39Critical Clearing Angle

The critical clearing angle is defined as the maximum change in the load angle curve before clearing the fault without loss of synchronism.
In other words, when the fault occurs in the system the load angle curve begin to increase, and the system becomes unstable. The angle at
which the fault becomes clear and the system becomes stable is called critical clearing angle. When the initial load is given,
then there is a critical clearing angle, and if the actual clearing angle exceeds a critical clearing angle, the system becomes unstable
otherwise it is stable. Let the curve A represents the power angle curve for a healthy condition; curve B represents the power angle curve for
faulty condition and curve C represents the power angle curve after isolation of fault as shown below.

Where γ1 is the ratio of system reactance in healthy condition to that of during the fault and γ 2 is the ratio of steady state limit of the system
after the isolation of fault and that of system under the initial condition. For transient stability limit, two areas A1 = A2 or in other words
the area under curve adec (rectangle) is equal to the area under the curve da’b’bce.

Now substituting,

we have,

or
 Also from the curves

or

Thus if γ1, γ2, and δ0 are known, the critical clearing angle δc can be determined.

40) SWING EQUATION USING STEP BY STEP METHOD:The step by step

method used for hand calculation is better and simpler than the methods
used for the computers in this method of the hand calculation the angular
position of the rotor is changed during the short interval of time and is
computed using some assumptions
SWING EQUATION SOLUTION USING MODIFIED EULER METHOD
Before we discuss the application of Euler’s method for solving the swing
equations we should know the basic Euler’s method of numerical
integration so the general form of the equation is –
Y’ = f (x,y) Y(xo)= yo
SWING EQUATION SOLUTION BY RANGE KUTTA METHOD
In this method we consider two equation –
X1=f(x1,x2) X2=f(x1,x2)
And set the count k=0 and assume solution in terms of x1^0 and x2^0

42) We shall illustrate the point-by-point method for one machine tied to
infinite bus bar.
43) steady state stability is the stability the power system attains after slight unbalance. suppose a small
amount of load is disconnected. then there is a mismatch in the power system so power flow will
fluctuate, voltage in diff part will rise suddenly & for small duration frequency mismatch will be there. but
after a very short duration again the power system will regain its steady state.
Transient stability corresponds to the stability attained after a large mismatch. suppose somewhere a
fault occurs & suddenly a large part of load is bypassed. Then there is a large unbalance in the system.
Then also gradually the system attains the stability.
Dynamic stability is like transient stability but here help of an external device is taken to regain the
stability whereas in transient stability the stability was attained within the power system itself without
the help of any external device.

45)
1. 46) Generator WR2X rpm2. The greater this quantity the lower the
acceleration factor .
2. System Impedance, which must include the transient reactances of all
generating units. This affects phase angles and the flow of synchronizing
power.
3. Duration of the fault, chosen as the criterion for stability. Duration will be
dependent upon the circuit-breaker speeds and the relay schemes used.
4. Generator loadings prior to the fault which will determine the internal
voltages and the change in output.
5. System loading, which will determine the phase angles among the
various internal voltages of the generators.

47) Inertia constant:

Inertia constant is “the ratio of kinetic energy of a rotor of a synchronous machine to the rating of a
machine (in MVA)”.
Consider inertial constant of a machine as,

Here, K.E is kinetic energy of a machine in Mega Joules and S is rating of a machine in VA.
Here,

Here, J is rotor moment of inertia in Kg – m2 and ωsm is synchronous speed in rad (mechanical/s).

Consider the relation between electrical and mechanical angles, .Therefore, the

synchronous speed in electrical radian is, .Therefore, .

Here, P is number of poles in the machine.

Substitute for ωsm in equation (2).

Here, M is moment of inertia in MJ-s/electrical radians.

Substitute equation (3) in equation (1).
Turbo generators have large inertia constants and the synchronous condenser has small inertia
constant.
Swing Equation:
Swing equation is an equation describing the relative motion between rotor axis and the resultant
magnetic field axis of a stator of synchronous generator. The load angle is the angle between rotor
axis and the resultant magnetic field axis. This angle forms the swing and the variation of this angle
leads to change in real power consequently varies the frequency.
Consider the differential equation which governs the dynamics of a machine under the assumptions of
iron, friction and negligible windage losses. It can be written as,

Here, J is rotor moment of inertia in Kg – m2, θm is angle in radians (mechanical), Tm is mechanical

torque in Nm, Te is electrical torque in Nm.
Consider the relation between torque and synchronous speed as

Here, Pm is mechanical power in Watts, Pe is electrical power in Watts.

Write the equation can be written for power in Mega Watts as,

Substitute equation (6) in equation (5),

From the relations, and

From equation (4),

Therefore,

Thus, the swing equation of a machine is