4.

08 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

S. Ukai
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

4.08.1 Introduction 242

4.08.2 Nanoscale Oxide Particle Control 242
4.08.2.1 Dissociation and Precipitation 242
4.08.2.2 Structure and Coherency 243
4.08.3 Martensitic 9Cr-ODS Steels 244
4.08.3.1 Chemical Composition and Microstructure 244
4.08.3.2 Residual Ferrite Formation and Strength Characterization 245
4.08.3.2.1 Mechanically alloyed powder characterization 245
4.08.3.2.2 Pinning of a–g interface by oxide particles 245
4.08.3.2.3 Strength characterization 247
4.08.3.3 Cladding Manufacturing 248
4.08.3.3.1 Continuous cooling transformation diagram 248
4.08.3.3.2 Manufacturing process 249
4.08.3.4 Creep and tensile properties 250
4.08.4 Ferritic 12Cr-ODS Steels 250
4.08.4.1 Strength Anisotropy 250
4.08.4.2 Recrystallization Tests 252
4.08.4.3 Cold-Rolling Cladding Manufacturing 252
4.08.4.4 Internal Creep Rupture Property 253
4.08.5 Al-Added 16Cr-ODS Steels 255
4.08.5.1 Application and Technical Issues 255
4.08.5.2 Thermal Aging Embrittlement Due to High Cr Content 256
4.08.5.3 Mechanical Properties 256
4.08.5.4 Cladding Manufacturing 257
4.08.6 Existing ODS Steel Cladding 258
4.08.7 Corrosion and Oxidation 259
4.08.7.1 Sodium Compatibility 259
4.08.7.2 LBE Compatibility 259
4.08.7.3 SCPW Compatibility 262
4.08.7.4 Oxidation 262
4.08.8 Irradiation 263
4.08.8.1 Simulated Irradiation 263
4.08.8.2 Neutron Irradiation of Materials 264
4.08.8.3 Fuel Pin Irradiation 268
4.08.8.3.1 9Cr- and 12Cr-ODS steel cladding in BOR-60 268
4.08.8.3.2 12Cr-ODS steel cladding in EBR-II 269
4.08.8.3.3 DT2203Y05 in Phénix 269
4.08.9 Summary 269
References 270

CVN Charpy V-notch

Abbreviations
EFTEM Energy-filtered transmission electron
CTT Continuous cooling transformation
microscopy
CEN-SCK Centre d’Etude de l’énergie Nucleaire –
EPMA Electron probe microanalysis
Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie

241
242 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

FFT Fast Fourier transformation example, tensile and creep rupture strengths in the
HIP Hot isostatic pressing hoop directions, and irradiation performance, is
HRTEM High-resolution transmission electron reviewed. The development of Al-added high Cr-
microscopy ODS steel cladding is also addressed, with a focus on
INCO International Nickel Company superior resistance to oxidation and corrosion in a lead–
JAEA Japan Atomic Energy Agency bismuth eutectic (LBE), and supercritical pressurized
LBE Lead–bismuth eutectic water (SCPW) in the international Generation IV
LFR Lead fast reactor advanced nuclear power system. Nanocluster ODS
LMP Larson–Miller parameter steels,1 for example, 14YWT, etc., for fusion blanket
MA Mechanical alloying structure materials, are not addressed in this chapter.
MOX Mixed oxide
ODS Oxide dispersion strengthened
PMW Pulse magnetic Welding 4.08.2 Nanoscale Oxide Particle
PRW Pressurized resistance welding Control
SCPW Super critical pressurized water 4.08.2.1 Dissociation and Precipitation
SEM Secondary electron microscopy
SFR Sodium fast reactor The fine distribution of Y2O3 particles, which is
TIG Tungsten inert gas welding essential to improving the high temperature strength
UTS Ultimate tensile strength of ODS steels, is attained by the dissociation of oxide
particles during MA processing.2 The thermodynam-
ically stale Y2O3 particles are forcedly decomposed
into the ferritic steel matrix during the MA process.
4.08.1 Introduction Subsequent annealing induces oxide particles to pre-
cipitate finely at elevated temperature of around
Recent progress in oxide dispersion strengthened 1000 C. The co-addition of Ti during MA proces-
(ODS) steels produced by mechanical alloying (MA) sing promotes the decomposition of Y2O3 and then
techniques allows them to be used as fuel cladding in the precipitation of Y–Ti complex oxide particles
sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFR). The thermally through an annealing heat treatment.3,4 A field emis-
stable oxide particles dispersed in the ferritic matrix sion ion micro-probe (FIM) analysis confirmed that
improve the radiation resistance and creep resistance this type of complex oxide is constituted of several
at high temperature. As a result, ODS steels have a nanometer-sized Y–Ti–O compounds.5–7
strong potential for high burnup (long-life) and high- The precipitation process of the decomposed Y2O3
temperature applications typical for SFR fuels. The was investigated by means of a small angle neutron
attractiveness of ODS steels is due not only to the scattering (SANS) experiment.8 The neutron-scattering
nanosize oxide particles composed of Y–Ti–O atoms cross-section (dS/dO) versus scattering vector (q2)
but also to their controlled micron-size grain mor- plots for the milled U14YWT(Fe–14Cr–0.4Ti–3W–
phology. We review existing knowledge on the crys- 0.25Y2O3) are shown in Figure 1(a). They indicate
talline structure and lattice coherency of these that the hot isostatic pressing (HIP) of U14YWT at
nanosize particles with their surrounding matrix, 850 C leads to the precipitation of a high number
since these factors dominate the dispersion and density of nanoclusters, as designated by Odette.
strength-determining mechanism through dislocation Figure 1(b) shows the effects of HIP (filled symbols)
interaction. The development of manufacturing pro- and powder annealing (open symbols) at tempera-
cesses is a principal issue for hardened ODS steels to tures of 700, 850, 1000, and 1150 C. The increase
realize long, thin-walled ODS steel cladding on pro- in magnitude and decrease in slope of the dS/dO
duction scales. There was the long-standing problem in versus q2 curves indicate that the radius of nanoclus-
low hoop strength due to the extremely elongated fine ters decreases and their number density increases
grains parallel to the rolling direction. To soften hard- with decreasing temperature at HIP and powder
ened cold-rolled products and modify their grain annealing. Annealing at 700 C produces the highest
morphology, martensitic 9Cr-ODS steels and ferritic scattering and lowest sloping, which indicates that the
12Cr-ODS steels have been developed. Current prog- smallest-sized nanoclusters precipitate with the high-
ress in the development of these ODS steel claddings, est number density at lower temperatures. In terms of
including their relevant mechanical properties, for an X-ray diffraction experiment using Super Photon
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 243

10 10
HIPed materials Powder anneals
850 C HIP (No Y2O3)

850 C HIP (U14YWT) 1150 C

dS/dW (cm srad)−1

dΣ/dΩ (cm srad)−1

1 1
As-MA (U14YWT) Decreasing <r>
Increasing Nd 1000 C
As-MA (No Y2O3) 850 C
0.1 0.1 700 C

1150 1000 850 C Controls (No Y2O3)

0.01 0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
(a) q2 (nm−2) (b) q2 (nm−2)
Figure 1 Results of a SANS experiments for as-mechanically alloyed powders and after HIP and annealing in U14YWT
(Fe–14Cr–0.4Ti–3W–0.25Y2O3). (a) As-MA, 850 C HIP and annealing and (b) HIP (filled) and annealing (annealing) at 1150, 1000,
850, and 700 C . Reproduced from Alinger, M. J.; Odette, G. R.; Hoelzer, D. T. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004, 382, 329–333.

ring-8 eV (Spring-8) constructed in Japan, Kim et al.

recently reported that nanoclusters could be in a −
(0 1 1)
noncrystalline state and can be transformed to nano- −
3.06 Å − (2 2 2) −
crystalline oxide particles at around 1000 C.9 (1 0 1) (1 1 0)
70.5 −−
(2 2 2 )
−
(2 2 2)
4.08.2.2 Structure and Coherency −
3.06 Å
−
(1 1 0) − − (1 0 1 )
(2 2 2 )
With regard to ODS steels without Ti, high resolu- −
tion (HR) TEM investigations were performed by (0 1 1 )
(a) (b)
Klimiankou to investigate the structure of Y2O3.10
The crystallographic lattice of the metal matrix cor- Figure 2 HRTEM micrograph of the Y2O3 particle with
responds to a-Fe with a bcc structure and a lattice surrounding matrix (a) and FFT image of micrograph
(b). The diffraction spots from Y2O3 particle of {2 2 2} type
constant of a0 ¼ 0.287 nm.11 The Y2O3 has a crystal-
form the rectangle, whereas diffraction spots from the
line bcc structure with a 1.06 nm lattice constant.11 matrix of {1 1 0} type form the hexagon at the [1 1 0] zone
Figure 2 shows an HRTEM image taken from an axis and [1 1 1] of matrix. Reproduced from Kliniankou, M.;
Y2O3 particle that is surrounded by the matrix (M) Lindau, R.; Moslang, A. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004, 329–333,
lattice. This image was taken from the grain, oriented 347–351.
with [1 1 1]M zone axis to the electron beam. A fast
Fourier transformation (FFT) of the image shows the
matrix lattice as a hexagonal pattern with diffraction The interfacial coherency between the Y2O3 particle
spots of the {1 1 0} type and dM(110) ¼ 0.203 nm dis- and the ferritic matrix can be estimated by Klimiankou
tance. In the FFT image, the Y2O3 (YO) lattice as follows:
is rectangular, with diffraction spots of the {2 2 2}
3dMð1 1 0Þ & 2dYOð2 2 2Þ
type and a corresponding atomic planes distance ' 0:5%: ½2%
of dYO(2 2 2) ¼ 0.306 nm. The angle of 70.5 between 2dYOð2 2 2Þ
diffraction spots of the {2 2 2}YO type marked in This result suggests that a coherency could be satisfied
Figure 2(a) confirms that the Y2O3 particle is oriented for the Y2O3 particles surrounded by a ferritic matrix.
with the [1 1 0] zone axis, and consequently [1 1 0]YO// Concerning the Y–Ti–O complex oxide particles
[1 1 1]M. The orientation correlation of both lattices formed in Ti-added ODS steels, Figure 3(a) shows
is (1 1 1)YO//(1 1 0)M. Therefore, the following an energy-filtered (EF) TEM micrograph from a
Kurdjumov–Sachs orientation relationship12 is satisfied: Y–Ti–O particle in which two atomic planes are simul-
taneously visible.10 Figure 3(b) shows the (0 0 4) and
ð11 1 ÞYO ==ð11 0ÞM ; (2 2 2) atomic planes of Y2Ti2O7 cubic (a0 ¼ 1.01 nm)
½110%YO ==½111%M : ½1% phases with the [1 1 0] zone axis. In fact, the measured
244 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
(a) (b)
−
−− 222
222
004
5 nm
Figure 3 EFTEM images of Y2Ti2O7 particles.
Reproduced from Kliniankou, M.; Lindau, R.; Moslang, A.
J. Nucl. Mater. 2004, 329–333, 347–351.
data are equal to the following data calculated from the
Y2Ti2O7 structure: d2 2 2 ¼ 0.29 nm and d0 0 4 ¼ 0.25,
and an angle between the (0 0 4) and (2 2 2) atomic
planes of 54.7 . The analysis of EFTEM results defini-
tively shows that Y–Ti–O particles have a Y2Ti2O7
composition.
These findings suggest that nano-oxide particles
precipitate from the ferritic matrix, maintaining crys-
talline coherency or partial-coherency with a ferritic
matrix. In general, the nucleation and growth of pre-
cipitates proceeds, as both interfacial and strain ener-
gies become minimal. In the case of ODS steels,
interfacial coherency could be maintained between
thermodynamically stable nanoparticle precipitates
and the ferritic matrix in order to decrease the free
energy in the system from the extremely high energy
state induced by MA. Elucidation of the details of the
nanoscale precipitation is important not only as basic
materials science research but also as the develop-
ment of high-strength engineering materials.
4.08.3 Martensitic 9Cr-ODS Steels
4.08.3.1 Chemical Composition and
Microstructure
9Cr-ODS steels are being developed by the JAEA
( Japan Atomic Energy Agency) for application to
SFR fuel cladding. Their standard chemical compo-
sition is 9Cr–0.13C–0.2Ti–2W–0.35Y2O3 (wt%).
The chromium concentration was determined to be
9 wt% in terms of ductility, fracture toughness, and
corrosion resistance based on a series of irradiation
data of ferrite steels. The addition of titanium pro-
duces the nanoscale dispersion of oxide particles,
which leads to a markedly improved high-temperature
strength. If titanium is added to excess, however, it
creates too much strength, which negatively impacts
Residual
ferrite
Tempered martensite
20 µm
Figure 4 Microstructure of 9Cr-ODS steel showing
residual ferrite and tempered martensite.
cold rolling and cold workability. To achieve a bal-
ance between strength and workability, a value of
0.2 wt% was selected. Tungsten of 2 wt% is also
added in order to improve high-temperature strength
by means of solid solution hardening.
The microstructure of 9Cr-ODS steels13–18 can be
easily controlled by a reversible a–g transformation
with a remarkably high driving force of a few hundred
MJ m&3, as compared with a driving force of irrevers-
ible recrystallization with a few MJ m&3 for 12Cr-ODS
steels. By inducing reversible a–g transformations,
9Cr-ODS steel cladding for fast-reactor fuel elements
is currently being manufactured at the JAEA.
The microstructure of 9Cr-ODS steel cladding is
basically tempered martensite. However, it has been
recognized that 9Cr-ODS steel cladding manufactured
in an engineering process possesses a dual-phase struc-
ture that comprises both tempered martensite and
ferrite phases. An example of their microstructure is
shown in Figure 4. The ferrite phase appears white,
and the elongated phase is indicated by arrows. Their
size is about 30–60 mm in length (3–10 mm in width.
The formation of a ferrite phase in 9Cr-ODS steel is
somewhat unusual, because only the full martensite
phase can be expected in 9Cr-ferritic steel without
yttria under normalizing and air-cooling conditions.
Moreover, the high-temperature strength of manu-
factured 9Cr-ODS steel is significantly improved by
the presence of the ferrite phase.19–21 This is obvious
from the creep rupture data shown in Figure 5.20
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 245

200 1500
700 C L
1400 δ
1300 γ+δ
1200
Uni-axial stress (MPa)

1100

100
90
80 Solid: with residual ferrite
Open: without residual ferrite
70
60
Mechanically milled without Y2O3
50
10 100 1000 10 000
Time to rupture (h)
Figure 5 Uni-axial creep rupture strength of 9Cr-ODS
steels at 700 C after the normalizing-and-tempering
(1050 C ( 1 h, Ar-gas cooling (AC) = > 780 C ( 1 h, AC)
with and without residual ferrite. Reproduced from
Ohtsuka, S.; Ukai, S.; Fujiwara, M.; Kaito, T.; Narita, T.
Mater. Trans. 2005, 46, 487.
Therefore, the control of ferrite phase formation is a
key to the realization of high-temperature strength in
9Cr-ODS steel cladding.
4.08.3.2 Residual Ferrite Formation and
Strength Characterization
4.08.3.2.1 Mechanically alloyed powder
characterization
The computed phase diagram of the Fe–0.13C–2W–
0.2Ti system without Y2O3 is shown in Figure 6 with
respect to carbon content. For a carbon content
of 0.13 wt%, a single austenite g-phase containing
TiC carbide exists at a normalizing temperature of
1050 C. The equilibrium g/g + d-phase boundary
at this temperature corresponds to a carbon content
of 0.08 wt%, beyond which d-ferrite is not stable. The
specimens without and with 0.1 wt% Y2O3 exhibit the
full martensite structure, whereas the specimens with
0.35 and 0.7 wt% Y2O3 exhibit a dual phase compris-
ing both martensite and ferrite phases. Digital image
analyses show that the area fraction of the ferrite phase
is )0.2 for specimens with 0.35 and 0.7 wt% Y2O3.
High-temperature X-ray diffraction measurement at
950 C showed a considerable difference; the specimen
without Y2O3 shows diffraction peaks that correspond
only to the austenite g-phase, whereas specimens
with 0.35 and 0.7 wt% Y2O3 show diffraction peaks
corresponding not only to an austenite g-phase but to a
Temperature ( C)
γ+δ γ + TiC
1000 +TiC
A3
900 γ + TiC + M23C6
α
800 +TiC A1
α + M23C6 + TiC
700 α
600 +TiC
+Laves
500 α + M23C6 + laves + TiC
400
300
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
C content (wt%)
Figure 6 Computed phase diagram with respect to
carbon content for 9Cr–xC–0.2Ti–2W system without Y2O3.
ferrite phase as well. The austenite g-phase transforms
to the martensite phase, but the ferrite phase remains
unchanged by quenching. Considering that the ferrite
phase is formed only in the specimens containing 0.35
and 0.7 wt% Y2O3, and that four types of ODS steels
have an identical chemical composition except for
Y2O3 content, the Y2O3 particles could suppress the
a–g reverse transformation.
Figure 722 shows the results of dilatometric mea-
surement when 9Cr–0.13C–2W–0.2Ti is heated
without and with 0.35 wt% Y2O3. In the case of the
specimen without Y2O3, the linear thermal expansion
begins to decrease from an AC1 point of 850 C to an AC3
point of 880 C, due to the reverse transformation of
a–g-phase, which corresponds reasonably well with the
computed phase diagram. The addition of 0.35 wt%
Y2O3 induces an increase up to an AC3 point of
935 C. By comparing both curves, it was found that
the specimen with 0.35 wt% Y2O3 exhibits a smaller
degree of reduction in linear thermal expansion during
the reverse transformation of the a–g-phase; this obser-
vation indicates that the entire a-phase could not be
transformed to a g-phase. This untransformed ferrite
phase was designated as a residual ferrite.
4.08.3.2.2 Pinning of a–g interface by oxide
particles
Alinger’s results indicate that the mechanically
alloyed powder annealed at 700 C shows the smallest
radius and highest density in Y–Ti complex oxide
particles,8 as shown in Figure 1. Considering that
 246 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
1.4
1.3
1.2 Without Y2O3
AC1
Linear thermal expansion (∆L/L, %)
1.1
1 ∆G(0.2 mass % C)
0.9
0.8
AC3
0.7
0.6
700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100
1.4
1.3 0.35 mass % Y O
2 3
1.2
1.1
1 AC1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100
Temperature (ºC)
Figure 7 Results of linear thermal expansion
measurement between 700 and 1100 C at temperature
rising of 0.33 C s&1 for 0 mass % and 0.35 mass % Y2O3 in
9Cr–0.13C–2W–0.2Ti specimens. Reproduced from
Yamamoto, M.; Ukai, S.; Hayashi, S.; Kaito, T.; Ohtsuka, S.
Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2010, 527, 4418–4423.
Y2O3 particles are decomposed during MA, subsequent
annealing results in the formation and precipitation of
Y–Ti complex oxide particles at elevated temperatures
of 700 C or higher. Since the reverse transformation of
a–g-phase takes place at a temperature over 850 C,
which is higher than the precipitation temperature of
Y–Ti complex oxide particles, it is possible that the
retention of the residual a-ferrite can be attributed
to the presence of Y–Ti complex oxide particles in
9Cr-ODS steels. These particles could block the
motion of the a–g interface, thereby partly suppres-
sing the reverse transformation from a- to g-phase.
This section presents a quantitative evaluation of
this process.
The chemical driving force (DG) for the reverse
transformation from a- to g-phase in the Fe–0.13C–
2W–0.2Ti system without Y2O3, can be evaluated in
terms of Gibbs energy versus carbon content curves at
each temperature. These curves were derived using
the Thermo-Calc code and the TCFE6 database. The
result of the calculation is presented in Figure 8.22,23
The peak value of the driving force for the reverse
transformation from a- to g-phase reaches 4 MJ m&3
at 1000 C in the case of 0.13 wt% C.
The pinning force (F ) against the motion of
the a–g interface can be expressed as the following
equation, which was derived from the modified Zener
equation of Mishizawa et al.24
12
F(0.7 mass % Y2O3)
10
Driving force (MJ m–3)
8
F(0.35 mass % Y2O3)
6
4
F(0.1 mass % Y2O3)
2
∆G(0.13 mass % C)
0
AC3 –2
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Temperature (°C)
Figure 8 Comparison of the driving force (DG) for a to g
reverse transformation derived by using Thermo-Calc
code and pinning force (F ) due to oxide particles for 0.1
mass %, 0.35 mass %, and 0.7 mass % Y2O3 in
Fe–0.13C–2W–0.2Ti specimens. Driving force (DG) for
0.13 mass % C and 0.2 mass % C is shown. Reproduced
from Yamamoto, M.; Ukai, S.; Hayashi, S.; Kaito, T.;
Ohtsuka, S. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2010, 527, 4418–4423.
3sfp2=3
F¼ ; ½3%
8r
where, s( Jm&2) is the interfacial energy between
a- and g-phases, and its value was selected to be
0.56 J m&2.25 The character r represents the radius of
the oxide particles (m) in the a-phase; its value was
determined as 1.5 nm by using TEM observation. The
character fp represents the volume fraction of dispersed
oxide particles (&), and was derived on the basis of the
experimental evidence that oxide particles consist of
Y2Ti2O7. By substituting these values into the afore-
mentioned equation, the value of pinning force F was
determined for 0.1, 0.35, and 0.7 wt% Y2O3, which are
also shown in Figure 8.22,23 The value of F increases
with the amount of Y2O3 added according to the
relation of f 2=3 .
The velocity of the a–g interface motion (v) is
proportional to the difference between F and DG, as
shown in the following equation:
v ¼ MðDG & F Þ: ½4%
M is the mobility of the interface. DG and F are
competitive, and DG > F indicates a positive velocity
for the interface motion, that is, the reverse trans-
formation from a- to g-phase. On the other hand,
DG < F indicates that the a–g interface can be

Oxide particle
AC1 AC3
・
・ ・
・ ・
・ ・
γ ・ ・ ・
・
γ α
・ ・ ・ ・
・ ・ ・
α ・
Carbide
Figure 9 Formation process of residual ferrite in
9Cr-ODS steel (Fe–0.13C–2W–0.2Ti–0.35Y2O3).
Reproduced from Yamamoto, M.; Ukai, S.; Hayashi, S.;
Kaito, T.; Ohtsuka, S. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2010, 527,
4418–4423.
pinned by oxide particles so that the a-phase is,
thus, retained. The results of the calculation shown
in Figure 822 reveal that in the case of Y2O3 con-
tents of 0.35 and 0.7 wt%, the pinning force is larger
than the driving force for 0.13 wt% C. These results
are reasonably consistent with our observation of
the retainment of residual ferrite during a–g reverse
transformation.
On the basis of the aforementioned discussion, the
formation process of the residual ferrite in Fe–0.13C–
2W–0.2Ti–0.35Y2O3 is schematically illustrated in
Figure 9. At the AC1 point, the carbide begins to
decompose, and a–g inverse transformation takes
place in the area of higher carbon content around
the decomposed carbide, where the driving force of
the reverse transformation exceeds the pinning force
because the carbon content may be >0.2 wt% (see
Figure 8). The g-phase could be enlarged by these
processes. Approaching the AC3 point, the matrix
carbon content achieves equilibrium at 0.13 wt%,
where the pinning force (0.35Y2O3) exceeds the
driving force (0.13C), and the velocity of the a–g
interface motion is markedly reduced due to dragging
by the oxide particles. Thus, the a-ferrite could be
retained even beyond the AC3 point.
4.08.3.2.3 Strength characterization
Nanoindentation measurements were conducted in
order to evaluate the mechanical properties of the
residual ferrite itself. The trace of a Berkovich tip can
be placed within the interiors of the residual ferrite
regions, while conventional micro-Vickers diamond
tips using 100-mN loads cover 7 ( 7 mm. Figure 10
shows the hardness change in the individual phases
measured by this nanoindentation technique as a
Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 247
6.0
Hardness (GPa)
5.0
・ ・
・ 4.0
3.0
・ ・ 2.0
NT 550 ºC 750 ºC 800 ºC 800 ºC FC
1h 1h 7h 58 h
Residual ferrite
Tempered martensite
Average covering residual
ferrite and tempered
martensite
Figure 10 Hardness change at room temperature as
a function of tempering conditions for the residual
ferrite and tempered martensite. NT: normalizing
and tempering; FC: furnace cooling. Ukai, S.; Ohtsuka, S.;
Kaito, T.; Sakasegawa, H.; Chikata, N.; Hayashi, S.; Ohnuki,
S. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2009, 510–511, 115–120.
parameter of the tempering conditions.26 The decrease
in hardness is significantly restricted in the residual
ferrite as compared to that of the martensite phase
in terms of increasing the tempering conditions.
The overall hardness measured by the micro-Vickers
tester is also shown by the broken line which covers
both the residual ferrite and martensite, therefore,
representing the average hardness of both phases.
Hardness Hv is correlated with yield stress sy using
the relationship provided by Tabor.27 For tempering
conditions at 800 C for 58 h, which is equivalent to
tempering at 700 C for 10 000 h based on the LMP
(Larson–Miller parameter), hardness can be converted
to yield stress at room temperature for the individual
phases: 1360 MPa for the residual ferrite and 930 MPa
for the tempered martensite. The yield strength of the
residual ferrite is 1.5 times higher than that of mar-
tensite at tempering at 700 C for 10 000 h.
A full ferrite ODS steel and full martensite ODS
steel were manufactured, and the oxide particle dis-
tribution in both ODS steels was measured by TEM.
The results are shown in Figure 11.28 It is obvious
that a few nanometer-sized oxide particles are finely
distributed in the full ferrite ODS steel, whereas their
size is coarsened in the bi-modal distribution in the
martensite ODS steel. Considering that the residual
ferrite phase belongs to full ferrite ODS steel, resid-
ual ferrite contains fine (nanosized) oxide particles
which are responsible for higher strength in residual
ferrite containing ODS steels. In regard to the bi-
modal distribution of oxide particles in martensite
248 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

ODS steels, the a–g-phase transformation could
induce the coarsening of oxide particles by disturbing
the interface coherency between these particles and
the g-phase matrix.
4.08.3.3 Cladding Manufacturing
4.08.3.3.1 Continuous cooling transformation
diagram
The preparation of a CCT (continuous cooling trans-
formation) diagram is essential to the microstructure
(a) 20 nm (b)
Figure 11 TEM photograph of the oxide particles:
(a) finely distributed oxide particles in full ferrite ODS steel
and (b) bi-modal distribution of oxide particles with larger
size in the full martensite ODS steel. Yamamoto, M.; Ukai, S.;
Hayashi, S.; Kaito, T.; Ohtsuka, S. J. Nucl. Mater. 2011,
417, 237–240.
control of 9Cr-ODS steels. Figure 12 exhibits a CCT
diagram that was experimentally constructed for
9Cr-ODS steel.21 The minimum cooling rate for the
matrix phase in order to fully transform to martensite
is extremely higher in 9Cr-ODS steel (solid circular
symbol) than in mechanically milled EM10 (open
diamond symbol) that does not contain added
Y2O3.29 Residual ferrite plays an important role in
the process of continuous cooling transformation.
The minimum cooling rate is known to increase
with a decrease in the size of prior austenite (g) grains.
This smaller size of prior g grains provides more
nucleation sites (grain boundaries) for a g–a-phase
transformation, so that a higher cooling rate is
required to enable steel with small prior g grains to
fully transform to a. The presence of residual ferrite
restricts the growth of g grains; the prior grain size of
residual ferrite-containing steel is roughly 5 mm, thus
increasing the minimum cooling rate to produce a full
martensite matrix.
In steel that does not contain residual ferrite and
20 nm the mechanically milled EM10, the size of the prior
g grains is roughly 10 mm and 35 mm, respectively.
The results shown in Figure 12 can be explained
by the relationship between the size of prior g grains
and the minimum cooling rate.21 As for the normal-
izing heat treatment used in commercial furnaces, the
cooling rate would be roughly 3000 C h&1, so that

1300
1000
9Cr-ODS ferritic steel
900 Containing residual-α
No residual-α 1100
800 EM10

700 α+γ
Temperature, T ( C)

Temperature, T (K)

γ
900
600
α
500
700
400
γ+m α+γ+m
300
500
200 m
α+ m 30 (K/h)
100 18 000 (K/h) Austenite (γ) => Ferrite (α)
Austenite (γ) => Martensite 3000 (K/h)
300
101 102 103 104 105
Time from 800 C, t (s)
Figure 12 CCT diagram of 9Cr-ODS steel. Reproduced from Ohtsuka, S.; Ukai, S.; Fujiwara, M.; Kaito, T.; Narita, T. J. Nucl.
Mater. 2006, 351, 241.
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 249

Low carbon steel

Elemental
powders

Yttria
powder MA powder
9Cr–0.13C–2W–0.2Ti–0.35Y2O3 Mechanical alloying (MA)

Cladding tube At intermediate heat Cold rolling Hot extrusion (1423 K)

treatment (pilger mill)
At final heat treatment
Figure 13 Cladding tube manufacturing process developed for 9Cr-ODS steel.

the matrix phase of 9Cr-ODS steel cladding consists

of residual ferrite, martensite, and a small amount of 450 Cold rolling (Rd = 50%)
transformed ferrite from the g-phase. 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Hardness (Hv)

4.08.3.3.2 Manufacturing process

9Cr-ODS steels are promising materials to enable
fast reactor fuel cladding to realize a high burnup
of 200 GWd t&1 at 700 C, since they have superior
radiation resistance and high temperature strength.
Figure 13 shows a series of manufacturing processes
of fuel cladding that is 8.5 mm in diameter by 0.5 mm
in thickness by 2 m in length. The element powders
and yttria powder are mechanically alloyed for 48 h in
an argon gas atmosphere using an attrition type ball
mill with a capacity of 10 kg batch. The mechanically
alloyed powders are sealed in hollow-shaped cans
and degassed at 400 C in a 0.1 Pa vacuum for 2 h.
The hollow shape of the bars is consolidated by hot-
extrusion at an elevated temperature of 1150 C to
the dimensions of 32 mm in outer diameter, 5.5 mm in
wall-thickness, and 4 m in length. After machining
to the precise dimensions, claddings are produced at
their final dimension (8.5 mm in outer diameter,
0.5 mm in thickness, and 2 m in length) by four-pass
rolling with about a 50% reduction ratio on each pass
by using a pilger mill.
Without heat treatment, it is too difficult to man-
ufacture cladding for ODS steels by the cold-rolling
process. Using the CCT diagram of 9Cr–0.13C–2W–
0.2Ti–0.35Y2O3, as shown in Figure 12, a cooling
400
350
Mother 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
tube
Heat treatment
300
Figure 14 Hardness change in the process of cold rolling
and intermediate and final heat treatments for cladding tube
manufacturing of 9Cr-ODS steels.
rate of about 150 K h&1 was applied to the intermedi-
ate heat treatment in order to induce the ferrite phase
at room temperature without martensite transforma-
tion. This phase has a lower degree of hardness. Hard-
ened cladding due to the accumulation of cold
deformation can be sufficiently softened by this inter-
mediate heat treatment, and cold rolling can then be
continued with the softened ferrite structure. Figure 14
represents the typical hardness change of 9Cr-ODS
steel in the process of cladding manufacturing by
repeated cold rolling and intermediate heat treatment.
The elongated grain structure induced by the fourth
cold rolling can ultimately be made into equi-axed
grain structure by the final heat treatment, which
250 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
consists of normalizing at 1050 C for 1 h, followed by
tempering at 800 C for 1 h.
4.08.3.4 Creep and tensile properties
The lifetime of a fast reactor fuel pin is most strongly
determined by the internal creep rupture strength
of the cladding induced by the internal pressure of
the fission gas at a temperature of around 700 C. For
9Cr-ODS steel cladding, internal creep rupture data
at 650, 700, and 750 C are shown in Figure 15.30
Additionally, the best fit lines for hoop stress versus
rupture time at each temperature are shown by solid
lines. These results confirmed that creep rupture
strengths in the hoop and longitudinal directions of
cladding are almost the same, due to their equi-axed
grains. The corresponding creep rupture curves for
HT931 and austenitic PNC31632 are also presented
for comparison. PNC316 is a typical austenitic clad-
ding developed by JAEA in the fast reactor program.
Notably, superior performance in rupture time is
shown in 9Cr-ODS steel cladding. The slope of
PNC316 is steeper, and there is a cross-over before
1000 h at 750 C and before 10 000 h at 700 C. The
stress condition of the fast reactor fuel pin gradually
increases due to the accumulation of fission gases and
reaches around 120 MPa at its final service milestone
of 75 000 h at 700 C. In this stress range, it is obvious
that 9Cr-ODS steel cladding is of advantage.
500
400 PNC316 (923 K)
300 PNC316 (973 K)
Hoop stress (MPa)
PNC316
200 (1023 K)
100 Stress range for
90 SFR fuel cladding
80
70
HT9 (973 K)
60
HT9 (1023 K)
50
10 102
Time to rupture (h)
Figure 15 Creep rupture curves of 9Cr-ODS steel claddings in hoop direction by using internally pressurized specimens
at temperatures of 650, 700, and 750 C, compared with those of HT9 and PNC316. Reproduced from Allen, T.; Burlet, H.;
Nanstad, R. K.; Samaras, M.; Ukai, S. Mater. Res. Soc. Bull. 2009, 34(1), 20–27.
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 9Cr-ODS
ferritic cladding in the hoop direction as measured
in a temperature range from room temperature to
850 C, is shown in Figure 16, together with the
corresponding data for the ferritic–martensitic stain-
less steel (PNC-FMS)19 that is conventionally used as
fast reactor fuel cladding. The strength of 9Cr-ODS
steel is superior to that of conventional PNC-FMS.
The uniform elongation that takes place from room
temperature to 900 C is also shown in Figure 16. In
the temperature range from 400 to 700 C at which a
fast reactor is commonly operated, the measured
uniform elongation exhibits adequate ductility. This
advantage of superior elongation in the produced clad-
dings can probably be ascribed to the pinning of dis-
locations by oxide particles, which retard recovery and
sustain work-hardening.
4.08.4 Ferritic 12Cr-ODS Steels
4.08.4.1 Strength Anisotropy
When JAEA started to develop ODS steels in
1985, the ferritic type of ODS steels was applied.3,33
These are similar to MA957,34 which is single ferrite
phase and does not include the martensite. Based on
the results of R&D conducted for several years, three
kinds of claddings, 63DSA, 1DK, and 1DS, were
manufactured in 1990. Their chemical compositions
9Cr-ODS
(923 K)
9Cr-ODS
(973 K)
HT9 (923 K) 9Cr-ODS
(1023 K)
103 104 105
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 251

are 13Cr–0.02C–3W–0.7Ti–0.46Y2O3 (63DSA), 13Cr– diameter, 0.4 mm thickness, and 1 m length. In the case
0.05C–3W–0.5Ti–0.34Y2O3 (1DK), and 11Cr–0.09C– of the 63DSA and IDS claddings, only six warm rolling
3W–0.4Ti–0.66Y2O3 (1DS). The manufacturing process passes at 650–700 C with intermediate annealing at
is almost the same as the process shown in Figure 13, 1100 C were conducted. The temperature of the final
except for the rolling process and intermediate heat heat treatment of 1DK cladding was 1150 C for 60 s,
treatment, because cold-rolling processing can be hardly and 63DSA and 1DS claddings at 1100 for 3.6 ks.
applied to these ODS steels. In the case of the 1DK The uni- and bi-axial creep rupture strengths of
cladding, six warm drawings at 800–850 C, followed by the manufactured claddings at 650 C are shown
four warm rolling passes at 500 C with intermediate in Figure 17, where the uni-axial corresponds to
annealing at 1080 C, were repeated to manufacture the the hot working direction and bi-axial belongs
thin-walled cladding in the dimension of 7.5 mm outer to the internal hoop direction.3 It was found that

1500 15
Tensile strength (MPa)

1000 Uniform elongation (%) 10

500 5
PNC-FMS
PNC-FMS

0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
Figure 16 Tensile strength and uniform elongation of 9Cr-ODS steel cladding in hoop direction by the ring specimens.
Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Kaito, T.; Otsuka, S.; Narita, T.; Fujiwara, M.; Kobayashi, T. ISIJ Int. 2003, 43, 2038.

1000
Uni-axial Bi-axial
1 DK
1 DS
600 63 DSA

500

400
Stress (MPa)

Uni-axial

300

200 Bi-axial

MA 957 Mol-ODS
(see figure 29) (DT2203Y05, see figure 28)
100
1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Time to rupture (h)
Figure 17 Creep rupture strength of 1DK, 1DS, and 63DSA claddings in hoop direction by using internally pressurized
specimens at 650 C. Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Harada, M.; Okada, H.; Inoue, M.; Nishid, T.; Fujiwara, M. J. Nucl. Mater.
1993, 204, 65–73.
252 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
there is strong strength anisotropy, and the bi-axial
creep rupture strength is considerably lower than
that of the uni-axial direction. Microstructure obser-
vations of these claddings exhibited the elongated
grains like a bamboo structure in parallel to the
working direction. The strength degradation in the
bi-axial/internal hoop direction, which is essential
for the fuel elements, should be mainly attributed to
the grain boundary sliding and crack propagation due
to stress concentration.
4.08.4.2 Recrystallization Tests
Based on the aforementioned finding in ODS steels,
the recrystallization processing was extensively stud-
ied to change the substantially elongated grain struc-
ture to the equi-axed grain structure. The Y2O3
content should be <0.25 mass % to attain the recrys-
tallized structure in the ODS ferritic steels. The two
types of 12Cr-ODS steels in the chemical composi-
tion of 0.23Y2O3–2W–0.4Ti (A3) and 0.34Y2O3–3W–
0.4Ti (A15) were extruded at 1150 C, followed by
60% cold rolling and annealed at 1200 C for 1 h.
From these heat-treated bars, the internal creep rup-
ture specimens were machined and tested at 650 C.
Figure 1835 exhibits a comparison of the creep
rupture strength of recrystallized (A3) and unrecrys-
tallized (A15) 12Cr-ODS steels at 650 C, where
600
500
400
Equivalent stress (MPa)
300
200
A3-2(1123 K extrusion)
A3-1(1423 K extrusion)
A15
100
10
Figure 18 Creep rupture strength of recrystallized and unrecrystallized 12Cr-ODS steel claddings by using pressurized
specimens at 650 C. Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Nishida, T.; Okada, H.; Okuda, T.; Fujiwara, M.; Asabe, K. J. Nucl. Sci.
Technol. 1997, 34(3), 256–263.
von Mises’ equivalent stress was estimated for the
internal hoop stress. The unrecrystallized specimen
shows significant strength anisotropy in uni-axial and
internal creep rupture strength, whereas the recrystal-
lized specimens reveal decrease of anisotropy, where
uni-axial creep rupture strength decreases and inter-
nal strength approaches the uni-axial strength. These
results demonstrate that the recrystallization process
adequately improves the creep rupture strength in
the internal hoop direction. Furthermore, softening
by recrystallization makes it possible to manufacture
cladding by cold-rolling processing.
4.08.4.3 Cold-Rolling Cladding
Manufacturing
Based on the aforementioned finding, cladding
manufacturing tests were conducted using cold-
rolling pilger mill in 12Cr-ODS ferritic steels with
the limited Y2O3 content <0.25 mass % to induce the
recrystallized structure, and their internal creep rup-
ture properties were evaluated at 700 C, not at
650 C. The chemical composition of the manufac-
tured cladding is listed in Table 1, where the speci-
mens are denoted as F1 to F4. The four levels of
Y2O3 contents were selected in the range of <0.25
mass %, and the titanium content ranged from 0.13
to 0.31 mass %. Cold rolling by a pilger mill was
Solid: uni-axial
Open: internal
100 1000 10 000
Time to rupture (h)
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 253

Table 1 Chemical composition of F1–F4 specimens with different titanium and yttria contents (mass %) in 12Cr-ODS
steels

Specimen no. Chemical composition (mass %)

C Cr W Ni Ti Y2O3 O N Ar

F1 0.065 11.8 1.92 0.03 0.13 0.08 0.08 0.010 0.005

F2 0.054 11.8 1.94 0.03 0.13 0.13 0.05 0.010 0.004
F3 0.065 11.8 1.93 0.03 0.22 0.22 0.09 0.012 0.005
F4 0.056 11.7 1.92 0.03 0.31 0.24 0.04 0.010 0.004

Source: Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Okuda, T.; Fujiwara, M.; Kobayashi, T.; Mizuta, S.; Nakashima, H. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2002,
39(8), 872–879.

F1 F2 F3 F4
Longitudinal

20 mm
Transverse

20 mm

Figure 19 Optical microstructure of the F1, F2, F3, and F4 specimens in the final claddings. Reproduced from Ukai, S.;
Okuda, T.; Fujiwara, M.; Kobayashi, T.; Mizuta, S.; Nakashima, H. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2002, 39(8), 872–879.

repeated twice with a reduction ratio of about 50% 4.08.4.4 Internal Creep Rupture Property
per rolling. The intermediate heat-treatment to
The internal creep rupture properties of the manu-
soften the cold-rolled cladding was performed at
factured 12Cr-ODS steels at 700 C are shown in
1100 C for 30 min, and the final heat-treatment was
Figure 20.36 Increasing the yttria and titanium con-
performed at 1150 C for 0.5 h.
tents improves the internal creep rupture strength
Figure 19 shows the optical microstructures of
(F4 > F3 > F2 > F1). The uni-axial creep rupture
the manufactured claddings in the longitudinal and
strength for F4 is also plotted; there is the strength
transverse directions.36 All of the specimens seem
anisotropy between the uni-axial and internal hoop
to be recrystallized. However, the extent of recrys-
directions. This strength anisotropy can be associated
tallization depends on the yttria and titanium con-
with the slightly elongated grain structure shown in
tents. In the transverse cross-section, the grain size
Figure 19.
becomes slightly finer with increasing yttria and
The stress–strain rate relationship was investi-
titanium contents from F1 to F4. In the F4 speci-
gated for ODS ferritic claddings to evaluate the
men, the elongated grains can be still seen and the
creep deformation mode. The results of the analyses
aspect ratio in the longitudinal (L) and transverse
are given in the log–log plot in Figure 21.36 In
(T) directions is large, whereas the aspect ratio
general, the creep strain rate in the steady-state con-
of specimen F1 appears to be nearly unity. These
dition is expressed using applied stress s as:
findings show that F4 specimen with higher yttria
and titanium contents did not attain the perfectly "_ ¼ Asn ½5%
recrystallized grain structure by the annealing of where n is the stress exponent and A is the
1150 C for 0.5 h. temperature-dependent coefficient.37 In the case of
 254 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

1000 mode of F4, and a higher strain rate is found even

F1 below a stress of 200 MPa. A transverse section of this
F2
F3
F4
specimen shows finely equi-axed grains of 5–10 mm
F4 (uni-axial, this work) (Figure 19). Apart from pinning the gliding dislocations
due to oxide particle-dislocation interaction, the defor-
Hoop stress (MPa)

Uni-axial
mation mechanism associated with grain morphology
may be the dominant factor that induced accelerated
strain in the hoop stress mode of the tubular specimen.
In order to characterize the high temperature
strength of manufactured 12Cr-ODS steel cladding,
100 Internal, bi-axial
direction
its strength mechanism was evaluated from the view-
point of the interaction between Y2O3 particles
and dislocations. This interaction could be formu-
lated by the void-hardening mechanism proposed
10 100 1000 10 000 by Srolovitz,38 in which oxide particles were re-
Time to rupture (h)
placed by voids. The oxide particle-hardening stress
Figure 20 The creep rupture strength in hoop direction sp can be evaluated by the following equation based
for pressurized F1 to F4 specimens at 700 C. Reproduced on Scattergood and Bacon’s equation,39 which takes
from Ukai, S.; Okuda, T.; Fujiwara, M.; Kobayashi, T.;
into account the interaction between the branches of
Mizuta, S.; Nakashima, H. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2002,
39(8), 872–879. the bowed-out dislocation around a Y2O3 particle:
sp =G ¼ AMb=ð2plÞ½lnðD=r0 Þ þ B%; ½6%
for screw dislocation;
10−5
F1
F2 A ¼ ð1 þ v sin2 ’Þcos ’=ð1 & vÞ;
F3
F4 B ¼ 0:6
10−6 F4 (uni-axial)
PNC-FMS
for edge dislocation;
A ¼ 1 & v sin2 ’=ð1 & vÞ cos ’;
!
10−7
Strain rate (s−1)

10−8
10−9
10−10
50 60 70 80 90 100
Stress (MPa)
Figure 21 Stress–strain rate relationship for internal creep
of specimens F1–F4 and PNC-FMS, and for uni-axial creep
of specimen F4 at 700 C. Reproduced from Ukai, S.;
Okuda, T.; Fujiwara, M.; Kobayashi, T.; Mizuta, S.;
Nakashima, H. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2002, 39(8), 872–879.
the uni-axial creep mode, a significantly high stress
sensitivity of n ¼ 43.7 appears. This stress exponent
value is typical for an ODS alloy.37 The applied stress
that initiates the strain is clearly located around
250 MPa; this stress corresponds to the so-called
threshold stress for deformation. On the other hand,
the stress exponent, n, is 10.4 for the internal creep
B ¼ 0:7
where G is the Shear modulus, v is Poisson’s ratio, M
is the Taylor factor, b is the magnitude of Burgers
vector, and r0 is the inner cut-off radius of the dislo-
cation core. The value of ’ is the critical angle at
which the dislocation detaches from the particles.
This value was estimated to be ’ ¼ 46 for screw
dislocations and ’ ¼ 19 for edge dislocations. Fur-
200 300
ther, l is the average face-to-face distance between
particles on a slip plane and is given as a function of
the average particle radius rs and the average center-
to-center distance ls between the particles by
l ¼ 1:25ls & 2rs ; ½7%
where the averages are calculated by considering the
size distribution of the particles. The factor 1.25 is
the conversion coefficient from regular square distri-
bution to random distribution.40 The characters ls and
rs represent the results of the measurement of oxide
particles by means of TEM. D is the harmonic mean
of 2rs and l. The values of l were calculated, and
the oxide particle-hardening stress was estimated by
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 255

substituting l, M ¼ 3.0,41 n ¼ 0.334, b ¼ 2.48 (
10&10 m, and G ¼ 50 600 MPa, at 700 C.
Figure 22 shows the results of analyses in rela-
tion to the face-to-face distance between particles.36
The oxide particle-hardening stress levels estimated
by using the aforementioned equations at 700 C
are represented by vertical bars, with the upper and
400
350
F4
300
Hoop stress (MPa)
F4 (uni-axially longitudinal)
Oxide particle-hardening
lower bars derived from an estimate of edge and screw
dislocations, and with the uncertainty of r0 ranging
from b to (3 ( b). The measured stress in the
uni-axial mode of the F4 specimen is shown by an
open circle. These results imply that the higher oxide
particle-hardening stress for specimen F4 is due to its
shortened face-to-face particle distance l of 70 nm.
The lower band represents the stress corresponding
to a strain rate of 10&9 s&1 in the internal hoop direc-
tional mode. For the F1 specimen, as a stress level
corresponding to a strain rate of 10&9 s&1 approaches
the oxide particle-hardening stress, the strong anisot-
ropy tends to disappear. However, for the F3 and
F4 specimens with a shortened distance between par-

250
stress (s p) from particle ticles, stress levels for a strain rate of 10&9 s&1 in the
distribution by TEM
hoop direction are degraded from the oxide particle-
F3
200 hardening stress. The strong anisotropy still remains in
the F4 specimen. The accelerated deformation in the
F2
150 internal hoop direction could be the result of grain
F1 boundary sliding, since finely equi-axed grains with a
100
small size of 5–10 mm are formed, and the grain bound-
Stress at strain rate of aries occupy a large fractional area in the transverse
50 10−9 S−1 in the internal
hoop direction cross-section of the F4 specimen (see Figure 19).
0 Based on these results, it seems to be difficult to control
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
internal creep rupture strength by recrystallization
Face-to-face distance between particles, l (nm)
processing in 12Cr-ODS steel cladding.
Figure 22 Comparison of oxide particle-hardening stress
estimated from dispersion parameters of F1, F2, F3, and
F4 specimens, uni-axially longitudinal creep strength of
F4 specimen, and internal creep strength in hoop direction
4.08.5 Al-Added 16Cr-ODS Steels
at a strain rate of 10&9s&1 for F1, F3, and F4 specimens, 4.08.5.1 Application and Technical Issues
as functions of face-to-face distance between particles.
Each stress was obtained at 973 K. Note that internal creep Generation IV advanced nuclear power systems are
strength is located below the oxide particle-hardening proposed; the temperature and dose regimes for their
stress due to the grain boundary sliding in the hoop stress
mode. Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Okuda, T.; Fujiwara, M.; operation are shown in Figure 23.42 Among them, the
Kobayashi, T.; Mizuta, S.; Nakashima, H. J. Nucl. Sci. supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR) and the
Technol. 2002, 39(8), 872–879. lead fast reactor (LFR) require a higher neutron dose

1400
1200
Temperature ( C)

1000
VHTR GFR
800 MSR
600 SFR
SCWR LFR
400
200
Generations II–III
0
0 50 100 150 200
Displacement per atom
Figure 23 Temperature and dose regimes for Generation IV advanced nuclear power plants. VHTR: very high temperature
reactor; SCWR: supercritical water-cooled reactor; GFR: gas fast reactor; LFR: lead fast reactor; MSR: molten salt reactor;
SFR: sodium fast reactor. Reproduced from Guerin, Y.; Was, G. S.; Zinkle, S. J. Mater. Res. Soc. Bull. 2009, 34(1), 10–14.
256 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
at an operating temperature of 600 C. It is known that
9Cr-ODS steels have superior compatibility with
sodium, but their corrosion resistance is not adequate
for SCPW and LBE at a temperature >600 C. Thus,
the most critical issue for the application of 9Cr-ODS
steels to SCWR and LFR is to improve their resistance
to corrosion.
It has been reported that the addition of chromium
(>13 wt%) and aluminum (4 wt%) to ODS steels quite
effectively suppresses corrosion in an SCPW and LBE
environment. In general, however, an increase in the Cr
content often results in increased susceptibility to ther-
mal aging embrittlement. Furthermore, the addition of
Al significantly reduces steel strength at high tempera-
tures. Recent progress in R&D of high Cr–Al-added
ODS ferritic steels is summarized in the proceedings
of the International Conference of Advanced Power
Plants (ICAPP) 2009. The oxidation and corrosion
performance of Al-added 16Cr-ODS steels in SCPW
and LBE environments is described in Section 4.08.7.
4.08.5.2 Thermal Aging Embrittlement Due
to High Cr Content
High Cr concentration often increases susceptibility
to aging embrittlement through the formation of
Cr-rich secondary phases. The trade-off between cor-
rosion resistance and aging embrittlement caused
by increasing Cr content is one of the critical issues
facing the developers of high-Cr ODS steels. The aging
effects of ODS steels with different Cr content were
investigated by measuring their impact fracture energy
at RT after aging at 500 C up to 10 kh. The results are
shown in Figure 24.43 The fracture energy decreases
with increasing Cr content before aging. Aging, then,
causes a reduction in the fracture energy. ODS steels
with a Cr content >18 wt% show a significant reduc-
tion in fracture energy after aging for 100 h. In contrast,
16Cr–4Al ODS steel showed a small reduction in frac-
ture energy even after aging for 10 kh. Microstructure
observation by TEM revealed that fine secondary
phases were formed in high density after aging for
1000 h at 500 C. These secondary phases are consid-
ered to be Cr-rich phases. In order to reduce suscepti-
bility to aging embrittlement, the Cr content could
be <16 wt%.
4.08.5.3 Mechanical Properties
The addition of Al to ODS ferritic steels sometimes
softens their creep and tensile properties. Figure 2544
shows the effects of Al addition and Cr content on the
0.8
Aged at 500 C
0.7
0.6 As-received
Absorbed energy (J)
0.5
0.4
0.3
1000 h 100 h
0.2
4300 h
0.1 10 000 h
0.0
12 14 16 18 20 22
Cr content (mass%)
Figure 24 Aging embrittlement of high Cr-ODS steels
with respect to Cr content. Absorbed fracture energy was
measured at room temperature with the use of miniaturized
Charpy V-notch (CVN) specimen which measures 1.5 mm
square with 20 mm length. Reproduced from Kimura, A.;
Kasada, R.; Iwata, N.; et al. In Proceedings of ICAPP ’09,
Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14, 2009; Paper 9220.
tensile strength of high Cr-ODS steels. A decrease in
UTS versus Al content is obvious in 16Cr-ODS steels;
this dependency becomes weaker at higher tempera-
ture. The effect of Cr concentration on the UTS is not
so obvious between 13.7 and 17.3 wt% at 450 and
700 C.
In the case of 9Cr–12Cr-ODS steels, high-
temperature strength is considerably enhanced by the
uniform dispersion of Y–Ti complex oxide (Y2Ti2O7)
particles. In Al-added high Cr-ODS steels, however,
Y–Al complex oxides and/or Al oxides are formed
rather than Y–Ti complex oxides, which leads to
larger oxide particles, causing a degradation of high-
temperature mechanical strength. Therefore, Hf or Zr,
which form thermodynamically stable oxides, were
added to form Y–Hf or Y–Zr complex oxide particles
rather than Y–Al complex oxide. The process of
manufacturing these materials is exactly the same as
that used for 9Cr-ODS ferritic steels: MA by an attri-
tion type ball mill and hot extrusion at a nominal
temperature of 1150 C. The extruded bars were
provided for mechanical tests. The creep rupture prop-
erties of Al-added high Cr-ODS steels are summar-
ized in Figure 26.44 The creep strength of the standard
steel is generally lower than that of Al-free steel. On
the other hand, the addition of Zr and Hf induces
an improved creep strength which approaches that of
Al-free steel. Furthermore, it was found that their

1400
Fe–16Cr–0W–0.1–0.35Y2O3
1200
1000
UTSave. (MPa)
800
600
400
200
0 0
0 1 2 3
Al concentration (mass %)
Figure 25 The UTS with respect of Al and Cr content in Al added high Cr-ODS steels at 450 C and 700 C. Reproduced
from Furukawa, T.; Ohtsuka, S.; Inoue, M.; et al. In Proceedings of ICAPP ’09, Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14, 2009; Paper 9221.
103
Stress (MPa)
102
0Al (16Cr–0.1Ti–0.35Y2O3)
Standard (15Cr–4Al–2W–0.1Ti–0.35Y2O3)
0.63Zr (15Cr–4Al–2W–0.63Zr–0.1Ti–0.35Y2O3)
0.62Hf (15Cr–4Al–2W–0.62Hf–0.1Ti–0.35Y2O3)
10
101 102 103
Time to rupture (h)
Figure 26 Creep rupture strength of various Al added
high Cr-ODS steels in hoop direction by using pressurized
specimens at 700 C. Reproduced from Furukawa, T.;
Ohtsuka, S.; Inoue, M.; et al. In Proceedings of ICAPP ’09,
Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14, 2009; Paper 9221.
fracture elongation and reduction of area are slightly
higher than those of Al-free steel. Under microstruc-
tural observation by TEM, oxide particles consisting of
Y3A5O12, YAlO3, and Al2O3, were observed in typical
Al-added ODS steel, whereas this Y–Al complex oxide
can be changed to Y2Hf2O7 in Hf-added ODS steel.
The improved creep rupture strength in Hf-added
ODS steel could be attributed to the nanosize disper-
sion of the Y2Hf2O7 complex oxide.
4.08.5.4 Cladding Manufacturing
16Cr–4Al-ODS steels exhibit a full ferrite structure
without a–g-phase transformation, and the manufacture
of their cladding is effected by means of cold-rolling
Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 257
1000
700 C Fe–4Al–0W–0.1–0.35Y2O3
700 C
450 C 800 450 C
UTSave. (MPa)
600
400
200
4 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Cr concentration (mass %)
and recrystallization annealing, which is the same
700 C
as 12Cr-ODS steel described in Section 4.08.4.
From mother tubes of 16Cr–2W–0.1Ti–4Al–
0.35Y2O3 with an 18 mm outer diameter and 3 mm
thickness, cold-rolling was repeated four times using a
pilger mill; the reduction rate for each rolling reached
about 45%. Annealing is required to soften the
deformed structure in order to make possible the
next round of cold rolling. A recrystallized structure
cannot be reproduced by the final heat treatment once
recrystallization has taken place in the intermediate
annealing.45 A heat treatment test was therefore con-
ducted to determine an appropriate annealing tem-
perature to induce softening by dislocation recovery
104 105
but without recrystallization. The temperature for the
final heat treatment was selected in order to realize
recrystallized grains.
Figure 27 illustrates an orientation image map
(OIM) measured after heat treatment at 900 C for
1 h, 1000 C for 1 h, and 1150 C for 1 h, from which
an evolution of recrystallization can be clearly identi-
fied in the cladding.46 The primary recrystallization
begins with an {111}<112> orientation, which is desig-
nated by the color blue at 900 C annealing. When
the temperature increases to 1000 C, a {110}<100>
Goss orientation, designated by green, partially
appears. The primary recrystallization orientation of
{111}<112> is almost replaced by a {110}<100>
Goss orientation when the temperature is elevated to
1150 C, which corresponds to a secondary recrystalli-
zation. Thus, the final heat treatment was conducted
at 1150 C for 1 h in order to create a perfectly recrys-
tallized structure. The manufactured cladding has sec-
ondary recrystallized grains with a {110}<100> Goss
orientation, which was formed by annealing from the
cold rolled {112}<110> orientation through primary
recrystallization of the {111}<112> orientation.47
258 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

4.08.6 Existing ODS Steel Cladding
The basic chemical composition of the representative
ODS steels is summarized in Table 2. ODS steels are
divided into two groups which have either been
200 µm 200 µm 200 µm
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 27 OIM for 16Cr–4Al–ODS steels heat-treated at
900 C for 1 h (a), 1000 C for 1 h (b), and 1150 C for 1 h (c).
Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Ohnuki, S.; Hayashi, S.; et al.
In Proceedings of ICAPP’09, Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14,
2009; Paper 9232.
commercialized or are under development. The first
group includes Incoloy MA956 and PM2000. The
former is produced by what was formerly the Inter-
national Nickel Company (INCO) and is now the
Special Metals (SM) Company. The latter is a prod-
uct of the Plansee Company of Austria. MA956 and
PM2000 are 20% Cr-ODS steels containing 5% Al,
which exhibit superior resistance to oxidation and
corrosion in hot gases at temperatures >1000 C.
Tubes, sheets, and bars made from these steels are
commercially used in various stationary and high-
temperature components in turbines, combustion
chambers, diesel engines, and burners.
The second group is devoted to the application of
fuel cladding for nuclear fast reactors, anticipating its
superior resistance to radiation resistance, and its
excellent creep strength and dimensional stability at
an elevated temperature of 700 C. As shown in
Table 2, DT2906 contains Ti2O3 dispersoids, and
DT2203Y05 is strengthened by Ti2O3 and Y2O3. Both
steels have been developed by SCK+CEN (Centre
d’Etude de l’énergie Nucleaire – Studiecentrum voor
Kernenergie) Mol (Belgium).48–50 The elementary
metallic powders and Y2O3 or TiO2 powder are
mechanically alloyed by means of a pilot scale ball
mill with a capacity of 9.2 kg per batch. Mechanically
alloyed powders are hot-compacted into billets,
which are subsequently hot-extruded into the hol-
lows of 20/17 mm. A plug drawing is applied to
manufacture the cladding tube from the hollows.
Intermediate annealing is carried out at 1050 C by
using induction heating after a certain number of
drawing passes. The entire cold drawing is composed
of 15–20 passed and three intermediate annealing

Table 2 Basic chemical composition of ODS steels (mass %)

Steels Cr Mo W Ti Al Dispersoid Fe Others Development

Turbine, combustion
Incoloy MA956 20 – – 0.5 4.5 0.5Y2O3 Bal SM/US
PM2000 19 – – 0.5 5.5 0.5Y2O3 Bal Plansee/Austria
Fast reactor fuel
DT2203Y05 13 1.5 – 2.2 – 0.5Y2O3, Bal SCK+ CEN
0.9Ti2O3 Mol/Belgium
DT2906 13 1.5 – 2.9 – 1.8Ti2O3 Bal SCK+ CEN
Mol/Belgium
Incoloy MA957 14 0.3 – 1 – 0.25Y2O3 Bal SM/US
9Cr-ODS steel 9 – 2 0.2 – 0.35Y2O3 Bal 0.13C, martensite + JAEA/Japan
residual ferrite
12Cr-ODS steel 12 – 2 0.3 – 0.23Y2O3 Bal JAEA/Japan
16Cr–4Al-ODS steel 15.5 – 2 0.1 4 0.35Y2O3 Bal 0.6Hf or 0.6Zr KU/Japan

SM: Special metals, former International Nickel Company; JAEA: Japan Atomic Energy Agency; KU: Kyoto University.
SCK+CEN: Centre d’Etude de l’énergie Nucleaire – Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie.

steps. The final annealing is performed at 1050 C and
800 C to precipitate an w-phase (70%Fe, 15%Cr, 7%
Ti, and 6%Mo). More than 1000 cladding tubes were
manufactured. For defect control, this cladding is non-
destructively tested using eddy currents and ultrason-
ics which employ specified artificial reference defects
which define the rejection level for naturally defective
cladding. For example, the creep rupture strength of
DT2203Y05 cladding in the hoop direction is shown
in Figure 28.51 For the fabrication of fuel pins with
DT2203Y05 cladding, a special resistance welding
machine was designed at SCK+CEN, because ODS
steels can hardly be welded by conventional fusion
welding methods such as tungsten inert gas (TIG) or
electron beam welding, since they result in an oxide
particle-free zone. Fuel and blanket pellets were filled
into the cladding, and resistance welding with an end-
plug was performed in a glove box at Belgonucleaire.
The two fuel assemblies were fabricated for Phenix
irradiation.
Incoloy MA957 was developed by the International
Nickel Company (INCO) for application to fast reac-
tor fuel cladding. It is strengthened by a very fine,
uniformly distributed yttria dispersoid. Its fabrication
involves a MA process and subsequent extrusion,
which ultimately results in a highly elongated grain
structure. An extruded bar with a diameter of 25.4 mm
was gun-drilled in order to generate a tube hollow
with a 4.75 mm thick wall. Extensive cladding fabrica-
tion tests were conducted on the tube hollow using a
rolling and plug draws in the United States, France,
and Japan. It can be said that MA957 is too hard to
perform satisfactorily on a small scale without faults.
The structure of the fabricated MA957 cladding
is highly anisotropic with equi-axed grains in the
1000
Hoop stress (N mm–2)
600
650
100 700
750
10
10 100 1000 10 000
Time to rupture (h)
Figure 28 Creep rupture strength of DT2203Y05 cladding
in a hoop direction. Reproduced from Huet, J. J.; Coheur, L.;
De Bremaecker, A.; et al. Nucl. Technol. 1985, 70, 215–219.
Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 259
transverse direction, but with highly elongated grains
with a bamboo-like structure in the longitudinal or
working direction. Therefore, it turned out that the
creep rupture strength of MA957 cladding is signifi-
cantly degraded in the hoop direction, which is essen-
tial for fuel pins. Some of the stress rupture data are
shown in Figure 29.52 The pulsed magnetic welding
(PMW) method was developed in the United States
for MA957 for the manufacture of fuel elements.
4.08.7 Corrosion and Oxidation
4.08.7.1 Sodium Compatibility
It is essential to evaluate the environmental effects of
sodium on the mechanical strength properties of ODS
steels to ensure their structural integrity throughout
their design life-time in SFR. ODS-steels basically
display superior compatibility with sodium. For 9Cr-
ODS steel (M93) and 12Cr-ODS steel (F95), which are
potential cladding materials for SFR, their UTS at
700 C after exposure to sodium in a stagnant state
is shown in Figure 30.53 Both show almost constant
strength after exposure to sodium, and it was confirmed
that there is no degradation up to 10 000 h. For conven-
tional ferritic steel without Y2O3, a clear strength
reduction occurs above 600 C due to decarburization
phenomena in sodium. ODS steel does not show such a
clear strength reduction because the fine Y2O3 oxide
particles remain stable in steel, thereby maintaining the
strength of the steel.
Figure 31 shows the results of creep-rupture tests
with internally pressurized specimens in a stagnant
sodium environment.54 The creep-rupture strength
of 9Cr-ODS steel (M11) in sodium is equal to its
strength in air, and no impact from a sodium environ-
ment was observed. However, under a flowing sodium
condition of 4.5 m s&1, the element nickel penetrates
the surface of ODS steel cladding, where an increase in
nickel concentration and decrease in chromium con-
C
centration were observed at 700 C. These results
C suggest that the effects of a sodium environment can
C
C
be ignored under stagnant conditions; however, as
fuel cladding is utilized in an environment with a
high flow rate of sodium, the effects of the microstruc-
ture change associated with nickel diffusion into the
cladding surface need to be considered.53
4.08.7.2 LBE Compatibility
Molten LBE has a high solubility of nickel, iron, and
chromium, which are the most important alloy elements
260 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

10 000

STC STC
TR PNC ORT
650 C
700 C
760 C

1000
s (MPa)

650 C
704 C
100
760 C →
→ →
→
→ →
→

10
10 100 1000 10 000
tr (h) 39011045.6

Figure 29 Creep rupture strength of Incoloy MA957 cladding. Reproduced from Hamilton, M. L.; Gelles, D. S. PNNL-13168,
Feb 2000.

80
M93: 650 C M93: 700 C
60 F95: 650 C F95: 700 C
Sodium flow < 0.001 m s–1
UTS

40

20
As-received

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Sodium exposure time (h)
Figure 30 UTS of 9Cr-ODS steel (M93) and 12Cr-ODS steel (F95) in hoop direction after sodium exposure.
Reproduced from Yoshida, E.; Kato, S. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004, 329–333, 1393–1397.

in austenitic stainless steels. Thus, nickel super alloys
and austenitic stainless steels cannot be used as the
structural materials for LBE-cooled systems, especially
at temperatures >500 C. Ferritic steels have been con-
sidered more appropriate for LBE application.
Exposure of 9Cr-ODS steels to an LBE environ-
ment at 530 C was carried out in the DELTA Loop
of the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The molten
alloy flow velocity in the loop is 1.2 m s&1, and oxygen
sensors were used to measure and maintain an oxygen
concentration of about 1 ( 10&6 wt%. Samples were
exposed for 200, 400, and 600 h, in order to study the
early stages of oxide formation and growth. A cross-
sectional view and the distribution of elements are
shown in Figure 32.54 In a short time, the 9Cr-ODS
steel formed a protective duplex oxide layer consisting
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 261

1000
Sodium flow rate; < 0.001 m s–1 Material: M11
650 C 700 C : In air/Ar
Hoop stress (MPa)
650 C 700 C : In sodium

650 C

700 C

100
10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Time to rupture (h)
Figure 31 Creep-rupture strength of 9Cr-ODS steel (M11) in hoop direction under sodium exposure at 650 C and 700 C.
Reproduced from Yoshida, E.; Kato, S. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004, 329–333, 1393–1397.

OKa, 41 PbMb, 124

Bulk
Oxide

CrKa, 26 FeKa, 64

Diff.
zone
LBE

15 kV X 2000 10 µm 24 36 BEC

Figure 32 Backscatter cross-section secondary electron microscopy (SEM) image and Energy dispersive X-ray
spectrometry (EDS) map of 600 h 9Cr-ODS steel, showing much thinner Cr-rich oxide but a thicker diffusion zone.
Reproduced from Machut, M.; Sridharan, K.; Li, N.; Ukai, S.; Allen, T. J. Nucl. Mater. 2007, 371, 134–144.

of an outer magnetite (Fe3O4) layer and an inner Fe–Cr
spinel ((Fe,Cr)3O4) layer, which is sometimes accom-
panied by an O-enriched and Fe-depleted diffusion
zone at the oxide–bulk interface. Over time, the outer
magnetite layer is removed and the underlying spinel
layer serves to mitigate more catastrophic corrosion
degradation such as dissolution and liquid metal attack
along the grain boundaries. Very thin oxides are
not particularly protective in regard to loss of metal,
as manifested by the thick diffusion zones associated
with them. Furukawa pointed out that at tempera-
tures above 600 C, the thickness of the oxide layer
diminishes with increasing temperature. This behavior
can be ascribed to a change in the stable form of
iron oxide from magnetite to wustite at 570 C. Beyond
this temperature, dissolution attack was observed
on some portions of 9Cr-ODS steel, and the oxide
layer’s adhesion to the material began to weaken.55
It has been reported that the addition of aluminum
to steel effectively prevents LBE corrosion. Figure 33
shows the appearance of ODS steel specimens after
a corrosion test in LBE for 1 ( 104 h at 650 C.43
The 18 wt% Cr-ODS steel without the addition of
Al dissolved markedly into LBE, while those ODS
specimens containing 4 wt% Al almost completely
maintained their shape even in Al-added 14Cr- and
16Cr-ODS steels, indicating a very high resistance to
LBE corrosion. It is noteworthy that this corrosion
resistance was independent of Cr concentration from
13 to 19 wt% in Al-added ODS steels. From the
distribution of elements across the cladding surface,
we deduce that LBE corrosion can be prevented
by the formation of an Al enriched film.56 It was
demonstrated that Al-added 16Cr-ODS steel (16Cr–
2W–4Al–0.1Ti–0.35Y2O3) has superior corrosion resis-
tance at 650 C for 5000 h.
262 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

14Cr–4Al 16Cr–4Al 6

With 4 wt% Al

Weight gain (mg dm–2)

1800 h
4

600 h
2
100 h

0
14 16 18
(a) Cr content (wt%)

21
18Cr 19Cr–4Al 1800 h
Figure 33 The appearance of Al added high Cr-ODS steel With 16 wt% Cr

Weight gain (mg dm–2)

specimens after corrosion test in LBE for 1 ( 104 h at
923 K (DO: 1 ( 10&6 wt%). Reproduced from Kimura, A.; 14
Kasada, R.; Iwata, N.; et al. In Proceedings of ICAPP ’09, 600 h
Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14, 2009; Paper 9220.

4.08.7.3 SCPW Compatibility
Figure 3457 shows the effects of Cr and Al content on
the weight gain of ODS ferritic steels after exposure to
SCPW at 500 C with 8 ppm of dissolved oxygen.
Increasing the Cr content from 14 to 17 wt % does
not affect corrosion resistance if ODS ferritic steels
contain 4 wt % Al. For 16 wt% Cr, the addition of A1
increases corrosion resistance in 16Cr-ODS steels. As
shown in Figure 35,43 tested at SCPW (510 C,
25 MPa) for 600 h, the addition of 4 wt% Al did not
significantly influence corrosion resistance in 19Cr-
ODS steel, though a rather dense chromia film was
observed on the specimen surface. The 16 wt% Cr is
not large enough to form homogeneous and stable
chromia on the entire surface of the specimen, whereas
a very thin alumina film covers the entire surface of the
specimen with the Al addition of 2 wt%. Thus, the
addition of Al effectively improves corrosion resis-
tance in 16Cr-ODS steel. As shown in a comparison
with 9Cr-ODS steel in Figure 35, its weight gain is
much larger than 16Cr-ODS steel, indicating that
9Cr-ODS steel is not adequate for application to
SCWR. The suppression of SCPW corrosion by the
addition of Al to 16Cr-ODS steel is due to the for-
mation of a very thin alumina film on the surface.
4.08.7.4 Oxidation
Oxidation tests for 9Cr-ODS and 12Cr-ODS steels
were performed using pickled specimens in a
7
100 h
0
0 2 4
(b) Al content (wt%)
Figure 34 Weight gain of Al added high Cr-ODS steels
with Cr content (a) and Al content (b) after exposure to
SCPW at 500 C with 8 ppm of dissolved oxygen under a
pressure of 25 MPa (10 dm = 1 m). Reproduced from
Lee, J. H.; Kimura, A.; Kasada, R.; et al. In Proceedings of
ICAPP ’09, Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14, 2009; Paper 9223.
controlled atmosphere of dry air. Weight measure-
ment to evaluate the degree of oxidation was per-
formed at intervals of 50, 100, 400, 1000, and 2000 h,
at temperatures of 650, 750, and 850 C. The results
of the measured weight gain due to oxidation at
750 C are shown in Figure 36.58 For 9Cr-ODS
and 12Cr-ODS steels, the weight gain due to oxida-
tion was quite small and comparable to that of
PNC316 containing 17 wt% Cr. Their weight gain
is limited to below 0.1 mg mm&2. On the other hand, a
quite large oxidation of 0.8 mg mm&2 was observed in
PNC-FMS. The measured results on SUS430, which
show a greater weight gain than that of ODS steels,
show that advanced oxidation resistance is attained
with ODS steels, even when compared to higher
17 wt% Cr containing stainless steel.
The element distribution obtained by Electron
probe microanalysis (EPMA) showed a scale consisting
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 263

30.0

Weight gain by oxidation (mg mm–2)

0.10
SCW 923 K 3 50 h
20.0 773 K.25 MPa. 600 h 0.08

SUS430 9Cr-ODS 0.06 Y2O3 effects

10.0 (16Cr)
Weight gain (g m–2)

0.04
1.2 Cr supply through
grain boundary diffusion
0.02
16Cr-ODS
0.00
12Cr–ODS 12Cr–ODS PNC–FMS
0.6
(fine grain) (large grain)
Figure 37 Weight gain of 12Cr-ODS steel and PNC-FMS
oxidized at 650 C for 50 h. Reproduced from Kaito, T.;
19Cr-ODS Narita, T.; Ukai, S.; Matsuda, Y. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004,
0 329–333, 1388–1392.
0 2 4
Al content (mass %)
In oxidation tests, Fe, which is a major constituent in
Figure 35 The dependence of the weight gain on the Cr
and Al contents in 16Cr- and 19Cr-ODS steels. SUS430 is
steel, tends to be easily oxidized at an early stage, but
a ferritic steel containing 16 mass % Cr and 4 mass % Al. further oxidation can be suppressed by the formation of
Reproduced from Kimura, A.; Kasada, R.; Iwata, N.; et al. a protective a-Cr2O3 layer. This a-Cr2O3 formation
In Proceedings of ICAPP ’09, Tokyo, Japan, May 10–14, is generally controlled by the rate at which Cr is
2009; Paper 9220. supplied to the reaction front. It is known that a high
Cr content in steel, as well as an increasing diffusion
flux through the grain boundary, that is, finer grains,
Weight gain by oxidation (mg mm–2)

1.0 accelerates both the Cr supply and the formation of

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 500
Figure 36 Weight gain of 9Cr-ODS and 12Cr-ODS steels
by the oxidation at 750 C. Reproduced from Kaito, T.;
Narita, T.; Ukai, S.; Matsuda, Y. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004,
329–333, 1388–1392.
of Fe-rich oxide in the outer layers and Cr-rich oxide in
the inner layers. At the interface between ODS steel
and the oxide scale, there was a thin layer (a few
micrometers) of further Cr-enriched oxide. Raman
spectroscopy measurement indicated that the outer
Fe-rich and inner Cr-rich layers correspond to
a-Fe2O3 and spinel type (Fe, Cr)3O4, respectively.
It was also confirmed that a-Cr2O3 is formed at the
matrix–scale interface.
9Cr-ODS
12Cr-ODS (fine grain)
a-Cr2O3. A short-term oxidation test, whose results are
PNC316 shown in Figure 37, was conducted to investigate the
PNC-FMS
SUS430
mechanism of suppressing oxidation in ODS steels.58
The decrease in oxidation in fine grain 12Cr-ODS
ferritic steel can be attributed to the enhanced rate at
which Cr was supplied throughout the accelerated
grain boundary diffusion. In both cases of fine/large
grains in 12Cr-ODS steels, Raman spectroscopy
detected protective a-Cr2O3 at the interface between
1000 1500 2000 2500 the matrix and scale. Comparing 12Cr-ODS large
Testing time (h) grain and PNC-FMS, the Cr content is similar, and
the grain size is rather smaller in PNC-FMS. Never-
theless, protective a-Cr2O3 cannot be detected by
Raman spectroscopy, and oxidation is enhanced in
PNC-FMS, implying that the suppression of oxidation
in 12Cr-ODS with large grains could be due to the
effects of the Y2O3 oxide particles themselves. Chen
et al. showed some TEM images of Y-rich oxides on
grain boundaries that may be part of the explanation.59
4.08.8 Irradiation
4.08.8.1 Simulated Irradiation
Testing that involves the simulated irradiation of
9Cr-ODS steel was conducted by Allen et al. at the
264 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
Environmental and Molecular Science Laboratory at
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, using 5 MeV
Ni ions at 500, 600, and 700 C with a damage rate of
1.4 ! 10"3 dpa s"1. The results regarding measured
particle size distribution as a function of dose are
plotted in Figure 38 for irradiation at 500, 600, and
700 C.60 Due to TEM’s limited resolution of the
images, particles smaller than 2 nm were not detected.
At all temperatures, the size of the oxide particles
decreases as the dose increases. At higher tempera-
tures (600–700 C), the average size appears to reach a
value of #5 nm. At all three temperatures, the density
increases as the radiation dose increases. The decrease
in size takes place faster at 600 and 700 C than at
500 C, indicating that the reduction in size is not
strictly a ballistic effect and that a diffusion-based
mechanism is also involved in the dissolution.
Allen extensively reviewed previous papers that
presented different approaches to the irradiation of
ODS ferritic–martensitic steels that employed various
ion beams, electrons, and neutrons; the results are
summarized in Table 3.61 A great many findings
asserted that oxide particles are stable under radiation.
However, as shown in Table 4, the dissolution of oxide
particles at higher temperatures and doses has been
reported in other studies. Dubuisson62 and Monnet63
reported that small oxides dissolved under radiation at
higher temperatures and doses, but did not dissolve
at a lower irradiation dose. Their data will be dis-
cussed in detail in the following section. In material
irradiated in the JOYO fast reactor at temperatures
450–561 C to doses of 21 dpa, Yamashita found that
small particles disappear and average particles
increase slightly in size with increasing temperature
or dose.64 Monnet supplemented neutron radiation
studies with the electron irradiation of yttrium oxides
and magnesium oxides in the EM10 alloy at tempera-
tures between 300 and 550 C, and to doses of 100 dpa.
In these studies, the yttrium oxides were stable at
400 C when irradiated with 1.0 MeV electrons, but
dissolved under 1.2 MeV electron irradiation.
Allen59 pointed out that the displacement energy
for Y and O in yttrium oxide is 57 eV65,66 while that
for iron is 40 eV. Assuming similar displacement
energies in the Y–Ti–O oxide, the radiation-induced
vacancy concentration should be larger in the metal
matrix, providing a driving force for a net vacancy
flux to the precipitate. This could drive the precipi-
tate mass loss if vacancy absorption frees a precipitate
atom. From a comparison between electron irradia-
tion (Frenkel pairs) and ion irradiation (displacement
cascades), Monnet63 also concluded that the ballistic
ejection of atoms alone cannot be responsible for the
loss of diameter in oxide particles. Free point defects
and their diffusion-based mechanism are therefore
of major importance and play a dominant role in
the dissolution of oxide particles.
4.08.8.2 Neutron Irradiation of Materials
The 5 mm-wide ring-tensile specimens with a
1.5 mm-wide gauge section were prepared from the
cladding of 12Cr-ODS steels (F94, F95, and 1DS)
and 9Cr-ODS steels (M93).67 This type of specimen
makes it possible to test mechanical properties in the
hoop direction of the cladding. These ring-tensile
samples were irradiated in the experimental fast reac-
tor JOYO using the material irradiation rig at tem-
peratures between 400 and 534 C to fast neutron
fluences ranging from 5.0 ! 1025 to 3.0 ! 1026 nm"2
(E > 0.1 MeV). The yield strength of the irradiated
samples as a function of test temperature is shown in
Figure 39, together with that of the unirradiated
ones.67 After irradiation, the yield strength of irra-
diated F94, F95, and M93 cladding, is modestly higher
(<10%) than that of the unirradiated ones at all test
temperatures, due to irradiation hardening. Figure 40
plots uniform elongation before and after irradiation as
a function of test temperature.67 Uniform elongation
for unirradiated F94 and F95 cladding is almost the
same at all test temperatures, and that of M93 is lower
in relation to strength. Uniform elongation in the hoop
direction for all three claddings is more than 3%
at these test temperatures, though that of 1DS was
particularly low (<1%) due to its microstructural
anisotropy, as shown in Figure 17. Figure 40 indicates
that there is no significant degradation in uniform
elongations for F94, F95, and M93, due to irradiation.
This indicates that the microstructural improvement
by recrystallization or a–g-phase transformation is
quite effective in maintaining well-balanced mechani-
cal properties for ODS steel cladding, especially those
of strength and ductility, not only for as-received con-
ditions but also following irradiation.
In-pile creep rupture tests were conducted in
JOYO using the Material Testing Rig with Tempera-
ture Control (MARICO-2) as a new irradiation test
device.68 The test specimens were prepared from the
claddings of 9Cr-ODS steel (Mm14) and 12Cr-ODS
steel (F14). Both end-plugs of the specimens were
joined by means of pressurized resistance welding
(PRW). The hoop stress was set by adjusting the pres-
sure of the enclosed helium gas. To identify the rup-
ture of time and specimens, a unique blend of stable
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 265

20 40
Fraction (%)

15 Unirradiated condition Unirradiated condition

Fraction (%)
30
10
5 20
0 10
20
Fraction (%)

T = 500 C, dose = 5 dpa 0

15
40
10
T = 600 C, dose = 5 dpa

Fraction (%)
5 30
0 20
20
Fraction (%)

15 T = 500 C, dose = 50 dpa 10

10 0
5 40
0 T = 600 C, dose = 50 dpa

Fraction (%)
30
20
Fraction (%)

15 T = 500 C, dose = 150 dpa 20

10 10
5
0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Particle size (nm)
Particle size (nm)
40
Unirradiated condition
Fraction (%)

30
20
10
0
40
T = 700 C, dose = 5 dpa
Fraction (%)

30
20
10
0
40
T = 700 C, dose = 50 dpa
Fraction (%)

30
20
10
0
40
T = 700 C, dose = 150 dpa
Fraction (%)

30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Particle size (nm)
Figure 38 Particle size (diameter) distribution for 9Cr-ODS steel irradiated at 500, 600, and 700 C to doses of 0, 5, 50,
and 150 dpa. Reproduced from Allen, T. R.; Gan, J.; Cole, J. I.; et al. J. Nucl. Mater. 2008, 375, 26–37.
 266

Table 3 Historical survey of yttrium–titanium-oxides reported to be stable under radiation

Author Material Irradiation particle (dpa) Temperature ( C) Dose (dpa) Dose rate (dpa s"1) Result
74 "4
Pareige et al. 12YWT 150 keV Fe 300 0.7 1.9 ! 10 Stable dispersions
Asano et al.75 MA957 1 MeV He (þ) 450 150 2 ! 10"3 Stable oxides
4 MeV Ni 650
Hide et al.76 MA957 42 keV He 475 200 1.0–1.4 ! 10"2 Stable oxides
at 25 C (þ) 525
200 keV C" 575
625
Hide et al.76 MA957 220 keV He at 25 C 475 150 3.0 ! 10"3 Stable oxides
(+)3 MeV Niþ 525
Little77 DT2203YO5 52 MeV Cr6 þ (þ) 475 50 3.0 ! 10"4 Stable oxides
Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

4 MeV He
Saito et al.61 13Cr–0.5TiO2 –0.2Y2O3 1 MeV electron 400 12 2.2 ! 10"3 Stable oxides
500
Kinoshita et al.78 13Cr-ODS (+) Nb, V, Zr 1 MeV electron 350 15 2 ! 10"3 Stable oxides
450
Akasaka et al.79 9Cr and 12Cr-ODS JOYO 330 7.0 Not reporteda Stable oxides
400 2.5
450 14.0
500 15.0
Mathon et al.80 MA957 Thermal neutrons 325 0.8, 2.0 1 ! 1014 n cm"2 Stable dispersions
(OSIRIS) 3.5, 5.5 (E > 1 MeV)
Monnet et al.63 DY EM10þY2O3EM10 þ MgO 1 MeV Helium 400 0.05 Not reported No change in oxide particles

Kimura et al.81 (13–19)Cr–4Al-ODS 300 20 1 ! 10"4 No reported change in oxide size

–500

a
Typical fast reactor displacement rates in the driver fuel portion of the core are 1 ! 10"6 dpa s"1.
Source: Reproduced from Allen, T. R.; Gan, J.; Cole, J. I.; et al. J. Nucl. Mater. 2008, 375, 26–37.
 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 267

Table 4 Historical survey of yttrium–titanium-oxides reported change size under radiation

Author Material Irradiation Temperature Dose Dose rate Result

( C) (dpa) (dpa s"1)

Yamashita IDS (11Cr) JOYO 450–561 21 Not reporteda Small particles disappear.
et al.64 Average particles
increase slightly with
increasing temperature
or dose.
IDK (13Cr)
Dubuisson DT2203YO5 Phenix 400–580 81 Not reporteda Oxide particles are totally
et al.62 dissolved (small oxides)
or reduced in size and
were surrounded by a
halo of smaller oxides
(large oxides).
Monnet DT2203YO5 Phenix 400–580 81 Not reporteda Disappearance of small
et al.63 oxides and significant
halo of smaller oxides at
higher temperatures and
doses.
Monnet DY EM10 + 1 MeV and 300–550 100 3–6 ! 10"3 Oxides stable at 400 C
et al.63 Y2O3 1.2 MeV under 1.0 MeV electrons
EM10 + Electron but dissolve under
MgO 1.2 MeV.

a
Typical fast reactor displacement rates in the driver fuel portion of the core are about 1 ! 10"6 dpa s"1.
Source: Reproduced from Allen, T. R.; Gan, J.; Cole, J. I.; et al. J. Nucl. Mater. 2008, 375, 26–37.

F94 10 F94
1200 F94 unirrad. F94 unirrad.
F95
(Fluence; 3 1026 n m–2(E > 0.1MeV) F95
(Fluence; 3 1026 n m–2 (E > 0.1 MeV)
F95 unirrad. (0.5) (2.8) (3.0) F95 unirrad.
(1.35) 8
Uniform elongation (%)

M93 M93
1000 M93 unirrad. (1.4, 2.5) M93 unirrad.
Yield strength (MPa)

1DS
(3.56) 1DS unirrad. 1DS unirrad.
6
800

(0.45) 4
600
Y2O3(wt%)
2 Fluence
F94 0.24 (3.56)
400 F95 0.24 (1.35) (0.45)
M93 0.35
Fluence (0.5) (2.8) (3.0) (1.4, 2.5) 1DS 0.40 0
200 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
600 650 700 750 800 850 900 Test temperature (K)
Test temperature (K)
Figure 40 Uniform elongation of 9Cr-ODS steel (M93)
Figure 39 Yield strength of 9Cr-ODS steel (M93) and and 12Cr-ODS steels (F94, F95, 1DS) in hoop direction
12Cr-ODS steels (F94, F95, 1DS) in hoop direction by ring by ring specimens before and after irradiation.
specimens before and after irradiation. Reproduced from Reproduced from Yoshitake, T.; Abe, Y.; Akasaka, N.;
Yoshitake, T.; Abe, Y.; Akasaka, N.; Ohtsuka, S.; Ukai, S.; Ohtsuka, S.; Ukai, S.; Kimura, A. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004,
Kimura, A. J. Nucl. Mater. 2004, 329–333, 342–346. 329–333, 342–346.

xenon and krypton tag gases was enclosed. The irradi-
ation temperatures were 700, 725, and 750 C, and the
hoop stress ranged from 45 to 155 MPa. The maximum
neutron dose reached 20 dpa. It was confirmed that in-
pile creep rupture time is located within the out-of-
pile data band, and there is no degradation in creep
strength due to irradiation.68
MA957 and MA956 were irradiated in Fast Flux
Test Facility (FFTF)-Materials Open Test Assembly
(MOTA) at 420 C up to 200 dpa.69 No voids were seen
in this area, but precipitates did appear, which were
expected to be a0 . The results regarding the radiation
damage resistance of ODS steels were highly encourag-
ing. Evidence was apparent in both MA956 and MA957
268 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels

0.2 mm

Figure 41 Longitudinal cross-sectional structure in the vicinity of welded section by PRW (9Cr-ODS steel cladding
and endplug). Reproduced from Ukai, S.; Kaito, T.; Seki, M.; Mayorshin, A. A.; Shishalov, O. V. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2005,
42(1), 109–122.

of a0 precipitation, and in regions where recrystalliza-

tion occurred before irradiation in MA957, a few voids
were slightly observed. Gelles69 pointed out that these
could be overcome by employing suitable alloy design
and that ODS steel microstructures, when properly
manufactured to provide a uniform oxide dispersoid
in a structure, appear to be completely resistant to
radiation damage at doses as high as 200 dpa.

4.08.8.3 Fuel Pin Irradiation

4.08.8.3.1 9Cr- and 12Cr-ODS steel cladding
in BOR-60
In order to weld 9Cr- and 12Cr-ODS steel claddings
with end-plugs for the manufacture of fuel pins, the
PRW method was developed in JAEA, which makes
joining possible in the solid state condition.70 This
method is based on the electrical resistance heating
of the components, while maintaining a continuous
force sufficient to forge-weld without melting. The
appropriate conditions, for example, electric current,
voltage, and contact force, were selected. For the PRW-
welded specimens, tensile, internal burst, and creep
rupture tests, were conducted and their integrity was
confirmed. In addition, a nondestructive ultrasonic
inspection method was developed to assure the integ-
rity of the weld between the cladding and end-plug.
Using this PRW method, upper end-plugs were
welded for two types of 9Cr-ODS steel cladding
(Mm13) and 12Cr-ODS steel cladding (F13) at JAEA.
Figure 4171 shows a cross-section of the welded part
between the 9Cr-ODS steel cladding and end-plug.
The ODS steel cladding welded to the upper end-
plug was shipped to the fuel production facility of the
Institute of Atomic Reactor (RIAR) in Russia where the
MOX and UO2 granulated fuels, as well as uranium
metal getter particles, were vibro-packed into the ODS
steel cladding, and the lower end-plug was welded by
the TIG end-face method. The TIG-welded part at
Figure 42 Optical micrograph of 9Cr-ODS fuel pin after
irradiation at 700 C, 5 at.% burnup and 25 dpa in BOR-60.
Reproduced from Kaito, T.; Ukai, S.; Povstyanko, A. V.;
Efimov, V. N. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2009, 46(6), 529–533.
the lower end-plug ensured that its integrity would be
maintained at a lower temperature of 400 C. The
inspection and quality control of the fabricated ODS
fuel pins were done through X-ray analysis, gamma
scanning, and leak testing, etc., which confirmed that
the fuel pins satisfied BOR-60 requirements. The fuel
pins were loaded into two dismountable experimental
assemblies to satisfy the cladding middle wall tempera-
ture within 700 C and 650 C, and irradiation was
conducted in the BOR-60 up to 5 at.% burnup and
25 dpa as the collaborative work between JAEA in
Japan and RIAR of Research.71
The results of the postirradiation examination
are shown in Figure 42 in the optical micrographs
of the upper part of the fuel column of 9Cr-ODS
steel fuel; no obvious corrosion inside the cladding
was observed.72 The maximum depth of corrosion
of 25 mm is partially confirmed in the upper part of
the fuel column. The inner corrosion of the ODS
cladding can be reduced by using a lower O/M

(a) (b)
100 nm
Figure 43 Precipitation occurring during the in-pile service (a) a0 -phases at 400 C, &0 dpa, (b) w-phases at 523 C to
78.8 dpa, and (c) Laves phases at 580 C to 30.5 dpa. Reproduced from Dubuisson, P.; Schill, R.; Higon, M.-P.; Grislin, I.;
Seran, J.-L. In Effects of Radiation on Materials: 18th International Symposium; Nanstad, R. K., Hamilton, M. L., Garner, F. A.,
Kumar, A. S., Eds.; American Society for Testing and Materials: Philadelphia, PA; p 882, ASTM STP 1325.
ratio fuel, even in lower Cr content cladding such as
9Cr-ODS steel.
4.08.8.3.2 12Cr-ODS steel cladding in EBR-II
JAEA manufactured 12Cr-ODS steel cladding (1DK
and 1DS) and Argonne National Laboratory in the
United States qualified a welding process that employs
PRW. Fuel pins composed of 12Cr-ODS steel cladding
and MOX fuel pellets were successfully fabricated and
qualified, and irradiated up to 35 dpa at EBR-II.73 The
ODS cladding with high smear density solid pellet
MOX fuel did induce some diametral strain, demon-
strating some in-core ductility. This program demon-
strated the viability of ODS steel as a potential
cladding material for long-life advanced FRs.
4.08.8.3.3 DT2203Y05 in Phénix
Fuel pins with DT2203Y05 cladding were irradiated
in an experimental capsule placed in a special subas-
sembly in Phénix. The process by which they were
manufactured was described in Section 4.08.6. The
dose reached at midplane was 81 dpa and the temper-
ature along the fuel pin ranged from 400 to 580 C.
It was observed by TEM that the uniform distribu-
tion of fine oxides totally disappeared, and a few large
oxides were also fragmented into smaller ones. The
recoil resolution of particles is a process where the
atoms that compose particles are ballistically ejected
by an impinging neutron. Dubuisson63 pointed out
that the atoms ejected from oxides by ballistic dissolu-
tion depend on radiation-enhanced solute diffusivity
and enhanced solubility under irradiation.
A uniform distribution of tiny particles <10 nm in
size and with a density higher than the original oxide
Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels 269
(c)
1 µm 1 µm
density, was observed in the lower part of the fuel pin
at temperatures <500 C. These precipitates were
found to be a0 -phase, as shown in Figure 43(a).63
At irradiation temperatures above 500 C, precipita-
tion of w-phase was uniformly distributed throughout
all grains, as shown in Figure 43(b). Their chemical
composition was slightly different from that of the
intergranular w-phase that was present before irradi-
ation. At a high temperature and low dose, w-phase is
replaced by the thermal precipitation of Laves phase,
as shown in Figure 43(c).
From the results of tensile tests at levels corres-
ponding to the fissile column, rupture occurred with-
out striction, and uniform and total elongations were
equal. The elongation values reached 0.2% close
to the maximum dose. These results indicate that
DT2203Y05 cladding was highly embrittled by irra-
diation. At the bottom of the fuel pin, where the
temperature is below 500 C, a0 precipitation, oxide
redistribution and dislocation loops are the main
features of the microstructure. Dubuisson63 pointed
out that dislocation glides on the dislocation denuded
bands in the hardened materials, that the deformation
is all localized in these bands, and that this heteroge-
neous shear could nucleate cracks that then propa-
gate along these channels. At higher temperatures,
w precipitation induces a loss of ductility.
4.08.9 Summary
The formation process of nanosized oxide particles
through decomposition by MA and subsequent pre-
cipitation by annealing was reviewed. Based on
270 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Steels
information concerning the irradiation embrittle-
ment of DT2203Y05 cladding produced by
CEN-SCK Mol due to the formation of a0 -phase
below 500 C and w-phase above 500 C, 9Cr-ODS
and 12Cr-ODS steels containing low Cr and low Ti
were developed. The manufacture of cladding and
improvement of the creep rupture strength in the
hoop direction were successfully achieved by introdu-
cing a–g reverse transformation or recrystallization.
9Cr-ODS steel has a unique structure consisting of
tempered martensite and residual ferrite that induces
superior strength through finely dispersed oxide par-
ticles, which are promising candidates for advanced
SFR fuel cladding. 16Cr–4Al–ODS steels present an
advantage due to their superior resistance to corro-
sion and oxidation in LBE and SCPW environments.
There is still uncertainty concerning the irradiation
performance of ODS steels, such as the oxide particle
dissolution due to their diffusion-based mechanism. In
order to substantiate the use of cladding materials as
advanced fast reactor fuels, abundant ODS cladding
fuel pins should be irradiated, and their results should
provide feedback contributing to the further improve-
ment of ODS steels.
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