant cells are made of cellulose.
Activities
12. Label each plant cell indicating its magnification.
13. Imagine that your hypothesis were incorrect. What result would make this obvious?
14. Imagine you have an unidentified sample. Hypothesis: If this is a living thing, it will be made up of cells.
Is this hypothesis correct? Can you use it to differentiate between living and non-living things?
What would you do to classify the sample as living or non-living?
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Specialised Cells
Sperm cells Red blood cells Neuron or Nerve cells Root hair cells
have a tail (flagellum) consist mainly of are like wires with are long and thin so they can
so they can swim haemoglobin to a lot of extensions absorb water and mineral
toward the ovum transport oxygen so they can conduct salts from the soil
and capture messages
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Contains unicellular, prokaryotic Contains unicellular and multicellular Contains unicellular and multicellular
organisms. They may be autotrophic or living things. They are all eukaryotes. living things. They are eukaryotes.
heterotrophic. They have no tissues. They may be They have no tissues. They are
Bacteria and cyanobacteria. autotrophic or heterotrophic. heterotrophic.
Protozoa, algae. Yeasts, moulds, mushrooms.
Contains multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues. Contains multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues. They
They are autotrophic. are heterotrophic.
Mosses, ferns, flowering plants. Animals: may be invertebrate or vertebrate.
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Species Homo sapiens Are intelligent, have little body hair ...
female
donkey horse - mare
mule
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Activities
20. Study the illustrations. Which represent living 25. Study the cell diagrams. Match each with
things? Which characteristics support your a name and description.
decision?
D A
A B C
F
E
H B
D E F D
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Projects
INVESTIGATE: an organisation trying to save the biodiversity of the planet. Give examples of actions taken.
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UNIT
4 Invertebrates
What do you remember?
• What characteristics make the giant squid an invertebrate?
• Do you know any invertebrates with …
– a soft, porous body?
– an elongated body with rings?
Did you know that...?
The giant squid is the largest
– a soft body covered by a shell?
known invertebrate: 20 m
– an external skeleton? long, 1,000 kg. Its tentacles
are more than 15 m long.
It lives deep in the ocean:
400 to 1,500 m below the surface.
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NEMATODES
segments head
HABITAT HABITAT
Water or soil. Water or damp places.
Some are parasites. Many are parasites.
setae or hairs
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION
Cross-section of segment with coelom cavity
Heterosexual: Hermaphrodites: They have both male
There are male and and female sex organs.
females specimens. Platyhelminthes can fertilise themselves.
HABITAT
Water. Some are parasites, for example,
leeches.
Activities
4. Make your own table. 5. Which groups do the animals in
the photos belong to? REPRODUCTION
Annelids Some annelids are hermaphrodites.
6. Talk about these worms. Earthworms have larger segments
Main
characteristics called clitellum where the eggs are
deposited.
Habitat in water?
are
hermaphrodites?
Which breathe
through gills?
Example live
parasites?
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Mollusc functions
• Respiration. Aquatic molluscs breathe through gills.
Terrestrial molluscs breathe through lungs.
• Nutrition. Some are carnivores. Others are herbivores.
• Reproduction. Most are hermaphrodite and
oviparous. The larva hatches, goes through Activities
metamorphosis and produces an adult individual. 7. Make your own table for
molluscs. Use page 44 as a
How many groups are there? model.
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1 The female lays eggs. A larva, called a caterpillar, hatches. 2 After a short period of development, the caterpillar
changes into a pupa (chrysalis stage). 3 After more changes, the chrysalis breaks open and the butterfly comes out.
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Crustacean. Lobster. The front legs have claws for defence. Myriapod. Scolopendras are fast-moving, venomous
and predatory.
abdomen
cephalothorax
legs
pedipalp
chelicerae
Arachnid. Spider. The cephalothorax has two chelicerae Insect. Ants have a strong mouth for chewing and six legs.
which help the spider eat, and two pedipalps for defence.
Spiders have four pairs of legs: eight in all.
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Echinoderm functions
• Movement. The ambulacral apparatus, a series Did you know that...?
of internal tubes filled with water, enables
movement. The tubes form ambulacral feet with Starfish can regenerate body parts
suckers. or a whole body. All they need is a
• Respiration. Most echinoderms breathe through single leg with part of the central
their skin, using the ambulacral apparatus. Some disc.
have simple gills.
• Nutrition. They are carnivorous and feed mainly
on small crustaceans and molluscs.
Activities
• Reproduction. Most echinoderms have male
and female sexes, but some are hermaphrodite. 11. Can you trace the radial symmetry
Fertilisation is external. The larvae can swim and on the photos?
undergo metamorphosis to change into adults. 12. Make your own table for echinoderms:
see page 44.
13. How does a starfish feel? And a sea
urchin?
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Hands on
Carrying out an experiment
Activities
14. What would happen to an insect with no wax on its legs? It would float / sink.
15. RESEARCH: Spiders can walk on their webs without sticking. Can you explain this?
Think about the experiment above.
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Activities
16. The nautilus lives in a spiral-shaped shell. Inside, 20. Identify the photos: annelid or caterpillar.
the shell is divided into compartments. The animal Compare them. The... has, but the... has...
lives in the largest one. The other compartments
are filled with gas, so the shell floats. a
a. What group of molluscs does the nautilus belong
to? Explain.
b. What is the main difference between a nautilus
and an octopus?
Nautilus
a b c d
e f g h
22. Name each group of molluscs.
a b
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Cnidaria
• They have a soft body and a mouth surrounded by tentacles. There are two
body types: polyps which live attached to a surface, alone or in colonies, and
jellyfish which float in the sea.
• They are carnivorous.
Worms
• They have a soft body and no skeleton.
• The main groups are:
– Platyhelminthes: long, flat, soft bodies.
INVERTEBRATES
Molluscs
• They have a soft body divided into three parts: head, body mass and foot.
Many have a shell.
• They breathe through gills (aquatic species) or through lungs (terrestrial
species).
• They go through metamorphosis.
Arthropods
• They have jointed legs and an external skeleton. Their bodies are divided into
three parts: head, thorax and abdomen.
• They breathe through trachea (terrestrial arthropods) or gills (aquatic
arthropods).
• They change their outer covering (moult), and some undergo metamorphosis.
Echinoderms
• They have an internal skeleton made up of plaques under their skin.
• They breathe through their skin, using the ambulacral apparatus. Some
echinoderms have simple gills. All are carnivorous.
• They undergo metamorphosis.
Projects
RESEARCH: Find out what crustaceans local fish markets sell. Make a list.
WEB TASK: Find out what some spiders eat.
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UNIT
5 Vertebrates
What do you remember?
• What is common to all animals?
• What are the three vital functions of all living things?
• What are the two main groups of animals?
How do they differ?
• How many groups of vertebrates are there?
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articulated limbs
Jellyfish Spider
Activities
1. Study the photos and
classify the animals:
vertebrate or invertebrate.
2. Compare the spider
and the lion: legs, body,
covering...
3. Show the bilateral
symmetry of two animals
with lines.
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trunk
Main body parts
tail
• A neck joins the head to the trunk. The tail
is an extension of the spinal column.
• Mammals have four limbs. Terrestrial mammals neck
have legs, aquatic mammals have fins,
and bats have wings.
• Mammal bodies are covered with hair or fur
which keeps them warm.
• Mammals have teeth. The shape
of the teeth depends on the food
articulated limbs Alsatian dog
the mammal eats.
• Mammals have many glands. The most important ones
are the mammary glands. These produce milk.
Monotremes. Example: platypus. Marsupials. Example: kangaroo. Placentals. Example: dolphin. The young
Monotremes are born from eggs. They Marsupials finish their development develop inside the mother’s body, in the
have a beak, but no teeth. inside the mother’s pouch. uterus.
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calamus
Feather
legs
• A bird’s body is aerodynamic: adapted for flight.
The neck is sometimes very long.
neck
• Birds have four limbs: the back limbs are legs, keel
and the front limbs are wings. beak
• A bird’s body is covered with feathers.
• Each feather has an axis or rachis. Barbs spread out
Sea gull
on each side of the rachis. The calamus joins the feather
to the body.
• Bird bones are hollow. This makes their body light, so they
can fly more easily.
• Strong wing muscles are attached to the sternum or keel.
• Birds have a horny mandible or beak, but no teeth. Activities
6. Make your table for birds:
What functions do birds have? see page 54.
• Respiration. They use lungs to breathe. The lungs are connected 7. What characteristics enable
to air sacs which enable them to breathe and to fly. birds to fly?
• Reproduction. Birds are oviparous: they lay eggs. The eggs are 8. Associate each beak with
incubated until the chicks hatch. Fertilisation takes place how the bird feeds: opens
internally. seeds, fishes, tears its prey.
• Nutrition. The shape of a bird’s beak depends on the food it eats. a. strong, curved; b. short,
• Interaction. Birds are homeothermal or warm-blooded. strong; c. long, pointed.
Buzzard. Strong, curved Swallow. Short beak. Heron. Long, pointed Duck. Wide, flat Rooster. Strong, short
beak. It catches its prey It captures insects beak. It fishes beak. It filters water beak. It feeds on grain
and tears the flesh. in flight. in shallow water. to obtain food. which it has to open.
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Snakes. Cobras, vipers, Lizards. Lizards, iguanas, Turtles. Tortoises and fresh Crocodilians. Alligators
boas and snakes chameleons water turtles and crocodiles
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1 2 3 4
The female lays eggs A tadpole with gills and The tail and gills The adult frog is a
in the water and the male a tail emerges from the disappear. Legs develop. terrestrial animal with
fertilises them. egg and lives in the water. lungs and four legs.
Activities
11. Test your classmates. Complete the text to ask 12. Show the life cycle of a frog with drawings.
questions. 13. Compare frogs and tadpoles in a chart.
Example: What do tadpoles use to breathe?
14. Make your table for amphibians: see page 54.
breathe?
What do ... use to
keep moist?
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dorsal fin
lateral line system
Fish are aquatic vertebrates. Some live in fresh
water and some in salt water. caudal
• Fish are fusiform: the body fin
is wider in the middle than
at the ends.
• Fish limbs are called fins.
Each species of fish has different
fins, but most have dorsal, pelvic
and caudal fins.
• Fish are covered with scales.
A shark’s skin, however, is covered spinal column
anal
with small denticles. fin operculum
• The lateral line system is a sensory organ
that detects vibrations.
pelvic fin
ray carp
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks or rays. Bony fish, such as carp, hake or salmon.
The skeleton is made of cartilage. The skeleton is made of bone.
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Hands on
Scientific diagrams
2. Observe the shape and size. 3. Fill in the outline with the other parts of the
First, draw the outline and the main elements: fish: fins, operculum, eye, scales…
fins, tail…
Activities
17. Study the scales on a fish. Make a scientific drawing of their shape and position.
18. Touch a fish from the caudal fin to the head. What does it feel like?
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Activities
19. Which of these are characteristic of animals? 25. Copy the diagram, and label the parts of a feather.
a. They have eukaryotic cells. b.
b. They are heterotrophic.
c. They have an internal skeleton.
d. They have four limbs.
a. c.
20. What are the characteristics of vertebrates?
21. Do all animals have bilateral symmetry? 26. Reptiles are poikilotherms. What does this mean?
a. Is this kind of symmetry also internal?
b. Are there any vertebrates with no bilateral 27. Bats are the only mammals that can fly. Compare
symmetry? bat wings and bird wings. What similarities and
differences are there?
22. The blue whale lives in the sea, and spends a lot of
time beneath the water.
a. Why do whales have to come to the surface?
b. Why don’t marine mammals have ears?
A B C D
b c
24. Write a table and complete it with the
characteristics of each vertebrate group.
Vertical: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish
Horizontal: Type of limb, Skin covering, Homeotherm/
Poikilotherm, Respiration, Nutrition, Reproduction
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• Fish are fusiform. The limbs are called fins. Fish are covered
with scales.
Fish
• Fish are poikilotherms. They use their gills to breathe. Most
fish are oviparous. Most fish are carnivores.
Projects
HYPOTHESIS: Feathers keep birds dry. Test this hypothesis. Place some feathers in water; observe them, and
revise your hypothesis.
WEB TASK: Find out if the Iberian lynx makes a good pet.
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UNIT
6 The plant
and fungi kingdoms
What do you remember?
• Which characteristics enable you to classify ferns as plants?
• Which characteristics do all plants have?
• Name two main differences between plants and animals.
• Do all plants reproduce in the same way?
• Why are plants and fungi so important in nature?
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Mosses Ferns
The main characteristics are: The main characteristics are:
• very small, non-vascular plants. • vascular plants. They can be very large.
• no true roots, stems or leaves. They fix • have roots, stems and leaves. The stem, called
themselves to the ground by rhizoids. a rhizome, grows horizontally in the round.
• Instead of leaves, they have small laminas called • The leaves are large, and are called fronds.
phyllodes. • ferns develop clusters of spores called sorus
• Mosses produce spores inside capsules at the (plural: sori) on the underside of the fronds.
end of filaments.
frond
capsule
filament
root
rhizome
sorus
spores
phyllodes
spores
rhizoid
Moss Fern
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Gymnosperms Angiosperms
• Most are evergreens, like pine trees and • Many are deciduous, for example, oak trees.
sequoias. They have leaves all year. The leaves They lose their leaves in winter.
are normally shaped like needles. • The seeds are enclosed by a fruit. The fruit
• The seeds are not protected by a fruit. protects the seeds. It also enables them to be
• They have small, insignificant flowers. These dispersed more easily.
group together into inflorescences or cones. • They have brightly coloured flowers. The
These cones are male and female. flowers attract animals and facilitate polinisation.
leaves
leaves
The female cones, called Did you know that...?
pinecones, contain the seeds,
called pine nuts The largest flower belongs
to the species Rafflesia arnoldii.
One flower can reach a diameter
of 1 m and weigh up to 11 kg.
Activities
2. Which characteristics differentiate gymnosperms
and angiosperms?
3. Research the plants where you live. Classify them into the four
main groups in a chart. Describe their reproduction, and identify
them as vascular or non-vascular, with cones or with fruits.
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Leaves underside
Photosynthesis takes place in leaves. The leaves take in petiole
Stems
Plant stems are usually above ground. The stem keeps the
plant upright and supports it. It also carries substances to
other parts of the plant. Some stems, for example, the
potato, accumulate reserves of water and food.
stem
Leaves and branches are joined to the stem at nodes. The main root
Roots root
cap
Plant roots have two functions: to fix the plant to the
root
ground, and absorb water and minerals. Some roots, for hairs
example, carrots and beetroots, accumulate food reserves. root
cap
The root surface is covered with many tiny hairs
which absorb the water and minerals. Each root ends
in a root cap.
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Hands on
Observation and classification of leaves
A
Activities
6. Using your key, classify leaves A and B, into groups.
7. How might you change your criteria for classification B
if you were sorting leaves for a Maths class?
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ovules
Did you know that...?
“Bee” orchids (genus Ophrys)
have flowers which resemble
female bees. When a male Stamen Pistil
insect lands Flower
on the
flower, the Activities
pollen rubs
on to it, and 8. Study the flower diagram on this page. Identify the reproductive
the insect and protective parts of the flower.
flies off. 9. Research ways that pollen can be carried from flower to flower.
Make a list, and give an example of a plant to illustrate each one.
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A new plant
grows from
each seed
pollen
grain
After
dispersal, pollen
the seed seed tube
germinates
fruit
ovules
Formation
of the seed
and fruit
Fertilisation takes place
inside the ovary
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sunlight
O2 A
CO2
carbon
dioxide oxygen O2 B
CO2
F
F photosynthesis
Daytime: respiration and photosynthesis Nighttime: plants breathe but do NOT CO2
take place simultaneously. Plants carry out photosynthesis. O2
breathe AND carry out photosynthesis.
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cap
8. What are fungi like?
Fungi generally grow in the soil in dark,
damp places. ring
gills
Fungi can be classified into three main 16. Research mushrooms and toadstools. Make a poster.
groups.
Yeasts. Some are parasites. Others are Moulds. Multicellular. Some are parasites. Mushrooms. Multicellular. Some are
useful. Yeast is useful for making bread, Others feed on organic matter and edible. Others are poisonous.
beer, wine. decompose it: bread mould, fruit mould.
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Activities
17. Can a plant move around? And make movements? e. Elaborated sap is transported to all parts.
Explain your answer, giving examples. f. Photosynthesis takes place in the cells of the
green parts of the plant.
18. Study the photos and answer.
a. What environments do plants live in? 25. Copy and label the flower diagram.
b. How do they carry out nutrition?
c. Are plants unicellular or multicellular?
A B C
Vascular Roots,
Size or non- stems, Reproduction
vascular? leaves?
Mosses
19. Plants are autotrophic organisms. Ferns
Can photosynthesis take place in a plant root?
Why or why not? 27. Describe the life cycle of a moss.
20. Which part of the plant is each of these foods? 28. Why do you think male pine cones are located on
a. cauliflower b. lettuce c. carrot the far ends of the branches?
d. green bean e. artichoke f. red pepper
29. Paper is made with cellulose. To obtain the
21. Imagine the stem from a white carnation is left in a cellulose from trees, they are cut down.
glass of red ink. a. How could more trees be saved?
a. After some time, the carnation petals turn red. b. How can you recycle paper?
Why does this happen? c. How else can you save and reuse paper?
b. What mechanism allows the liquid to travel up
the stem? 30. Look at the tree trunk. There are pairs of rings.
The light area corresponds to springtime, when the
22. If a flowerpot is placed in a window, the stem grows tree grows most. The dark corresponds to autumn,
in the direction of the light. Is this reaction when it grows less. To find out a tree’s age, count
temporary or permanent? each pair of light and dark rings.
How old is this tree ?
23. Cacti have very small leaves, like thorns.
What advantage does this have for the plant? What
characteristics of cacti allow them to survive
in the desert?
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Projects
INVESTIGATE: How is bread made? How was penicillin discovered? What sort of fungi are involved?
WEB TASK: Where can you find the tallest tree in the world?
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UNIT
7 The simplest
living things
What do you remember?
• What do all living things have in common?
• What three vital functions do all living things carry out?
• What is the chemical composition of all living things?
• Where can you find microorganisms?
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blood
flagellum cell
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cell membrane
Infected cell
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general
sexual and blood
AIDS virus weakness,
contact
weakened defences
fever, coughing,
Pneumonia bacteria the air pulmonary
infection
How microorganisms enter the body
high temperature,
Salmonellosis bacteria spoiled food nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea
Activities
nausea, vomiting,
contaminated
Cholera protozoan stomachache, 9. Use the diagram and chart
water
severe diarrhoea to classify the entry points
for each illness.
the bite of the headache, Copy the diagram and label
Malaria protozoan female Anopheles intermittent it with the illneses.
mosquito vomiting, fever
10. Choose two more common
itching and cracked illnesses. Copy the chart
microscopic physical contact headings and complete
Athlete’s foot skin, scaly skin
fungus through the skin them for both illnesses.
between the toes
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Hands on
Taking and classifying samples. Observing microorganisms
Scientists obtain data from nature by collecting samples. They do this for different reasons:
Compare two water samples. Then classify water with leaves and soil
the microscopic living things in the water. tap water
puddle water
Activities
11. Did you see any microorganisms in the tap 14. Compare vaccines and antibiotics. See page 81.
water? Did that surprise you? Why or why not? Make a Venn diagram.
12. Did you identify any living things in the puddle 15. Can antibiotics cure a cold? See page 81. Explain
water? Draw and label them. Remember to write your answer.
down the microscope magnification. 16. How does intestinal flora help human beings?
13. Would you drink puddle water? Why or why not? See page 81.
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Antibiotics
Antibiotics are produced by certain bacteria and fungi. They prevent
the microorganisms that cause illnesses from growing. Antibiotics are
curative measures and must always be prescribed by a doctor. They
cannot fight illnesses caused by viruses.
Decomposer microorganisms Plankton is the primary food for many Some bacteria are used to make food,
transform dead animals and plants aquatic animals. like cheese.
into inorganic substances. Some
are harmful.
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Activities
17. Look at the drawings of a bacteria and a virus. 22. Investigate. Red tide is a natural phenomenon.
a. Label them. What characteristics helped you? It is caused by an accumulation of living things.
Red tide affects the world’s coasts, especially
b. What do these organisms have in common?
in spring and summer. Each year it causes
a b the death of many fish, shellfish, molluscs,
h
a mussels, oysters, cockles and other marine
b bivalves.
c a. What type of living things cause red tide?
f
i b. How do you think the marine animals become
e g
infected?
d
c. Can red tide affect people? Why or why not?
18. What type of organism or structure, 1-3,
corresponds to each description? 23. Many bacteria live symbiotically inside the digestive
tract of herbivorous animals, like the giraffe,
a. They are not really cells; they are obligate elephant or cow.
parasites.
a. Are these bacteria autotrophs or heterotrophs?
b. Autotrophs or heterotrophs with prokaryotic cells.
b. Where do they obtain their nutrients?
c. Heterotrophous, eukaryotic, unicellular organisms.
24. Look at the protozoa in photos A-D.
1 2 3
A B
21. Compare bacteria, protozoa and algae: cell type, 26. Research beneficial microorganisms in the food
nutrition and habitat. Create a table. industry. Display your results in a poster.
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Projects
EXPERIMENT: Put moist bread in a plastic box. Observe the changes after a few days. What causes them?
WEB TASK: Find out about friendly and unfriendly microbes.
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Rock stars...
Stereoscopic microscopes illuminate solid objects from above. They are used to obtain
magnified, three-dimensional images. They are very useful for studying rocks.
Images from a
stereoscopic microscope
eyepiece
tube
fine focusing
knob
arm (limb)
stand
1 2 3
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and instruments
There are many different meteorological instruments used to study the Earth’s atmosphere
and weather. For example:
3. Look at these photos. What do you think the weather is like in each place?
A B
The Sahara Desert The North Pole
C D
A rain forest A deciduous wood
4. Match each text to its corresponding photo. 5. Say what the weather is like
where you live.
1 Temperature: high 2 Temperature: extremely high. Where I live the temperature is...
Precipitation: very abundant Precipitation: very low.
Humidity: very high. Humidity: very low.
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UNIT
8 The Earth’s
atmosphere
What do you remember?
• What elements can you see
in the photo? Describe
them.
• In which part of our planet
do these phenomena form?
• What other atmospheric
phenomena do you know?
• Air is a mixture of gases.
Which are the most
abundant?
• Is the composition of air
the same at sea level as
at the top of a very high
mountain?
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500 km
80 km
300 km
40 km
Ozonosphere
Stratosphere. About 30 km thick.
There is an increase in
temperature from −70 °C at its
200 km lower limit to 0 °C at its higher limit.
The ozone layer is here.
10 km
Troposphere. Very thin, but
contains 80 % of the total mass of
100 km the atmosphere. This is where
80 km meteorological phenomena occur.
40 km
10 km
0 km 87
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Atmospheric pressure
Air has weight. The pressure it exerts on a surface is called
atmospheric pressure. It is caused by gravity, and is measured
in millibars (mb).
In the 17th century, the Italian scientist, Torricelli, proved that
atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Therefore, at sea L
level, the pressure is higher than at the top of a mountain.
The density of air on the Earth’s surface is about 1 kg/m3. This
means that 1 m3 weighs 1 kg. The higher the altitude, the lower
the density of air.
996
1 00
Air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
0
This enables weather forecasters to predict the weather.
On weather maps, lines called isobars connect
Air moves because the Sun heats it. Hot air rises and the colder points with the same atmospheric pressure.
surrounding air moves in to take its place. Look at this example.
• Low pressure area. Air moves from the sea towards a land H = high pressure L = low pressure
mass. It brings humidity with it. Clouds form and
precipitations occur.
• High pressure area. Air moves from a land mass towards the
sea. There are no clouds and the sun shines.
992
1008
10
04
988
1 016
1 000
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Cirrus. High, thin clouds. These Cumulus. Like cotton wool. They form Stratus clouds. Low, horizontal clouds.
form above 6,000 m. They at about 1000 m. They can develop into These normally cover most of the sky.
normally mean fair weather. cumulonimbus: thunder clouds. Usually no precipitation falls.
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4. What is meteorology?
Meteorology is the study of different atmospheric variables to make weather
predictions. Meteorologists collect information about temperature,
precipitation, wind, the humidity of the air, atmospheric pressure and clouds.
1 024
1 008
1 016
H
1 024
1 00 0
1 016
1 02 4 1 008
1 016
L
A thermometer
measures A barometer measures
temperature. atmospheric pressure.
Activities
6. You hear this report on the
radio:
A rain gauge / Wind speeds were 95
A hygrometer measures kilometers an hour and 200
pluviometer
the humidity in the air. litres of rain fell per square
measures the
metre. What instruments
amount of rainfall were used to collect this
per square metre. information?
7. Copy and complete.
Metereological Measures/
instrument Shows
anemometer
An anemometer barometer
A weather vane shows
measures wind the direction the wind is
speed. coming from.
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Hands on
Observing the weather
Materials
– A pencil with an eraser end – One coloured plastic cup
– A drawing pin – Three white plastic cups
– A plastic plate – A stapler
Activities
8. How cloudy is it when the air pressure is lowest / highest?
9. What kind of wind is associated with rain?
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Air contamination
from industry
Acid rain damages this statue.
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Activities
12. Study the map and answer the questions. 18. Indicate the meteorological role of each instrument
a. Is cloud and precipitation more likely in Spain and what it measures.
or in the UK?
b. What will the weather be like in Spain?
c. Where is the low atmospheric pressure
coming from? Central Europe or the Iberian
Peninsula?
d. Copy the map. Use arrows to show the wind
direction.
13. Why do mountain climbers carry oxygen tanks a. Is the atmospheric pressure increasing
to climb Mt. Everest? or decreasing?
b. Is there a possibility of high pressure or low
14. What are the five principal components of air? pressure?
For each one indicate: c. Will there be a high or low chance of clouds?
a. its proportion
21. Label the maps: weather map or isobar contour
b. its origin
map.
c. if it has a role in an important process.
Do the two maps show the same weather? Explain.
15. Investigate. Ozone is very scarce, but very
important. Explain why it is important. Tell how it
can be beneficial and harmful.
Approximate Description
thickness of the layer
Troposphere
22. Give three reasons why the atmosphere is essential
for life. Use these ideas:
Stratosphere
a. Sun’s radiation
Mesosphere
b. gases and living things
Ionosphere
c. control of Earth’s temperature
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1 024
THE ATMOSPHERE
1 008
1 016
H
Studied by meteorologists who measure temperature,
1 024
precipitation, atmospheric pressure, winds, and humidity.
1 016
Weather forecasts are based on this information
1 02 4 1 008
1 016
L
in the • Pressure / isobar contour maps and weather symbol
atmosphere maps
Air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
When air cools, the humidity can condensate or freeze,
forming clouds and precipitation.
Projects
PROJECT: Weather maps. Collect the weather maps from a newspaper during one whole week. Stick them
onto a chart. Write the weather each day next to each map.
WEBTASK: You are planning a trip to London. What is the weather like today?
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UNIT
9 The hydrosphere
What do you remember?
Look at the picture and
answer the questions.
• Where can water be found
on our planet?
• How is sea water different
to water in rivers and
lakes?
• What is the water cycle?
Can you describe it?
• Why is it important not
to waste water?
• Do you know some easy
ways to save water?
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Fresh water is found in: These small squares represent all the water
in the hydrosphere.
68.7% is ice and snow from glaciers
FRESH WATER
rivers 2%
swamps 11%
lakes 87%
Activities
1. How much water is there for human
consumption on Earth? Explain.
2. Represent the pie chart information in two bar
graphs.
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Anomalous dilation. When water freezes, it dilates or increases in volume. As a result, the volume of ice is greater than the
same mass of water in liquid form.
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Activities
3. Look up the following terms: solvent, evaporation, cohesion, anomalous dilation and adhesion.
4. Think about cohesion and adhesion. Why are these properties so important for living things?
5. Is there more oxygen dissolved in sea water near the surface or in the deep, darker zones? Explain.
6. Why do you think sea water in warm areas contains more salt than sea water in cold areas?
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stream
river wetlands
lake
lagoon
Streams or torrents are water courses fed by rain. The flow of water
varies a lot from season to season. Activities
Wetlands are areas of marshlands and swamps where the ground is 7. Copy the diagram and label
inundated all year round. the bodies of fresh water.
Glaciers are formed from the accumulation of snow on mountain tops. Which bodies of fresh
water can you find where
Rivers are permanent water courses. The River Nile is the longest
you live?
river in the world.
8. Look out your window. Draw
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface. and label the water cycle
Lakes are bodies of water of different sizes surrounded by land. processes you observe.
Example: Lake Victoria, Africa.
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condensation in clouds
the form of clouds e ment of
v
mo
precipitation
evaporation
surface runoff
evaporation
surface rocks
evaporation
evapotranspiration
infiltration
groundwater
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Toxic waste from domestic Do not throw paints, oils or solvents down Activity
use makes it difficult and the drain or toilet.
expensive to purify water. 9. Use information from this page to
make a water poster. Example: Take
Chemical pollution Recycle batteries. They release toxic showers. Don’t throw rubbish on the
chemicals into the soil, then into rivers. beach. It pollutes the water.
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Hands on
Studying the effects of temperature on condensation
Controlling variables
in an experiment
60 °C 18 °C 6 °C 0 °C
To see how temperature affects the
condensation of water vapour, compare
masses of air at different temperatures.
Keep all other variables equal.
Keeping all the variables equal, and
modifying only one is called controlling
A B C D variables.
Procedure
1. Place four identical glasses on a table. Label them 4. Observe the table. What can you conclude from
A, B, C and D. Place a thermometer in each one. the effects of temperature on the process of
condensation?
2. Put very hot water in glass A; water at room
temperature in glass B; three ice cubes in glass Glass Temperature Appearance
C. Fill glass D with ice cubes. Make sure the four A 60 ºC No condensation
glasses are completely dry on the outside.
B 18 ºC No condensation
3. Wait twenty minutes. Then observe and note C 6 ºC Small drops
down the amount of condensation on the
Large drops which slide
outside of each glass. D 0 ºC
down the glass
Activity
10. Breathe on each glass to make the surrounding air more humid. Does the amount of condensation
increase in each case? Which controlled variable have you now modified?
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Activities
11. This diagram shows the distribution of fresh water 17. Look at the diagram of the water cycle.
in the hydrosphere. Label the corresponding
sections.
A
C
B
a. Copy the diagram and label each process:
12. Water transports dissolved salts to the sea.
evaporation, condensation, evapotranspiration,
Water also transports nutrients in our blood.
precipitation, surface runoff and infiltration.
What property enables water to do these things? b. What role do plants play in the water cycle?
13. If you water the ground on a hot day, you notice the 18. What are the main sources of water pollution
atmosphere becomes cooler. caused by human activity? Example:
What causes this effect? How is it similar to feeling
cold when you get out of a swimming pool or the
ocean?
Percentage
Water on Earth
of the total
Salt water
rivers, lakes,
Continental groundwater
water ice and snow
surface fresh
a. A person cleans his teeth three times a day and
takes a shower once a day. Calculate how much 21. When water passes from the biosphere to the
water he saves if he turns off the tap for two atmosphere, what is this process called?
minutes while he cleans his teeth.
b. And if he takes five minutes less in the shower? 22. Explain what role the Sun plays in the water cycle.
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transport materials.
Movements
• Currents. Movement of large bodies of water by
of ocean
prevailing winds. Cause differences in water salinity and
waters
temperature.
• Tides. Rise and fall of sea water levels due to
gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Projects
POSTER: Draw a frozen lake. Show the living things that exist under the ice. Add labels and text:
These animals live...
WEB TASK: Calculate the amount of water you use in one week for showers or baths.
Compare your consumption with your classmates’.
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UNIT
10 Minerals
What do you remember?
Look at the gold mine and gold sample in the photograph.
• Where is gold is found?
• Is gold a solid, liquid or gas?
• Is it natural or man-made?
• Do you think there is a lot of gold available on Earth?
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All minerals are solid substances. Water and mercury have most
of the characteristics of minerals, except they are liquid at room
temperature. They are called mineraloids, not minerals.
amber
Activities
1. Look at the photos. Answer these questions
for each one:
gold
a. Is it a solid?
b. Does it occur naturally, or does someone make it?
c. Is it made from living things?
d. Is it organic or inorganic?
2. Are they minerals or not? Answer using the table.
diamond
natural.
is it is
… a mineral because inorganic.
is not it is not
solid. water
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The chemical composition and the main physical properties are the same
for all quartz. Smoky quartz, agate and milky quartz are varieties of quartz.
The colours are different because of impurities in the samples.
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Oxygen and silicon combined together produce silicates. Silicates are Calcium (Ca) 3.6 %
the most abundant minerals on Earth. Rest 8.5 %
Olivine.
Muscovite. White, yellow, grey. Glassy
Olive green
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Non-silicates
Did you know that...?
Non-silicates are all the minerals that are not silicates.
They are minerals that do not contain silicon. Diamonds and graphite are both
Common non-silicates are classified into groups as: made up of pure carbon. They
have the same composition, but
• Native elements. These are minerals made up of a single their internal organisation is
element. For example, gold, silver, copper, and sulphur. different. Their properties are
• Oxides. This group of non-silicates are made up of oxygen different, too. Diamond is the
and one other element. For example, oligiste hardest mineral. Graphite is
is a source of iron ore from which soft: it is used to make pencils.
iron is extracted.
• Sulphides. These are minerals
made up of sulphur and a metal.
Galena is the source of lead ore.
• Carbonates. Minerals made up
of carbon, oxygen and a metal.
For example, calcite.
• Halides. Minerals made up
of a metal and chloride or fluoride.
For example, halite. Halite. White or transparent
Activities
10. What is the difference between silicates and non-silicates?
11. List the minerals on these pages as silicate or non-silicate.
12. Match each term with its composition:
a. oxide 1. metal ⫹ chloride / fluoride
b. sulphide 2. oxygen ⫹ another element
c. carbonate 3. sulphur ⫹ metal
d. halide 4. carbon ⫹ oxygen ⫹ metal
13. Diamonds are 100 % carbon. Which group of minerals
do they belong to?
Native gold
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Activities
14. Study the Mohs Scale of
Hardness and describe each
mineral.
harder than
Talc is apatite.
softer than
1 2 3 4 5
Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite
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Hands on
Using a mineral identification key. Classifying minerals
1. Identify a mineral with this key:
a. Study the lustre: is it metalic or non-metallic? b. Study the colour: is it light or dark?
c. Test the hardness. Use the Mohs Scale of Hardness and these tools.
Each mineral can scratch only those minerals below it on the Mohs Scale.
The harder the mineral, the harder the tool needed to scratch it.
2. Study the minerals in this unit, then copy and complete the chart.
Mineral Colour Lustre Hardness
Mica
Olivine dark green Can be scratched with a nail
Calcite
Pyrite
Talc
Quartz
6 7 8 9 10
Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
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Activities A
21. What number on the Mohs Scale of Hardness 28. Many Ancient Egyptian
would these minerals have? statues are still standing
a. A mineral that can be scratched by talc. today. The statue
b. A mineral that can scratch talc, and can be in the photo is made
scratched by gypsum. of alabaster.
Describe alabaster:
22. Study the minerals on pages 112 and 113 and test is it hard or soft?
your partner: Explain your answer.
What mineral is this? Can you describe the colour? Hint: alabaster is 2-3
How hard is it? Is the lustre metallic or non-metallic? on the Mohs Scale.
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Projects
EXPERIMENT AND REPORT: You cannot scratch quartz with a nail. Can quartz scratch the nail?
PROJECT: Mineral Exhibit. Use the information from the table on page 113. Prepare a file card for each mineral.
WEB TASK: What is your birthstone? What are some of its properties?
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UNIT
11 Rocks
What do you remember?
• What are rocks made up of?
• Are all rocks solid, or can a rock exist in liquid state at normal temperature?
• Can you name some things that granite and marble are used for?
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A B C D
Stonehenge, in England, The Roman aqueduct in Many buildings are decorated Concrete, glass and metals are
is made of sandstone. Segovia is made of granite. with stone. made from rock.
E F G H
Many statues and monuments Clay is used to make plates Refineries process oil into fuel. Plastics are made from oil.
are made of marble. and pottery.
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Activities mantle
crust
4. What are the three types of rock? Define them in
external core
your notebook.
internal core
5. What is the difference between minerals and
rocks? Check your answer by looking at Unit 10.
Composition of the Earth
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Common
Formed by Properties
sedimentary rocks
Different colours.
Clay Very small grains Smells like wet earth
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
when wet
Chemical reactions.
Limestone Reacts to acids
All contain calcium
(Many types) by producing bubbles
carbonate.
Very soft.
Chemical
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After heavy rains, the rivers transport mud, clay, sand and stones to the valleys. Strata in sedimentary rock can be
horizontal or folded. As the Earth's crust
moves, the layers of rock get folded up.
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Pressure
fragment
mineral deposits
Cementation
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• Plutonic (intrusive) rocks form as magma cools slowly 13. Research: What is the difference
between magma and lava?
under the ground over thousands of years. As a result, the
mineral crystals are large. 14. In which type of rock can you see
minerals most clearly? Why?
• Volcanic (extrusive) rocks form as lava cools rapidly on the
surface of the Earth. As a result, the mineral crystals are tiny.
cooling, large crystals.
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Common
Appearance Properties
metamorphic rocks
Usually black,
Foliated
slightly shiny
Slate into thin layers or sheets
because of the
Classification
(foliation)
presence of mica
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F
F
he
a ta
ing
me
nd
e
her
ur
pr
lt in
ss
weat
Metamorphic rocks
es
pre
su
and
re
t
magma
hea
sediments
F
F F
ing
m
F
r
el t
F
he
ing
t
wea
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coo
mp
lin
co
F
g
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g a th
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g
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Hands on
Investigating weathering and sedimentation
b. Add a few drops of vinegar. a. Put the stones, sand and water in the bottle.
c. Stretch the balloon over the top of the jar. b. Shake the bottle vigorously for one minute.
c. Wait for the solid matter to settle. Figure 2.
Observation
a. Wait and watch carefully. Figure 1. Observation
b. Take notes to answer these questions. a. Observe the layers and draw a picture:
What happens to the rock? – Which stones are on the bottom?
And on the top?
What happens to the balloon?
b. Why did the layers form this way?
Conclusions. What does this experiment tell you
about weathering? Conclusion. What does this experiment tell you
about sedimentation?
Hint: What acids do you find in the air or water?
Figure 1 Figure 2
Activities
18. Research on the Internet how limestone caves
17. Collect rock samples in your area.
are formed. Is this process caused by physical
Which ones are sedimentary rocks? or chemical weathering?
How can you tell?
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Activities
19. Copy and label the diagram to show the stages of 24. Clay and granite are rocks. Clay is soft and fragile.
erosion / weathering. Granite is strong and hard. Can you explain why?
A B
F F
30. How can a metamorphic rock become an
F
igneous rock?
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Projects
INVESTIGATE: Can some rock float? Drop a piece of pumice in water.
a. Does the pumice float or sink?
b. Observe the pumice through a magnifying glass. What can you say about the structure?
c. Is pumice sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous rock? How is it formed? What causes the holes?
WEB TASK: How many active volcanoes are there on Earth?
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It’s elementary!
Currently, more than 110 different chemical elements have been identified. Over 90 elements are found in
nature. The rest are created only in laboratories as artificial elements. All these elements are classified in the
Periodic Table of Elements according to their properties.
3 4
Be components of space craft.
2 Li Be
Lithium Beryllium
Hydrogen is used
H as rocket fuel.
Lithium is used
Li for batteries.
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He
Helium
5 6 7 8 9 10
B C N O F Ne
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Fluorine is present in
Nitrogen in the soil is
N necessary for plant growth. Plants and animals need oxygen F toothpaste. It helps
prevent dental cavities.
O for respiration. Oxygen is used for
patients with respiratory problems.
Activity
1. Turn to the Periodic Table, page 152. Choose another element and research its uses.
As a class, make a poster of different elements and their uses in everyday life.
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UNIT
12 Matter and
its properties
What do you remember?
• What is matter?
• What unit of measurement is used to show the mass of matter?
And to measure the volume?
• What instrument do you use to measure the sides of a patio?
What units would you use?
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1. What is matter?
Everything that takes up space and has mass is matter. Air is matter
Therefore, everything around us is matter.
• General properties. These are the properties common A
to all matter: mass, volume, weight and density.
• Specific properties. These are the characteristics that
differentiate one kind of matter from another. They are
colour, shape, size, texture, hardness, etc. They can be
used to identify and describe matter.
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2. What is length?
Multiples and submultiples of a metre
Length is the distance between two points.
Unit and symbol Equivalent
Length is a base unit. In the International System of Units,
length is measured in metres. millimetre (mm) 1,000 mm 1 mk
centimetre (cm) 100 cm 1 m
F
How is surface area measured?
To calculate the surface area of:
G base F
• Circular objects. Use
base length height
Surface area multiplied by the square
2
of the radius: r2.
Radius
G F
• Irregular-shaped objects.
Divide the irregular shape into
regular ones, and calculate the
area of each one. Then, add
these areas together to
calculate the total (estimation). Surface area r 2
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4. What is volume?
Volume
of the object
The volume of a solid is the amount of space it
occupies. It is a derived unit from length.
Volume is measured in cubic metres (m3).
F
To measure the volume of:
G
• Regular geometric solids. Use the corresponding
mathematical formula. For example, to find the
volume of a box, multiply the base (length x width)
by the height.
• Irregular-shaped solids. Use a measuring cylinder
to measure the volume. Submerge the body in
Measuring the volume of an irregular object
water, then measure the amount of water displaced.
• Liquids. Use a measuring cylinder to measure
the volume.
Initial volume
F
Volume of
• Gases. Fill a measuring cylinder with water. Place it the gas
G
Final volume
upside down in a dish of water. Mark the water level
in the cylinder: initial volume. Blow air through a
tube into the cylinder. The air displaces some water.
Mark the new water level: final volume. The
difference between the two levels is the volume of
gas added to the cylinder.
The volume of a liquid can be calculated by measuring Multiples and submultiples of a litre
the capacity of its container.
Unit and symbol Equivalence in litres
Capacity is the amount of liquid a container can hold Litre (L) 1L
when it is full. For example, a bowl can hold more
Decilitre (dL) 0.1 L
water than a cup. Capacity is measured in litres (L).
Centilitre (cL) 0.01 L
Millilitre (mL) 0.001 L
Activities
4. What is the capacity of a container
with a volume of 3.4 cm3?
5. How many 250 mL bottles do you need
to fill a tank with a capacity of 10 L?
Perfume is sold in small bottles because it is very expensive.
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5. What is mass?
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. Mass is a base unit. Mass
is measured in kilograms (kg). Scales are used to measure mass.
Multiples and submultiples of a kilogram
A B C
Traditional scales compare mass with a standard weight. To do this, place the body to be weighed in a
saucer (A). Add weights to the other saucer (B) until they are balanced (C).
Activities
6. A gold chain was weighed using the following weights:
– one 100 g weight – two 1 g weights – one 500 mg weight
Can you calculate the mass of the chain in grams and milligrams?
7. A box of biscuits weighing 1 kg costs 3 €.
A box weighing 250 g costs 1 €.
Read and calculate:
The 1 kg box of biscuits is times bigger than the 250 g box.
How much money do you save if you buy the big box? This electronic scale can measure
mass to one hundredth of a gram.
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6. What is density?
Density is the relationship between the mass and the volume
of a body, that is, how concentrated the mass is in a specific volume.
Density is measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3.
Iron has a higher density than wood. These two blocks, one of iron,
and one of wood, have the same volume. The block of iron has
more mass, or amount of matter, so it is harder to move. The block
of iron feels heavy for its size.
mass
Density Did you know that...?
volume
Oil floats on water because it
Generally speaking, solids have a higher density than liquids. is less dense.
Liquids have a higher density than gases. For example, air weighs For the same
very little because it has little mass: it feels light for its size. volume of oil and
water, water has
more matter than
Activities oil. This is the
property of density.
8. Which of the substances in the table on the right float on water?
Why do the others sink?
Densities of some substances
9. These two bodies have the 10. These two bodies have the
Substance Density (g/cm3)
same mass: the crosses same volume, but different
represent particles of mass. mass. Water 1.0
Which of them has the Which body has the highest Oil 0.9
highest density? Explain. density?
Petrol 0.7
x x
Lead 11.3
x x x x
x
x
x
x
x x x
Iron 7.9
x
A B C D Mercury 13.5
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Hands on
Analysing results. Using graphs.
A graph can be used to analyse the data from an Graphs show how one base quantity varies
experiment. A graph also shows the relationship in comparison with another. For example,
between two variables. the temperature of a mass of water will
increase when it is heated.
thermometer To see how the temperature
increases, heat a glass with 500 Time (min) Temperature (°C)
mL of water. Measure the 00 018
temperature every
01 018
2 minutes.
water 03 032
05 046
07 060
09 074
11 088
13 100
15 100
axis (min).
– Write the temperature scale on the 60
vertical axis (ºC).
40
2. Mark the points on the graph. Mark
points on the graph where the time values 20
intersect with the temperature values.
Activities
13. Describe the graph. Why do you think the line begins and ends horizontally?
14. Do the same experiment with 300 mL of water.
a. Stir the water so the temperature is the same in all parts of the glass.
b. Measure the temperature of the water every two minutes.
c. Make a table and draw a graph.
d. Compare the two graphs. Are there any differences?
e. Does the amount of water affect the time it takes to heat up?
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Activities
15. Measure the surface of a piece of paper 24. Look at the picture. Which of the two substances
and give the result using the correct units of is denser? Why?
measurement.
Density 26. Oil spills occur when the cargo from an oil tanker
Substance Mass (kg) Volume (m2) pours into the ocean due to an accident, for
(kg/m3)
Cedar wood 57,000 100 570 example, Prestige, in 2002. Taking into account that
Water
the density of oil is less than that of sea water, will
1 1,000
the oil float or sink? What consequences do oil
Lead 22,600 2
spills have on the environment?
Gold 3 19,300
Mercury 54,400 4 27. What base quantities are also general properties
Aluminum 5,400 2 of matter?
96º alcohol 1 800
28. Research the history of the different ways to
measure temperature. Where do the names
19. Give the following measurements in centimetres.
Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin come from?
a. 320 mm b. 3.5 m c. 2 km
29. Copy and complete the table:
20. If you mix water with oil, it separates into two
layers. Which liquid floats on top? Temper- Surface
Length Mass Time Volume
3 ature area
Remember: the density of water is 1 g/cm , and the
density of oil is 0.9 g/cm3. Unit
Symbol
21. The density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3. If a nail made of
ºC K
iron has a mass of 20 g, what is its volume?
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Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think up an experiment to prove the hypothesis: A digital watch measures
time more accurately than an hour glass.
Describe: a. The equipment you used. b. Procedures. c. Conclusions.
WEB TASK: How warm is 50 degrees Fahrenheit? How big is a 30 inch TV screen?
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UNIT
13 Everything is matter
What do you remember?
• What are icebergs and glaciers made of?
• What state of matter is ice?
• Can water exist in more than one state?
• Is sea water made up of one substance or several?
• What is fresh water made of?
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Solids have a fixed shape Liquids have no fixed shape. Gases have no fixed shape.
if no pressure is exerted. They adapt to a container. They occupy all available space.
Fluidity – Solids cannot flow. – Can flow. They spread if not – Can flow. They spread if not
in a container. in a container.
Density – Usually have a high density: – Quite high density: – Low density: few particles
many particles a lot of particles in a small in a large volume
in a small volume volume
The particles are very The particles are close together, The particles are far apart and
close together, held by held by weak forces move quickly in all
strong forces of of attraction. directions. The
attraction. They have some particles have no
They vibrate freedom of force of attraction.
but do not movement. They collide
change They can flow with each other.
position. and slide easily.
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fusion vaporisation
solidification condensation
ris
sio
nd
n
n
tio
en
is called condensation.
ca
solid sa gas
tio
ifi
lid
n
so
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Solute.
The dissolved
Solvent. The liquid substance
part (often water)
Solution
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Activities
8. What are the differences
between pure substances
and homogeneous mixtures.
How are they similar?
9. Classify these things:
homogeneous or
heterogeneous mixtures,
Physical change. If you cut Chemical change. When rust or pure substances:
paper into tiny pieces, each appears on a piece of iron, a new a. sand and water
piece is still paper. When water substance has been formed: iron b. oxygen
changes into ice or vapour, it is oxide. When paper is burned, you c. iron
still water. can no longer see the pieces of d. water
paper. A new substance has been e. milk and chocolate powder
formed: ash.
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Hands on
Checking a hypothesis. Separating mixtures
Using the filtration method
The filtration method is good for separating an
insoluble solid from a liquid. (An insoluble substance
does not dissolve in water.)
You are going to separate a mixture of water and
sand using this method.
The liquid passes through the filter, but the solid
particles cannot go through.
Materials
– water – a beaker
– a funnel – some filter paper
– a container for the mixture of water and sand
Activities
10. Does sand dissolve in water? 11. Copy and complete the text.
Is a mixture of sand and water homogeneous or Sand dissolve in water. When you mix
heterogeneous? sand and water you get a mixture.
Sugar in water to form a solution.
A solution is a mixture.
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Used for multiple uses multiple uses boats, car bodies cables for cars, bikes, tennis
telephones, rackets, aeroplanes
computers
Carbon fibre is strong but elastic. Equipment for water sports is often Fibre optics can conduct vast quantities
It has many uses in aviation made of fibre glass of light or information at very high speed
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DO Activities
Reuse materials: plastic bags, writing paper. 14. Copy and complete the table about waste
in your home.
Recycle paper, glass, tins and plastic.
Organic Toxic Recyclable
Take old medicines, paints and batteries to
vegetables medicines bottles
collection dumps. Use rechargable batteries. leaves paints newspapers
DON’T 15. Make a Do / Don’t poster about how to help
Buy things with a lot of unnecessary packaging. reduce solid urban waste.
16. Investigate how urban solid waste is removed
Dump rubbish on the beach or in the countryside.
in your own area.
transport
waste collection
gl
as
s
pa
pe
domestic m r
et waste
consumption al
pl collection
as
tic
co
m
po
st
rubbish
dump
ss
ce
raw materials
pro
g
lin
cyc
re
processing
and toxic waste incineration
manufacturing
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Activities
17. Read and classify: solid, liquid or gas. 22. Could you make a solution of the following
a. oxygen d. hydrogen g. salt substances? Say why or why not in each case.
b. water e. oil h. iron -cornflakes and milk -water and oil
c. granite f. steam -butter and salt -water and ink
18. Identify: element, compound, mixture. 23. Can mixtures be compounds? Why or why not?
Hint: A chemical compound consists of two or more
A B C
elements joined up.
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F
Liquid
va
on
po
si
ris
co
n
fu
tio
at
nd
io
ca
en
n
ifi
sa
lid
tio
so
n
sublimation
F
G
F
Solid G Gas
regressive sublimation
EVERYTHING IS MATTER
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Research other methods for separating mixtures. Display the results in a poster.
Use diagrams and explanations.
WEB TASK: What is the fourth state of matter? Investigate.
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UNIT
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neutrons.
Protons have a positive charge (⫹). Neutrons have no The structure of an atom
charge. This means that the nucleus has a positive charge.
Extremely small particles called electrons orbit the
nucleus. Electrons have a negative charge (⫺). They are Carbon atom Nitrogen atom
attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus.
Between the nucleus and the electrons there is nothing, so
most of an atom is empty.
Activities
1. In what ways are some atoms different from others?
2. Why is most of the structure of an atom empty?
3. Draw a carbon atom and label nucleus, protons,
neutrons and electrons.
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In the Periodic Table, the elements are grouped according to their atomic atomic F 12
number Mg
number. Elements with similar chemical properties are in the same column.
F
atomic
name F Magnesium symbol
of the
element
The Periodic Table of Elements
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
1 H He
Hydrogen Helium
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
LANTHANIDE F 6 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
SERIES Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
ACTINIDE F 7 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
SERIES Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Activities
4. Find platinum, gold and mercury in the periodic table. How many protons does each element have?
5. Can you find any other metals in the Periodic Table?
6. How are elements grouped in this Periodic Table?
7. Say the letters of a symbol. Your partner says the element.
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Activities
8. Look at the periodic table. How many noble
gases are there? What are their atomic
symbols?
9. Compare the main characteristics of atoms, Compound crystal
molecules and crystals. Make a table. Common salt is made from
10. Draw pictures to illustrate an atom, an sodium and chloride atoms
element and a molecule. bonded together.
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hydrogen
• Crystals. Some elements form simple crystals. In this case, atoms
the chemical formula is the same as for the chemical symbol
for the element. For example, carbon crystals: C. Water molecule (H2O)
• Some chemical formulae are more complicated. For example, Sodium chloride
the formula for sodium sulphate is Na2SO4. It indicates that molecule
sodium sulphate consists of two sodium atoms, one sulphur (Na Cl)
atom and four oxygen atoms.
Activities
11. Copy the table and complete. 12. Sucrose is the chemical name for sugar.
Atoms: Its formula is C12H22O11.
Name Chemical formula
name and number a. How many elements make up this substance?
iron oxide Fe2 O3 b. What is the name of each element?
silver oxide Ag2 O c. How many atoms of each element are there
aluminum oxide Al2 O3 in sucrose?
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Living things
hydrogen 63 % others 0.6 %
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen form 95%
of all living things.
Atoms of carbon combine with many other atoms
to form a wide variety of molecules in living things.
Some elements can be found both in living beings,
in water and on the Earth’s crust. However, they
form different compounds.
Nitrogen (N2) is a gas formed by molecules. It is
the most abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere.
nitrogen 1.4 %
oxygen 25.5 % It is a basic compound of proteins. There is
carbon 9.5 %
nitrogen in the soil.
Earth’s crust Oxygen (O2) is a gas formed by molecules. It is the
silicon 28 % oxygen 47 % most abundant element on Earth. It is found in the
aluminium atmosphere in water, rocks and organic substances.
7.9 %
Carbon (C) is the basis of all organic compounds
in living things. It is found on the Earth’s crust as
coal, graphite ...
Activities
iron others
4.5 % 1.69 %
13. Compare the pie charts.
calcium 3.5 %
a. Which is the most homogeneous? In which
sodium 2.5 % carbon 0.19 %
is there more diversity?
potassium 2.5 % hydrogen 0.22 %
magnesium 2.2 % b. Ask questions about the charts: for example,
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In sea water
The most abundant elements in sea water are
chlorine, sodium and potassium.
• Chlorine (Cl) is a yellowish green gas at room Water is disinfected with chlorine.
temperature. It combines with metals to form
salts. Chlorine is used to disinfect water in
swimming pools. Activities
• Sodium (Na) is a soft, shiny metal. It is only 15. Which element can you find in: fireworks,
found in compounds. It reacts easily with the sea shells, aeroplanes, and blood?
oxygen in the air. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is 16. Classify the elements on this page in a table.
common salt.
Metal Non metal
• Potassium (K) is a soft, shiny metal. It is only
found in compounds like potassium chloride
17. Describe an element. Your partner guesses
(KCl).
which one.
Sodium and potassium are also present in living It is a soft, shiny metal.
things. They help muscle contraction and the It is found in common salt.
functions of the nervous system.
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Hands on
Writing a fact file: Elements
Research an element from the Periodic Table.
Some interesting elements:
Then, write up your fact file. Follow this outline to
copper, iron, phosphorus, sulphur, fluorine, iodine.
help you.
Why it is important
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust.
It is also essential for living things. It is the most common mineral
in the human body. 99 % of this is found in bones and teeth.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the main component
of seashells, egg shells and snail shells.
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Activities
18. Copy and label this atom: 25. Study the diagrams. Different atoms are shown
nucleus in different colours.
protons
neutrons A B
electrons
22. What is the difference between an atom and a 26. Copy and complete the table.
molecule?
Element Compound
23. Use the Periodic Table to make a list of the
elements that are most abundant in: Copper (Cu)
Nitrogen (N2)
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Projects
INVESTIGATE: Nitrogen in soil is very important • Why do we use fertilizers with nitrogen?
for living things. Why? • Where does nitrogen in the soil come from?
• Can plants live in soil without nitrogen? WEB TASK: Research the world of nanotechnology.
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Vocabulary
1 The Universe solar eclipse when the Moon passes between the Sun
and the Earth, and blocks off the sunlight.
asteroids rocky bodies which orbit the stars. water cycle the movement of water around, over,
astronomical unit the distance from the Earth to the and through the Earth: evaporation, condensation,
Sun: approximately 150 million kilometres. precipitation, surface runoff and infiltration.
galaxies a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held
together by gravitational attraction. 3 Living things
geocentric theory proposed that the Earth was the
centre of the Universe. autotrophs living things which produce the organic
heliocentric theory proposed that the Sun was at the substances they need from inorganic substances. Plants,
centre of the Universe. algae and some bacteria are autotrophs.
light-year the distance light travels in one year: cell membrane the outer covering of a cell. The cell
about 9.5 trillion km. membrane keeps the cell together and controls what
passes in and out of it.
Milky Way the galaxy where our Solar System is.
orbit a curved path which a celestial body follows chloroplasts organelles with a green pigment,
in its revolution around another celestial body. chlorophyll, which absorbs the Sun’s energy to
elaborate organic matter during photosynthesis.
cytoplasm the inside of a cell where many of the
2 Planet Earth chemical reactions take place.
eukaryotic cells cells which have a nucleus,
atmosphere the layer of gases which envelops the separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
Earth. Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant. membrane.
biosphere the part of the Earth’s surface, sea and air heterotrophs living things which obtain nutrition
that is inhabited by living things. from organic matter which is already elaborated.
core the centre of the Earth, below the mantle. Animals, fungi, and all protozoa are heterotrophs.
Its temperature is over 4,000°C.
inorganic substances things which contain no
crust the outer layer of the Earth’s surface. It is carbon. They are present in living things and non-living
divided into continental crust and oceanic crust. things: water and mineral salts.
equinox the time of the year when day and night are organelles small structures in the cytoplasm
exactly the same length. responsible for respiration, making and storing
geosphere the solid part of the Earth which includes nutrients, etc.
the lithosphere, the mantle and the core. organic substances substances exclusive to living
hydrosphere all the water on Earth. things. Carbon is the principal element. Organic
lithosphere the upper 100 km of the geosphere. It is substances include: glucides, lipids, proteins and
is made up of the crust and the upper mantle. nucleic acids.
lunar eclipse when the Moon passes behind the nutrition all the processes which enable living things
Earth, so the Earth prevents sunlight from reaching to obtain the energy and matter they need to live.
the Moon. photosynthesis the process through which plants
mantle the middle layer of the Earth, below the crust. obtain nutrition.
It is made up of rock. The temperature is from 1,000 to prokaryotic cells cells with no nucleus or nuclear
4,000ºC, so some areas are melted rock. membrane. Genetic material is dispersed throughout
revolution the elliptical path taken by one body the cytoplasm. They are simpler than eukaryotic cells.
around another. The Earth revolves around the Sun. species the first level of classification for living things.
rotation the Earth rotates on its axis. The axis is tilted A group of living things which are physically similar.
23.5 degrees. This rotation creates day and night. They reproduce and usually have fertile descendants.
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161
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base units used to measure length, mass, time, etc. 14 Atoms and elements
capacity the amount of liquid a container can hold
when it is full. Capacity is measured in litres (L). atom the smallest particle of matter which can exist
degrees Celsius a scale used to measure temperature. alone. It is made up of a nucleus with protons
0ºC equals 273.15K or 32ºF. and neutrons, and electrons.
density the relationship between the mass and the atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus
volume of a body. Measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3. of an atom. This number is different for each atom.
derived units obtained from a combination of the chemical formula symbols which indicate how many
base units. They are used to measure surface area, atoms make up a molecule.
volume, speed, density, etc. crystals consist of atoms or molecules arranged in a
International System of Units (SI) a system which regular, organised structure.
defines the base and derived units required to measure electrons extremely small particles that orbit the
the properties of matter. nucleus. They have a negative charge (–) and are
kelvin one of the scales of the International System of attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus.
Units that is used to measure temperature. 0 K equals element a substance that contains just one type of
–273.15ºC and –459.67ºF. atom. It cannot be broken down into anything simpler
mass the amount of matter in a body. Mass is by chemical reaction.
measured in kilograms (kg). molecules two or more atoms joined together.
matter all objects that take up space, and have mass. neutrons particles in the nucleus which have no charge.
Everything around us is made of matter. periodic table of elements a table in which all
surface area the extension of a body in two elements are grouped with similar elements, with their
dimensions, measured in square metres (m2). symbol and atomic number.
volume the amount of space matter occupies. Volume protons particles in the atom’s nucleus, which have
is measured in cubic metres (m3). a positive charge.
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Key language
CLASSIFYING
Non-silicates are classified into five groups.
There are two groups of minerals.
COMPARING
Planets are bigger than other celestial bodies.
The closest star to Earth is the Sun.
Where is it colder? The higher a place is, the colder it will be.
Hydrogen and helium are the most abundant elements in the Universe.
DESCRIBING
The Sun consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.
Asteroids are rocky objects.
How many states does water exist in? Are there volcanoes in the oceans?
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DESCRIBING
A bacteria does not have an organised nucleus.
DESCRIBING A PROCESS
When minerals dissolve in water, raw sap is produced.
When pollen penetrates the stigma, ovules are fertilised.
How are igneons rocks formed? By the effects of heart and pressure.
When does sublimation occur? When a solid changes directly into a gas.
EXPRESSING FACTS
Living things feed and reproduce.
Inorganic substances do not contain carbon.
EXPRESSING AMOUNTS
The Earth’s atmosphere is about 800 km high.
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EXPRESSING AMOUNTS
68.7% of fresh water is found in lakes.
EXPRESSING CONTRAST
Some arthropods are carnivores, but others are herbivores.
Most gastropods have a shell, but slugs don’t.
Do all fish have scales? Most do. However, sharks have denticles.
EXPRESSING DIRECTION
Water filters into the ground.
Waves transport sand along the coast and out to sea.
Where does water flow? To the sea, and into the ground.
EXPRESSING PURPOSE
Water is necessary to transport all other substances.
Living things need glucose to get energy.
GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
Study the constellations.
Research more about them on the Internet.
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GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
Label each jar. Observe the samples.
INDICATING LOCATION
Magnesium is found in minerals.
MAKING GENERALISATIONS
Most sponges live in the sea.
Some molluscs have no shell.
MEASURING
The court measures 18 by 15 metres.
Density is measured in kilograms per cubic metre (Kg/m3).
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Essential Natural Science 1 is a collective work, conceived, designed and created by the Secondary Education
department at Santillana, under the supervision of ENRIQUE JUAN REDAL, ANTONIO BRANDI and MICHELE C. GUERRINI
Content writers: Concha Barreiro, Marcos Blanco, Antonio Delgado, Belén Garrido, Pilar de Luis,
Miguel Ángel Madrid, Ignacio Meléndez, Margarita Montes and Cristina Zarzuelo
Content consultants: Kevin Salvage and Carmen Rengel
Language specialists: María José Sánchez (Key language), María Rosa Batlle, Giselle Dubois, Paul House,
Kate Marriage, Beatriz Papaseit and Ana María Pons
English editors: Sheila Tourle, Sheila Klaiber, Kirsten Ruiz-McOmish, Rebecca Adlard and Patricia Gómez
Student CD:
Vocabulary organiser: Antonio Delgado
Web tasks: Jeannette West
The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the following teachers for their insightful comments and useful suggestions
throughout the preparation of Essential Natural Science.
Carlos Álvarez Santos, Silvia Durán, José Ramón Noya, Maureen Vidal Gafford