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behavioural
aspects relevant to acca qualification paper f5
A budget can be defined as a ‘quantified plan relating to a given
period’. Although budgets are often stated in terms of money, they
need not be and can relate to other variables.
A budget can be defined as a Budgets should not be conjured THE PURPOSE OF A BUDGET
‘quantified plan relating to a given up out of thin air. Without getting Budgets can accomplish the following:
period’. Although budgets are often too far into the details of long-term
stated in terms of money, they strategic planning, organisations will Forecasting
need not be, and can also relate to have ambitions which should take into Inevitably, if an organisation is going
quantities made and sold, numbers of account the wider environment (for to draft a budget which will be of
employees to be recruited, or weights example, what is happening in the any use whatsoever, it will have to
of material to be consumed. economy), their markets (for example, make forecasts. These forecasts will
Quantification is important because what their competitors are doing), not always be correct, but at least
it adds precision and clarity to a and their products (perhaps a certain the organisation has had to look
plan. However, it can cause problems product is old and its sales declining). ahead. It won’t see every danger or
as budgets inevitably end up being This information, often speculative, opportunity, but looking ahead must
human obligations and we worry about should allow an organisation to plot be better than moving forward with
how the budget was determined, its long-term future and then it can eyes closed.
if it is fair, what happens if we fail, dissect this long-term objective into Forecasts are often based on the
are there political dimensions to it, detailed, shorter-term plans. These results of previous periods, updated for
should we ‘cheat’, or will account be plans are usually communicated known changes. Statistical methods are
taken of factors outside our control? through budgets: what volume of sales sometimes used to forecast seasonal
Perhaps most importantly, how do we hope for, what will power costs effects. Occasionally, specialist
are we to reconcile the pressure to be, how many employees will we need, data might be purchased to help
achieve short-term budgets (usually what corporation tax will be levied by organisations take economic effects
carefully monitored) with ambitions for the government? into account as economies improve
long‑term improved performance which This article looks at three aspects of or deteriorate.
may not be successfully captured by budgeting, though there is considerable Organisations need to beware of
financial statements? cross-over between them: forecasts becoming self-fulfilling
¤ the purposes of a budgets, including prophecies. For example, if a downturn
motivation and evaluation is anticipated, and because of that
¤ budgets as objectives production budgets are cut thus
¤ how to set a budget. reducing employees’ ability to sell, then
there will be a downturn in sales. We
will discuss later the difficult issue of
budgets which motivate as opposed to
a budget which we hope to achieve.
student accountant issue 09/2010
02
Studying Paper F5?
Performance objectives 12, 13 and 14 are relevant to this exam
of budgeting
Planning Coordination Communication
Once forecasts are completed, In many ways, coordination is an aspect A budget is a succinct and precise way of
planning can be carried out. For of planning (making sure the company communicating targets to departments
example, if the forecast suggests a delivers what it has budgeted to sell), and employees – or at least some
dramatic increase in demand, then but it is worthy of a separate mention. aspects of what should be achieved.
new production facilities might have to What this heading really highlights is The problem is not what is specified
be planned. However, it is important that there has to be a match between in the budget, it’s what’s not specified.
to be aware at the planning stage that the organisation’s structure and The budget might state explicitly that
the forecasts might not be correct, or ambition and the requirements for 2,000 units should be made in a period,
even if they were correct at the time its success. but implicit in the target is that the
they were made, things can change. In some businesses it is important units should be of a certain quality.
Detailed planning might even require to meet well-understood customer The budget might be explicit about
the forecasting stage to be revisited demands quickly and reliably, and in the labour rate per hour to be paid,
to check estimates or to try to gather this context, strict budget targets and but might not specify the skills that
more evidence for estimates. Even measurement can be vital to success. employees should have. Unfortunately,
if forecasting does not have to be Other businesses might find that but inevitably, employees will take most
reviewed, planning should, as far flexibility, adaptability and technical notice of explicit requirements and are
as possible, remain flexible, just in innovation are more important. If you liable to downgrade other important but
case the forecast isn’t fulfilled. So, don’t know what customers require, unspecified factors. Of course, a lot will
perhaps instead of acquiring new then setting targets through budgets depend on how the budgets are imposed
production facilities, it might be is less applicable – and might even be and how results are interpreted, but it is
better to hire or subcontract initially counter-productive because it can limit important for budgets to communicate
to see if the forecast is right. If it is, responses: it’s not in the budget, so we requirements as comprehensively
then the organisation can go ahead can’t do it. as possible.
and buy production facilities for the
following period.
The planning of cash flows is
particularly important. Cash flow
forecasts are routinely produced but A budget is a succinct and precise way of
the organisation which believes them communicating targets to departments and
unconditionally will have a short life.
Plan for possible shortfalls; build in employees – or at least some aspects of what
flexibility; have short term financing should be achieved. The problem is not what
facilities planned and on call should
things not turn out as well as expected. is specified in the budget, it’s what’s not
specified. It is important for budgets
to communicate requirements as
comprehensively as possible.
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Authorisation ¤ if targets are very low, actual ¤ When the budget is very difficult,
A budget can be an authorisation performance can be pulled down actual performance is low. Why try
to spend, and can, therefore, be a from where it might naturally when you are doomed to failure?
powerful way of delegating power have been ¤ When a budget is set at the level of
within an organisation. For example, ¤ if targets are habitually very high, the expectations (the best estimate
once you give a department a capital then employees might give up and, of what performance will actually
expenditure budget you then let that again, performance can be reduced be), employees are likely to perform
department get on with it, buying – if you know that no matter how as expected.
new equipment as it sees fit. The only hard you try you will fail to meet the ¤ If a more difficult aspirational budget
alternative is to have the departmental target, it’s easy to conclude that you is set, employees will try harder, and
head keep coming back for permission might as well not try at all. if the budget is judged just right then
for bits and pieces of expenditure. Of their actual performance will be at its
course, before the budget is ‘given’ to So, the aim is to set budgets which maximum, though often falling short
the department, that department needs are perceived as being possible, but of the budget.
to make a case for the expenditure. It which entice employees to try harder
will put forward arguments as to why than they otherwise might have done. The last situation can give rise to
it needs certain capital expenditure Of course, two employees can look what’s known as the ‘bottom drawer
(as will other departments), and the at the same budget and have quite phenomenon’. Managers issue a
budget committee that oversees the different impressions about how public, motivational budget, but then
budgeting process will have coordinated difficult it is, but we are unlikely to have a secret budget (‘kept in the
matters as best it can. So the budget develop individual budgets tailored to bottom drawer’) which more accurately
represents pre-authorised expenditure individual psychologies. The concept reflects what they think will actually
and combines delegation to spend of a ‘motivating budget’, however, is a happen. One is forced to wonder
with restraints as to the maximum that powerful one, although the budget which what happens to motivation when
should be spent. is best for motivating might not represent the existence of the hitherto secret
the results which are actually expected. budget becomes known. What baroque
Motivation Managers can, and perhaps should, build dance of bluff and counter bluff
A budget represents a target, and in a margin for noble failure. will occur?
aiming towards a target can be a The relationship between budget
powerful motivator. However, whether difficulty and actual performance is Evaluation
the target will actually cause employees typically represented in Figure 1 on Once budgets have been set as
to do better is thought to depend on page 4, which shows the following: performance targets, inevitably
how difficult the target is perceived ¤ When the budget is very easy, actual performance will be evaluated. This
to be. Employees have different performance is low. It has been can be simply a comparison of
perceptions of targets, but generally it pulled down by the low demands actual with budgeted performance or
is thought that: made of employees. alternatively can be a more elaborate
comparison of actual performance
with flexed budget performance, as
A budget represents a target, and aiming is found in variance analysis and
operating statements.
towards a target can be a powerful The evaluation stage is often one of
motivator. whether the target will cause the most contentious as it is here that
performance is likely to be criticised
employees to do better is thought to depend and employees will be sensitive. There
on how difficult the target is perceived to be. are many potential difficulties:
student accountant issue 09/2010
04
¤ The budget might simply have been FIGURE 1: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BUDGET DIFFICULTY AND
wrong, unachievable from the outset. ACTUAL PERFORMANCE
¤ The budget might have
become unachievable as the Performance Budgeted performance
period progresses.
¤ Departments’ performances could
interfere with each other’s.
¤ Elements of the budget could be
incompatible so meeting one target
means missing another.
¤ Although the right decision was
made for long-term profitability,
this had an adverse effect on the
short‑term budget. Expectations Motivational
budget budget
Hopwood1 identified three distinct
ways of using budget information when
evaluating performance:
1 Budget constrained style. Here,
an employee’s performance is
primarily judged on their ability to
continuously meet their budgets on
a short-term basis. This criterion
is held to be more important than
all other desirable outcomes. So,
for example, over-spending to get
a machine repaired quickly so that
an important order is shipped
would be criticised because the
repair budget was exceeded.
Not surprisingly, this approach leads
to very poor manager–subordinate
relationships and also encourages
the manipulation and misreporting
of information.
2 The profit conscious style. Here, ¤ Measurable. To be unequivocally First, more than one objective
employees are primarily judged communicated and later evaluated, is needed. As mentioned under
on their ability to increase the measurement is essential and this ‘Communication’, above, employees
long-term effectiveness of their usually means trying to derive know that whatever is set as an
departments. Budgets are not a quantitative measurement. objective will be measured and will
ignored, but they are regarded more Accountancy deals with quantitative be used for performance evaluation.
as guidelines than strict targets measures but that does not mean Naturally, that is what they will
and are interpreted flexibly. In the that accountancy holds all the secrets therefore concentrate on, unfortunately
above example, the employee would to successful operations. Quality often to the exclusion of other
be more likely to be praised for of output is very important, and is important aspects of performance.
getting the machine repaired as that relatively easy to quantify, but routine It is vital, therefore, to try to set
enabled the organisation to meet accountancy documents, such as objectives for all important measures
customer requirements. monthly management accounts, do of performance.
3 Non-accounting style. Here, not usually report quality. Second, not all aspects of desirable
budgetary information does not ¤ Agreed/accepted/achievable. This performance are easy to measure, but
play a big part in evaluation. It’s desirable attribute of objectives that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t try
almost impossible to envisage relates to motivational budgets and and that you shouldn’t set objectives.
any organisation which is not now budget acceptance. Suffice to say Remember, most accountancy
subject to financial and therefore that if an objective is not agreed measures are of no interest whatsoever
budgetary restraints, but from or accepted, or not thought to to consumers. Consumers do not
time to time there are elements of be achievable, it is unlikely to be care much how much it costs to make
an organisations where money is very effective. something, or how long production
relatively unimportant. An example ¤ Relevant. Objectives must be seen as takes, or the cost of the machine on
might be the budget required by an being relevant to the organisation’s which the manufacturing was done.
airline company to meet health and purpose, whether that is to make Consumers care about quality, reliable
safety requirements, because the profits, or for a not-for-profit delivery, innovation, style, and how
consequences of not doing so would purpose such as curing the sick or the price of the item and its features
be disastrous. educating children. If objectives compares with competing products.
seem to have no connection with If consumers don’t like what they
BUDGETS AS OBJECTIVES the higher purpose, then employees see they won’t buy, and conventional
Budgets can obviously be used for begin to feel that objectives are set accountancy will give no clues about
setting organisational, departmental purely as exercises of managerial why the organisation performs poorly.
or individual objectives (or targets). power (‘I will give you this objective, Third, short-term budget pressures
It is often said that, to be successful, not because it is useful or necessary, (measured meticulously) can muscle
objectives should be SMART: but because it allows me to impose in on longer-term important aspects of
¤ Specific or stated. There’s no point my will’). performance (poorly measured).
in simply telling a department to ¤ Time limited. Fairly obviously, if a The balanced scorecard approach of
be ‘better’. No one quite knows time limit is not defined, objectives Kaplan and Norton, and the building
what is meant by ‘better’, so it is are unlikely to be effective. block approach of Fitzgerald and
essential to be very specific about Norton can be a great help in ensuring
what is required, in terms such as The SMART approach to that objectives (or targets), or budgets
units sold, travelling expenses, or objectives and budgets may seem are set for a very wide range of factors,
development costs. uncontroversial, but there are several both financial and non-financial.
important behavioural aspects to take
into consideration.
student accountant issue 09/2010
06
Looking at the balanced scorecard in ¤ Finally, we ask, how can we keep However, the demand and expectation
more detail, this approach considers a up with competitors and customer for participation and consultation
hierarchy of performance perspectives, demands? Only through continual may sometimes have more to do with
as shown in Figure 2. innovation, improvement and the polemics of modern management
learning. This is the innovation and than practical management,
FIGURE 2: THE BALANCED learning perspective. because participation:
SCORECARD – THE HIERARCHY OF ¤ is time-consuming
PERFORMANCE PERSPECTIVES So the organisation’s financial success ¤ requires appropriate knowledge, skill
(easily and frequently measured by and expectations
budgets) ultimately depends on more ¤ may involve selfish motives (for
Financial perspective nebulous matters such as innovation, example, building slack into
quality, style, and flexibility. Therefore, timescales and targets).
it is essential that budgets are set for
these as well, otherwise they will be Participation undoubtedly has it uses,
Customer perspective
ignored as employees strive to meet the but it is not a cure for all organisational
often more superficial and short-term problems. One only has to think of the
conventional budget elements. difficult budgetary decisions that have
Internal business perspective had to be made by many organisations
HOW TO SET A BUDGET during the current recession, where
Broadly, when setting a budget, there cut backs, redundancies and restraint
Innovation and learning perspective are two choices: have had to be imposed as a matter of
¤ top down imposition survival. As a result, there has recently
¤ bottom up participation. been a swing back to more authoritative
Ultimately, businesses must perform approaches to budget setting and
well financially and there should be Organisations should look for the most performance evaluation. It is important to
budgets and objectives set for measures effective way of setting their budgets: realise that the budget setting approach
such as return on capital employed, ¤ How do they get employees to adopted for one department, for one set
profit, growth, gross profit percentages pay heed to a budget and to take of employees, or for one economic or
and so on. This is the financial it seriously? competitive environment, is unlikely to
perspective. However, successful financial ¤ How can they get accurate budgets? be universally acceptable and managers
performance depends on pleasing ¤ How can they motivate employees to must be prepared to vary their approach
customers and we should take care that try hard? to match the situation. This can be
budgets and objectives take account of regarded as a contingency (or ‘best‑fit’)
factors such as customer satisfaction, In management theory, participation approach to budgeting where there is no
repeat business, or market growth. This in decision making, such as in budget single correct method. It depends on the
is the customer perspective. To do this, setting, is usually seen as bringing manager, the subordinates, the task and
the organisation needs to ask: advantages to organisations. It allows the environment.
¤ Why do customers like us? information to be gathered from
Presumably because we are good at many sources, thereby increasing the Ken Garrett is a freelance writer
what we do, in terms of adequate stock- chance that all pertinent factors have and lecturer
holding, quality, efficient production, been considered. Participation usually
flexible responses to customer increases motivation and commitment as REFERENCE
requests. Budgets should be set for it is very difficult subsequently to ignore 1 Hopwood A G, An Accounting System
these because they are important. This the decisions or targets which one has and Managerial Behaviour, Saxon
is the internal business perspective. helped develop. House, 1973.
01 technical
a matter of
relevant to acca qualification papers F8 and p7
opinion?
Emphasis of Matter Other Matters If you face a question of this nature
Emphasis of matter (EOM) is rarely ‘Other matter’ paragraphs are used simplify your task by asking the
dealt with satisfactorily in the exam. to refer to matters that have not been following questions:
This is mainly because candidates disclosed in the financial statements ¤ Is there a misstatement in the
believe that EOM is linked somehow to that the auditor believes are significant financial statements (ie a fraud
modifications of the opinion. This is not to user understanding. One usage of or error)?
the case: EOM and modified opinions these paragraphs is where the auditor ¤ Has the auditor gathered sufficient
are totally separate matters. concludes that there is a material appropriate evidence?
The purpose of an EOM paragraph is inconsistency between the audited ¤ Is/could the matter be material?
to draw the users attention to a matter financial statements and the other ¤ Does the matter pervade the
already disclosed in the financial (unaudited) information contained financial statements?
statements because the auditor within the annual report and accounts, ¤ Does the scenario refer to a
believes it is fundamental to their as required by ISA 720, The Auditor’s disclosure made in the financial
understanding. It is a way of saying to Responsibilities Relating to Other statements concerning an uncertain
the users: ‘you know that note in the Information in Documents Containing future event?
financial statements, the one about Audited Financial Statements.
the uncertainty surrounding the legal Based on this approach you should be
dispute? Well us auditors think it’s Application to exam questions able to pinpoint exactly what form of
really important, so make sure you’ve Now that we have recapped the basic opinion is appropriate and whether an
read it!’. principles of audit opinions let us EOM paragraph is necessary.
The usage of EOM paragraphs is consider how these may be applied to As an example, Question 5 in the
described in ISA 706, Emphasis of an exam scenario. June 2009 Paper P7 exam asked
Matter Paragraphs and Other Matter Questions on audit reports in Paper candidates to ‘critically appraise the
Paragraphs in the Independent Auditor’s P7 typically fall into two distinct types: proposed audit report of Pluto Co
Report. This identifies three examples critical appraisal of an audit report that for the year ended 31 March 2009’.
of circumstances when the usage of has already been written; or explanation Relevant extracts from the audit report
EOM is appropriate: of how matters will affect an audit are given in Illustration 1. The full
¤ when there is uncertainty about opinion. In both cases the principles text may be downloaded from the
exceptional future events affecting the choice of audit opinion are ACCA website.
¤ early adoption of new accounting the same. Please note that the extract is
standards and from the International version of the
¤ when a major catastrophe syllabus and refers to International
has had a major effect on the Accounting Standards.
financial position.
This is largely irrelevant to our Response – redundancy provision There is no indication in the audit
understanding of the audit opinion; We are not going to consider the whole report that the auditor considers
however, the question does deal wording, merely the choice of opinion. the matter pervasive. It should also
with matters where the financial A more complete response is given be considered that redundancy
reporting requirements across different in the model answer, which can be provisions will only affect two
accounting regimes are broadly similar. accessed via the ACCA website. areas of the financial statements:
The company in the question is a The first question to ask is whether current liabilities and wages/salary
listed company. there is a misstatement. The answer costs. Does misstatement here
to this is clearly ‘yes’ as the report render the remainder of the financial
Illustration 1 (when this question concludes that the directors have statements unreliable? This is an
was written, isa 701 was examinable and failed to make a provision when they unlikely conclusion.
disagreement with management was a should have. This contravenes the It therefore appears unlikely that
reason for qualifying a report) relevant accounting framework (IAS 37, an adverse opinion is necessary
Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and in the circumstances. A qualified
Adverse opinion arising from Contingent Assets). The report also (‘except for’) opinion would appear
disagreement about application of IAS 37 clearly states that this is considered to more appropriate.
The directors have not recognised a be material to the financial statements.
provision in relation to redundancy Next we have to consider whether Earnings per share (EPS)
costs… and so the recognition criteria the auditor has been able to gather The second issue is that of the EOM
of IAS 37 have not been met. We sufficient appropriate evidence. Once paragraph. Ask the question referred
disagree with the directors as we feel again the answer is ‘yes;’ the auditor to earlier: does the scenario refer to
that an estimate can be made… We feel has been able to reach a considered a disclosure made in the financial
that this is a material misstatement as conclusion on the matter. statements concerning an uncertain
the profit for the year is overstated. At this point we have established future event? Clearly the answer is
In our opinion, the financial that there is a material misstatement. no. Therefore an EOM paragraph is
statements do not show a true and fair Therefore, we will have to modify not appropriate.
view of the financial position of the our opinion. However, the final version If this is the case how should the
company as of 31 March 2009... of the modification depends upon matter be dealt with? Well, go through
whether the matter is pervasive the same questions again. First, is
Emphasis of matter paragraph or not. there a misstatement?
The directors have decided not to
disclose the Earnings per share for
2009… Our opinion is not qualified in
respect of this matter.
changes to the
study guide part 1 relevant to acca qualification paper P1
June 2011 sees a number of new figure 1: the nature of risk assessment
additions to the Paper P1 Study
Guide. I will explain these changes Static Dynamic
in two consecutive articles. In this
issue, I discuss the dynamic nature
of risk, management responses
to changing risk assessments,
risk appetite, and the concepts of Increasing environmental
business and financial risk. In the change and turbulence
next issue of Student Accountant, I
conclude my discussion of the Study
Guide changes. New C1(c): Explain the dynamic nature of This means that no risks ever
In seeking to maintain the currency risk assessment change from year to year – no new
and relevance of the P1 Study Guide, I This entry into the Study Guide was risks materialise and no existing ones
have made a few changes which come added to emphasise the fact that disappear or weaken. Of course this
into effect from the June 2011 exam risks are not static: they change over is only a theoretical situation and
onwards. All are in the risk sections of time and between situations. One doesn’t exist in practice. It’s the same
the syllabus and reflect some of the of the key features of any business at the other extreme – a situation in
latest thinking in risk management as environment is that the things that which the environment changes so
well as some issues that have arisen as affect an organisation, either internal or frequently that all risks are changing
a result of recent events in business. external factors, are very changeable. In all the time. Again, this situation
In this article I discuss each of the some situations, environmental factors doesn’t exist in reality, but situations
changes I have made. change relatively little, but in other close to it do exist. It is also the case
I am also introducing the possibility environments, risk factors can change a that the risks that an organisation
of bringing in some simple arithmetic great deal. These are sometimes called faces can change with changes in
calculations into Paper P1 exam ‘turbulent’ environments, shown in the internal activities as well as with
papers (again, from June 2011 Figure 1. external environmental changes. New
onwards). This is to enable some As with environmental analyses product launches, changes in financial
aspects of risk to be examined that in strategic analysis, it is important structure, changes in markets served,
cannot be examined in a solely to recognise that the extent of etc, can also change the risks faced by
narrative-based answer. This is a environmental change can be an organisation.
change to the advice I gave when understood as a continuum (see What matters is to appreciate that
the Paper P1 Study Guide was first Figure 1 above). Continua of any type organisations differ in how exposed they
introduced. Students should not describe two extremes and a variable are to changes in internal and external
expect complicated calculations but state between the two extremes. risks. Some are very changeable,
should be prepared to manipulate At the left extreme is the situation perhaps in industries that are subject to
numerical data and accordingly, a in which nothing in the internal or a wide range of local and international
calculator may be helpful in future external environment of an organisation influences (perhaps shipping,
Paper P1 exams. ever changes. telecommunication and technology)
student accountant issue 09/2010
02
Studying Paper P1?
Performance objectives 1, 2 and 3 are relevant to this exam
paper p1
for june 2011
while others are subject to fewer and impact (position B). A change in the risk management must match the
less changeable risks. In other words, environment might decrease the complexity of its risks. To fail to do
they occupy different positions along potential impact of the risk, moving it this would be an incongruity between
the static‑dynamic continuum. on the map to position B’. In both cases, risk and response which could, in
The result of this is that the the risks have moved, as a result of the turn, be a failure in the strategy of
assessment of any given risk can environmental change, to a new area the organisation. Some of the themes
change and, thereby, the strategy for of the map. In both cases, the strategy relevant to this entry are touched on
managing that risk. adopted for managing the risk will be in the other additions to the Study
The probability or impact of a risk likely to change. Guide which I have described in the
can change over time and this change remainder of this article and in the
can move a risk on the likelihood/ New C1 (d): Explain the importance and follow-on article in the next issue
impact map which is often used in risk nature of management responses to of Student Accountant.
assessment (see Figure 2). changing risk assessments
Suppose, for example, Risk A has a Following on from the discussion New C1 (e): Explain risk appetite and how
high potential impact and is assessed as above about changing risks, it follows this affects risk policy (2)
having a 60% likelihood of materialising that management must tailor its This addition to the Study Guide
in a given period of time. Then a change risk management to match the introduces the notion of risk appetite
in the environment or in the company’s nature of the risk threat. In terms which, as its name suggests, is a
internal controls occurs which makes of policy, those organisations in measure of the general attitude to
the likelihood much less, say down more changeable (or more dynamic) accepting risk. Some individuals live
to 25%. The risk would then move on environments must make a greater their lives in a very careful way, seeking
the graph, as shown on Figure 2, from investment in risk management to avoid risks and withdrawing from
position A to A’. strategies in order to manage the situations in which a risk might be
Similarly, suppose a risk is very range and changeability of those experienced. Other people, conversely,
unlikely but with a high potential risks. It follows that an organisation’s positively seek out and thrive on
risk. They might enjoy gambling,
figure 2: risk assessment probability parachuting, scuba diving and similar
activities with very high potential
High hazards/impacts.
In the same way, some organisations
are risk averse while others are risk
A seeking. Rather than doing this for
Likelihood the ‘thrill’ of it, however, risk-seeking
(probability) organisations generally seek risk in
the belief that higher risk is often
A’ associated with higher returns.
B’ B This range of possible attitudes
Low to risk can be represented on a
Low Consequences (impact/hazard) High continuum (see Figure 3 on page 3).
03 technical