Materi Kuliah

Metode Geofisika Eksplorasi

Geophysics 210
Physics of the Earth

Firdaus Sulaiman
Fisika-Universitas Haluoleo
2008
Geophysics 210 - Physics of the Earth
Fall 2007
Instructor Professor Martyn Unsworth
Offices : Physics 545B and Physics 605
e-mail : unsworth@phys.UAlberta.ca
Tel : 492-3041

Teaching Assistant To be announced

Course Schedule

Classes Tuesday and Thursday 11:00 to 12:20 V102

Mid-term exam Tuesday October 23 2007 11:00 to 12:20 V102

Final exam Please check exam schedule

Objectives of class

Understand the basic concepts of geophysics, with emphasis on applications to studies of

the solid Earth.

Course outline

A. Introduction
B. Gravity ~4 classes
C. Seismology ~6 classes
D. Geomagnetism ~5 classes
E. Geoelectricity ~2 classes
F. Geothermal studies ~3 classes
G. Overview of plate tectonics ~2 classes
H. The Earth in the Solar system ~2 classes

Office hours
If you have questions about class material or assignments, I will happy to arrange a
convenient time to meet with you. To do this, please see me after class, e-mail me or
drop by my office.

Assignments
There will be a total of four assignments in this class. These will be due at 5 pm on the
appropriate day, and should be handed in at the Geophysics 210 assignment box in CEB.

Highly recommended textbook

The Solid Earth, C.M.R. Fowler, Cambridge University Press, Second Edition, 2005.

Copies should be available in the University bookstore

Course weighting
Assignments 25%
Mid-term exam 25%
Final exam 50%

Statement on academic integrity

"The University of Alberta is committed to the highest standards of academic integrity

and honesty. Students are expected to be familiar with these standards regarding
academic honesty and to uphold the policies of the University in this respect. Students
are particularly urged to familiarize themselves with the provisions of the Code of
Student Behaviour (online at www.ualberta.ca/secretariat/appeals.htm) and avoid any
behaviour which could potentially result in suspicions of cheating, plagiarism,
misrepresentation of facts and or participation in an offence. Academic dishonesty is a
serious offence and can result in suspension or expulsion from the University." (GFC 29
SEP 2003)

Grading in Undergraduate Courses

Description Letter Grade Grade Point Value

____________________________________________
Excellent A+ 4.0
A 4.0
A- 3.7
____________________________________________
Good B+ 3.3
B 3.0
B- 2.7
____________________________________________
Satisfactory C+ 2.3
C 2.0
C- 1.7
____________________________________________
Poor D+ 1.3
Minimal Pass D 1.0
____________________________________________
Failure F 0.0

Policy about course outlines can be found in Section 23.4(2) of the University Calendar
(CGF 29 SEP 2003)

MJU 2007
Geophysics 210 - Physics of the Earth

A: Introduction

• Geophysics: The application of physics to understand the structure and working

of the Earth.

• Geophysics can be divided into exploration geophysics and geodynamics.

(1) Exploration geophysics is the process of imaging what is inside the Earth.

Often used to describe commercial exploration, but includes investigations to

depths of the mantle and core.

Direct sampling in the Earth can only reach depths around 10 km so indirect
methods are needed.

All geophysical methods can be divided into active and passive techniques.

In an active technique, it is necessary to generate a signal (e.g. in

seismic studies sound waves are generated with an explosion or an
earthquake).

In a passive technique a naturally occurring signal is detected (e.g. the

pull of gravity of a buried object)

(2) Geodynamics is the study of how the Earth works. For example:

-what drives plate motion?

-what triggers earthquakes?
-how is the Earth’s magnetic field generated?
-how do continent-continent collisions build mountains?

This field depends heavily on information derived from imaging. Advances

in computer power now allow simulations of these processes in ever
increasing detail and realism.

• Review basic radial structure of the Earth (crust, mantle, outer core, inner core)
• Quantities measured at the surface will be used to infer what is happening inside
the Earth. We will study different aspects of the Earth’s structure by focussing on
different methods of imaging inside the Earth.

B: Gravity and geodesy

C: Seismology
D: Geomagnetism
E: Geoelectricity
F: Geothermal studies

• In the last part of the course we will synthesize information from these areas and
consider

G: Plate tectonics
H: The Earth in the Solar System: brief overview

• This class is mostly focussed on the Solid Earth. However, other geophysicists
study the atmosphere, hydrosphere and space. Each of these areas interacts and
this will be stressed where possible in this class.

• More emphasis on commercial exploration geophysics was presented in

Geophysics 223 and 224. Notes from when I taught Geophysics 224 in 2006 are
available online:

http://www-geo.phys.ualberta.ca/~unsworth/UA-classes/224/index.html

● Geophysical and geological studies complement one another. Geologists are

more effective with a basic knowledge of what geophysics can and cannot
resolve. Similarly, many geophysicists would benefit from a basic knowledge of
geology.

● Mathematics will be used in this class where needed, and I hope that this will
provide a review of math classes you have taken in the recent past. I do not
expect students to memorize equations. My expectation is that students will be
able to perform simple rearrangement of equations, and use a calculator to
evaluate an equation for a given set of values.

I will appreciate feedback to keep the mathematics at an appropriate level.

Geophysics 210B1 – Size and shape of the Earth

B1.1 Early views

• Early Greek view - world surrounded by Oceanus, origin of all rivers.

• Anaximander (600 B.C.) – cylindrical earth surrounded by Celestial
Sphere

• Pythogoras (582-507 B.C.), Aristotle

(384-322 B.C.) - speculated the Earth
was a sphere and noted eclipses.

B1.2 Is the Earth flat?

Speculations …….

Once believed that the Earth is flat and that ships could sail over the edge. View persisted
into middle ages The Flat Earth Society still alive and well http://theflatearthsociety.org/

They describe the Earth as “being a disk with a circumference of about 78225 miles and a
diameter of 24900 miles. The sun and moon are both disks about 32 miles in diameter
…and are about 3000 miles above the Earth, and the stars about 100 miles above the sun
and moon. The Flat Earth Society also maintains that the Earth is accelerating upward at
a rate of 9.8 m/s², thereby simulating gravity. This upward momentum is caused by the
"Universal Accelerator", a vague term used by the Society to describe a force that
originated at the Big Bang and caused the Earth to speed upwards. Gravity cannot exist
on a flat Earth since the disc shape would eventually collapse on itself. However, other
planetary bodies such as the moon and the sun have gravitational pulls, causing the
gravitational force on an object to decrease as it increases in altitude. This also allows
spacecraft to orbit.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_Earth_Society
Observations that suggest the Earth is a sphere

• Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after sunset.

• Ships disappear over the horizon as they sail across ocean
•
• Consider the phenomena of the double sunset. An observer watches the
sunset over the horizon (A) at the Equator. As soon as the sun sets, he
jumps to his feet and enjoys a few extra seconds of sunlight before the sun
sets again (B).

(A) (B)

The observer was 2 m tall and the two sunsets were separated by 7.5 s.

Through what angle (θ) does the Earth rotate in this time?

θ = ______ degrees = ______ radians

h
The radius of the Earth can be shown to be r = where θ is measured
θ2
in radians and the observer is h m tall.

R = _______ m

• The moon looks like a disk. Is the Earth the same shape?

• The Earth casts a circular shadow during lunar eclipses.

B1.3 Quantitative approach

Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.)

Estimated size of Earth from observations that the elevation of the sun varied with
position on the Earth’s surface in Egypt. On the summer solstice, the sun was
overhead in Aswan, since it illuminated a deep well. However, on the same day, the
sun was at an angle of 7 deg 14’ to the vertical in Alexandria.

The distance Aswan-Alexandria was estimated at 5000 stadia = 925 km

Thus the circumference of the Earth = 360 *925/7.23 = 46058 km

Correct value = 40030 km. Error = 15%

Jean Picard (1620-1682)

Measured the length of 1 degree of latitude in France in 1669-70 and obtained a value
of 6329 km for the radius of the Earth. Polar radius known to be 6357 km which is an
error of 0.4% (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Picard)

B1.4 Non-spherical Earth

Soon realized that this was not quite true and that the shape of the Earth was more
complicated.

Jean Richer (1620-1682) was a French astronomer who made observations in

1671from the island of Cayenne in French Guyana. In addition to measuring the
distance of planet Mars from Earth, he also noted that a pendulum swung slower on
Cayenne Island than in Paris.
He deduced that this was because gravity was weaker on Cayenne, which implied that
Cayenne was further from the centre of the Earth than Paris.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) suggested that the Earth was an oblate spheroid because
it rotates - somewhat flattened at the poles.

A debate followed about whether this was true, because measurements were not very
accurate. Surveys in Peru (equator, 1735-43) and (equator, 1735-43) showed that
flattening occurred as suggested.

The deformation is now described by

the International Reference Ellipsoid.
This is the shape the Earth would
have if it’s composition was uniform.
A number of ellipsoids have been
defined as data quality has improved.

Ellipsoid Semi-major Semi-minor Inverse flattening

reference axis a axis b (1/f)

GRS 80 6,378,137.0 m ≈ 6,356,752.314 140 m 298.257 222 101

WGS 84 6,378,137.0 m ≈ 6,356,752.314 245 m 298.257 223 563

WGS = World Geodetic System

More Details at

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System#A_new_World_Geodetic_System:_WGS84

Density variations mean that there are discrepancies between the surface and the
reference ellipsoid. A surface called the geoid takes this into account and will be
discussed in B1.3.
B2. BASICS OF GRAVITY EXPLORATION

B2.1 Newtonian gravitation

Consider two point masses that are a distance r apart. Newton’s theory of gravitation
predicts that they will attract each other with a force F that is given by:

Gm1 m2
F=
r2

The quantity G is called the gravitational constant (or “big G”) but is actually a small
number. Newton deduced this equation from observing the motion of planets and moons
in the solar system. The units are as follows:

F Newton (N)
m kg
r metres (m)
2 -2
G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m kg

It can be shown that if one of the masses is finite in size (e.g. a planet or the sun), then F due to
will be the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the centre.

If m1 = m2 = 1,000,000 kg (1000 tonnes) then the variation of F as r increases will show the
“inverse square law”.
Consider the mass m2. Newton’s Third Law of Motion predicts that this mass will accelerate
with an acceleration a, where:

F = m2 a

Rearranging this equation gives

F
a=
m2

Now we know the value of F from the first equation so

Gm1 m2 1 Gm
a=g= 2
= 21
r m2 r

where g is called the gravitational acceleration.

Let us now consider that m1 is the Earth and

m2 is a small object that we are going to
drop. This equation tells us that the
acceleration does not depend on the mass
of the object being dropped.

This was proved by Galileo who allegedly

dropped masses from the leaning tower of
Pisa in Italy. This result says that a small
mass and a large mass will fall with the
same acceleration.
B2.2 Density of rocks and minerals

The Greek letter rho (ρ) is used to represent density. Rocks and minerals found on Earth have
densities that range from 1000-7000 kg m-3. Often densities are quoted in g cm-3.

To convert, remember that 1 g cm-3 = 1000 kg m-3.

Pure minerals can exhibit a high density since the atoms are closely packed together.

Magnetite ρ = 4.90-5.20 g cm-3

Pyrite ρ = 4.90-5.20 g cm-3
Galena ρ = 7.40-7.60 g cm-3

Sedimentary rocks generally have lower densities since the atoms are not as closely packed
together and pore space is filled with lower density materials.

Water ρ = 1.00-1.05 g cm-3

Alluvium ρ = 1.96-2.00 g cm-3
Shale ρ = 2.00-2.70 g cm-3
Limestone ρ = 2.60-2.80 g cm-3
Dolomite ρ = 2.28-2.90 g cm-3

The range of density values reflects the degree of weathering and the porosity. Why?

The composition is secondary, but explains why dolomite is more dense than limestone.

Most sedimentary rocks increase in density with depth, owing to increased compaction.
This reduces the pore space available for low density materials such as air, water and
hydrocarbons.

Igneous rocks are generally more dense owing to minimal porosity.

Granite ρ = 2.50-2.70 g cm-3

Basalt ρ = 2.70-3.20 g cm-3

The density depends primarily on the rock composition. Mafic rocks are generally
more dense than felsic rocks owing to increased proportion of heavier elements
such as Fe and Mg.

B2.3 Units for gravity measurements (milligals)

The gravitational acceleration at the Earths surface is 9.8 ms-2. Subsurface variations in rock
density produce very small changes in this value, so it is more convenient to use a smaller unit.

9.8 ms-2 = 980 cm s-2

= 980 gal (after Galileo)
= 980,000 milligals

1 milligal = 10-5 ms-2

B2.4 Approximate calculation to estimate the size of gravity anomalies

Consider a spherical ore body with density ρ and radius a that is buried at a depth z below the
surface. The extra pull of gravity will be greatest at a point P directly above the ore body.

Remember that the pull of gravity (g) for a sphere is the same as if all the mass were
concentrated at the centre.

4 3
Total mass of ore body = volume x density = πa ρ
3

Excess mass , mE = mass of ore body – mass of rock that was already there
4 3 4
= π a ρ - πa 3 ρ 0
3 3
4
= πa 3 ( ρ − ρ 0 )
3

Above ore body, the change in gravity due to the ore body (gravity anomaly) is given by

GmE 4Gπa 3 ( ρ − ρ 0 )
Δg = =
z2 3z 2

Now guess some values

a = 30 m
z = 40 m
ρ = 4000 kg m-3
ρ0 = 2000 kg m-3

Careful use of a calculator gives Δg = 0.94 mgal

Perspective

This can be compared to value of g = 980,000 mgals

Fractional change = 9.6 10-7

e.g. An 80 kg person would feel 0.08 g lighter!!!!!

MJU 2007
Geophysics 210
B3 Variation of gravity with latitude and elevation
By measuring the subtle changes in the acceleration of gravity from one place to another, it is
possible to learn about changes in subsurface density.

However, other factors can cause gravity to vary with position on the Earth. These effects must
be removed from measurements in order to use gravity data to study the interior of the Earth.

B3.1 Variation of gravity with latitude

It is observed that at the Equator, g E = 978,033 mgal while at the poles g P = 983,219 mgal

This difference is 5186 mgal, which is a lot larger than changes in gravity because of
subsurface density.

Can this observation be explained by the fact that the Earth is a rotating ellipsoid?

(A)The Earth is distorted by rotation

The Earth is an
oblate spheroid.

R E = 6378 km

R P = 6357 km.

Qualitative answer

Since a point on the Equator is further from the centre of the Earth than the poles, gravity
will be weaker at the Equator and g E < g P

Quantitative answer

GM E
For a sphere g (r) = where the mass of the Earth, ME = 5.957 1024 kg.
r2
At the North Pole, RP = 6357 km and g P = 983,219 mgal.

If we move up 21 km to the equator, the decrease in gravity will be 6467 mgal

Thus g E = g P - 6467 mgal, which is too much to explain the observed difference
between the Equator and the Poles.

1
(B) - Centrifugal forces vary with latitude

The rotation of the Earth also causes gravity to vary with latitude.

Qualitative answer

Imagine you are standing at the North Pole. The rotation of the Earth will not change g, all
that will happen is that you rotate once a day.

Now imagine you are at the Equator. If we could increase the rotation rate of the Earth
enough, you would be ultimately be thrown into space (i.e. become weightless). Thus rotation
makes gravity weaker at the equator.

Quantitative answer

An observer is at a point with latitude θ.

This observer travels around the rotation
axis in circle with radius r = R cos θ.

The rotation rate is ω (radians per sec).

This corresponds to a radial acceleration

a = r ω 2 oriented towards the rotation
axis.

Assume RE = 6378 km

In a “vertical” direction (defined as pointing towards the centre of the Earth) this has a
component :

ar = a cos θ = Rω2 cos2 θ

Now the Earth rotates once per day so ω = 2π / (24 x 60 x 60) = 7.27 10-5 rad s-1

At the North Pole θ = 90º ar = 0

At the Equator, θ = 90º ar = 0.03370 m s-2 = 3370 mgal

g P = g E +3370 mgal

gE < gP

Question : You are standing on the Equator. How fast would the Earth need to rotate to throw
you into space?

2
 (C) Mass distribution of the Earth

These two factors both make g E < g P so to get the observed difference we need to find a
factor that has the opposite effect. The change in shape from a sphere to an ellipsoid
redistributes the Earth’s mass. Thus results in more mass between points on the Equator and
the centre of the Earth, than between the poles and the centre of the Earth.

Qualitative answer

Consider the case shown above where the flattening is extreme. The observer at the pole
experiences the pull of gravity in all directions, and this almost cancels out. An observer on
the equator only experiences the pull of gravity due to mass located to the left.

Thus this effect will make g E > g P

Quantitative answer

Some integration over a volume shows that g E ~ g P + 4800 mgal

Overall variation of g with latitude

3
Combining these three effects (A,B and C) gives

g P = g E + 6467+ 3370 - 4800 mgal = g E +5037 mgal ( approximately as observed)

These factors are represented in the following equation, that defines the variation of g with
latitude θ

g (θ) = 9.78031846 (1+ 0.0053024 sin ² θ – 0.0000058 sin² 2θ)

This equation is called the Geodetic Reference System for 1967.

More recent revisions are essentially the same, but with ever more decimal places.

Calculation 1 - What value does this equation predict for Edmonton?

In Edmonton θ = 53˚ 30’ 25” N and the GRS67 equation gives

g = 9.78031846 ( 1+0.003417902-0.000005395) m s −2

= 9.81369388 m s −2

Calculation 2 – How rapidly does gravity vary in a north-south direction?

The variation of g with latitude is important when a survey extends over a significant north-
south distance. Differentiating the GRS67 equation with respect to θ yields
dg
= 9.78031846 (0.0053024 x 2 sin θ cos θ - 0.0000058 x 4sin 2θ cos 2 θ)
dθ
= 0.049526 m s −2 per radian

4
 = 0.0008655 m s −2 per degree

= 86.550 mgal per degree

= 0.7868 mgal km −1 ( 1 degree latitude = 111 km)

All the these equations define the expected value of theoretical gravity (or normal gravity)
at latitude θ. Differences between this value and what is actually measured are anomalies that
we will analyse for information about subsurface density structure.

Calculation 3 – How much lighter would you feel after driving from Edmonton to
Calgary?

Assume the scales read 80 kg in Edmonton

Change in gravity = 300 x 0.7868 mgals

Fractional change = 300 x 0.7868 / 981369.388 = 2.34 10-4

“
Mass” in Edmonton = 80 kg > “Mass” in Calgary = 80 (1-2.34 10-4) = 79.98 kg

Change = 19 grams!!!!

5
210 B3.2 Variation of gravity with elevation

(i) The Free air correction

Newton’s Theory of Gravitation states that at a distance, r, from the centre of the Earth

GM
g(r) =
r2

This means that as you move away from the centre of the Earth, the acceleration of gravity (g)
decreases. In Edmonton, g = 9.81 ms −2 and if you move up a distance, Δh, the acceleration of
gravity will decrease by

Δg = 3.086 Δh x 10 −6 m s −2
= 0.3086 Δh mgal

Consider the exciting topography of a flat topped mountain:

Gravity measurements are made at points A and B. The difference in elevation means that gB willB

be less than gB by an amount

B

Δg = 0.3086 x 100 = 30.86 mgal

When collecting gravity data, our real interest is to determine the density of the rocks below
ground. The change in elevation from ‘A’ to ‘B’ will thus contaminate the data. The Free Air
correction is a mathematical way of undoing the effect of elevation. It allows us to correct the
data collected at ‘B’ in order to make it equivalent to data collected at the same elevation as ‘A’.

In gravity surveys, we always define a reference level for the survey. Free Air corrections are
made relative to this level. In general, any reference level could be chosen, but sea level is
commonly chosen in coastal areas. In Alberta, the average level of the prairies would be a good
choice.

If a gravity measurement was made Δh above the reference level, we must add

CFA = 0.3086 Δh mgal

CFA is called the Free Air correction for a given gravity measurement.

Similarly, if a gravity measurement was made Δh below the reference level, we must subtract

CFA = 0.3086 Δh mgal

Question : to keep data accurate to 0.1 mgal, how accurately must we know the elevation?

6
(ii) The Bouguer correction

Unfortunately, this is not the end of story! Compare the gravity measurements at ‘A’ and ‘B’. At
point A, the gravity measurement is solely due to structure below the reference level (blue). At
‘B’ the gravity measurement is due to structure below the reference level, plus the gravitational
pull of the 100 metres of mountain (red). The net result is that gB > gA
B

From section B2.3 the magnitude of this extra gravitational attraction is approximately

gB - gA = 2πG ρ Δh

where ρ is the density of the mountain.

Thus to remove this effect we need to subtract CB = 2πG from the observed gravity
measurement at ‘B’. This is called the Bouguer correction and

CB = 0.00004193 ρ Δh mgal

Note that to apply the Bouguer correction we need to estimate ρ, the density that lies between ‘B’
and the reference level. Using the value ρ = 2670 kg m −3 this gives

CB = -0.1119 Δh mgal

This value represents an average density for crustal rocks. Other information (e.g borehole gravity
data or Nettleton’s method) may be used to give a better estimate of the density.

Pierre Bouguer

Summary

Measurement above reference level Add Free Air Subtract Bouguer

correction correction

Measurement below reference level Subtract Free Air Add Bouguer

correction correction

MJU 2007

7
Geophysics 210B4 – Gravity anomalies

A gravity anomaly is the quantity left over after the effects of latitude and elevation have
been accounted for. This typically requires a set of corrections to be made.

Consider a gravity measurement that was made on campus.

milligals
(a) Measurement on gravimeter
(Difference between campus and the CGSN station at the Airport)
49.012

(b) Previously surveyed value at CGSN station at Airport 981117.890

(c) Value on University of Alberta campus is (b)+(a) 981166.902

(d) Value on campus predicted by GRS67 equation (θ = 53.506944˚) 981369.388

(e) Gravity anomaly is (c)-(d) -202.486

(f) Free air correction for 600 m elevation = 300 x 0.3086 = 185.160

(g) Free air anomaly is (e)+(f) -17.326

(h) Bouguer correction for 600 m elevation = 0.1119 x 600 = 67.140

(i) Bouguer anomaly is (g) –(h) -84.466

Compare this value with the map later in this section

B4.1 Gravity anomalies of some simple structures

To understand how geological structures can cause gravity anomalies, let us consider
some simple shapes. Obviously these models are too simple to explain real geology, but
they will illustrate some important concepts.

B4.1.1 Buried sphere

Gravity measurements are made on a surface profile across a buried sphere. The sphere
has an excess mass MS and the centre is at a depth z.

To calculate the pull of gravity, we can use the fact that a sphere has the same
gravitational pull as a point mass located at it’s centre. Simple mathematics can be used
to show that at Point P, the vertical component of g is given by the equation below.

1
 GM S z
gz = 3
(x 2 + z 2 ) 2

Suppose:
Radius, a = 50 m Depth, z = 100 m
Density contrast , Δρ = 2000 kg m-3 Excess mass, MS = 109 kg

Then the variation in gz will be as shown below on a profile and map

Note that:

● gz has it’s maximum value directly above the sphere at x = 0 m (Point A)

GM
● The maximum acceleration is g zmax = 2 S
z
● At Point B, gz has fallen to half the peak value. The distance A-B is called the
half-width of the curve (x½).

Can show that x½ = 0.766 z

This is a very useful equation because it means that if we measure x½ , we can

calculate the depth (z) since

2
 z = 1.3 x½
This allows quantities measured at the surface to be used to find out about
subsurface structure. Note that z is the depth to the centre of the sphere.

● Note that a shallow sphere produces a gravity anomaly that is quite narrow
(short spatial wavelength), while a deeper sphere produces a gravity anomaly
that is wide (long spatial wavelength).

●A gravity survey would measure g zmax and x½ values. Once z is computed, the
g zmax z 2
excess mass can be computed as M S =
G
● Far away from the sphere, gz becomes very small

B4.1.2 Buried cylinder

When gravity measurements are made across a buried cylinder, it can be shown that the
variation in gz will be :

2Gπa 2 zΔρ
gz =
(x2 + z 2 )

This curve is drawn below for a cylinder with

radius, a = 50 m depth of axis, z = 100 m

density contrast , Δρ = 2000 kg m-3 horizontal location, x = 0 m

3
Note that :

● the maximum value of gz is located directly above the axis of the cylinder (A)
2Gπa 2 Δρ
gzmax =
z
● gz for a cylinder is larger than gzmax for a sphere of the same radius? Why?
max

● For a cylinder can show that the half-width x½ = z

● Cannot distinguish a buried sphere from a cylinder with just a single profile. Need to
collect gravity on a grid and make a map.

B4.1.3 Uniform layer of rock

A layer of rock has an infinite extent, thickness ∆z and a density ρ. The gravitational
attraction of this slab at the point P is:

g z = 2πGρΔz

Note that gz does not depend on the distance from the layer to the point P. Why?

Consider the two density models shown below.

4
What can we say about the gravitational acceleration (gz) of the two models?

This is an example of non-uniqueness in geophysics, and occurs when more than one
Earth model can explain the same set of geophysical data.

B4.1.4 Sedimentary basin

Computations for more complicated shapes cannot be done with analytical formula. A
numerical method must be implemented on computer. When ever using a new piece of
software, always be suspicious about the results …. especially if the software was
expensive! See Geophysics 224 notes for details of some tests of this computer program.

Consider now a simple model that represents a sedimentary basin. Note that the density
of the sedimentary rocks in the basin is lower than that of the surrounding (crystalline)
rock.

The horizontal dashed line represents the acceleration of gravity (gB) due to an infinite
layer, with density contrast of 1000 kg m-3 and thickness 1 km. Use the results of 4.1.3 to
verify the result.

The lower panels show the first and second horizontal derivatives (gradients) of gz across
the basin. Note how the gradients define the edges better than the gravity anomaly.

An example of this in real data is presented later in this section (Alberta basement and
Chicxulub impact crater).

5
B4.2 Measuring gravity anomalies

B4.2.1 Absolute gravity measurements

An object is dropped and accelerates at a rate g. After time t it will have fallen a distance
gt 2 2x
x where x = . Absolute value of gravity computed from g = 2
2 t

Absolute gravimeters are generally more expensive than a mass-on-a-spring gravimeter

and can be slower to operate. Typical can measure gravity anomalies down to microgal
level (μgal). Micro-g LAcoste FG-5 gravimeter

6
For details of instrumentation http://www.microgsolutions.com/
Application to tectonics in BC http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geodyn/wcda/absgrav_e.php

B4.2.2 Relative gravity measurements

Since we have seen that it is the differences in gravity that is generally more important
than absolute values, we do not need absolute measurements of gravity at every survey
location. Often relative gravity measurements can be made over a survey area, and then
tied to an absolute value by using the relative gravimeter at a location that was
previously surveyed with an absolute gravimeter.

Portable pendulum
L
The period of oscillation (T) a pendulum, length (L) is given by T = 2π
g
Note that as gravity gets stronger, the pendulum swings more quickly. Accuracy
around 0.25 mgal when popular in the 1930’s.

Mass-on-a-spring gravimeters

The mass experiences a force of F = mg and the spring stretches an amount s.

Hooke’s Law states that

F = ks = mg

where k is a measure of the stiffness of the spring (the spring constant). If the
gravimeter is then taken to a location where the acceleration of gravity is stronger by
an amount δg, then the spring will stretch a little bit more, δs.

k(s+δs) = m(g+δg)

7
 Subtracting these two equations gives

kδs
δg =
m

δs can be very small, so various

engineering features are used to amplify
the movement. Typical accuracy is 0.01
mgal.

To put this in perspective, what change in elevation produces 0.01 mgal?

Two widely used relative gravimeters are:

●LaCoste-Romberg gravimeters (http://www.lacosteromberg.com/relativemeters.htm)

This uses a zero length spring and temperature control to measure to 0.01
milligal. The instrument applies a (known) force to keep the spring the same
length. This avoids non-linear elastic effects (i.e. departures from Hookes
Law).

●Worden gravimeter (http://www.gravityservices.com/worden_gravity_meter.html)

8
4.2.3 Gravity survey procedures

● Collect gravity data on a 2-D grid and repeat measurements at cross-over points
where lines intersect. This will give a good idea of the repeatability of the
measurements.
Gravity data must be corrected for a number of factors. This includes (a) a slow
stretching of the spring in the gravimeter (instrument drift) and (b) variations in
gravity due to the tides. These effects can be removed by setting up a series of base
stations that are visited several times a day. See Geophysics 224 notes for more
details.
●We can obtain absolute gravity measurements from a relative gravimeter by
making measurements at pre-surveyed stations where the absolute values is
already known.

A network of these stations has

been established across Canada
and is called the Canadian
Standardized Gravity Network
(CGSN).
http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/aboutus/
gravity/grvstds_e.php

●Often several survey crews needed for each gravimeter crew. It is vital to know the
elevation of each measurement location. Differential GPS is sometimes good
enough, but leveling may be needed.
● Seafloor gravity surveys use a
gravimeter that is lowered to the
seafloor on a cable.

●Marine and airborne gravity

surveys. Ground is covered much
more quickly than with land-based
methods, but in measurements
made further away from targets.
Need to carefully remove the
effects of acceleration caused by
waves (sea) and turbulence (Air).
LaCoste Romberg AirSea meter
shown on right.

9
●Satellite gravity
Many types of remote sensing
surveys can be carried out with
satellites. However, variations in
gravity cannot be made from an
orbiting satellite. Why
However, the sea surface responds to
the rock structure below. If there is
excess mass (high density) then the
sea water will bunch up, since it is
attracted by gravity. Similarly there
will be a dip in the sea surface if the
density is lower.
Radar is used to precisely measure
the elevation of the sea-surface.
Subsurface density structure can be
inferred from variations in sea level.

Note the patterns associated with plate boundaries such as mid-ocean ridges and
subduction zones. These will be discussed in detail later in this course.
Note that the sea-surface also represents the geoid (discuss in B5)

10
B4.3 Examples of gravity anomalies

B4.3.1 Caves and cavities

●Cave location in karst terrain. Taken

from Burger Figure 6-37. The caves
produce a decrease in the gravity
anomaly (note that the Bouguer
anomaly is the gravity measurement
after the Free Air and Bouguer
corrections have been made)

● Sand and clay have a lower density

than limestone. Note that the variable
thickness of sand and clay can mask
the effect of the voids.

● Microgravity were recently used by United Nations weapons inspectors to look for
underground bunkers in Iraq prior to 2003 invasion.

“Microgravity meters -- also called gravimeters -- measure minute differences in gravitational

pull at one site versus another. Large underground voids, such as tunnels or weapons production
facilities, slightly lower Earth's gravitational pull at the surface right above the voids. Gravimeters
can detect these differences, indicating where such facilities might exist. According to a source
familiar with the inspections, gravimeters operate too slowly to efficiently scan large areas.
However, they work well within a single structure, such as a palace or a bunker, where single
and/or multiple basements are suspected” (Geotimes, 2002)

11
B4.3.2 Mineral deposits

Ore bodies are often higher density than the host rock and can produce positive
gravity Bouguer anomalies. Gravity can be used to estimate the excess mass of an
ore deposit, using Gauss’s theorem. While non-uniqueness prevents the spatial
distribution being uniquely determined, the total excess mass can be estimated
reliably.

The example below comes from Voisey’s Bay, Labrador. This massive sulphide
deposit has a pronounced positive gravity anomaly. Note that gravity inversion is
an automated procedure that determines a density model that fits the measured
gravity data. An inversion is a solution of the inverse problem, and non-uniqueness
must be taken into account.

Simple half-width calculation can be used to estimate the depth of the body.

High density sulphides again produce a

positive gravity anomaly. Note that the
shallow depth of the ore body gives a
short wavelength anomaly. The deeper
geological structure produces longer
wavelength anomalies that are
sometimes called the regional trend.

Sometimes the regional trend is

subtracted from the gravity to emphasize
the short wavelength features that are
due to shallow structures. The quantity
remaining is called the residual gravity
anomaly.

12
B4.3.3 Impact craters

Gravity anomaly over the Chicxulub

impact crater in Mexico. Note the
circular pattern of high and low values.
These anomalies were discovered in the
1970s but the significance was not
understood until the late 1980s. Now
known that a major comet-asteroid
impact occurred here 65 million years
ago. However, role of the impact in the
K-T extinction is still debated.

Horizontal gravity gradient data at

Chicxulub. Note that the gradient shows
the edge of the crater, which is also
defined by a line of sinkholes (cenotes).
The crater filled with sedimentary rocks
after the impact so there is almost no
surface expression.

Now known that a major comet-asteroid

impact occurred here 65 million years
ago. However, role of the impact in the
K-T extinction is still debated. Crater
has a radius close to 100 km and
impacting object believed to be 10-15
km across. Rebound of the crust formed
an uplift in the centre of the crater.

Mass deficit is 2 10e+12 tonnes

Reference:

O. Campos et al, Gauss’s theorem, mass

deficiency at Chicxulub crater and the
extinction of the dinosaurs, Geophysics,
63, 1585-1594, 1998)

13
B4.3.4 Bouguer anomaly map of Canada

● A map of Bouguer anomaly should reflect variations in sub-surface density. Variations

due to latitude and elevation should have been removed. Low (negative) values of
Bouguer anomaly indicate lower density beneath the measurement point. High
(positive) values of Bouguer anomaly indicate higher density beneath the
measurement point.

● on the Canadian Shield gravity anomalies are small (10 to -50 mgals). Variations due to
changes in composition and thickness of crust.

● Negative values coincide with mountain ranges (Canadian Cordillera in west and
Laurentides in east). In these areas the crust is thicker than normal. Since crustal rocks
have a lower density than mantle rocks, this gives the upper 100 km a lower average
density. Thus Bouguer anomaly is weaker. See discussion later in class of isostacy.

● Large positive Bouguer anomalies offshore where crust thins.

14
B4.3.4 Bouguer anomaly map of Alberta

● What are the dominant features in the Bouguer anomaly map of Alberta? Sketch
a profile from Fort McMurray to the Rockies and try and account for the main
features observed above.

● White lines denote the boundaries of basement blocks. Note correlation between
gravity gradients and these boundaries.

● Data and figure from : M. Pilkington et al, Can. J. Earth Sciences, 37, 1453-
1471, 2000.

MJU 2007

15
Geophysics 210

B5 : Gravitational potential and the geoid

B5.1 Gravitational potential energy

We have considered the Earth’s gravity field in terms of the acceleration that a test mass
would experience (g).

An alternative way to visualize the gravity field is by using the gravitational potential
energy (U). This has some advantages because g is a vector while U is a scalar.

Example 1 : Point mass at z = 0

• Each of the circles shown above represents an equipotential surface. That means
no work is required to move a mass along the surface.
• However, moving away from the mass requires that work is done and converted
into gravitational potential energy.
• If you move towards the mass, then some gravitational potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy (falling).
• The acceleration (pull) of gravity (g) is at right angles to the equipotential surface.
• Rate of change of potential with distance is proportional to gravitational
acceleration (g = −∇U )

1
Example 2 : g constant as elevation increases. g = −∇U

Earth surface at z=0

Example 3 : Point mass located just below the Earth’s surface

• Examples 1 and 2 can be combined to represent a mass buried in the Earth

• Note that this has the effect of bending the equipotential surfaces upwards.
• g always orthogonal to equipotential surfaces

Equipotentials and the sea surface

Water will flow downhill until it has reached the lowest possible level, since it is not
rigid. Thus on a calm day, when ocean currents and weather are ignored, the sea surface
is an equipotential surface. Large mounds of water do not persist in the open ocean!

Suppose that there is some excess mass (high density) buried under the seafloor. This will
distort the equipotential surface so that it bulges upwards and results in a small rise in

2
sea level above the mass excess. We can also think of this as the mass excess pulling
water towards itself.

Similarly, if there is a mass deficit (low density) then a slight depression will form in the
sea surface.

Question : Would this be a good place for water skiing?

Hint - How is the pull of gravity related to the sea surface?

5.2 The Geoid

The geoid is defined as the equipotential surface that coincides with mean sea level. If the
Earth had uniform density and no topography, then the geoid and International Reference
Ellipsoid (IRE) would be identical.

However, non uniform density and topography result in the geoid being relatively bumpy.

In the oceans, the geoid is defined by the sea-level and can be measured with radar
altimetry. Also can observe orbits of satellites and use this information to compute the
geoid elevation (see GRACE mission below).

On land the geoid corresponds to the level that a hypothetical ocean would have.
Location must be computed from gravity measurements (land based and satellite data).

Differences between geoid and IRE are

called geoid undulations.

An interactive program that calculates the height of the Geoid:

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/GEOID_STUFF/geoid99_prompt1.prl

3
The geoid was increasingly well defined by satellite data collected from 1957 onwards.
Long wavelength features are shown below.

• Undulations are 100 m above and

below the IRE. Major hole in the
Indian Ocean and a bulge over
Indonesia and Australia.
• Geoid highs are caused by excess
mass.
• Geoid lows caused by mass
deficit

A more detailed view of the geoid has come from the GRACE project (Gravity Recovery
and Climate Experiment). This has been underway since 2002 and uses microwave
measurements of the distance between two satellites to measure the gravity field with
very high precision. (http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/)

Geoid from GRACE data

4
 • In addition to studying the geoid, GRACE has given additional information about
the gravity field of the Earth (http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/gallery/gravity/).
• A map of gravity anomalies (usually expressed in units of milliGals) tends to
highlight short wavelength features better than a map of the geoid.
(http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/gravity/gravity_definition.html)

• Applications in oceanography (Tapley et al., 2004).

• Temporal change in gravity was observed after the 2004 Sumatra earthquake
(Han et al., 2006). This was due to mass re-distribution of the plates and was
around 15 μgal.
•

5.3 Why is the geoid important?

5.3.1 Information about interior of the Earth

The geoid contains a lot of information about the internal structure of the Earth. Figure
below shows the geoid superimposed on a topography map

Red: -7.7 m Magenta = -52.8 m.

• High in Western United States – related to Yellowstone hot spot?

• Geoid Low centered on Hudson's Bay .

5
The long wavelengths of geoid anomalies indicate that they originate in deep density
contrasts that are associated with mantle convection. Observed geoid variations can be
explained if density contrasts from subduction zones persist to mid-mantle depths (Hager,
1984).

5.3.2 Surveying

The geoid is always orthogonal to the local acceleration of gravity (g). Thus elevations
measured with levelling (surveying) will be relative to the geoid and are expressed as
heights above sea level. In contrast surveys that use GPS satellites will give elevations
relative to the IRE.

To reconcile the two measurements of elevation, the difference between the IRE and
geoid (N) must be known.

H = height above geoid (orthometric height)

h = height above IRE (ellipsoidal height)

N = geoid height (undulation)

To illustrate this, consider a ship sailing across the Indian Ocean. GPS measurements will
indicate that it drops into a 70 m deep hole. Conventional surveying tells us that it stays at
sea level the whole time.

More reading : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid

References
Hager, B., Subducted slabs and the Geoid: constraints on mantle rheology, J. Geophys.
Research, 89, 6003-6015, 1984.
Han, S.C., C.K. Shum, M. Bevis, C.Ji, C.Y. Kuo, Crustal dilation observed by GRACE
after the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, Science, 313, 658-662, 2006.
Richards, M. A. and B. Hager, Geoid Anomalies in a dynamic Earth, J. Geophys.
Research, 89, 5987-6002, 1984.
Tapley, B.D., D.P. Chambers, S. Bettadpur and J.C. Ries, Large scale ocean circulation
from the Grace GGMo1 Geoid, Geophys. Res. Lett., 2004.

MJU 2007

6
Geophysics 210 B6 Isostacy

6.1 Airy and Pratt hypotheses

Himalayan peaks on the Tibet-Bhutan border

In the 19th century surveyors used pendulums and theodolites to survey the British
empire. Distances were measured with two methods (a) changes in elevation of stars and
(b) direct measurements on the ground. These methods gave answers that differed by 5
arc seconds. This discrepancy was shown to be because the Himalayan peaks did not
deflect the pendulum as much as predicted (1/3 of expected value). Note that the
pendulum was used when measuring the elevation angle of a particular star.

6.1.1 Pratt’s Hypothesis

An explanation of this phenomenon was given by John Pratt who was Archdeacon of
Calcutta. Pratt’s hypothesis of isostacy proposed that topography is produced by
crustal blocks with varying density, that terminate at a uniform depth.

1
At the compensation depth, pressure is equal at all points (it behaves as a liquid). Thus at
the compensation depth, the pressure below the mountain (B) must equal the pressure
below the plains (A).

ρ c t = ρ1 (h + t )

Rearranging gives

ρct
ρ1 =
(h + t )

ρ1 = ρc t / (h + t)

What crustal density (ρ1) is needed to explain the 5 km high Tibetan Plateau?
Assume ρc = 2800 kg m-3 and ρm = 3100 kg m-3 and t = 30 km.

ANSWER : ρ1 = 2400 kg m3. What could cause this type of density change?

6.1.2 Airy’s hypothesis

George Airy accounted for these observations with a different idea. He suggested that
mountain ranges have a low density region beneath them. In Airy’s hypothesis of
isotacy, the mountain range can be thought of as a block of lithosphere (crust) floating in
the asthenosphere (lava). Mountains have roots, while ocean basins have anti-roots.

In his 1855 paper, George Airy who was the Astronomer Royal wrote:

“It appears to me that the state of the earth’s crust lying upon the lava may be compared with
perfect correctness to the state of a raft of timber floating upon water; in which, if we remark one
log whose upper surface floats much higher than the upper surfaces of the others, we are certain
that its lower surface lies deeper in the water than the lower surfaces of the others”

2
If the system is stable (no external forces) it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium. At the
compensation depth, the pressure due to material above is constant at all locations
(below this depth the Earth behaves as a liquid). A plateau of height h is supported by a
crustal root of depth r. The normal crustal thickness is t. In this region, the acceleration
of gravity is g.

Pressure at a depth h in a medium of density ρ is given by P = ρgh

Thus equating the pressure at the compensation depth at ‘A’ and ‘B’ we can write

t ρc + r ρm = (h + t + r) ρc

which simplifies to

r ρm = h ρc + r ρc

Note that we have assumed that g has the same value at each location. This may seem to
contradict the last few weeks of classes, but is valid as a first order approximation.

Re-arranging this equation gives the thickness of the crustal root,

r = h ρc / (ρm – ρc)

3
Question

How deep a root is needed to support a 5 km plateau, such as the Tibetan Plateau?

Assume ρc = 2800 kg m-3 and ρm = 3100 kg m-3

Answer r = 47 km and the crustal thickness = h + t + r = 82 km.

Was George Airy correct about crustal thickness in Tibet? Modern seismic exploration
has shown that the crustal thickness in Southern Tibet is in the range of 75-85 km.

Note : George Airy explained the small deflection of the pendulum as

“It will be remarked that that the disturbance (gravity anomaly) depends on two actions; the
positive attraction produced by the elevated table land; and the diminution of attraction, or
negative attraction, produced by the substitution of a certain volume of light crust for heavy
lava”

Question : What Free Air and Bouguer anomalies would be measured?

To consider this, compute the attraction of mass above the compensation depth at points
‘A’ and ‘B’.

gA = 2πG (ρct + ρmr) and gB = 2πG (h+t+r) ρc

Consider the condition we previously derived for buoyancy?

What does this tell us about gA and gB?

Are the values of gA and gB Bouguer or Free Air anomalies?

4
6.2 Under compensation and over compensation

Are features on the Earth’s surface in isostatic equilibrium? This can be investigated as
follows using the Isostatic gravity anomaly. This is computed as follows:

(1) Topography is used to predict the expected depth of crustal root when
topographic feature is in isostatic equilibrium.

(2) Using this depth, the predicted Bouguer anomaly ΔgR is computed.

(3)The Isostatic Gravity Anomaly is defined as

ΔgI = ΔgB−ΔgR ,

where ΔgB is the measured Bouguer anomaly and ΔgR is the predicted Bouguer
anomaly of the root.

Three situations can arise:

(a) Complete Compensation: Topography and roots in equilibrium.

ΔgB = ΔgR and ΔgI = 0

5
(b) Over-compensation: If surface material is removed (e.g. by erosion) then this
results in a root that is too large. To restore equilibrium, upward motion will occur.

ΔgB < ΔgR and ΔgI < 0 (negative)

(c) Under-Compensation: In this case, the root will be too small to support the
feature the feature. Tectonic forces may give additional support (e.g. plate flexure,
dynamic topography) or else subsidence will occur.

ΔgB > ΔgR and ΔgI > 0 (positive)

6
Bouguer anomaly Isostatic anomaly

Details at : http://gdcinfo.agg.nrcan.gc.ca/products/grids_e.html

6.2.1 Mountain belts

Canadian Cordillera

Figure above is taken from Fluch et al., (2003) and shows gravity anomalies across the
Southern Canadian Cordillera on profile AB. Note the negative Bouguer anomaly The
isostatic anomaly is quite close to zero, indicating that the Canadian Cordillera is close to
isostatic equilibrium. This may be the result of a combination of Pratt and Airy
hypotheses. The crust is thick under the Continental Ranges (Airy) but thinner and with a
hot upper mantle under the Omineca belt (Pratt).

7
 Clowes et al (1995).

Tibet and the Himalaya

• Fowler Figure 10.19 on page 540 shows the Bouguer anomaly measured across
the Himalaya from Cattin et al., (2001). It also shows the predicted Bouguer
anomaly assuming complete isostatic compensation.

• In Ganges Basin ΔgB < ΔgR which represents over-compensation. This occurs
because the Indian Plate is deflected (pulled) downwards by loading in Tibet.
This makes the crustal root thicker than needed to support the observed
topography.

• The Himalaya and southern part of the Tibetan Plateau is under-compensated

with ΔgB > ΔgR which can be thought of not having enough crustal root to
support the observed topography. Thus the Himalaya are partially supported by
flexure of the Indian Plate.

• To the North of the Indus-Tsangbo suture, complete compensation occurs and

the observed topography can be supported by buoyancy forces. George Airy was
correct!

8
6.2.2. Mid-ocean ridges

Figure 9.11 from Fowler (2005) shows gravity anomalies across the mid-Atlantic Ridge
at 45° N. Mid-ocean ridges are large submarine mountain ranges located where plates move
apart to create ocean basins.

• Free air anomaly small, but not

exactly zero. This shows that the
ridge is not quite in isostatic
equilibrium. Topography of ridge
supported by low density upper
mantle (hot and partially molten).

• Figure 9.11 shows a range of

models that all fit the observed
data, giving an illustration of
non-uniqueness.

6.2.3. Subduction zones

Figure 9.59 from Fowler (2005) shows the Free Air gravity anomaly across the Chile
Trench and Andes at 23° South, taken from Grow and Bowin, (1975). Like many
subduction zones, this model shows a characteristic pair of low-high gravity anomalies.

• Negative gravity anomaly due to deep trench that is filled with low density water
and sediments.
• Positive gravity anomaly on ocean side of the volcanic arc

Note that the gravity modelling includes the transition of basalt to eclogite in the
subducting slab. This corresponds to an increase in density of 400 kg m- within the slab.

6.3 Isostatic rebound

We can study if topographic features are in isostatic equilibrium by studying gravity

anomalies. An additional perspective on isostacy can be obtained by looking at time
variations that result from rapid changes in the size of ice sheets or large lakes. These
natural experiments allow the viscosity of the mantle to be determined. The basic concept
shown in Figure 5.18 of Fowler (2005).

Canadian Shield

Strong evidence for post-glacial isostatic rebound comes from the raised beaches on the
coast of Hudsons Bay.

9
http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/~tony/watts/LANDSCAPE/LANDSCAPE.HTM

http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geodyn/gchange_e.php

Surveying has revealed a pattern of uplift beneath the former location of the Laurentide
Ice Sheet with a maximum rate of around 1 cm per year. This is surrounded by a ring of
subsidence that is caused by flexure of the lithosphere. Note that horizontal motions also
occur.

www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/STRUCTGE/EarthMvts.HTM http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/isostasy1/

10
Total uplifts since the ice sheet melted are in excess of 100 metres in the centre of
Hudson’s Bay. Modern uplift rates are much slower than immediately after the ice sheets
melted.

These values have been confirmed by gravity measurements made by the GRACE
satellite (Tamisiea et al., 2007). Gravity changes have a peak change of 1 μGal per year
from 2002-2007. Geoid motion in the same interval was 1 mm per year.

Mantle convection can change gravity over timescales 10 times longer than the timescales
for isostatic rebound. The time scale of post-glacial rebound allows the phenomena of
mantle convection and rebound to be separated.

Fennoscandia

Very similar observations come from Fennoscandia where maximum uplifts of 1 cm per
year are observed in GPS data. Islands are emerging from the Baltic Sea and the border
between Sweden and Finland have been revised on several occasions. Note that horizontal
motions also occur, and also the yearly variation that is due to climatic effects on the
ground and atmosphere.

http://www.oso.chalmers.se/~hgs/docent/docans.html

11
Figure 5.20 in Fowler (2005) shows that an asthenosphere viscosity of 1021 Pa s is
consistent with the uplift history in the Baltic. For reference, the following values are for
the viscosity of some other liquids:

Viscosity (Pa s)
Water 10-2
Honey 2-10
Peanut butter 250
Pitch 108

References

Airy, G.B., On the computations of the effect of the attraction of the mountain masses as
disturbing the apparent astronomical latitude of stations in geodetic surveys, Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. London, 145, 101-104, 1855.
Chen, W. P. and S. Ozalaybey, Correlation between seismic anisotropy and Bouguer gravity
anomalies in Tibet and its implications for lithospheric structure, GJI, 135, 93-101, 1998.
Clowes, C. Zelt, J. Amor and R. M. Ellis, Lithospheric structure in the Southern Canadian
Cordillera from a network of seismic refraction lines, CJES, 32, 1485-1513, 1995.
Flück, P., R. D. Hyndman, and C. Lowe, Effective elastic thickness Te of the lithosphere in
western Canada, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B9), 2430, doi:10.1029/2002JB002201, 2003
Grow, J. A. and Bowin, C. O., 1975, Evidence for High-Density Crust and Mantle Beneath the
Chile Trench Due to the Descending Lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 80, 1449–1458.
Pratt, J.H., On the attraction of the Himalaya Mountains, and of the elevated regions beyond
them, upon the plumb line in India, , Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, 145, 53-100, 1855.
Tamisiea, M., J. Mitrivica, J.L. Davis, GRACE gravity data constrain ancient ice geometries and
continental dynamics over Laurentia, Science, 316, 881-883, 2007.

MJU 2007

12
Geophysics 210
B7: Tides, rotation and orbit

7.1 Tides
Tides on the Earth arise from the
gravitational influence of the Moon and
Sun. This results in motion of seawater
and also in changes in gravity that can
influence gravity surveys. Effect of sun
and moon are similar, so they will
initially be considered separately. Tidal
range can exceed 18 m in coastal
locations such as the Bay of Fundy in
Nova Scotia.

7.1.1 Lunar tides in the ocean

• Earth and moon revolve around their common centre of mass which is located a
distance c from the centre of the Earth.

• If ME = 5.97 10 24 kg, MM = 7.36 10 22 kg and R = 384400000 m

Show that c = 4678 km

• To simplify the computation, must choose an appropriate reference frame.

Answer should be the same in any reference frame, so we can make life simple by
choosing a reference frame that does not rotate and which is centered at the
centre-of-mass of the Earth-Moon system.

• In this frame of reference, the Earth translates and does not rotate. Thus all points
on Earth move in a small circle with the same radius. See animation in Figure 7
at http://www.vialattea.net/maree/eng/index.htm for a clear demonstration.
Centrifugal motion is thus the same for all points on surface of Earth.
• However, pull of gravity varies across the surface of the Earth. This can be
illustrated by comparing pull of gravity at ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the value at the centre
of the Earth. At point ‘A’ can show that the net acceleration due to the moon is :
GM M GM M
AA = − = 0.113 milligals
(R − r ) 2
R2
GM M GM M
Similarly at point B, AB = − = -0.107 milligals
(R + r ) 2
R2

• Note the sign difference. This corresponds to a 6% reduction in the acceleration of

gravity due to the moon, from A to B.

• When computed at all points on the surface of the Earth, the following pattern of
tidal forces is computed.

This deforms the sea surface to form two

tidal bulges. As the Earth rotates within
the liquid, two high and two low tides
per day are observed.

This is the principal lunar semidiurnal

constituent of the tide (M2). Period is 12
hours 24 minutes, owing to relative
rotation of moon around the Earth and
rotation of Earth.

• Note that tidal force is due to the spatial gradient (change with distance) of the
gravitational pull of the moon.

• Theoretical amplitude of M2 tide should be 54 cm of vertical motion and is

referred to as a body tide. However motion of seawater makes this larger (1 m).

• The Earth rotates faster than the moon orbits the Earth. Friction occurs between
seawater and seafloor as the Earth moves beneath the tidal bulges. This drags the
bulges forward and tides lead the moon by 10°. Energy loss slows the Earths
rotation by 0.0023 seconds per century (i.e. days get longer).
 • Another effect is that the moon is
accelerated and moves into a
larger orbit. This lunar recession
increases Earth-moon distance by
3.8 cm per year. This has been
measured by laser ranging
experiments from Apollo and
Lunakhod missions to the moon.

7.1.2 Solar tides in the ocean

• Similar physics to that considered above for the moon

• Using mass of sun, Ms = 1.988 1030 kg and an average Earth-Sun distance

Rs = 1.5 1011 m can show that for the S2 tide:
GM S GM
AA = − 2 S = 0.05012 milligals
( RS − r ) 2
Rs
and
GM S GM
AB = − 2 S = -0.05011 milligals
( RS + r ) 2
Rs

• This corresponds to a 0.017 % reduction in the gravitational pull of the sun from
point A to point B.

• Note that the gravitational attraction of the sun is 180 times stronger than that of
the moon. However, the attraction of the moon varies more rapidly with distance
(higher spatial gradient), giving a larger tidal force.

7.1.3 Actual tides in the ocean Earth

• Tidal bulges due to the moon and sun can be added, according to the relative
orientation of the moon and sun.

• Neap tides occur when moon and sun are at right angles (first quarter and last
quarter)
 • Spring tides occur when sun and moon are collinear (new moon and full moon).

In addition, the simple tidal model listed above is complicated by a number of factors:

• axis of rotation is inclined at 23°

• variable ocean depth, coastlines

• Earth-moon and Earth-Sun distances vary, since both orbits are elliptical

• Earth is an ellipsoid, not a sphere

• Factors such as rotation of Earth, variable water depth and coastlines can amplify
this even more.

• Coastlines result in a complicated pattern of tides and resonance effects (e.g.

Rossby waves) can develop.

• Note small tidal amplitude in Mediterranean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Why?

• Tidal phase (high and low) occur at the same time on the cotidal lines. These are
shown in white on the figure above. M2 component dominates other contributions
with 12 and 24 hour period.

• Amphidromic points occur where cotidal lines meet and there is no vertical
motion.

• About 1 terrawatt (1012 W) of frictional energy is dissipated in the ocean. See

Egbert and Ray (2000) for details.
7.1.4 Earth Tides

• The solid Earth deforms in response to tidal forces in exactly the same way as the
ocean. However, the Earth does not flow horizontally in the same way as the
ocean, so tides are smaller (50-100 cm vertical displacement). Accelerations for
any point on Earth can be computed at
http://www.taygeta.com/etides/index.html

• Relative motions of Earth and ocean can reduce absolute amplitude of ocean tides

• Figure below shows the Earth tide sequence for (top) Edmonton and (bottom) the
North pole in September 2007.

• Why is variation smaller at the North Pole? Is this what you would expect to see?
7.1.5 Consequences of Earth tides

Triggering earthquakes

• Cochran et al., (2004) showed a

correlation between occurrence
of shallow thrust earthquakes and
strongest tides.

• Stress due to tide is small,

however if an earthquake is
about to occur, this can be the
straw that breaks the camels
back.

• Factor of three variation is

observed in the number of
earthquakes was associated with
tidal stress.

Eruptions of volcanoes and geysers

Castle Geyser, Yellowstone

At high Earth tides, the rock is dilated and eruptions are more frequent. At low tides the
dilation is less and fractures are closed.
Need to correct gravity survey data for tidal effects

• Comparison of predicted and observed tides in Montreal. Telford Figure 2.6.

• Some modern gravimeters make these corrections automatically.

References

General reference about tides: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide

http://www.vialattea.net/maree/eng/index.htm
Good explanation about origin of tides and centrifugal forces. Considers the physics of
tides in a number of reference frames and shows that the same answer can be obtained,
provided that fictitious forces are correctly handled.

Cochran, E.S., J.E. Vidale, S. Tanaka, Earth Tides can trigger shallow thrust fault
earthquakes, Science, 306, 1164-1166, 2004.

Egbert G.D., and R. D. Ray, Significant dissipation of tidal energy in the deep ocean
inferred from satellite altimeter data, Nature, 405, 775-778, 2000.

8
B7.2 Changes in length of day (LOD)

The Earth rotates because of angular momentum that was acquired by the solar system as
it condensed from a rotating gas cloud into a protoplanetary disk and then individual
planets and moons. This momentum has been conserved over the life of the solar system.

7.2.1 Present situation

Variation with latitude and Julian Day

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_length

Extent of day and night as seasons vary:

http://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/uncgi/Earth/action?opt=-p&img=learth.evif

7.2.2 Long-term trends

Archean Early Earth may have rotated every 8 hours

PreCambrian Tidal rhythmites can record number of days per year and per
month. Rocks from Australia consistent with LOD = 21.9 hours
at 620 Ma (Williams, 1997 and 2000). Record spanned 60 years.

Phanerozoic

Figure above shows the predicted number of days per year, based on extrapolation
of present rates. Wells (1963) showed that the number of daily growth rings in
coral are consistent with this rate of change:

Middle-Devonian New York 400 Ma 400 days per year

Pennsylvanian Texas 385 Ma 385 days per year

Rate of change in LOD = 2 x 10-5 s per year = 2 ms per century

9
Historical record

Historical increase in the length of day (LOD) is around 2.4 ms per century. This
rate of change seems small on a timescales of millennia, but the actual effect is
significant because the change is integrated as shown below. Stephenson (2003)
shows that this factor is needed to account for the astronomical records made by
many ancient civilizations (Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, Arabs).

The figure below is from Morrison and Stephenson (2004) and shows constraints
on the cumulative time shift (ΔT) based on eclipses. This figure just uses
information on whether an eclipse could have been observed or not. No record of
timing was used. The lower figure uses records that have times associated with
the observation of an eclipse.

Assume LOD changes at rate, r = 2 x 10-5 s per year. Consider a year at a time T
in the past. The time delay in that year = 365 T r seconds.

Thus total time delay (seconds) from present day back to a time T is

t =T t =T
⎡t 2 ⎤
ΔT = ∫ rt 365dt = 356r ⎢ ⎥ = 178rT 2 (
t =o ⎣ 2 ⎦ t =0

10
 Using a value of T = 2000 years gives a delay of 14000 seconds ( 4 hours), in
agreement with observations above.

Explanation

Need to consider Earth-Moon system and the fact that it’s angular momentum is
conserved.

The tidal bulges are not collinear with the Moon (B7.1) and this results in a torque
which slows down the Earth's rotation, i.e. the days are getting longer.

While kinetic energy (orbital motion) is dissipated and converted to heat, the
angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system must be conserved. The loss of
angular momentum from the Earth must be balanced by an increase in momentum
for the moon. This results in the moon moving into a higher orbit at a rate of 3.7
cm per year. This is measured by satellite laser ranging and lunar laser ranging
that measure the Earth-Moon distance to a precision of 1 part in 10 billion.

This rate could not have persisted for the entire age of the Earth. Present day
configuration of oceans and continents may be causing a high rate of tidal
dissipation at present.

The recent rate of change in LOD may be due to mass redistribution caused by
isostatic rebound and sea level changes (see Peltier, 1988). Conservation of
angular momentum.

7.2.3 Recent record

Observations with telescopes (since 1620 AD), from satellite laser-ranging (SLR),
lunar laser ranging (LLR) and radio astronomy (very long baseline interferometry
- VLBI) show that the length of day (LOD) changes at a rate of 1.4 ms/century.
Significant fluctuations observed from year-to-year and seasonally. Figure from
Hopfner (1998) below.

11
 Explanation

Climatic effects - exchanges of angular momentum between the atmosphere and

the solid earth. Average wind speed up - rotation rate down and vice versa.

Effect of fluid flow in core? Angular momentum exchanged between core and
mantle. Depends on coupling that is caused by topographic irregularities at the
core-mantle boundary? Electromagnetic coupling?

Change in LOD after the 2004 Sumatra earthquake (Chao and Gross, 2005)

B7.3 Orbital changes

7.3.1 Basic orbital parameters http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Motion.htm

7.3.2 Changes in orbital parameters

The Earth’s orbit changes over time, mainly because of gravitational interactions between
the Earth and the other planets. These orbital changes cause changes in the amount of
solar energy received by the Earth. This insolation at high latitudes is believed to control
the growth and retreat of polar ice sheets.

(a) Eccentricity: This defines the difference between an orbit and a circle. A circle has
an eccentricity of zero.

Present eccentricity = 0.017

413 kyr cycle 0.005 to 0.058
100 kyr cycle 0.03 to +0.02 (combination of 95 and 125 kyr cycles)

Time variations in eccentricity are due to the gravitational effect of other planets

(b) Obliquity

This is angle between the Earth’s rotation axis and the ecliptic. Present value = 23.44°

12
 41 kyr cycle causes obliquity to vary
between 22.1° and 24.5°

Lower values of obliquity are believed to

favour the start of ice ages, as insolation
is reduced at high latitudes in summer.
This results in less of the winter’s snow
melting.

(c) Precession: This is the wobble of the axis of rotation relative to the fixed stars. It is a
gyroscopic action that is a consequence of the Earth not being a uniform sphere.

Rotation axis moves in a

circle with a period of
21-26 kyr. This variation
only has an effect if the
orbit is elliptical.

This can produce a

difference between the
temperatures in the
North and South
Hemispheres.

At present, the Earth is closest to the Sun (perihelion) during the southern summer. This
makes seasonal variations more extreme in the Southern Hemisphere (6.8% difference in
summer radiation).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles

13
Milankovitch computed the combined climatic effects of these variations and suggested
that these changes could have triggered the ice ages. However at the time, no detailed
datasets were available to prove, or disprove, this hypothesis.

7.3.3 Evidence that these changes have a significant climatic influence

Deep ocean sediments

Deep ocean cores provide a reliable record of past climate through changes in the
concentrations of oxygen isotopes (δ18O). When cooler, ocean water becomes enriched in
the heavier isotope and δ18O will be higher.

Hays et al.,(1976) showed that these variations could be correlated with variations in
orbital obliquity and precession.

Recent studies from the Ocean Drilling Program also show a more complicated
picture. Rial (1999) studied δ18O variations of deep sea cores from ODP Site 806
covering the last 2.1 Ma. (B) is a moving spectrogram in which the periodicity in the
oxygen signal is measured over limited time periods of 350 ka. (C) is called the power
spectrum for the entire set of oxygen records and it shows the different Milankovich
cycles but with a resonance phenomena.

Climate records in loess

Corroborating evidence for periods in the geological record. Left column shows the
loess-soil pattern. Next column is the geomagnetic polarity. GSR = grain size
distribution. Right column is the corresponding power spectrum which shows peaks near
100,000 years, 41,000 years, and 23,000 years.

These periods all corresponding to Milankovitch time periods. Plots courtesy of

Professor N. Rutter in EAS.

14
Ice cores

Climate record from the Vostok ice core in Antarctica

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_Station)

Does orbital inclination have an effect?

The plane of Earth’s orbit shifts with a 70,000 year period. This factor was not
considered by Milankovitch. If defined relative to Jupiter, the period is 100, 000 years.

15
Variations in dust content have been suggested as a mechanism to produce insolation
variations on this timescale. Note that in the last million years the ice ages are dominated
by a periodicity of 100,000 years.

However Kawamura et al., (2007) validated Milankovitch’s hypothesis and showed that
local insolation variations can explain the 100,000 year cycle.

Sidetrack : How did the Egyptians align the pyramids?

Spence (2000) shows that precession

could have caused a systematic variation
in the orientation of the pyramids.

This gives the most precise dates

available for the construction of each
pyramid.

B7.4 Wobbles
The Earth also undergoes a series of orbital wobbles. These are called free nutations as
they do not require an external driving force.

B7.4.1 Chandler wobble

Animation at “The Hutton Commentaries”

http://huttoncommentaries.com/subs/PSResearch/UandM_PS2001/Undrstnd_Montr_PS2001.htm

Pole moves by 3-6 metres over a period

of 14 months. This was discovered by
Seth Chandler in 1890’s and is due to
precession of an ellipsoidal Earth.

Motion is damped so it must be

continually excited. Now believed that
the combined effect of atmosphere and
ocean keeps the Chandler wobble going
(Gross, 2000).

Figure from Gross (2000) is shown below. This shows that a good correlation between
observed wobble and combination of forces from atmosphere and ocean (2 black
curves). Correlation with atmosphere (red curve) is much lower.

16
 Gross (2000)

B7.4.2 Annual wobble

Gyration of 3 m due to imbalance of density caused by weather system over Siberia.

Destructive interactions occur every few years between Chandler wobble and annual
wobble. With the high precision of modern GPS data, these interactions can be tracked.
e.g. winter 2005-2006.

Lambert et al., 2006 show that:

“centimetre level polar motion

displacements during the 2005–2006
winter season are almost fully explained
by major pressure events on the
continents and on the ocean, especially a
depression over Northern Europe in-
phase with similar events over North
America.”

B7.4.3 Markowitz wobble

Another source of possible polar wandering with 24 year period. This may be due to
coupling of the inner core and mantle. See Battesby (2006) for review of research by Dr.
Mathieu Dumberry (new faculty member in Geophysics at the University of Alberta).

17
References

Battesby, S., Watch that wobble, New Scientist, 18 February 2006.

Chao, B. F., and R. S. Gross (2005), Did the 26 December 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia, Earthquake
Disrupt the Earth's Rotation as the Mass Media Have Said?, Eos Trans. AGU, 86(1), 1.
Gross, R.S., The excitation of the Chandler wobble, Geophysical Research Letters, 27, 2329-
2332, 2000.
Hays, J.D., J. Imbrie, N.J. Shackleton, Variations in the Earth’s Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages,
Science, 194, 1121-1132, 1976.
Höpfner, J., Seasonal variations in length of day and atmospheric angular momentum
Geophysical Journal International, 135, 407–437, 1998.
Kawamura et al, Northern Hemisphere forcing of climatic cycles in Antarctica over the
past 360,000 years, Nature, 448, 912-917, 2007.
Stephenson, F.R., Historical eclipse’s and Earth’s rotation, Geophysics and Astronomy, 2003
Lambert, S.B., C. Bizouard, V. Dehant, Rapid variations in polar motion during the 2005-2006
winter season, Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L13303, doi:10.1029/2006GL026422, 2006
Kawamura et al, Northern Hemisphere forcing of climatic cycles in Antarctica over the past
360,000 years, Nature, 448, 912-917, 2007.
Morrison, L.V., and F.R. Stephenson, Historical values of the Earth’s clock error ΔT and the
calculation of eclipses, Journal of Historical Astronomy, XXXV, 327-336, 2004.
Peltier, W.R., Global Sea Level and Earth Rotation, Science, 240, 895-901, 1988.
Rial, J., Pacemaking the Ice Ages by Frequency Modulation of Earth's Orbital Eccentricity,
Science, 285, 564-568, 23, 1999.
Spence, K., Ancient Egyptian chronology and the astronomical orientation of the pyramids,
Nature, 408, 320-324, 2000.
Wells, J.W., Coral growth and geochronometry, Nature, 197, 948-950, 1963.
Williams,G.E., Precambrian Length of Day and the Validity of Tidal rhythmite paleotidal values,
Geophysical Research Letters 24, 421-424, 1997.
Williams, G.E., Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the
Moon's orbit, Reviews of Geophysics 38, 37-60, 2000.

Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/science_analysis/tides.html

Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/ApolloLaser.html

VLBI http://cddisa.gsfc.nasa.gov/vlbi_summary.html
http://ivs.nict.go.jp/mirror/about/vlbi/whatis.html

Earth Orientation http://maia.usno.navy.mil/eop.html

Recession of the Moon http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/moonrec.html

Earth Rotation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_rotation

Tidal Acceleration http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration
Delta_T http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_T

18
210 C1 Basic principles of seismology

C1.1 General introduction to wave phenomena

A wave can be defined as a periodic

disturbance that transmits energy through
a medium, without the permanent
displacement of the medium. Also required
that energy is converted back and forward
between two different types.

Consider the two waves shown in the

MATLAB movie waves.m

Frequency (f) : The number of cycles a given point moves through in 1 second. Frequency is
measured in Hertz (Hz). If the frequency is very low, then it is common to refer to the period (T)
of the signal in seconds. T = 1/f

Angular frequency (ω): Frequency is the number of rotations per second. The angular
frequency is the number of radians per second and given by ω=2πf

Wavelength (λ) : Distance in metres between two points of the wave having the same phase (e.g.
two crests or two troughs).

If the waves moves at a velocity, v, then v = f λ

● Is this relationship is correct for the figure above?

● Note that points on the wave move up and down, they are not translated to the right.
● In this case, the velocity is independent of frequency. This type of wave behaviour is called
non-dispersive. If velocity varies with frequency, the wave is said to be dispersive

In seismology, we need to understand how waves will travel in the Earth. For example, how fast
will they go, which direction, how will amplitude vary with distance etc. In general this requires
the solution of some complicated differential equations.

In Geophysics 210 we will approach this subject through visualization. Wave propagation can be
considered in two ways, by considering either wavefronts or rays. These are complementary
ways of talking about waves:

Rays denote the direction in which the

wave travels.

Wavefronts are points on the wave with

the same phase (e.g. a line along the crest of
a wave is a wavefront).

Note that wavefronts and rays are at right

angles to each other.

1
One way to visualize wave propagation over time is through Huyghens Principle. This states
that all points on a wavefront can be considered secondary sources of wavelets. These secondary
wavelets propagate outwards and at a time later, the overall wavefront is the envelope of
secondary wavelets. Examples for a point source is shown below.

C1.2 Stress and strain

Having considered some general aspects of wave propagation we now need to consider how
waves propagate in Earth. Seismic waves are elastic waves with energy converted from elastic to
kinetic and vice versa. Some definitions:

Elastic deformation : Deformed caused by an applied force. Return to it’s original shape when
the force is removed.

Stress :
Longitudinal stress (F/A) Force per unit area. Shear stress (τ)
Units = N / m2 Applied parallel to the surface

Strain : Normalized measure of deformation of material

Δx
Longitudinal strain= e= Shear strain= tan θ
x

2
Hooke’s Law

Stress and strain can be related through

various equations. The simplest is Hooke’s
Law that describes the extension of a
spring. Hooke stated his law as an anagram
in 1678

“As the extension, so the force”

This is a linear relation between stress and

strain. For a simple spring F = kΔx

k = spring constant (measures stiffness of spring)

F = force used to stretch the spring (stress)
Δx = amount of stretch (strain)

k is the ratio of stress / strain. i.e. How much force needed to produce a given strain.

• If elastic the object returns to the

original shape when stress
removed.
• Only valid up to elastic limit.
Elastic limit for rocks = 10-4 or less
• Beyond this point, deformation is
permanent (plastic deformation)
• Ultimately the rock will reach
failure

Need to consider finite size of a rock sample to apply this to seismology. So can define

Longitudinal modulus ψ = longitudinal stress / longitudinal strain

Shear modulus μ = shear stress, τ

shear strain, tan θ

Bulk modulus K = volume stress, P

volume strain, ΔV/V

3
A simple longitudinal compression will change both the volume and shape of the cylinder. Thus
4
these modulii are linked as ψ =K+ μ
3

Further reading
A much more rigorous analysis can be found in Fowler (2005), Appendix 2.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_(engineering)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooke's_law

C1.3 Seismic waves in the Earth

Waves in the Earth can be divided into two main categories:

(a) Body waves travel through the bulk medium.

(b) Surface waves are confined to interfaces, primarily the Earth-Air interface.

C1.3.1 Body waves

Body waves in the Earth can be divided into two types:

P-waves : Particle motion is in the same direction as the wave propagation. They are
also called compressional or longitudinal waves. P = primary
and
S-waves: Particle motion is at right angles to the wave propagation. Also called shear
waves or transverse waves.

The velocity of body waves can be calculated from the properties of the material, as outlined
below.

Consider a column of rock with cross-sectional area (A).

4
 If a force (F) is applied at the left end, this
is a longitudinal stress = F/A.

The deformation of the leftmost (white)

disk can be quantified as the longitudinal
ΔL
strain =
L

Previously defined the longitudinal modulus as ψ = longitudinal stress / longitudinal strain

This strain produces a force that will cause the shaded section of the rock to accelerate to the
right. This lowers the stress to the left, but increases it to the right. This causes the next section of
the rock to move and so on. Can show that a wave motion will move down the column at a
velocity
ψ
v=
ρ

where ρ is the density of the material. Note that the stiffer the medium (larger ψ) the greater the
force on the shaded cylinder, thus acceleration is higher and wave velocity is greater. Similarly,
as density increases, the shaded section becomes heavier and it’s acceleration (and wave
velocity) for a given force will decrease.

In general, the calculation of velocity is more complicated as the deformation will involve both
compression and shearing. The bulk modulus and shear modulus must be considered. Thus the
P-wave velocity can be written as

1
1
⎡K + 4 μ ⎤2 ⎡μ ⎤2
vP = ⎢ 3 ⎥ and the S-wave velocity as vS = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ρ ⎥ ⎣ρ⎦
⎣ ⎦

Note that:

● P-waves always travel faster than S-waves(hence primary and secondary names)

● Two shear wave polarizations exist. Consider a wave travelling horizontally. Particles can
move vertically (SV) or horizontally (SH)..

● In a liquid μ=0 while K is always non-zero. Thus only P-waves can travel in a liquid, since
shear stresses cannot exist. Important for outer core

● These expressions for vP and vS do not depend on frequency, thus body waves (both P-waves
and S-waves) are non-dispersive.

● As the rock cylinder is stretched, it will get longer and thinner. This effect can be quantified
through Poissons ratio. This is defined as:

σ= lateral strain
longitudinal strain

5
● Individual values of vP and vS depend on several modulii and density. This can make it difficult
to compare the velocities of similar rocks.

It can be shown that vp/vs = [2(1-σ)/(1-2σ)]½

For typical consolidated crustal rocks, σ ~ 0.25 and vp/vs ~ 1.7. An increase in vp/vs and/or
Poisson’s ratio can be indicative of the presence of fluids.

Further reading
More detailed derivation of wave equation in Fowler(2005), chapter 4 and Appendix 2.

More animations can be found at

http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm

C1.3.2 Surface waves

Surface waves are localized at the Earth’s surface and can be divided into two types.
See Fowler (2005) Figure 4.4

Rayleigh Waves (LR)

• Occur on the surface of any object. e.g ripples on a lake.
• Particle motion is in a retrograde ellipse. Combination of and vertical polarized S-waves.
• Large earthquakes can generate surface waves that travel around the globe. They can be
large in amplitude and cause a lot of damage during earthquakes.
• In exploration seismology, ground roll is a Rayleigh wave that travels across the
geophone array.
• Movie clip of surface waves after an underground nuclear explosion in Alaska
• The velocity of a Rayleigh wave does not vary with frequency when travelling in a
uniform medium and it is slower than an S-wave. In a layered Earth the velocity of a
Rayleigh wave varies with frequency (it is dispersive) and can be used to infer velocity
variation with depth. Example in Fowler (2005) Figure 4.5 and 4.6

Love waves (LQ)

• have a horizontal particle motion analogous to SH -waves.
• Love waves only exist if the Earth is layered and
• are always dispersive.

6
C1.4 Typical seismic velocities for Earth materials

Typical values for P-wave velocities in km s-1 include:

Sand (dry) 0.2-1.0

Wet sand 1.5-2.0
Clay 1.0-2.5

Tertiary sandstone 2.0-2.5

Cambrian quartzite 5.5-6.0
Cretaceous chalk 2.0-2.5
Carboniferous limestone 5.0-5.5
Salt 4.5-5.0

Granite 5.5-6.0
Gabbro 6.5-7.0
Ultramafics 7.5-8.5

Air 0.3
Water 1.4-1.5
Ice 3.4
Petroleum 1.3-1.4

● why does vp apparently increase with density? e.g. for the sequence granite-ultramafics.
1
⎡K + 4 μ ⎤2
The equation v P = ⎢ 3 ⎥ suggests that vp should decrease as density increases.
⎢ ρ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
● Birch’s Law (Fowler Figure 4.2). Linear relationship of seismic velocity and density.

Variation of seismic velocity with depth

With increasing depth, compaction increase the density of a rock through reduction of pore
space. The rigidity of the rock also increases with depth. The net effect is that velocity will
increase with depth, even if the lithology does not change.

7
C1.5 Propagation of seismic waves
As a seismic wave travels through the Earth, several factors will change the direction and
amplitude of the waves. When detected at the surface, an understanding of these factors can tell
us about sub-surface structure.

C1.5.1 Reflection coefficients at normal incidence

Consider a seismic wave that is travelling vertically downwards, as shown in the figure below. If
the wave reaches an interface, some of the energy will be transmitted, and some will be reflected.
Note that the waves travels from medium 1 into medium 2.

For each medium, the impedance is defined as the product of density (ρ) and seismic velocity (v),
Z = ρv

The reflection coefficient, R, is defined as

Ar v ρ −v ρ Z − Z1
=R= 2 2 1 1 = 2
Ai v 2 ρ 2 + v1 ρ1 Z 2 + Z 1

and the transmission coefficient, T, is

defined as

At 2v1 ρ1 2Z1
=T = =
Ai v 2 ρ 2 + v1 ρ1 Z 2 + Z1

The reflection coefficient is a measure of the change in impedance across the interface. These
equations are called the Zoeppritz equations. If the wave is incident at an angle the become more
complicated.
Note that reflection co-efficients are expressed in terms of energy, not amplitude.

Example 1

The MATLAB script reflect_v1.m generates a movie showing how a seismic pulse propagates in
the Earth. For simplicity, density is constant and only velocity varies with depth. In this example
there is an increase in seismic velocity (and impedance) at 500 m. Note that the reflection has the
same polarity as the down going pulse.

What are the values of R and T? Is the largest amplitude in the reflected or transmitted wave?

Example 2

Same geometry as Example 1, but a decrease in velocity (impedance) occurs at 500 m depth.
Note that the reflected pulse has the opposite (negative) polarity to the down going pulse. Is this
what the Zoeppritz equations predict?

What are the values of R and T? Is the largest amplitude in the reflected or transmitted wave?

8
C1.5.2 Reflection and refraction at non-normal incidence

In a more general case, the seismic wave will be incident on an interface at some angle of
incidence, θi. Note that the angle of incidence is measured from the normal to the ray. Snell’s
Law was developed for optics, but can equally be applied to the seismic case. Consider a P-wave
that strikes the interface shown below. In this case v2 > v1

9
Reflected and refracted P-waves are generated from the incident P-wave. For the reflected P-
wave, θr = θi . Snell’s Law states that the ray parameter, p, for the incident and refracted waves
will be constant.

sin θ i sin θ t sin θ r

p= = =
v1 v2 v1

Thus with a velocity increase (v2 > v1) the ray is refracted away from the normal.

If the velocity decreases (v2 < v1) then the ray is refracted towards the normal.

Note that if v2 > v1 then there will be a value of θi which results in sin θt = 1. This gives a value
of θt = 90˚ and the refracted waves travels horizontally. In this configuration θi = θc and is called
the critical angle.

sin 90 o sin θ c ⎛ v1 ⎞
= and by rearranging we find that θ c = sin −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
v2 v1 ⎝ v2 ⎠

The wave travelling horizontally is called a head wave. For a head wave to develop, we must
have v2 > v1. Using Huyghen’s Principle, it can be shown that the head wave will generate
upward propagating wave at an angle θc to the normal. When these waves reach the geophones
they are called refracted arrivals. When θi > θc the wave is totally reflected.

In general we must also consider that the incident P-wave will generate a reflected S-wave and a
refracted S-wave through a process called mode conversion. See Fowler(2005) Figure 4.35
Again Snell’s Law can be used to calculate the angles of reflection and refraction.
sin θ i sin θ tP sin θ tS
p= = =
v1 v 2P v 2S

The amplitudes of the transmitted and

reflected waves can be calculated from
Zoeppritz’s equations, which have a more
complicated form than those listed in
C1.5.1 The amplitude of the reflected wave
varies with angle, and is sensitive to the
change in impedance across the boundary.
Example in Fowler (2005) Figure 4.37.

This is the physical basis of the amplitude

versus offset (AVO) technique.

10
C1.5.3 Diffraction

Seismic energy can sometimes travel in regions where ray theory (Snell’s Law) does not predict
that it will go. This is typified by diffraction which occurs when a wave strikes an object that is
significantly smaller than a wavelength. A diffractor radiates seismic energy in all directions.

When a wave strikes a corner, Huyghens Principle shows that the corner will generate waves that
propagate in all directions. We will see in real seismic reflection data that these waves can have
significant amplitudes and are detected over a wide area at the surface.

C1.5.4 Factors that cause the amplitude to change as wave propagates

(a) Geometrical spreading

Imagine a wave travelling outward from a point source. If the wave has travelled a distance r ,
then the wavefront covers an area A =4πr2.At this point the wave has an amplitude of X. The
energy is a wave is proportional to X2 . Thus

Total energy = X2 4πr2

Conservation of energy requires that this quantity remain constant as r increases. Thus

1 1
X2 α and Xα
r2 r

As a seismic wave travels in the Earth the amplitude will decrease as 1/r, even if no energy is
lost. This phenomena is known as spherical divergence or geometric spreading.

11
(b) Attenuation
As a wave passes through the Earth, the particle motion causes the material to be distorted and
the wave energy is converted in heat. This results in an additional loss of energy, that is described
by an exponential decay:

X = Xo e-kr

Where e = 2.718, Xo is the amplitude at r=0 and k is a constant. If k is small, the attenuation will
be small, as k increases, the attenuation becomes stronger. In a distance 1/k the amplitude falls
1
from Xo to Xo .
e

Another common definition is the absorption coefficient, α, expressed in decibels per

wavelength. This is based on the observation that the energy lost is dependent on the number of
oscillations per second produced by the wave. Thus high frequencies will attenuation more
quickly than low frequencies. This is illustrated in the MATLAB script waves_attenuation.m.

• A consequence of frequency-
dependent attenuation is that the
shape of a seismic pulse can change
as it propagates through the Earth.
• This occurs because, as the pulse
travels the short wavelength
signals attenuate more quickly.

• The long wavelengths dominate,

giving the pulse a smoother shape
and longer duration.

(c) Scattering

Suppose a medium is inhomogeneous and

contains some grains with a different
seismic velocity to the host rock. Seismic
waves will be diffracted / scattered from
these grains and energy will be lost from
the coherent wavefronts and turned into
random seismic energy. The net result is
that energy will be lost.

Footnote : Decibels
A seismic wave changes in amplitude from A1 to A2 as it travels from point 1 to point 2. The
corresponding intensity changes from I1 to I2. Note that I1 = A12. This change in decibels can be
expressed as :
⎛I ⎞ ⎛A ⎞
dB = 10 log10 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 20 log10 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜I ⎟ ⎜A ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

12
C1.6 Seismic energy sources
Seismic exploration is an active technique. In contrast to gravity studies, a signal must be
generated. A range of techniques can be used, depending on the depth of study.

1.6.1 Commercial exploration

More details in http://www-geo.phys.ualberta.ca/~unsworth/UA-classes/224/notes224.html

Shallow exploration on land : hammer on a plate, weight drops, specialized guns

Offshore : air guns, explosives

Deeper studies on land : vibroseis, conventional explosives, nuclear explosions

Drilling shot holes in Tibet, 1994 1000 kg shot

1.6.2 Earthquakes See section C2.

1.6.3 Frequency content of seismic sources

Earthquake surface waves 0.1-0.01 Hz

Earthquake body waves 10-0.1 Hz
Vibroseis 10-100 Hz
Air guns 10-100 Hz
Explosives 10-300 Hz

C1.7 Seismic detectors

1.7.1 Electromagnetic detection (geophones)
On land, the surface moves as a P-wave or S-wave arrives. Generally reflected signals arrive at
steep angles of incidence. Thus P-waves produce surface motion that is dominantly vertical.
Geophones measure ground motion by converting motion into electrical signals. Most geophones
measure a single component (vertical), but multiple component ones are sometimes used.

13
Geophones are manufactured to detect a particular frequency band. This should match the seismic
source being used in a particular survey.

1.7.2 Mechanical seismometer

Measure lower frequencies than geophones.Use a stationary mass. Measures motion of the Earth
relative to the mass. Can measure vertical or horizontal motion.

http://www.thetech.org/exhibits/online/quakes/seismo/
For earthquake studies a more permanent installation is usually required. Three components are
usually recorded and the sensor is tuned to detect lower frequencies. Often the seismometer is
placed in a shallow vault to minimize wind and other forms of noise.

Seismometers, can also be deployed in the deep ocean (Ocean bottom seismometers – OBS) and
are dropped to the seafloor from a ship. Coupling with the seafloor allows 3 components of
motion to be recorded (i.e. P-waves and S-waves can be detected).

Dalhousie University OBS on deck Scripps Institution of Oceanography OBS

1.7.3 Accelerometers

1.7.4 Hydrophones
Only sensitive to pressure changes so only P-waves detected. Used in marine surveys.

Geophysics 210, 2007

14
210 C2 Earthquake seismology

C2.1 Introduction

C2.1.1 Geographic distribution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake

• Distribution of earthquakes is very non-uniform.

• Clear relationship with plate motion and plate boundaries.
• Three types of plate boundary (convergent, divergent, transform)
• Narrow zones of deformation in the oceans and broader in continents
• Energy source to illuminate the interior of the Earth.

http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/historic_eq/caneqmap_e.php

• What controls earthquake distribution in Canada?

C2.1.2 Energy release and the largest earthquakes

Energy release is distributed as follows:

• 75-80% of in circum-Pacific region
• 15-20% in Alpine-Himalayan belt
• 3-7% at mid-ocean ridges
• 1% in intraplate earthquakes

Largest earthquakes since 1900

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/10_largest_world.php

1. Chile M=9.5 1960

2. Alaska M=9.2 1964
3. Sumatra M=9.1 2004
4. Kamchatka M=9.0 1952
5. Ecuador M=8.8 1906
6. Rat Islands, Alaska M=8.7 1965
7. Northern Sumatra M=8.6 2005
8. Assam- Tibet M=8.6 1950
9. Andreanof Island, Alaska M=8.6 1957
10. Banda Sea M=8.5 1938
11. Kamchatka M=8.5 1923
12. Chile-Argentina M=8.5 1922
13. Kuril Islands M=8.5 1963
C2.1.3 Depth variations of earthquakes

• Most earthquakes occur where the rocks are strong enough to undergo brittle
failure. See details later.

• Increasing temperature with depth occurs a rate of 10-20° C per km. At mid-
crustal depths this means that a temperature is reached which causes the
behaviour of rock to change from brittle failure to creep under an applied stress.
This is called the brittle-ductile transition and in the continents occurs in the
mid-crust. This phenomena can be seen in the figure below under NE Japan.

• Deeper earthquakes can occur in subduction zones where one plate descends into
the mantle. These regions were recognized in early 20th century and called
Benioff zones. Earthquakes in these regions can extend to depths of hundreds of
kilometres.

• In some locations the earthquake hypocentres show two parallel planes (double
Benioff zone)

• Some subduction zone earthquakes may be caused by phase changes from one
mineral to another, and are associated with a reduction of volume (equivalent to
implosions)

C2.1.4 Online earthquake resources

United States Geological Survey http://earthquake.usgs.gov/

Geological Survey of Canada http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e.php
IRIS http://www.iris.edu/seismon/
POLARIS http://www.polarisnet.ca
C2.2 The physics of Earthquakes

C2.2.1 Stress axes and faults

• Most earthquakes occur because of the mechanical failure on brittle faults.

• The type of faulting is a consequence of the stress pattern causing the failure.

Greatest shear occurs on a plane at an angle of 45° to both the maximum and minimum
stress axes.

σ1 horizontal σ3 vertical Thrust fault

σ1 vertical σ3 horizontal Normal fault

σ1 horizontal σ3 horizontal Strike-slip fault

C2.2.2 Focal mechanisms and fault plane solutions

• When a fault ruptures, the

direction of fault motion will
determine if the first P-wave will
be a compression or a dilation.

• Depending on the direction that

the P-waves travels, the first
motion can be a compression or
a dilation.

• The pattern of compression and

dilation is different for different
types of faults.

1
• The focal mechanism can be determined by considering a hemisphere below the
earthquake hypocentre (focal sphere).

• Directions corresponding to a compressive first motion are shaded black or red.

• Directions corresponding to a dilation as first motion are shaded white.

• Note the 90° ambiguity

• Strike-slip fault Fowler Figure 4.22

• Thrust and normal faults shown in Fowler Figure 4.25

• Generally this process is applied

in reverse. Observations of first
arrivals at many seismic stations
from around the world are
analysed and used to determine
the fault plane solution. The
fault-plane solution is the
distribution of P and T axes that
best fit the observed data.

• Note the inherent ambiguity in

the fault plane solution. The
fault motion could have been
along the true fault plane, or an
auxiliary plane at 90°

• Example Fowler 4.26

• Online results often available

immediately after an earthquake.
Example of a centroid moment
tensor (CMT) solution from the -----------
###############----
M=8.4 earthquake close to ####################---
Sumatra on September 12 2007. ########################---
-############### ########--
----############# T #########--
•
------########### #########--
Note that this is a very shallow ---------######################--
thrust fault. -----------####################--
--------------#################--
-----------------##############--
• Looking at other historical -------------------###########-
------- ------------########-
mechanisms can also elucidate ------ P -----------------##-
the mechanisms. Spatial ----- ------------------#
----------------------#
distribution of seismicity is also -------------------
important (see below) -----------

2
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2007/us2007hear/

C2.2.3 Rock friction

• The plane between the block and the surface has a normal stress σn
• In this example this is caused by the weight of the block (F=mg)
• A shear stress τ is applied and increased until the block slides.
• For sliding to occur τ > μ S σ n
• μS is called the coefficient of static friction

Byerlee’s Law
Measurements on crustal rocks at realistic pressures show a linear relationship known as
Byerlee’s Law:

3
 High normal stress σn > 200 MPa τ = 50 + 0.6σ n

Low normal stress σn < 200 MPa τ = 0.85σ n

Reference : Byerlee, J., Friction of Rocks, Pageoph, 116, 615-626, 1987.

A lower co-efficient of friction can be caused by the presence of fluids or clay

minerals in the fault. See discussion later on about the apparent weakness of the
San Andreas Fault.

Stick-slip motion

Example 1

• Commonly observed that the coefficient of friction varies with sliding rate.
• When no motion occurs μ = μ S = static friction coefficient
• When motion occurs μ = μ D = dynamic friction coefficient
• Commonly observed that μS > μD
• This dynamic weakening leads to the possibility of stick-slip motion
• This is illustrated in the following MATLAB animation : eq1mass_line.m
• Two masses are connected by a spring
• Right hand mass (m1) moves at a constant velocity to the right (vdrive = 2 m/s)
• Bar chart shows tensional force in the spring (Newtons)
• Static coefficient of friction μS = 0.9
• Frictional force keeping m2 in place = μS g m2

4
• When tensional force is stronger than frictional force, the mass m2 slides right.
• Dynamic coefficient of friction μD = 0.7
• μD < μS means that once m2 slides, it keeps moving for a while.
• This corresponds to an “earthquake” and the masses turn red on display.
• MATLAB script computes the position, velocity and acceleration. These
quantities are updated for many short time steps.
• During an earthquake, the stress in the spring is released. However, not all the
energy stored in the spring is released.
• Once m2 stops moving return to μ = μS
• This produces a sequence of regular earthquakes, all with the same size (M=1.8).
• M = moment of earthquake, which is a measure of the energy release. (see the
definition later on). N is the number of earthquakes with that moment.

Example 2 - change μD to 0.4 (more dynamic weakening)

5
 • This allows almost all the stored energy to be released during the earthquake,
which results in a longer repeat time between earthquakes.
• The size (moment) of the earthquake is increased compared to previous case

Example 3 - increase vdrive to 4 m/s (faster fault motion)

• Same size of earthquake as Example 1

• Repeat time between earthquakes is shorter.

In the earth this cycle can be observed by slow elastic deformation between earthquakes,
often with a timescale of centuries. During an earthquake the energy is released in a few
seconds. This is termed elastic rebound. See Fowler(2005) Figure 4.19

http://www.uwgb.edu/DutchS/EarthSC202Notes/quakes.htm

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Offset sidewalk in Hollister, California in 1999. This motions has been caused by
creep on the Calaveras Fault.
(b) Offset river channel caused by 1999 Izmit Earthquake in Turkey.
(c) Offset gas station that resulted from the 1999 Izmit Earthquake in Turkey.

6
C2.2.4 Measuring the size of earthquakes

(a) Gutenberg-Richter Scale (1935)

⎛A ⎞
M S = log10 ⎜ S ⎟ + 1.66 log10 Δ + 3.3
⎝ T ⎠
AS = amplitude of surface wave motion in microns

T = period of surface wave (around 20 seconds)

Δ = distance to earthquake epicentre (degrees)

• Empirical measure developed in Southern California to convert magnitude of

ground motion at a seismic station into a measure of the size of a distant
earthquake.

• The ‘S’ denotes surface wave.

• By choosing the surface waves, this measure records the maximum amount of
shaking.

(b) Body wave magnitude

Alternative definition from amplitudes of P-waves with period 1-5 seconds. These are
the first arrivals and have a smaller amplitude than the surface waves, which can make
measurement more difficult.

⎛A ⎞
M B = log10 ⎜ P ⎟ + 0.01Δ + 5.9
⎝ T ⎠

Related to Gutenberg-Richter magnitude as:

M B = 0.56 M S + 2.9

(c) Seismic moment

The previous measures compute the size of an earthquake from ground motion during the
earthquake. The size of an earthquake can also be expressed in terms of how much the
Earth moved during an earthquake

7
Seismic moment is defined as:
M 0 = μDA
where the an area of fault-plane A slips a distance of D during the earthquake (A=LW)
and shear modulus = μ

Can express a moment magnitude as

2
MW = log 10 M 0 − 6
3

This is generally a more reliable estimate of the size than either Mb or MS

L : Determine from observations of surface rupture. Also from INSAR data.

D : Determine from surface observations of rupture

Spitak, Armenia, (1988) Duzce, Turkey, (1999)

W : More difficult to estimate, but cannot exceed depth of brittle-ductile transition.

Constraints from aftershock distribution, surface deformation (INSAR etc)

Inversion of waveform data

Example from Chi-Chi
earthquake in Taiwan in 1999
http://seismo.berkeley.edu/annual_report/
ar99_00/node19.html

8
(d) Mercalli scale
This is another way of measuring the size of an earthquake through the damage it causes.

Details : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/mercalli.php

Number Name Description

I Instrumental Detected by seismographs, usually not felt.

II Feeble A few people might notice movement if they are at rest and/or on the upper
floors of tall buildings.

III Slight Felt by many, often mistaken for a passing vehicle. Shaking felt indoors;
hanging objects swing back and forth. People outdoors might not realize that an
earthquake is occurring.

IV Moderate Most people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing, parked cars might
rock. Dishes, windows, and doors rattle. The earthquake feels like a heavy
truck hitting the walls. A few people outdoors may feel movement.

V Rather strong Almost everyone feels movement. Sleeping people are awakened. Doors swing
open or closed, dishes are broken, pictures on the wall move. Cracked walls,
trees disturbed.

VI Strong Felt by all. Many run outdoors. Slight damage occurs. Stronger shaking can
cause people to fall over and walls and ceilings to crack. People walk
unsteadily; windows break; pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Trees and
bushes shake

VII Very strong Everyone runs outdoors. Poorly built buildings suffer severe damage. Slight
damage everywhere else. Difficult to stand; plaster, bricks, and tiles fall; large
bells ring. Drivers feel their cars shaking. Some furniture breaks. Loose bricks
fall from buildings. People fall over.

VIII Destructive Tall buildings sway, furniture breaks, cars swerve. Everyone runs outdoors.
Moderate to major damage. Minor damage to specially designed buildings.
Chimneys and walls collapse. Drivers have trouble steering. Houses that are
not bolted down might shift on their foundations. Tree branches break. Hillsides
might crack if the ground is wet. Water levels in wells might change.

IX Ruinous Ground cracks, well-constructed buildings damaged, pipes break. All buildings
suffer major damage. General panic; damage to foundations; sand and mud
bubble from ground. Reservoirs suffer serious damage.

X Disastrous Landslides, ground cracks widely. Major damage. Most buildings and their
foundations are destroyed. Some bridges are destroyed. Water is thrown on the
banks of canals, rivers, and lakes. Railroad tracks are bent slightly.

XI Very disastrous Bridges and buildings destroyed, large fissures open. Almost all structures fall.
Very wide cracks in ground. Railway tracks bend; roads break up; rocks fall.
Underground pipelines are destroyed.

XII Catastrophic Rocks moved, objects thrown about. Total destruction. Ground surface waves
seen. River courses altered. Large amounts of rock may move.

http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/seismology/intensity.htm

9
(e) Energy and earthquakes

Earthquakes can release huge amounts of energy. The figure below gives an idea of how
a given magnitude relates to other phenomena.

Additional energy-magnitude information can be found at:

http://www.uwgb.edu/DutchS/EarthSC202Notes/quakes.htm

During the century from 1906-2005

almost half of the energy released was
in just three earthquakes.

10
2.2.5 Frequency magnitude relations

There are more small earthquakes than large earthquakes.

• Example from Southern California for period 1932-1972.

• Note that departures from a straight line are observed for M>6
• These large events are infrequent and the observation period (40 years) is not
enough to record a statistically significantly number.

• This is described empirically by the Gutenberg-Richter Law:

log N = a − bM S

• N is number of events of magnitude MS

• a and b are empirical constants
• Worldwide observed that b =1
• Following numbers from Fowler.

M Description Number per year

>8 Great 1-3
7-8 Major <20
6-7 Strong 180
5-6 Moderate 1,800
4-5 Light 10,000
3-4 Minor 90,000
2-3 Very minor 1,000,000

11
Queen Charlotte Fault

http://seismescanada.rncan.gc.ca/zones/cascadia/megafig_e.php

• This example shows the earthquake statistics on the Queen Charlotte Fault.
• This is a transform fault to the north of the Cascadia subduction zone.
• The largest earthquakes occur very infrequently.
• If an M=9 event occurs on this fault, then it’s frequency of occurrence can (in
principle) be estimated.

MATLAB animation : eq15mass_ring_2007.m

• Similar to demonstration above, but with 15 masses moving on a line

• Masses at each end are moved at constant rate
• μS = 0.7 and μD = 0.6
• Can think of this as representing a set of fault segments. If one segment ruptures
then a small earthquake results. If the rupture can break into adjacent segments
then a larger earthquake will occur.

12
• The end springs undergo frequent earthquakes and transfer stress to adjacent
springs. Once 2 or more springs fail together , a larger “earthquake” occurs.
• More complicated pattern than previous example with one mass.
• Many small earthquakes and fewer larger earthquakes.
• Larger events (M=4) followed by period of no earthquakes.
• Larger events (M=4) associated with a major energy loss.
• Shows some characteristics of a chaotic system. This includes the period-
doubling, non-repeating behaviour and high sensitivity to initial conditions.

This computer model is obviously too simple to represent a real fault, but it does
reproduce some important aspects of the sequence of earthquakes observed on a real
fault zone.

• approximate straight line on number-moment plot (Gutenberg-Richter

relationship)
• upper limit to maximum size of earthquake
• random, non-repeating sequence of earthquakes
• period of low activity after the largest events have released significant energy

13
C2.2.6 Typical seismograms

(1) Historical recording

Seismogram recorded in Gottingen (Germany) of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/18april/seismogram.php

(2) Modern high quality seismic record

http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~shao/links.html

(3) Almost real time seismic data from the POLARIS network

• NRCan operates a national

seismic network. This was
supplemented by the POLARIS
project.
• List of recent events recorded on
a Canadian network that uses
satellite telemetry to return
signals from remote areas.
http://www.polarisnet.ca/events/data/waveform.html
• Note that signal-to-noise ration
varies with earthquake
magnitude and distance.

14
2.2.7 Earthquake locations

Hypocenter : location at which rupture begins. Note that the rupture will have a finite
size, but the location determined is usually where it begins.

Epicenter : point on surface directly above the hypocenter.

earthquake_locations_P_wave.m

• Earthquake occurs at location marked by star at time t = 0

• Assume that P-waves travel horizontal in the Earth
• Note that P-waves are non-dispersive (body waves)
• Seismograms record P-waves at 3 stations. P-wave velocity is vP
• From the travel time can compute ranges from each seismic station.
• Simple to show that r1 = t1 vP ; r2 = t2 vP; r3 = t3 vP
• One station defines a circle. Cannot determine azimuth from ground motion.
• Two stations give two possible locations. Three stations give a unique location
(epicentre).
• Why will this not work in practice? Do not know when earthquake occurred!

15
earthquake_locations_PS_wave.m

• As before but S-waves recorded. Note that they travel slower than the P-waves

• If P-wave and S-wave arrivals overlap, it can be difficult to pick arrival time of
the S-waves.

• Note that time delay between P-waves and S-waves increases with distance.

(t1S − t1P )v P v s (t S − t 2P )v P v s (t S − t 3P )v P v s
• Compute ranges as r1 = ; r2 = 2 ; r3 = 3
(v P − v S ) (v P − v S ) (v P − v S )

• Can also compute the time at which the earthquake occurred

16
earthquake_locations_PS_wave_problem_1.m (Left)

• When three stations are collinear, a unique location is not obtained

earthquake_locations_PS_wave_problem_2.m (Right)

• Data from a fourth station is needed to locate the epicentre

Extend this analysis to compute depth of hypocentre

• Trade of between depth and time of earthquake

17
C2.3 Plate boundary earthquakes
C2.3.1 Strike-slip faults

2.3.1.1. San Andreas Fault

Location and history

• Formed by the collision of a mid-ocean ridge with a subduction zone.
• Triple junction located at each end of fault.
• Actually a system of faults, but up to 40% of motion accommodated on
relatively straight central segment in Central California.
http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/socal/geology/geologic_history/san_andreas_history.html

Characteristics

• Northern segment is locked and

last ruptured in 1906 San
Francisco earthquake.
• Southern segment last ruptured
in 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake.
• Central creeping segment
extends from Hollister to
Parkfield and has numerous
small earthquakes M < 5.
• At Parkfield the fault changes
from creeping to locked and a
series of repeating M=6
earthquakes has been observed.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Fault creep in Hollister on the Calaveras Fault

(b) Wallace Creek at Carrizo Plain showing offset of a number of major earthquakes,
including the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake (http://lidar.asu.edu/KnowledgeBase/WCptcount/)
(c) Offset creeks at Carrizo Plain (USGS photo)

1
 Weak fault zone?

• Map showing direction of σ1 in

Central and Southern California.
The direction of maximum
compressive stress is at a high
angle to the San Andreas Fault.
• It is not at the 45° angle
expected for a strong fault
(Zoback et al., 1987).
• Suggest that the fault moves
with a lower shear stress than
expected. Requires a low co-
efficient of friction on the fault
plane.

Parkfield

Parkfield has experienced a series of

M=6 earthquakes since record began in
1857. The M = 6 earthquakes nucleate
at depth of 10 km. This regular pattern
led to a prediction of another earthquake
in 1988. In anticipation of observing
possible pre-cursors, many instruments
were installed at Parkfield.

• A number of the repeating earthquakes have very similar waveforms.

Seismograms above recorded at the deBilt seismic station in the Netherlands. The
similarity of these characteristic earthquakes suggests that they have ruptured
exactly the same part of the fault.
• Some have suggested that this can be explained by fluid cycling in the fault.

2
 • Much smaller repeating earthquakes have also been observed at Parkfield with
M=0 to M =1 and depths 2-7 km. These earthquake clusters are within the depth
range of drilling and are a target of the SAFOD project.
• The predicted earthquake finally occurred in 2004, and not in the same place as
previous earthquakes (Bakun et al., 2005)

SAFOD (San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault_Observatory_at_Depth
http://www.earthscope.org/index.php/es_obs/safod_obs

• Resistivity model is from Unsworth et al., (2000). Low resistivity in the fault zone is
due to high porosity and saline fluids. Earthquakes begin where this feature
terminates.
• Google “SAFOD” images to see how widely used this figure is! Also note how
rarely the source is acknowledged.
• October 4 NSF Press release. “Geologists Recover Rocks From San Andreas Fault”.
"Now we can hold the San Andreas Fault in our hands" Mark Zoback, 2007
http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=110106&org=NSF&from=news

San Francisco Bay Area earthquakes.

• Few earthquakes on the San Andreas Fault, which is locked at this location.
• Hayward Fault located on east side of Bay. Fowler Figure 4.14

San Francisco (1906)

• Moment magnitude Mw = 7.8
• Major right lateral earthquake. Offset fences gave idea that significant horizontal
motion was occurring on the SAF.
• Maps labelled San Andreas rift zone for many years as sag ponds also noted on
surface.

Loma Prieta (1989)

• Moment magnitude = 6.9 (Surface wave magnitude = 7.1)

3
 • Magnetic precursor to earthquake? Fraser-Smith et al., (1991)

The Big One?

• Is California overdue for a large earthquake on the San Andreas Fault?

• Fialko (2006) gives geodetic evidence that the Southern segment is overdue for a
major earthquake with a slip deficit of 7-10 metres.

General information on San Andreas Fault http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3/contents.html

2.3.1.2 Anatolian faults system

Figure courtesy of Roland Armijo, IPG, Paris

• East and North Anatolian Faults are a result of the collision of the Arabian and
Eurasian plates, has forced the Anatolian Plate west.
• Subduction occurs in the Aegean Sea.
• Three plates meet at the Karliova triple junction (K)

North Anatolian Fault (NAF)

• Westward propagating sequence of earthquakes began in Erzincan in 1939.
• No creeping segments observed.

4
• Stress modelling has shown that the sequence can be explained by each
earthquake increasing the stress on the neighbouring segment (Stein et al., 1997)
• Latest earthquake August 17 1999 M = 7.6 and caused major loss of life in İzmit
and other cities southeast of Istanbul.
• The 1999 İzmit earthquake was predicted (statistically) by Stein et al (1997).
• INSAR data was useful in constraining seismic moment as some of the rupture
occurred under the Sea of Marmara.
• The 1999 earthquake has increased the risk of a major earthquake on the next
segment to the west in the Sea of Marmara. Since this is closer to Istanbul this
has serious consequences for Istanbul (Parsons, 2000).

• Fowler Figure 10.20

• Erzincan is the location of a major pull-apart basin and site of more recent
earthquakes.

NAF at Duzce NAF at Erzincan

5
East Anatolian Fault (EAF)
• Less studied than North Anatolian Fault
• Seismic hazard not well documented

East Anatolian Fault at Hazar Golu, Eastern Turkey

2.3.1.3 Northern Tibet

• Altyn Tagh and Kunlun faults are a consequence of India-Asia collision.

• Altyn Tagh Fault marks the boundary between the actively deforming Tibetan
Plateau and relative stable Tarim Basin.

• Debate over rate of motion, which has consequences tectonic models of the India-
Asia collision (Bedrosian et al., 2001). Geodetic measurements give slow rate
(Bendick et al.,2000) while paleoseismology gives higher rates (Meriaux et al.,
2003).

2.3.1.4 Transform faults on mid-ocean ridges.

• Direct of first motion gave important evidence for nature of mid-ocean ridges.
• Prediction by Tuzo Wilson in 1965 showed that motion could distinguish
between transform fault and transcurrent faults.
• Seismic evidence from Sykes (1967) obtained through study of focal
mechanisms.

Wilson (1965)

6
 Sykes (1967)

References

Bakun, W. H., and A. G. Lindh, The Parkfield, California, Earthquake Prediction

Experiment, Science, 229, 619-624, 1985.
Bakun, W.H. et al., Implications for prediction and hazard assesment from the 2004
Parkfield earthquake, Nature, 437, 969-974, 2005
Bedrosian, P.A., M.J. Unsworth and F. Wang, Structure of the Altyn Tagh Fault and Daxue
Shan from magnetotelluric surveys: implications for faulting associated with the rise of
the Tibetan Plateau, Tectonics, 20, 474-486, 2001.
Bendick R., R. Bilham, J. Freymueller, K. Larson and A. Yin, Geodetic evidence for a low
slip rate in the Altyn Tagh fault system, Nature, 404, 69, 2000.
Fialko, Y., Interseismic strain accumulation and the earthquake potential on the southern San
Andreas fault system, Nature, 441,968-971, 2006.
Fraser-Smith, A. C., A. Bernardi, P. R. McGill, M. E. Ladd, R. A. Helliwell, and O. G.
Villard, Low-Frequency Magnetic Field Measurements Near The Epicenter of the Ms
7.1 Loma Prieta Earthquake, GRL, 17, 1465-1468, 1990.
Meriaux, A.S., F.J. Ryerson, P. Tapponier, J. Van der Woerd, R.C. Finkel, X. Xu, Z. Xu,
M.W. Caffee, Rapid slip along the central Altyn Tagh Fault : Morphological evidence
from Cherchen He and Sulamu Tagh, J. Geophys. Res, 109,
doi:10.1029/2003JB002558, 2003
Parsons, T., Heightened odds of large earthquakes near Istanbul: An Interaction based
probability calculation, Science, 288, 661, 2000.
Stein, R., Progressive failure on the North Anatolian Fault since 1939 by earthquake stress
triggering, GJI, 128, 594-604, 1997.
Sykes, L.R., Mechanism of earthquakes and nature of faulting on the mid-Oceanic ridge,
Journal of Geophysical Research, 72, 2131-2153, 1967.
Unsworth, M.J., P.A. Bedrosian, M. Eisel, G.D. Egbert, W. Siripunarvaporn, Along-strike
variations in the electrical structure of the San Andreas Fault at Parkfield, California,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3021-3024, 2000.
Wilson, J.T., A New Class of Faults and their Bearing on Continental Drift, Nature 207, 343 -
347 (24 July 1965); doi:10.1038/207343a0
Zoback, New evidence of the state of stress on the San Andreas fault system, Science, 238,
1105, 1987.

7
C2.3.2 Earthquakes at convergent margins and subduction zones

C2.3.2.1 General characteristics

• Majority of yearly seismic energy release occurs in subduction zone earthquakes.

• Dipping zones of earthquakes are called Wadati-Benioff zones.
• Three possible configurations (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_boundary)

(1) Both plates oceanic

e.g. Aleutians, Kurils, Marianas

(2) More dense oceanic crust subducts

below less dense continental crust

e.g. Cascadia, west coast South

America, Sumatra

(3) Both plates comprise continental

crust. Too buoyant for subduction and a
mountain belt forms

e.g. India-Asia collision in Himalaya

and Tibet, Arabia-Eurasia collision in
Eastern Anatolia

• Subduction zone geometry, from ocean to land includes : trench, accretionary prism,
forearc basin, volcanic arc, back arc basin.

• The descending slab takes time to heat up to the temperature of the surrounding
mantle. As a consequence, it has a slightly higher seismic velocity than the
surrounding mantle. This allows the slab to be located with seismic tomography.
Details of this method in C3.

Fowler 9.60a Western North America

Fowler 9.60b Japan
Fowler 9.60c Tonga trench in South Pacific

• Earthquakes occur in a range of tectonic settings.

8
 Stein and Wysession (2003)

(a) Small earthquakes in both the over-riding and subducting plate.

Proximity to surface can cause strong shaking and serious damage.

(b) Megathrust earthquakes, up to M = 9. Cascadia (1700), Chile (1960),

Alaska (1964), Sumatra (2004).

(c) Intermediate focus earthquakes (70-300 km) occur within the relatively
cold slab interior. Occur as slab straightens. Sometimes a second plane
occurs in centre of slab forming a double Benioff zone (Brudzinski et al.,
2007; Fowler Figure 9.48)

(d) Deep-focus earthquakes (300-700 km). No agreement on cause. Could be

due to slab being resistant to crossing from upper to lower mantle.
Alternatively could be due to olivine to spinel-phase transition. Examples
include Tonga-Kermadec subduction zone, Hindu Kush, Bolivia 1994 -
M = 8.3 at 600 km depth (http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/bolivian.html )

• Range of subduction angles (Fowler 9.46). Note that line of volcanoes (volcanic arc)
occurs where the subducting plate reaches depth of ~ 100km.

• Water released from the slab melts the overlying mantle.

• Slab melting is relatively rare and forms adakites.

• Subduction angle can vary along strike within a subduction zone. For example, the
Andean margin in South America has generally steep subduction. In Northern Chile
(NC) and Peru(P) , the slab has a low angle (10-20°) and travels a long way east before
descending into the mantle. Fowler Figure 9.46.

• Range of seismicity distributions (Fowler Table 9.6). Slabs can sometime break off.
This happens in ocean-ocean subduction zones (Brudzinski and Chen, 2003) and
beneath continent-continent collisions where the buoyant crust cannot subduct.

Seismic gaps

Fowler Figures 9.51 and 9.52

9
2.3.2.1 Cascadia subduction zone

• No trench present, just an accretionary prism

• Cluster of intra plate earthquakes
• Slab is young and warm so subduction occurs at a shallow angle
• Subduction zone locked from surface to depth of 30 km

Megathrust earthquakes
• Current deformation shows that fault is currently locked with Vancouver Island being
uplifted (Fowler Figure 9.53 and 9.54)
• This trend is reversed during a great earthquake with rapid subsidence causing coastal
flooding.
• Deformation during earthquake cycle illustrated in Fowler Figure 9.53
• Compared with observed uplifts in Fowler Figure 9.54
http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/zones/cascadia/megafig2_e.php

Evidence from Cascadia for past megathrust earthquakes:

• Evidence for land level changes
• Tsunami deposits in coastal Washington
• Turbidite record offshore
• Native American records
• Tree rings show when forest flooded and killed by salt water. Evidence for a major
earthquake in 1700.
• Japanese historical records describe a major tsunami on January 28, 1700 (Atwater et
al., 2005).
• Now believed that 1700 tsunami was caused by a Cascadia megathrust earthquake.

More information in:

http://www.ess.washington.edu/SEIS/PNSN/HAZARDS/CASCADIA/cascadia_event.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_Earthquake
http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/historic_eq/15-19th/1700/1700_e.php
http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/zones/cascadia/megafig2_e.php

Tsunami
http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sci/osap/projects/tsunami/tsunamieventsbc_e.htm
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~ward/movies_eqtsu_index.htm

Episodic tremor and slip (ETS)

10
• First reported by Dragert at al., (2001).
• Sequence of events described by Rogers and Dragert (2003)
• Shown to be coincident with periods of tremor.
• Tremor is a seismic event that lacks the sharp onset characteristic of an earthquake.
• Previously harmonic tremor was only observed beneath volcanoes as magma moved to
the surface.
• Locations of tremors in Cascadia migrate during the slip event.
• Also observed in subduction zone beneath Japan (Ito et al., 2007)

Rogers and Dragert, (2003)

• GPS stations on Vancouver Island move eastward as North American plate

buckles due to plate convergence with a locked fault
• Every 14 months a silent slip event occurs and Vancouver Island moves west for
10 days
• Reason for periodicity unknown. Linked to Earth tides or wobble?
• Risk of megathrust earthquake is significantly higher during a silent slip event.
Proposed to have emergency service conduct practice drills prior to these events.
• More reading : http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geodyn/ets_e.php

11
2.3.2.2 Sumatra earthquake 2004

Ishii et al., Nature, (2005). Time is shown in seconds. Rupture lasted 500 seconds.

• 2004 earthquake and tsunami occurred with rupture on a very low angle thrust
fault. In this region the subduction is oblique. However motion is partitioned
between strike-slip motion on the Sumatra Fault (onshore) and thrusting to
southwest (offshore).
• Rupture at 2.8 km/s for 8 minutes. Slip 10 m. Rupture length 1300 km. Rupture
area 210,000 km2 (Ishii et al., Nature, 2005)
• Animation of rupture using a detailed seismic network in Japan (HIINET) is
available at http://www.seismology.harvard.edu/~ishii/
• USGS info http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2004/usslav/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake
• http://www.tsunamis.com/tsunami-pictures.html

2.3.2.3 Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau

• Fowler Figure 10.16. Thrust faults at low elevation where India is underthrusting
Asia. Normal faults at higher elevation as Tibetan Plateau extends and collapses.
• Paleoseismology used to determine dates earthquakes prior to historical record (Lave
et al., 2005).
• Many segments of the Himalaya are overdue for a large earthquake (Bilham et al.,
2001). Given poor construction this represents a major hazard, as evidenced by the
2005 Kashmir earthquake in Pakistan.

12
 http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/

http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/HimHazardScience.html

2.3.2.4 Earthquakes on thrust faults - Taiwan

• Taiwan is a mountainous island

that has formed as continental
crust entered a subduction zone.
The collision zone becomes
more mature (older) from south
to north. Series of major thrust
faults run the length of the island

• Chi-Chi earthquake occurred on

September 21 1999 and was a
MW = 7.6 thrust earthquake.
• Referred to as the 921
earthquake in Taiwan.

• Very large and very fast ground rupture, exceeding 12 m at northern end at the
Shihkang dam (below).

13
 • Damage at a school near Wufong. Offset running track is now preserved as part
of the 921 earthquake museum.
• Virtual field trip at National Central University of 921 earthquake ruptures
http://basin.earth.ncu.edu.tw/Virtual%20Field%20Trip/WF/
• The recent Chelungpu drilling project (TCDP) directly sampled the fault at depth
(Ma et al., 2006).

• Slip distribution mapped from

strong motion seismic data (left).
• Hypocentre marked by star. Area
of high slip (red) is in north close
to Shihkang Dam.
• Slip distribution also computed
from coseismic GPS data (Johnson
and Segall, 2004).

Johnson and Segall, Tectonophysics, (2004)

http://seismo.berkeley.edu/annual_report/ar99_00/node19.html

C2.3.3 Extension

African Rift Valley. Fowler Figure 10.54

14
References

Atwater, B., et al., The Orphan Tsunami of 1700 - Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in
North America, United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1707, 2005.
PDF : http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1707/
Bilham, R., V. K. Gaur, P. Molnar, Himalayan Seismic Hazard, Science, 293, 1442-1444, 2001.
Brudzinski, M.R., and W.P. Chen, A petrologic anomaly accompanying outboard earthquakes
beneath Fiji-Tonga: Corresponding evidence from broadband P and S waveforms, J.
Geophys. Res., 108, , 2299, doi:10.1029/2002JB002012, 2003.
Brudzinski, M.R., C.H. Thurber, B.R> Hacker and E.R. Engdahl, Global Prevalence of
double Benioff zones, Science, 316, 1472-1474, 2007.
Dragert, H., K. Wang, T. James, A silent slip event on the deeper Cascadia Subduction
interface, Science, 292, 1525-1528, 2001.
Ishii, M., Shearer, P.M., Houston, H., and Vidale, J.E., 2005. Rupture extent, duration, and
speed of the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake imaged by the Hi-Net array. Nature,
doi10.1038/nature03675.
Ito, Y., K. Obara, K. Shiomi, S. Sekine, H. Hirose, Slow earthquakes coincident with episodic
tremors and slow slip events, Science, 503-505, 2007.
Johnson, K.M. and P. Segall, Imaging the ramp-decollment geometry of the Chelungpu fault
using coseismic GPS displacements from the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake,
Tectonophysics, 378, 123-139, 2004.
Lave, J., D. Yule, S. Sapkota, K. Basant, C. Madden, M. Attal, R.Pandey, Evidence for a
Great Medieval Earthquake (~ 1100 A.D.) in the Central Himalayas, Nepal, Science, 307,
1302-1305, 2005.
Ma, K-F, et al., Slip zone and energetics of a large earthquake from the Taiwan Chelungpu-
fault drilling project, Nature, 444, 473-476, 2006.
Rogers, G., and H. Dragert, Episodic Tremor and Slip on the Cascadia Subduction Zone:
The Chatter of Silent Slip, Science, 300, 1942-1943, 2003.
Satake, K., K. Shimazaki, Y. Tsuji, K. Ueda, Time and size of a giant earthquake in Cascadia
inferred from Japanese tsunami records of January 1700, Nature, 379, 246-249, 1996.
Stein, S., and M. Wysession, An introduction to seismology, earthquakes and Earth
Structure, Blackwell Publishing, (2003).

General : http://www.jclahr.com/science/earth_science/index.html

15
C2.4 Intra-plate earthquakes

C2.4.1 New Madrid seismic zone

1811-12 earthquakes
• Sequence of four or five M=8 earthquakes from December 16 1811 to February 7 1812
• Extensive sand blows occurred and are still observed today
• The Lake County uplift, about 50 kilometers long and 23 kilometers wide, upwarps the
Mississippi River valley as much as 10 meters in parts of southwest Kentucky,
southeast Missouri, and northwest Tennessee.
• Course of Mississippi River altered at Reverie

• Possible causes
-stress concentrations
-zones of previous weakness (failed rift zones)
-high heat flow (thermally induced subsidence)
-heterogeneous zone in lower crust that focuses deformation (Fowler p. 130-1)

Modern tectonics

• Extensive seismicity
• Modern GPS studies show significant
compressional motion occurs across
the Reelfoot thrust fault (Smalley et
al., 2005)
• Previous earthquakes in
1450 AD±100,
900 ± 100,
300±200,
2350BC±200
• Repeat time around 500 years.
1974-2005 seismicity • Next earthquake?

http://wwwneic.cr.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/usa/1811-1812.html
http://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/matt/seismo.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Madrid_Earthquake
http://www.eas.slu.edu/Earthquake_Center/SEISMICITY/Nuttli.1973/bssa.html
C2.4.2 Bhuj earthquake, Gujarat 2001

• M=7.7 but no surface rupture.

• Fault plane identified from focal mechanisms and aftershocks
• Caused 20,000 fatalities.
• Occurred in the paleo-rift region of Rann of Kuch on a south dipping reverse fault.
Present day north-south compression caused by India-Asia collision. This is an
example of fault re-activation.
• Explosive soil liquefaction. Results were visible from space

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4810

“Field investigations have found abundant evidence of mud volcanos, sand boils, and fissures
from which salty ground water erupted over an area exceeding 10,000 square kilometers.
Evidence of the expelled water can also be seen on the MISR images. Notice the delicate,
dendritic pattern of stream channels throughout many of the salt-flats on the post-earthquake
image, especially due north of the epicenter. These carried water brought to the surface by
liquefaction during the earthquake “

General information and context

http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/Gujarat2001.html

References

Mueller, K., S. E. Hough and R. Bilham, Analysing the 1811–1812 New Madrid earthquakes with
recent instrumentally recorded aftershocks, Nature, 429, 284-288, 2004,
doi:10.1038/nature02557.

Rydelek, P.A., and M. Tuttle, Seismology: Explosive craters and soil liquefaction, Nature 427,
115-116, 8 January 2004, doi:10.1038/427115a

Smalley, R., M. A. Ellis, J. Paul and R. B. Van Arsdale, Space geodetic evidence for rapid strain
rates in the New Madrid seismic zone of central USA, Nature, 435, 1088-1090, 2005), doi:
10.1038/nature03642.
C2.5 Seismic detection of nuclear explosions

2.5.1 History

• From 1945 to 1957 nuclear weapons testing took place in the atmosphere. Led to
increased radiation doses to civilian populations.

NTS http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-testing

• 1963 - Limited test ban treaty (LTBT) was also called the partial test ban treaty and
forced many tests underground. However France continued atmospheric nuclear testing
until 1974 and China continued until 1980.
• Most testing after 1963 took place underground. Explosion forms a cavity
underground, the roof of which usually collapses to form a rubble-filled chimney.
Unless this is located at great depth, the chimney can breach the surface.

Nevada test site

• Verification through seismic monitoring.

• Did South Africa conduct an atmospheric nuclear test in 1979? See details of the Vela
incident.

1
• Some test sites are clearly visible on satellite photographs on Google Earth and include

United States Nevada Test site, Amchitka Island

China Lop Nur
USSR Semipalatinsk (in Kazakhstan) and Nova Zemlaya
France South Pacific

• World Wide Standardized Seismic

Network (WWSSN) was deployed in
the 1960’s to monitor nuclear
explosions. Had important side effect
that it gave new seismic data that
supported plate tectonics (e.g. sense of
motion on transform faults).
• WWSSN now being replaced by
Global Seismic Network (GSN).

• Vela Uniform project.

“Vela Uniform incorporated seven underground nuclear tests in the continental United States
and Alaska from October 1963 to July 1971. Seismic traces from multiple locations were
analyzed for each of these events to develop methods for differentiating underground nuclear
tests from other seismic events (such as earthquakes) and locating the test site.” Wikipedia

Project Longshot was part of the Vela Unifrom Project and involved an explosion on
Amchitka Island in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. It was used to study if a subduction
zone could conceal a nuclear explosion. Explosion took place in 1965 with a yield of
70 kilotons. Slab caused early seismic arrivals because of it’s high velocity (Carder et
al., 1967)

• Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) adopted by the United Nations in 1996

Signed and ratified France, Russia, United Kingdom

Signed but not ratified China, Israel, United States

2
 Not signed India, Iran, North Korea, Pakistan

International Monitoring Service (IMS) developed to monitor nuclear tests.

2.5.2 Discrimination at teleseismic distances

Most Cold War monitoring operated at teleseismic distances (> 2000 km). Several
observations can be used to distinguish earthquakes from nuclear explosions.

Explosions give stronger P-waves than S-waves

Example from a 1992 nuclear test at the

Lop Nur test site in China, as recorded in
Russia. Ground motion compared to an
earthquake that occurred nearby. Both
seismic signals have traveled a similar
distance and should show similar
amounts of attenuation.

Note that the P-waves from the

explosion are larger in amplitude than
both the S-waves or Rayleigh waves.
http://www.iris.iris.edu/HQ/Bluebook/chapter3.html

Seismogram recorded in Pakistan from a 1998 nuclear

explosion in India. Compared to a regional earthquake,
the nuclear explosion has a large amplitude P-waves.

3
Ratio of surface wave amplitudes and body wave amplitudes

Left :Fowler 4.11a. Earthquakes and explosions in Eurasia. Solid line shows bounds
between earthquakes and explosions. mb= 2.87+0.6MS

Right : Ratio of local magnitude to moment for explosions at the NTS and earthquakes in
California, Nevada and Mexico : Fowler Figure 4.11b

2.5.3 Regional detection of nuclear explosions

2.5.3.1 Kyrgyz Broadband Seismic Network (KNET)

May 11 1998 Seismogram from : http://eqinfo.ucsd.edu/special_events/nuclear_tests/india/index.php

4
May 28 1998 Seismogram from : http://eqinfo.ucsd.edu/special_events/nuclear_tests/pakistan/index.php

Chinese events

http://eqinfo.ucsd.edu/special_events/nuclear_tests/china/1999-01-27.php

http://eqinfo.ucsd.edu/special_events/nuclear_tests/china/index.php

2.5.3.2 North Korean explosion in 2006

5
2.5.3.3 Unresolved seismic events

• Unresolved seismic events from Sykes (2002)

• Detection threshold has decreased from 1960-2000

References
Carder, D.S., et al., Seismic wave arrivals from Longshot, 0° to 27°, Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America, 57, 573-590, 1967.
Kim, W.Y., P.G. Richards, V. Adushkin, V. Ovtchinnikov, Borovoye Digital Seismogram
Archive for Underground Nuclear tests during 1966-1996,
http://www.iris.edu/data/reports/borDSA.pdf
Richards, P.G. and W.Y. Kim, Testing the nuclear test ban treaty, Nature, 389, 389, 781-782,
1997
Sykes, L.R., Four decades of progress in seismic identification help verify the CTBT, Eos, 83, 44,
29 October 2002.

Links
CTBT http://www.ctbto.org/ http://www.ctbtcommission.org/
Nuclear Testing http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-testing
Vela Incident 1979 http://www.answers.com/topic/vela-incident
Vela Uniform Project http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vela_Uniform

Amchitka Island http://www.cresp.org/Amchitka/Amchitka_Final_Report/index_FinalReport.html

http://www.phys.ualberta.ca/highlights/amchitka-edmonton-journal-june20-2004.htm

6
C3.1 Travel time curves

C3.1.1 Travel time curve for a flat Earth

C3.1.1.1 Uniform structure

Direct arrivals : P-wave, S-wave, Rayleigh wave

1
C3.1.1.2 Travel time curve for two-layers

Direct arrivals : P-wave, S-wave, Rayleigh wave

Reflected arrivals : P-wave
Refracted arrival P-wave

Consider the case of v1 < v2

x
Direct wave t=
v1

x 2 + 4h 2
Reflected wave t= Derivation in class
v1

2
Refracted wave

This is generated when the refracted wave travels horizontally, just below the interface
sin θ c sin 90 o
v1
= This gives sin θ c = and can show that AB = CD = z / cos θ c
v1 v2 v2
Can also show that BC = x – 2h tan θ c

Total travel time t = tAB + tBC + tCD

z ( x − 2h tan θ c ) h
t= + +
v1 cos θ c v2 v1 cos θ c
x 2h 2h tan θ c
t= + −
v2 v1 cos θ c v2
x 2hv2 − 2hv1 sin θ c
t= +
v2 v1v2 cos θ c
x 2h − 2h sin 2 θ c
t= +
v2 v1v2 cosθ c
x 2h cos θ c
t= +
v2 v1
x 2h v2 − v1
2 2
t= +
v2 v1v2
x constant
t= +
v2

• The travel time curve for the refracted wave is a straight line with slope = 1 / v2

• The refracted arrival is only observed when x > xcrit = 2z tan θ c

• The refracted wave is the first arrival at x > xcross

• When x = xcrit the refracted and reflected waves are the same

• v2 can be calculated from the slope of the refracted wave on the t-x plot

• The depth of the interface (z) can be found by extrapolating the travel time of the
refracted wave to x = 0 where the travel time is

2 z v 22 − v12 v1v 2 t i
ti = Rearranging gives z =
v1v 2 2 v 22 − v12

3
C3.1.1.3 Velocity gradient

• Snells Law requires that the ray parameter, p, is constant.

• Thus sin θ / v is constant along the ray. As v increase, so does θ and the ray
travels closer to the horizontal.

• Ultimately sin θ = 1 which requires θ = 90° and the ray travels horizontally.

• The uniform increase in velocity causes curved ray raths

• Sketch the direct wave.

• Can think of this wave as a superposition of many refracted arrivals

4
C3.1.1.4 Velocity gradient and low-velocity zone

• The uniform increase in velocity causes curved ray paths

• Sketch the direct wave

• Sketch the reflected wave from interface

• Sketch the refracted wave that travels below the interface.

• As wave strikes interface it is refracted towards the normal. This makes it travel
further, causing a shadow zone.

5
C3.1.1.5 Velocity gradient and high-velocity zone

• direct wave is not observed at large values of x

• reflected wave is not observed at large values of x

• At largest offset, the direct wave and reflected wave take the same path

• refracted wave produced because we have an increase in velocity

• example of triplication

6
C3.1.2 Travel time curve for uniform velocity, spherical Earth

• 1883 John Milne speculated that

“it is not unlikely that every large
earthquake might with proper
appliances be recorded at any
point of the globe”

• First teleseismic signal observed

in 1889 when waves from an
earthquake in Japan were
recorded in Germany.

• In 1897 Richard Oldham showed

that earthquakes consisted of
“preliminary tremors” and “large
waves”. Time difference between
them increases with distance and
can be used to locate the
earthquake. See C2.2

• 1900 Oldham realized that the “preliminary tremors” travelled through the centre
of Earth while the “large waves” travelled close to the surface.

What will the travel time curve look like for this Earth structure?

Direct arrivals: P-wave, S-wave, Rayleigh wave

7
 • Measurements require a more complicated model!

• Oldham (1906) gave evidence that Earth had some internal structure with a core.
Hindsight has shown that his analysis was only partially correct.

Observations
• P-waves did not appear to travel effectively beyond Δ = 105 °
• Beyond Δ = 130° the P-waves were observed again, but delayed by 2 minutes.
• S-waves apparently delayed by 10 minutes beyond Δ = 130°

Oldham’s Explanation
• Low velocity core, radius ~ 2550 km

Hindsight
• Analysis of P-waves was correct. These are now called PKP and PKiKP phases
• We now know that S-waves do not travel in the liquid outer core.
• The S-waves reported by Oldham from Δ = 130° to 180° are SS waves that are
multiple bounces in the mantle

8
C3.1.3 Travel time curve for uniform Earth with a uniform core

Sketch the following waves for the case for a low velocity core (v1 > v2)
• Direct P-wave
• P-wave that reflects from core

Now consider:
P-wave in mantle, P-wave in outer core, P-wave in mantle back to surface

• Note that at points 4-8 there are two possible ray paths for the P-wave.
• This results in two PKP arrivals on the travel time curve.
• Amplitudes strongest at the cusp (6)
• Core acts as a powerful magnifying class, distorting the seismic waves.

9
How will things be different if v1 < v2 ?

Multiples

• Compute the reflection co-efficient for a wave striking the surface of the Earth. In
this case need to include both velocity and density in equation. R = -1
• PP is a P-wave that bounces from surface of Earth
• SS is a S-wave that bounces from surface of Earth
• How do travel times for P and PP compare?

10
C3.1.4 Velocity gradient in a spherical Earth with a core

r1 sin θ1 r2 sin θ 2 r3 sin θ 3

p= = =
v1 v2 v3

• Show that along the ray path, the

ray parameter, p is constant.

• The angle θ is between the ray

and the normal to each interface.

• Called the Benndorf relationship.

See derivation in class

• Fowler Figure 8-2 : Refracted and reflected arrivals in a spherical earth when the
core has a higher / lower velocity than the mantle.

• Fowler Figure 8-3 : Shows PKP arrivals with velocity gradient (analog to C3.1.3)

• P-wave shadow zone (Δ = 103° to Δ =143°). This geometry allows the radius of
the core to be computed

• S-wave shadow zone (Δ = 103° to Δ =180°). Implies outer part of core is liquid
with shear modulus, μ = 0

11
Some P-waves are observed in the shadow zone

• Diffractions (dashed lines in Fowler Figure 8-3). These waves travel along the
core-mantle boundary, and arrive in places not predicted by ray theory. However,
their location is consistent with Huyghens principle.

• Other P-waves observed in the shadow zone were shown to be due to a solid inner
core with an increase velocity compared to outer core. In 1936 Inge Lehman
suggested that these waves are reflections from the inner core. Called PKiKP in
modern notation.

C3.1.5 Actual travel time curves

• Observations of many earthquakes led to the compilation of the Jeffreys-Bullen

travel time curves.
• These are for an earthquake at the surface of the Earth and assume radial
symmetry.
• We now know that both the core and mantle are not exactly symmetric.
• Departure from symmetry contains valuable information about structure (e.g.
mantle convection, slab location etc).
• J-B travel times accurate to within a few seconds.
• P,PcP and PKP show a good example of a shadow zone due low velocity layer
• S, Scs, SKS give an example of triplications since the CMB represents an
increase in velocity for these waves.

12
P P-wave in mantle
K P-wave in outer core
c Reflection from outer core
i Reflection from inner core
I P-wave in inner core
J S-wave in inner core

• Set of ray paths for all possible phases:

http://garnero.asu.edu/research_images/index.html#raypaths

P and PcP Direct wave through the mantle and reflection from CMB
P and Pdiff Diffraction means that seismic energy travels to a region that is not
predicted by ray theory
PKP Note multiple paths and the cusp
PKiKP Reflection of a P-wave from inner core gives P wave arrivals in the
shadow zone
SKS Used to study upper mantle anisotropy. Can only acquire splitting
(polarization) on final leg through the mantle.
SKKKS Can travel both sides of inner core
PKIIKP Complicated! Note that certain teleseismic phases are only observed in
very narrow ranges of Δ. Seismologists who study certain parts of the
core and inner core must look for earthquakes and seismic stations with
very specific separation (Δ)

13
 • Fowler 4-18 shows a compilation
of 60000 seismograms from 2995
earthquakes recorded from 1980
to 1987. From Earle and Shearer
(1994)

• More details shown in Fowler 4-16 Fowler 4-15

• Need to account for earthquake depth
• Exhaustive list http://www.iris.edu/data/vocab.htm

MJU 2007

14
Geophysics 210 D1: Basics of Geomagnetism

D1.1 Introduction

• Lodestone was known to the Greeks (800 BC) and Chinese (300 BC)
• First compass (200 BC) made by Chinese, but not clear why it worked
• Europeans thought the compass needle attracted to North Star (Polaris)
• More sophisticated understanding developed from 1200-1800 AD
• In 1830 Hans Christian Oersted showed that electric current flowing in a wire could deflect a
compass needle. Showed a new source of magnetic fields.
• Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836) further showed that two wires carrying electric current
would exert a force on each other. This was quantified in Ampere’s Law.
• Oersted and Ampere showed that magnetic fields generated by the motion of electric charges
(electric current). This linked electric current and magnetic fields.

• Note that both a bar magnet and loop of wire give a dipole magnetic field pattern.
• How can these ideas explain the magnetization of certain rocks and minerals, or a bar magnet?
• Atoms can behave as magnets for two reasons:

(1) Electrons (and other subatomic particles) have an intrinsic magnetic moment. An electron
has a magnetic moment called the Bohr magneton = mB = 9.27 10-24 A m2.

Atoms contain from 1 to more 100 electrons. The overall magnetic behaviour of a given
atom depends on how the atoms are arranged in orbitals / shells. If a shell is full, then the
net magnetic moment will be zero.
Iron (Fe) has an arrangement of electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 with all subshells full
except for 3d. This contains 6 out of a possible 10 electrons. These are arranged with 5 in
one direction and 1 in the other giving a net magnetic moment of 4mB

(2) Motion of electron around the nucleus is equivalent to an electric current flowing
in a circuit. This can make the atom have a similar magnetic field to a loop of
wire. Strength of magnet moment is several mB.

1
D1.2 Magnetic field lines

• Many animals have the ability to detect the direction of the

Earth’s magnetic field and use it for navigation. Note the
recent study of pigeons by Mora et al., (2004).

• However most people cannot detect the magnetic field of

the Earth and other ways are needed to visualize the
magnetic field.

• Magnetic field lines represent

the direction in which a
magnetic monopole would
move.

• The force, F, on a monopole

of strength m is defined as H
= F/m

D1.3 Magnetic monopoles

• Despite extensive searches, magnetic monopoles do not appear to exist in isolation. They always
occur in pairs of positive and negative monopoles that form magnetic dipoles
.

• Breaking a bar magnet (a dipole) in half does not generate separate monopoles, rather two new
dipoles. http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/catalog/demonstrations/em/magneticmonopole.html

• Some theories in particle physics predict that monopoles may be observed in high energy collisions
between subatomic particles: http://www.aip.org/png/html/monopole.htm

2
D1.4 Magnetic dipoles

• Consider a magnetic dipole, with poles m+ and m-, separated by a distance l.

• The magnetic dipole moment is defined as P = ml
• The total magnetic field is the vector sum of m+ and m-

D1.5 Definitions

Magnetic field strength / intensity

H = magnetic field strength.

I
Defines magnetic field at a distance r from a straight wire carrying a current I as: H =
2πr

Magnetic flux density

B = magnetic flux density

This quantity is generated by monopoles. So that at a distance r, from a monopole of strength m, the
flux density is given by
μm
B=
4πr 2

Magnetic permeability

μ = magnetic permeability B=μH

In the absence of magnetic materials, μ = μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H/m

μ describes how the atoms in the material interact with, and modify the applied magnetic field.

3
D1.6 Diamagnetism and paramagnetism

• The magnetic behaviour of minerals is due to atoms behaving as small magnetic dipoles.
• If a uniform magnetic field (H) is applied to a mineral, there are two possible responses.

D1.6.1 Diamagnetic behaviour

• This effect arises from the orbital motion of electrons in atoms.

• The applied magnetic field (H) generates an effective electric current in the electron orbit that
is oriented in the opposite sense to that caused by the orbital motion.
• The atoms develop a dipole moment that opposes the applied magnetic field.

The magnetic moment (M) is related to H as

M = kH

where k is defined as the magnetic susceptibility.

The magnetization (M) is said to be induced

magnetization, since it will disappear when the
applied field H is removed.

• For a diamagnetic material, k is small and negative.

• All materials are diamagnetic. However if other magnetic effects occur, then the diamagnetism is
overpowered and not observed.
• Diamagnetic behaviour is observed in the following Earth materials: salt, quartz and feldspar.
• The effect was first described by Michael Faraday in 1845.
• Since the induced magnetization opposes the applied magnetic field, this results in like
magnetic poles at the interface. Gives rise to diamagnetic levitation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamagnetism

D1.6.2 Paramagnetic behaviour

• This phenomena arises when the atoms have a net magnetic dipole moment due to unpaired
electrons. The atoms align parallel to the applied magnetic field H and increase the local
magnetic field.

B = μ (H+M)
= μ (H+kH)
= μ (1+k) H
= μ μr H

μr is defined as the relative permeability.

• For paramagnetic materials k is positive.

• Paramagnetic elements include iron, nickel and cobalt.
• This is also an example of induced magnetization since M vanishes when the applied
magnetic field H is removed.

4
D1.7 Ferromagnetism and magnetic domains

• In certain minerals the paramagnetic

behaviour is especially strong. If a few
atoms become aligned with an applied
magnetic field, then the magnetic field
within the material increases and more
atoms become aligned.

• Through positive feedback a whole

region of the material can become
magnetized in the same orientation.
This region is called a domain.

• The domains form a pattern that minimizes the total

amount of energy in the external magnetic field.

• Three types of behaviour can occur (see on the right).

• This spontaneous magnetization does not disappear when

the applied field is removed and it is termed remnant
magnetization.

• Haematite: anti-ferromagnetic, Magnetite :

ferrimagnetic

A very simplistic computer simulation of ferromagnetic behaviour is illustrated in the MATLAB

script paramag.m

• This shows a set of atoms that have a magnetic moment and which are free to rotate.
• When an external magnetic field is applied, the atoms begin to line up.
• The magnetic field of each atom can influence its neighbours and complex patterns can
develop.

Example 1 shows a small grid (11 x 19) of dipoles (atoms). Note that the internal magnetic field
strength becomes strong in regions where ordering occurs.

Example 2 shows a 300 x 300 grid.

5
D1.8 Magnetic hysterisis

6
D1.9 Curie temperature

As temperature increases, thermal vibration energy begins to breakdown the ordering of a

ferromagnetic material. Above the Curie temperature, spontaneous magnetization ceases.

Typical Curie temperatures:

Pure iron 1043 K

Fe2O3 893 K

For a lab demonstration see

http://www.geol.binghamton.edu/faculty/barker/demos/demo13.html

There are two important consequences of the Curie temperature

(1) Since temperature in the Earth increases with depth, there exists a depth below which
materials cannot behave as ferromagnetic. Thus only rocks at shallow depths in the Earth can
exhibit remnant magnetization.

(2) As a rock cools from above the Curie temperature, it will acquire a magnetic field that records
the strength and direction of Earth’s field at that time. By using radioactive dating to find the
age of the rock, this gives us a powerful tool to determine how the Earth’s magnetic field has
varied over time (paleomagnetism).

7
D1.10 Typical values of susceptibility and remnant magnetization

Magnetic susceptibility (k) Ir/Ii = ratio of remnant to

in SI units induced magnetization

Sedimentary rocks 0.0005 0.01

Metamorphic rocks 0.0030 0.1
Granites 0.0050 1.0
Basalt/gabbro 0.0600 10.0
Ultramafic rocks 0.1200 -

Kearey Figure 7.5

When analysing magnetic anomaly data (see later) it is important to know if induced or
remnant magnetization is dominant.

This can often be addressed by considering the Konisberger ratio (Ir/Ii) listed above. The
remant magnetization only dominates for rocks with a high magnetite content, such as mafic
and ultramafics.

References

Mora, C.V., Davison, M., Wild, J.M. and Walker, M.M. Magnetoreception and its trigeminal
mediation in the homing pigeon, Nature, 432:508-511, 2004.

MJU November 2007

8
210 D2 The Earth’s magnetic field
• Magnetic field is more complicated in spatial form than gravity field
• Magnetic field of the Earth measured at the surface comes from three sources:

97-99% Main field generated by dynamo action in the outer core

1-2% External field generated in space in the magnetosphere
1-2% Crustal field from remnant magnetization above the Curie depth

• Main field varies significantly with time (secular variation)

• External field also varies on time scales of seconds to days
• At any point the magnetic field is defined by the magnetic field elements

F = total field strength (also labelled B in figure above)

Z = vertical component of F
H = horizontal component of F
I = inclination (angle between F and surface)
D = declination (angle between H and geographic north)

210D 2.1 Historical perspective on the Earth’s magnetic field

• Pierre Pelerin de Maricourt (1269) was also known as Petrus Peregrinus de Maharncuria.
• Developed idea that a magnetized sphere of lodestone had poles.
• Wrote the first treatise on magnetism “Epistola de magnete”.
• Interesting details in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Peregrinus
• Also proposed a perpetual motion machine.
• Observed that magnetic pole and
geoographic poles do not coincide,
which led to the idea of magnetic
declination. China (500 AD) , British
sailors (1400 AD)

• Gerhard Mercator (1574). Quantified

differences between magnetic and
geographic North. Proposed multiple
magnetic poles.

• Geord Hartmann (1544). Realized that

a magnetic needle did not balance
horizontally. Idea of inclination which
can be measured with a dip needle.

• William Gilbert (1600). Analogy between earth and sphere of lodestone. Explained why the
inclination varied with latitude.

• Henry Gellibrand (1634). Recorded

secular variation in Britain.

• Edmund Halley (1702) compiled a

map of magnetic declination in the
Atlantic Ocean.

• This map is also claimed to be the first

use of contour lines on a map.

• Gauss showed mathematically that the

main dipole field must originate within
the Earth.

More details at : http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geomag/nmp/early_nmp_e.php

http://www.phy6.org/earthmag/dmglist.htm

2
210 D2.2 The internal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
D2.2.1 Spatial variation

Consider the dipole component of the

geomagnetic field. At a latitude of θ can show
that the radial and azimuthal components of
the magnetic field are given by:

2 Mμ 0 sin θ Mμ 0 cos θ
Br = and Bθ
4πr 3
4πr 3

where M is the dipole moment, a measure of

the strength of the magnetic field. Can
compute the inclination, I, as :

Br 2 sin θ
tan I = = = 2 tan θ
Bθ cos θ

• At the North Pole, θ = 90° which gives I = 90°

• At the Equator, θ = 0° which gives I = 0°

This equation is important because it allows use to use a measurement of inclination (I) to determine
our latitude (θ). This was once used by mariners, but is most important in paleomagnetism. A rock
can record the magnetic field present when it crystallized (temperature fell below the Curie
temperature). Thus we can find the latitude of a continent at some time in the past.
Mμ 0 3 sin 2 θ + 1
F (r , θ ) = B + Bθ which reduces to
2
r
2
F (r ,θ ) =
4πr 3
• This predicts F(θ = 90°) = 2 x F (θ = 0°)

Panels below show maps of the predicted values of F, I, Z and D for a dipolar field with coincident
magnetic and geographic poles. Will see that actual magnetic field is more complicated…..

3
Main field is described by the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF).

Dipole character
• Some characteristics as expected from dipole field.
• Value of F at poles is double that at Equator.
• Z changes sign and I = 0° close to the Equator

Complications
• However pattern is more complicated than the simple dipole field discussed above.
• Magnetic and geographic poles not coincident. This results in D non-zero and contours of F, I
and Z do not follow lines of latitude.
• Only 80% of the main field can be represented as a dipole. Note the departures from a pure
dipole field, e.g. four regions of high F in high latitudes.

• IGRF in 2000 shown below and updated regularly as the magnetic changes over time.

D2.2.2 Temporal variations (secular variation)

• The compass was invented in China. Variation of declination reported from at least AD720.
• 1635 : The first European record when Gellibrand noted changes in declination.
• The declination in London was found to vary significantly over the period 1600-2000.

4
● Secular variation in the Earth’s magnetic field occurs on many timescales including:

(a) Westward drift: features can be seen to move west over the last century.
(b) Investigations of historical records from early navigators and explorers has extended these
records back to the 1600’s (Jackson et al., 2000) and are displayed as movies at
http://geomag.usgs.gov/movies/

(c) Short term geomagnetic jerks occur on

time scales of a decade

5
 (d) Continuous reduction of dipole field since 1600 ( P = 9.4 x 1022 Am2 in 1600, P = 7.94 x
1022 Am2 today).

(e) Complex sequence of magnetic field reversals over the observed geological record.
During a reversal the whole field switches north and south poles.

Between reversals there is evidence that the magnetic dipole axis and the Earth’s rotation
axis are approximately parallel.

The sequence of reversals appears to be chaotic with no regular frequency.

The present normal polarity (Brunhes chron) has lasted for 780,000 years.

Periods without a reversal for 107-108 years are called superchrons.

Cretaceous normal superchron 118-83 Ma
Permo-Carboniferous (Kiaman) reverse superchron 312-262 Ma

The reduction in the main field over the last 400 years could indicate we are approaching a
reversal. How might reversals affect life on Earth?

D2.2.3 Origin of the internal magnetic field

• High temperatures inside the Earth (above

Curie temperature) exclude the possibility of
remnant magnetization generating the
magnetic field. See Fowler Figure 8-22. There
is no large bar magnet inside the Earth!

• Field has been present at least since 3.5 Ga

so a viable model must explain how a field can
be generated and sustained. Arguments for a
young Earth based on the declining magnetic
field over historical time, must take this into
account.

6
• The secular variation, and alignment of dipole with rotation axis, suggest that the magnetic field
originates in the relatively rapid fluid motion in a part of the Earth with a high electrical
conductivity.
• This only leaves the outer core (composed of liquid iron) as the place where the magnetic field
is generated.

The Geodynamo

• A complex fluid motion is believed to act as a self sustaining

dynamo.
• Convection occurs in the outer core. Inner core grows as liquid
iron freezes. This releases heat that drives convection in the
liquid iron of the outer core.
• Additional heat comes from radioactive decay
• A dynamo works by converting motion into electric current.
The electric current then generates a magnetic field.

• This occurs through the process of electromagnetic induction, explained by Faraday where a
change in magnetic flux produces a voltage.
• Familiar dynamos (generators) use a coil of wire that is forced to rotate in a magnetic field.
• How can such an arrangement occur in a volume of convecting liquid iron?

Self-exciting dynamo
• See Fowler 8-24 for example. Developed in 1940’s by Elasser and Bullard
• Self-exciting dynamo this does not need a permanent magnet to produce a magnetic field from
rotation.
• Also note this dynamo will work if the disc is rotated either forward or backwards!
• This suggested that this type of dynamo model could explain a reversal of the magnetic field.
• However, it is too simple to be able to spontaneously reverse.

Rikitake dynamo
• A more complicated dynamo model used two self-exciting dynamos coupled together. The
motion of one disc produces the magnetic field for the other, and vice versa.
• This system has more degrees of freedom and can show much more complicated behaviour.
This includes “reversals” and aspects that can be considered chaotic.

http://pagesperso-orange.fr/olivier.granier/meca/vulga/chaos/chaos.htm
http://baudolino.free.fr/Noyau/page32~.htm

7
Computer simulations of the geodynamo

• Computer simulations of the geodynamo can partially explain the observed spatial and
secular field variations, including reversals.
• These models include convection, Coriolis forces and magnetohydrodynamics.
• With ever increasing computer speed and memory, these numerical simulations are becoming
more realistic. However many details remain unanswered, partly because the fluid flow
pattern has a high Rayleigh number and is essentially turbulent.

Computer simulation of a geomagnetic reversal (Glatzmaier and Roberts, 1995)

• These dynamo models can also be

applied to generation of magnetic
fields in other planets.

• For example the gas giant planets

(including Jupiter and Saturn) have a
metallic hydrogen shell that may
generate the observed magnetic field.

• Geodynamo research program at the

University of Alberta led by Dr.
Moritz Heimpel. See Heimpel et al.,
(2005) and other research papers at
http://www-geo.phys.ualberta.ca/~mheimpel/

Figure by Moritz Heimpel shows

magnetic field lines and field strength
at the surface of the core during a
magnetic reversal.

• Dynamo models can also explain how

the Sun generates a magnetic field

8
D2.3 External component of the Earth’s magnetic field

The external component of the magnetic field is generated in the atmosphere and magnetosphere.

• The solar wind (a stream of H and He ions) is deflected by the Earths internal magnetic field
to create the magnetosphere.

• The interactions between the solar wind and the Earth’s magnetic field are very complex.
Temporal changes in the solar wind, due to sunspots, solar flares and coronal mass ejections
can produce a change in the magnetic field at the surface of the Earth.

• From 50-1500 km above the Earth’s surface is the ionosphere, a region of plasma with high
electrical conductivity. Changing magnetic fields from the magnetosphere can induce large
electric currents in the ionosphere. Changes in these currents produce large changes in the
magnetic field measured at the Earth’s surface.

• Large currents flow in specific

locations including:

(A) Equatorial electrojet flows on

magnetic equator on side facing sun

(B) Auroral electrojet flows at high

magnetic latitude

9
● When the solar wind is in a steady state, the Earth’s magnetic field shows a daily variation that is
due to the Earth turning within the current systems of the magnetosphere and ionosphere. The
typical variation is called the solar quiet day variation (Sq). The amplitude is typical 10-20 nT and
varies with latitude. Clearly seen in time series above.

● A much smaller variation is seen every 25 days and is caused by the orbit of the moon.

● When the solar wind is active, the Earth’s magnetic field is said to be disturbed. Magnetic storms
occur when the current systems change over a period of several days and the field at the Earth’s
surface can change by 100’s of nanotesla. These changes are largest beneath major ionospheric
current systems. A small substorm can be seen in the middle of the time series plotted above.

● Smaller magnetic field disturbances are classified as substorms and bays and have timescales of
several hours.

● Solar activity is characterized by an 11 year cycle and we have just passed the maximum.
Maximum solar activity results in high levels of activity in the Earth’s external magnetic field and
frequent magnetic storms and strong auroral displays.

10
D2.4 Crustal magnetic field
• Permanent (remnant) magnetization only possible above the Curie depth
• Direction of remnant magnetization depends on main field polarity at time rocks became
magnetized

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/EMM/emm.shtml

• note magnetic stripes in ocean formed by seafloor spreading

• strong anomaly patterns in oldest parts of continental crust

“The cause of the Bangui anomaly (the red or high magnetization

region situated over the Central African Republic) is controversial. In
1992 Girdler, Taylor and Frawley (Tectonophysics, vol. 212, p.45-58)
proposed that this anomaly was produced by a large meteorite impact
at least 1 billion years old. Others have suggested it results from a
major fracturing of the crust or the implacement of a large igneous
body.”

From : http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/research/crustal_mag/prep/

11
D2.5 Comparison of the Earth’s gravitational and magnetic fields

Gravitational field Magnetic field

Overall field geometry Approximate spherical 80% dipole

symmetry B varies as 1/r3
g varies as 1/r2

Direction Down, by definition Inclination varies from

+90˚ to –90 ˚

Spatial variations 978,000 mgal at Equator 25,000 nT at Equator

983,000 mgal at poles 61,000 nT at high latitude

GRS formula simple IGRF is a complex series of

and accounts for variation spherical harmonics
of g with latitude

Temporal variations with Signal produced by plate Secular variation, jerks,

internal origin motion and mantle westward drift and
convection???? north-south field reversals
Poles moving at ~ 15 km/yr

Temporal variations with Tidal signals (< 0.5 mgal) Diurnal Sq variation (50 nT)
external origin Magnetic storms (100-1000nT)
11 year sunspot cycle

Latitude variation ~ 1 mgal km-1 ~3 nT km-1

in Edmonton

Elevation variation ~ 0.3 mgal m-1 ~ 0.03 nT m-1

in Edmonton

References

Glatzmaier, G.A. and P.H. Roberts, A three-dimensional self-consistent computer simulation of a

geomagnetic field reversal, Nature, 377, 203-209 (1995).
Heimpel, M.H., J.M. Aurnou, F.M. Al-Shamali, N. Gomez-Perez, A numerical study of dynamo
action as a function of spherical shell geometry, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 236, 542-
557, 2005.
Jackson, A., Jonkers, A. R. T. & Walker, M. R., 2000. Four centuries of geomagnetic secular variation
from historical records, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, A 358, 957-990.
MJU 2007

12
210D3: Magnetic anomalies produced by simple geological structures

Remember that objects can acquire both induced and remnant magnetization.

Induced magnetization will disappear when the applied magnetic field is removed.

Remnant magnetization is frozen into the material.

• In the following examples, we will consider only induced magnetization.

• This will be in a direction parallel to the Earth’s magnetic field.
• Remnant magnetization can be in any direction.

3.1 Dike (Monopole)

• In the presence of the Earth’s magnetic field, the dike develops an induced magnetic
moment

• If the structure extends to depth, then the lower monopole can be ignored since for a
2
monopole, Br = μm/r

• Compute total field at surface by adding Br and BE as vectors.

• Plot |B| since this is routinely measured in field surveys. The direction is not measured.
3.2 Cylinder
• The cylinder has an induced magnetization with negative monopoles on upper surface and
positive monopoles on the lower surface.
• Effect is a dipole at centre of cylinder, the magnetic field falls away as 1/r3
• The magnetic field anomaly will be different at the magnetic north pole and equator

NORTH POLE

EQUATOR
3.3 Sphere

● As for cylinder, the sphere develops an induced magnetic moment, which is equivalent to a
dipole at the centre.
Map view

• Positive anomaly B > B0 (red)

• Negative anomaly B < B0 (blue)

• At the magnetic poles the positive anomaly is above the magnetic body.

• When I = 45°, that positive anomaly is not directly above the target.

From http://www.gif.ubc.ca
3.4 Thin sheet or slab

• An infinite sheet develops negative poles (South poles) on the upper surface and positive
poles (North) poles on the lower surface.

• If the sheet is thin in the vertical direction, then the magnetic fields due to the upper and lower
surfaces cancel to give no net magnetic field at the surface.

• When the sheet is finite in horizontal distance, the magnetic poles near the edge do not cancel
and a positive-negative anomaly is observed.

• The magnetic anomaly is sensitive to the edges of structures

MJU November 2007

210D4: Paleomagnetism

D4.1 Introduction to paleomagnetism

1797 Alexander von Humboldt noticed that rocks could be magnetized by lighting strikes.

1906 Bernard Brunhes reported reversely magnetized lavas from ancient lavas in the Massif
Central in France.

1929 Motonori Matuyama noted that Quaternary lavas had remnant magnetization that was in the
same direction as the present day magnetic field. Older quaternary and Pleistocene lavas had
reversed magentization direction. Matuyama suggested that these reversely magnetized rocks
were caused by reversals of the Earths magnetic field.

1930+ Louis Neel and John Graham : Spontaneous self reversals observed in some lava flows during
cooling and this suggested that the observed magnetic field reversals may be artefacts.

1951 Jan Hospers’ detailed study of basalts in Iceland and elsewhere showed that magnetic
reversals are likely real.

1956 Evidence for polar wandering presented by Keith Runcorn. Showed that magnetized rocks of
differing ages record a variable position for the geomagnetic pole. When combined with
studies on other continents, it was noted that each continent had a different polar wandering
path. The simplest solution to this apparently complicated situation was that the pole had not
moved, but the continents had moved independently.

D4.2 Determining the location of the magnetic pole from a paleomagnetic sample

D4.2.1 Determine paleolatitude

• Measure I from the rock sample

• Compute the paleolatitude (λ) from tan I = 2 tan λ
D4.2.2 Determine the location of virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP)

• Sample is collected from location X

• Present magnetic pole is located at N

• The previous calculation is only part of the

solution because it assumes that no rotation of
the sample has occurred since the rock was
magnetized.

• From the sample can measure the

declination angle D

• The angles D and λ are now known

• This allows the apparent polar position (P)

to be computed

• P is the virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP)

Consider spherical triangle PNX and apply the cosine law. Details of spherical triangles and
trigonometry on page 20 of the textbook.

cos(90 − λ P ) = cos(90 − λ x ) cos(90 − λ ) + sin(90 − λ x ) sin(90 − λ ) cos D

This simplifies to

sin λ P = sin λ x sin λ + cos λ x cos λ cos D

Next stage is to compute the longitude of point P. Let the longitude of P and x be ΦP and Φx.

The angle PNX is the difference in longitude, ΦP-Φx so some more spherical trigonometry gives

sin(Φ P − Φ x ) sin D
=
sin(90 − λ ) sin(90 − λ P )

which simplifies to

sin(90 − λ ) sin D
sin(Φ P − Φ x ) =
sin(90 − λ P )

Depending on the size of the angles λ, λx and λP this equation has two possible solutions. Details on
page 53 of the textbook.

Note that we can only find the relative longitude (ΦP-Φx)

D4.2.3 Assumptions made in paleomagnetism

Geocentric axial dipole (GAD) hypothesis. This assumes that the main field has always been a dipole
field oriented with the rotation axis.

Evidence to support this hypothesis

• Paleomagnetic pole positions. For

example figure on right from Irving
(1964) shows pole positions for last
7000 years. When averaged over
10,000 years, the geomagnetic and
geographic poles are coincident.
Currently these two poles differ by 11°

• Paleointensity studies consistent with

a predominantly dipole field in the
past.

• Measurement of the inclination angle recorded by deep sea sediments. Consistent for last 5
million years.

D4.3 Apparent polar wander paths

• If multiple VGP locations can be determined from rock formations that can also be dated, then the
apparent polar wander (APW) path for a continent can be reconstructed.
• These were found to be different for different continents. e.g. left hand panel below showing relative
motion of Europe and North America. See Fowler Figure 3.6
• These observations can be reconciled if the continents have moved relative to each other.
• Right panel shows the APW paths during the Paleozoic for Africa (solid), South America (dashed)
and Australia (hatched). The curves are very similar and this shows that the continents moved
together as part of Gondwanaland.

• Also note that this shows that these southern continents were in the polar region at this time. From
McElhinny, reproduced in Stacey (1969).
D4.4 Paleomagnetism and evidence for plate tectonics

1620 Francis Bacon noted the ‘conformable instances’ along the east and west coastlines of the
Atlantic Ocean.

1858 Antonio Snider-Pellegrini suggested that continents were linked during the Carboniferous
Period, because plant fossils in coal-bearing strata of that age were so similar in both Europe
and North America. His book was called “Création et ses mystères dévoilés”

1885 Geologist Edward Seuss described similarities between plant fossils from South America,
India, Australia, Africa and Antarctica. Proposed that they once formed a super continent
named Gondwanaland. Named after the Gond people of north-central India.

1915 Alfred Wegener suggested the idea of

continental drift. Developed previous
ideas of the fit of continents and
matching patterns of fossils and
plants.

Wegener made some reconstructions

of the location of the continents in the
past.

He envisioned continents made of

lighter material floating in a denser
mantle. This was (possibly) inspired
by ideas of the continents floating that
were derived from the isostacy
hypothesis of Airy. However,
Wegener had no viable mechanism to
move the continents and he proposed
the unlikely idea of a polar-fleeing
centrifugal force (polfluchkraft).

Figure from Wegener (1929) showing positions of continents at 300, 55 and Ma before present. Figure annotated
by Steve Dutch (UWGB). Blue shows the extent of Permian glaciation. This figures and excellent notes found at
http://www.uwgb.edu/DutchS/EarthSC102Notes/102PlateTectonics.htm

1930-40 Opposition to idea of continental drift from Sir Harold Jeffreys and other geophysicists,
mainly because of a lack of a mechanism for the huge forces needed to move continents
through the mantle. These seismologists viewed the Earth as solid, based on observations of
seismic wave propagation.
 Arthur Holmes idea of mantle convection du Toit (1937)

Arthur Holmes suggested the idea of mantle convection. This provided a mechanism for
moving the continents across the surface of the Earth.

Alfred Wegener died in Greenland in 1930

South African geologist Alexander du Toit suggested that there had been a northern
supercontinent called Laurasia made up from North America, Greenland, Europe and Asia.
This provided a unifying explanation for the distribution of the remains of equatorial, coal-
forming plants, and thus the widely scattered coal deposits (1937).

1950’s Convincing evidence that the magnetic field had reversed, and that continents recorded the
fact that their distance from the magnetic pole had changed over geological time.

• This polar wandering could be

explained simply by continental drift.

• Also explained other observations that

suggested that the continents had
changed latitude over geological time.
e.g. coal seams in the Arctic at
Svalbard and evidence for glaciation
in sub-tropical South Africa.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/exploring.html

D4.5 Seafloor magnetic anomalies

• In 1855, a bathymetric chart published by U.S. Navy Lieutenant Matthew Maury revealed the first
evidence of underwater mountains in the central Atlantic (called "Middle Ground").

• These mid-ocean ridges were clearly volcanic (Azores, Iceland etc) and associated with a narrow
belt of many earthquakes (Rothe, 1954). It was inferred that these ridges must be geologically
active.

• Important evidence to support the hypothesis of continental drift came from observations of
magnetic fields measured by survey ships on profiles that crossed the world’s oceans.

• In the late 1950’s new magnetometers became available for geophysical studies in the oceans.
Magnetic stripes of alternating positive and negative polarity were discovered.
Menard (1965) Earthquake locations from Rothe (1954)

• Lack of sediments in deep ocean and on crests of mid-ocean ridges showed they were the youngest
parts of the oceans (not the oldest part as once thought).

• Atolls are rings of coral reef that have developed above volcanos in the deep ocean. Their origin
was first described by Darwin (1842).

• Once they are submerged the coral dies and they become a flat topped seamount. These were found
to be widespread in the Pacific by Harry Hess during his service on submarines during WWII. He
named these features guyots.

• Can show that the ocean floor subsides as it ages and moves away from the mid-ocean ridge.
• This can be explained by simple thermal arguments that model a change in density with plate age.

• 1959-1962 Ideas of seafloor spreading suggested Harry Hess, Robert Dietz and others. Lack of
knowledge of deep oceans prevented confirmation of these ideas.

• 1962 Lawrence Morley. Suggested

explanation for the magnetic stripes,
assuming oceanic crust was magnetized as it
was erupted. Magnetization recorded
changes in polarity of the geomagnetic field.
These ideas were rejected for publication by
Nature and Journal of Geophysical
Research as too speculative.

• Vine and Matthews (1963) independently

suggested the same idea and published their
results in the journal Nature.

Magnetic stripes at High magnetic latitudes

• In high magnetic latitudes the Earth’s

magnetic field is close to vertical.

• The remnant magnetization at the

ridge is in the same direction as the
Earth’s field.

• The ridge crest is a positive magnetic

anomaly.

Magnetic stripes at Low magnetic latitudes

• In low magnetic latitudes the Earth’s

magnetic field is horizontal.

• If the ridge extends east-west, then the

remnant magnetization is across the
ridge is in the same direction as the
Earth’s field.

• At this location the ridge crest is a

negative magnetic anomaly.

• Drilling of the mid-Atlantic ridge revealed a much more complicated pattern of seafloor magnetism
(Hall and Robinson, 1979). Still some debate about exactly which part of the crust is magnetized
and contributes to the magnetic stripes.
 • Fit of the continents by Bullard et al.,
(1965) derived using a computer
algorithm to optimize the location of
continents on a sphere.

• Bullard aligned the edges of the

continental shelves rather than the
present coastline.

• Large deltas that have form since rifting

began cause overlaps.

Heirtzler et al., (1968) presented a detailed study of the Reykjanes Ridge showed symmetric stripes in
map form. Similar patterns observed on each side of the Juan de Fuca ridge on the west coast of
North America (Vine, 1966).

Heirtzler et al., (1968) Based on Vine (1966)

• Confirmation of seafloor spreading rates and seafloor ages inferred from anomalies by ocean
drilling and dating of basalt. Figure below from Maxwell et al., 1970 and also Fowler Figure
3.13.

• Rate of seafloor spreading varied from one ridge to another (Vine, 1966)

• Correlation between magnetic anomaly and age provides a method for measuring the age of
the ocean floor by studying the magnetic anomalies. Figure below from (Muller et al., 1997).

• This information allows the reconstructions of past plate motions. Please read Fowler 3.3.

• The ocean floor is one of the youngest parts of the Earth’s surface, with very little older than
200 million years.
D4.6 Modern reconstructions of plate motion

• Magnetic data was key evidence for acceptance of plate tectonics

• Animations of last 200 million years (TASA)
• Reconstruction of each ocean basin in Fowler Chapter 3

References
Brunhes, B., Recherches sur la direction d'aimentation des roches volcaniques (1), J. Physique, 4e ser.,
5, 705-724, 1906.
Bullard, E., J.E. Everett and A.G. Smith, The fit of the continents around the Atlantic, Phil. Trans.
Royal Society of London, Series A, 258, 41-51, 1965.
Dietz, R.S., Continent and ocean basin evolution by spreading of the sea floor, Nature, 190, 854-7,
1961.
Hall, J.M., and P.T. Robinson, Deep crustal drilling in the North Atlantic ocean, Science, 204, 573-
586, 1979.
Heirtzler, J.R. et al., Marine Magnetic Anomalies, Geomagnetic Field Reversals and Motions of
Ocean Floor and Continents, J. Geophys. Res. 73, 2119-36, 1968
Hospers, J., Remnant magnetism of rocks and the history of the geomagnetic field, Nature, 168,1111-
1112, 1951.
Matuyama, M., On the Direction of Magnetisation of Basalt in Japan, Tyosen and Manchuria, Japan
Academy Proceedings 5, 203-5, 1929.
Maxwell, A.E., et al., Deep sea drilling in the South Atlantic, Science, 168, 1047-1059, 1970
Menard, H.W., The world-wide oceanic rise-ridge system, Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London,
Series A, 258, 109-122, 1965.
Muller, R.D., W.R. Roest, J. Royer, L.M. Gahagan, J.G. Sclater, Digital isochrons of the worlds ocean
floor, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 3211-3214, 1997.
Rothe, J.P., La zone seismique mediane Indo-Atlantique, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
Series A, 222, 387-397, 1954.
Vine, F.J., and D.H. Matthews, Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges, Nature, 199, 947-949, 1963.
Vine, F.J., Spreading of the Ocean Floor : New evidence, Science, 154, 1405-1415, 1966.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/exploring.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snider-Pellegrini
http://pangea.stanford.edu/courses/gp025/webbook/08_tectonics.html
MJU November 2007
210D5: Magnetization of the crust

D5.1 Mechanisms for magnetizing crustal rocks

D5.1.1 Thermoremnant magnetization

• spontaneous magnetization when temperature drops below Curie temperature

• magnetization cannot change once below blocking temperature

D5.1.2 Detrital remnant magnetization

• Detrital magnetization can produce a

weak remnant magnetization in
sedimentary grains
• grains being deposited contain some
magnetite or other magnetic mineral
• preferred orientation as they are
deposited

D5.1.3 Chemical remnant magnetization

• Can occur during alteration, diagenesis
• Example from oil field in Gibson and Millegan (1988)

D5.1.4 Magnetic bacterial influences?

• Magnetotactic bacteria were discovered in 1975 by Blakemore.

• Check the movie at http://www.geophysik.uni-muenchen.de/research/biogeomagnetism
• Both northern and southern hemisphere adapted bacteria exist , with mixture at equator
• Can they produce magnetization in rocks?
• What about geomagnetic reversals?

Other references
• http://www.biophysics.uwa.edu.au/STAWA/magbac_5.html
• http://www.panspermia.org/magneto.htm

1
D5.2 Continental scale magnetic anomalies

D5.2.1 Aeromagnetic map of Canada

• major features produced by crystalline basement rocks

• variation in magnetic mineral content produces variations in susceptibility
• zones of high susceptibility produce a positive magnetic anomaly
• note magnetic stripes in ocean

D5.2.2 Tibetan Plateau and Himalaya

• High crustal temperatures cause the Curie depth to be shallower than normal below regions
with active tectonics. No induced magnetization below Curie depth.
• Example from satellite data MAGSAT from Alsdorf and Nelson (1999)
• More recent satellite data from the Oersted mission

2
D5.3 Local magnetic anomalies

D5.3.1 Magnetic anomalies in Alberta

• Induced magnetization in basement rocks controls overall anomaly pattern.

• This allows mapping in between well where direct sampling is possible
• Maps above and more details in Pilkington et al., (2000)
• Snowbird tectonic zone close to Edmonton
• Vulcan zone in Southern Alberta. Rifting event?

D5.3.2 Aeromagnetic exploration for diamond exploration

• Diamonds formed from carbon at very high pressures in the upper mantle
• Requires thick lithosphere to get the high pressures in a relatively cold region of the mantle.
• Eruption of kimberlites can bring the diamonds to the surface.
• Diamond exploration requires exploration for kimberlites.
• Magnetic exploration can help locate kimberlite pipes
• Since kimberlites are basic, must consider remant magnetization

3
 (a) Kimberlites pipes can have normal remnant magnetization. Combined with the induced
magnetization, this gives positive magnetic anomaly (in high magnetic latitudes)

(b) Pipes can also have reversed remnant magnetization, according to the age of eruption.
Combined with the opposing induced magnetization, this gives a range of magnetic anomalies
from negative to zero to weakly positive (in high magnetic latitudes)

Ekati Mine, NWT

From Ashton Mining of Canada

References
Alsdorf, D. and K.D. Nelson, Geology, 27, 943-946, 1999.
Pilkington, M, W.F. Miles, G.M. Ross and W.R. Roest, Potential field signature of buried
PreCambrian basement in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences, 37, 1453-1471, 2000.
Gibson, R.I., and P.S. Millegan, Geologic applications of gravity and magnetics: case histories,
Society of Exploration Geophysics, 1998.

MJU November 2007

4
GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 1 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination

Geophysics 210
8:00 to 9:20 AM, Room CEB-436

• Show all work leading to a numerical answer; a numerical answer by itself will
receive no marks.
• Closed book, calculator and drawing aids allowed. Relevant formulas are included at
the bottom.
• The exam question and formula sheet must be handed in along with your exam
booklet.
• Total number of points for the questions is 100.

Shape and rotation of the Earth

1. How was the degree of meridian arc of the earth measured? (15 points)

2. Describe why there are two tides per day at locations near the equator in terms
of the earth-moon system. How many tides are in the near polar latitudes?
(10 points)

3. Milankovitch astronomical cycles, what is that? Explain what are eccentricity,

obliquity and precession. What are their periods in thousands of years?
(20 points)
GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 2 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination

Gravity

4. The Scandinavian continental crust was covered by the glacial sheet with a
thickness of 3 km (ice density = 1000 kg/m3). After the ice was molten the
continent was uplifted. Calculate for how many kilometres the continental
crust was uplifted relatively to its position during glacial period. The continent
has a crustal thickness of 40 km and a density of 2670 kg/m3 and is situated
over mantle material with density of 3200 kg/m3. Assume that both before and
after emplacement of the ice sheet the continent is at isostatic equilibrium.
Hint: derive the equation for the compensation depth in the same manner you
do it for the isostatic models. (20 points)

5. You are taking gravity measurements in the valley below the sea level.
Explain how to apply Free Air and Bouguer corrections (add or subtract) and
why. (15 points)

Seismology and Structure of the Earth

r1 " sini1 r2 " sini2 r " sinin

6. Derive the Benndorf Relationship: = = ... = n = const.
V1 V2 Vn
Illustrate your derivation with a schematic drawing. (20 points)

!
 GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 3 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination
Formulas and Constants:

Normal gravity gn on IRE: gn = ge {1+ a " sin 2 ( # ) + b " sin 4 ( #)}

where ge=9.78031846 m/s2, a=0.005278895, b=0.000023462

IRE: Latitudinal dependence of the radius of an oblate spheroid of ellipticity (or polar
flattening) f is:! r( ") = Re (1# f $ sin 2 ( ")) with equatorial radius Re=6378.137 km and
f=1/298.257

T12 r13 ! 4! 2 r 3
= T2 =
T22 r23 GM

Gravity Corrections:
|ΔgF| = (2g/r)×h = (0.3086 mgal/m)×h(m)
|ΔgB| = 2πGρh and/or |ΔgB| = 2πGΔρΔh
ΔgL= 0.812×sin(2λ) (mgal of per km of N-S displacement) where λ is the latitude of the
Base station in degrees.

Universal gravitational constant G = 6.672×10-11 m3kg-1s-2

Typical densities: crust - 2670 kg/m3, mantle - 3300 kg/m3, ocean water - 1030 kg/m3

Pressure of the static fluid: P = "gh

Isostatic models:
D " crust D # " water d
Pratt’s: "i !
= " crust " ocean = "
hi + D D# d
" crust " # " water
Airy’s: r1 = h1 rocean = crust d
" mantle # " crust " mantle # " crust
! !
Seismisity of the Earth Section
K + 4 3µ ε =Δl/l σ =F/A
!
" = Vp = =
(1$ %!) & E
Bulk modulus: K=σ/ε=ΔP/(ΔV/V)
# (1+ % ) & (1$ 2% ) & # Shear modulus: µ = (ΔF/A)/(Δl/l)
Young's modulus: E = (F/A)/(Δl/l)
µ E 1 Poisson's ratio: ν = (ΔW/W)/(Δl/l)
" = VS = = $
# # 2(1+ % ) Lame's constant:
!
λ =K-(2µ)/3=νE/{(1+ν)(1-2ν)}
Density: ρ = M/V
sin"1 sin" 2 " 2" 2!
! Snell's law: = = constan t V = !f = ! = 2"f = k=
V1 V2 k T "

!
GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 1 of 6
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination
SOLUTION
Geophysics 210
8:00 to 9:20 AM, Room CEB-436

• Show all work leading to a numerical answer; a numerical answer by itself will
receive no marks.
• Closed book, calculator and drawing aids allowed. Relevant formulas are included at
the bottom.
• The exam question and formula sheet must be handed in along with your exam
booklet.
• Total number of points for the questions is 100.

Shape and rotation of the Earth

1. How was the degree of meridian arc of the earth measured? (15 points)

SOLUTION
The length of a degree of
meridian arc was found with
measuring the distance between
two points on the Earth that lie
one degree apart on the same
meridian. The pendulum was used
to measure the normal to the earth
surface, the astrolabe was used to
measure the parallel lines to the
very distant star.
GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 2 of 6
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination

2. Describe why there are two tides per day at locations near the equator in terms
of the earth-moon system. How many tides are in the near polar latitudes?
(10 points)
SOLUTION

The maximum tides are not equal at different latitudes. It is because the earth rotational
axis is inclined relatively to the moon’s orbit. As you can see from the figure at the
equator tides have equal amplitude. At the intermediate latitudes one tide is higher than
another, at the high latitudes and close to the poles we can observe only one tide per day.

3. Milankovitch astronomical cycles, what is that? Explain what are eccentricity,

obliquity and precession. What are their periods in thousands of years?
(20 points)

SOLUTION. See detailed description on the web-course pages.

 GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 3 of 6
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination
Gravity
4. The Scandinavian continental crust was covered by the glacial sheet with a
thickness of 3 km (ice density = 1000 kg/m3). After the ice was molten the
continent was uplifted. Calculate for how many kilometres the continental
crust was uplifted relatively to its position during glacial period. The continent
has a crustal thickness of 40 km and a density of 2670 kg/m3 and is situated
over mantle material with density of 3200 kg/m3. Assume that both before and
after emplacement of the ice sheet the continent is at isostatic equilibrium.
Hint: derive the equation for the compensation depth in the same manner you
do it for the isostatic models. (20 points)

SOLUTION

Pr essure = "hg
First I derive the equation for the compensation depth in the same manner you do
it for the isostatic models as it was suggested in the problems hint. For the
continent with ice we have
! Pr essureWith _ Ice = " Ice dg + "Crust tg
and
Pr essureWithout _ Ice = "Crust tg + " Mantle rg
So, at the compensation depth
! " Ice dg + "Crust tg = "Crust tg + " Mantle rg
After cancellation of the similar terms we arrive to
! " Ice d = " Mantle r From here
" Ice d 1000kg / m 3 # 3km
! r= = = 0.9375km = 938m
" Mantle 3200kg / m 3
! The continent will uplift at 938 meters.

!
GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 4 of 6
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination

5. You are taking gravity measurements in the valley below the sea level.
Explain how to apply Free Air and Bouguer corrections (add or subtract) and
why. (15 points)

SOLUTION

The FA correction should be subtracted because we are closer to the centre of the Earth
and thus the measured gravity is higher than it would be at the sea level (datum) we
compare with. The Bouguer correction needs to be added because we have mass
deficiency (air) between our point of measurement and the sea level. Mass deficiency
would case less gravitational attraction and we need to account for this by the adding the
BC. In other words we need to account for the infinite slab between our point of measure
and the datum which is missing in our case.
GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 5 of 6
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination
Seismology and Structure of the Earth

r1 " sini1 r2 " sini2 r " sinin

6. Derive the Benndorf Relationship: = = ... = n = const.
V1 V2 Vn
Illustrate your derivation with a schematic drawing. (20 points)

SOLUTION
!
 GEOPH 210 October 24, 2006 Page 6 of 6
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Midterm Examination
Formulas and Constants:

Normal gravity gn on IRE: gn = ge {1+ a " sin 2 ( # ) + b " sin 4 ( #)}

where ge=9.78031846 m/s2, a=0.005278895, b=0.000023462

IRE: Latitudinal dependence of the radius of an oblate spheroid of ellipticity (or polar
flattening) f is:! r( ") = Re (1# f $ sin 2 ( ")) with equatorial radius Re=6378.137 km and
f=1/298.257

T12 r13 ! 4! 2 r 3
= T2 =
T22 r23 GM

Gravity Corrections:
|ΔgF| = (2g/r)×h = (0.3086 mgal/m)×h(m)
|ΔgB| = 2πGρh and/or |ΔgB| = 2πGΔρΔh
ΔgL= 0.812×sin(2λ) (mgal of per km of N-S displacement) where λ is the latitude of the
Base station in degrees.

Universal gravitational constant G = 6.672×10-11 m3kg-1s-2

Typical densities: crust - 2670 kg/m3, mantle - 3300 kg/m3, ocean water - 1030 kg/m3

Pressure of the static fluid: P = "gh

Isostatic models:
D " crust D # " water d
Pratt’s: "i !
= " crust " ocean = "
hi + D D# d
" crust " # " water
Airy’s: r1 = h1 rocean = crust d
" mantle # " crust " mantle # " crust
! !
Seismisity of the Earth Section
K + 4 3µ ε =Δl/l σ =F/A
!
" = Vp = =
(1$ %!) & E
Bulk modulus: K=σ/ε=ΔP/(ΔV/V)
# (1+ % ) & (1$ 2% ) & # Shear modulus: µ = (ΔF/A)/(Δl/l)
Young's modulus: E = (F/A)/(Δl/l)
µ E 1 Poisson's ratio: ν = (ΔW/W)/(Δl/l)
" = VS = = $
# # 2(1+ % ) Lame's constant:
!
λ =K-(2µ)/3=νE/{(1+ν)(1-2ν)}
Density: ρ = M/V
sin"1 sin" 2 " 2" 2!
! Snell's law: = = constan t V = !f = ! = 2"f = k=
V1 V2 k T "

!
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 1 of 5
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

Geophysics 210 (Physics of Earth)

9:00 to 11:00 AM, Room CEB-436

• Show all work leading to a numerical answer; a numerical answer by itself will
receive no marks.
• Closed book, calculator and drawing aids allowed. Relevant formulas are included at
the bottom.
• The exam question and formula sheet must be handed in along with your exam
booklet.
• Total number of points for the questions is 100.

Seismology and Structure of the Earth

1. What is the difference between Fermat’s and Huygens’ principals?

(10 points)

2. What is the low viscosity zone? At what depths was it found? What are P-
wave velocities for this layer? (10 points)
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 2 of 5
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

3. In the figure below are shown a number of focal plane solutions for
earthquakes of March 2005 at a number of localities around the world:
1) Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge, 2) Turkey, 3) Red Sea, 4) Japan, and 5) South
American West Coast. Indicate what tectonic regime occurred for these
earthquakes (type of the fault, type of the plate boundary). (15 points)

4. Sketch the ray paths of the seismic waves through the Earth: P, PP, PPP, PKP,
PKIKP, PKiKP. (15 points)
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 3 of 5
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

The Earth's Heat

5. As noted in class, the seafloor depth can be described essentially by its age.
Calculate the expected depth of the 50 Ma old oceanic crust adjacent to the
passive continental margins of eastern Canada. (10 points)

6. Draw a scheme of a cross-section of the earth, showing the relationship

between the melting points of rocks and the estimate temperature from the
surface to the core. What the scheme illustrates in terms of internal structure
of the earth? (10 points)

Earth Magnetism and Paleomagnetism

7. You core an early Cretaceous basalt flow today at a location of 45ºN, 115.6ºW
(West cost of Oregon, USA) which you have dated to be 100 Ma (100
Million) years old, a time period during the Cretaceous Quiet Interval where
the earth's magnetic field had normal polarity. The inclination angle of the
magnetization of this rock is 17.5º and the rock's magnetization points due
North (geographic). Where on the globe was the lava erupted (what is the
paleolatitude and what is the latitude difference with the present day
position)? (15 points)

8. Explain paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties of materials.

Give an example(s) of common minerals that have such properties.
(15 points)
 GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 4 of 5
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination
Formulas and Constants:

Normal gravity gn on IRE: gn = ge {1+ a " sin 2 ( # ) + b " sin 4 ( #)}

where ge=9.78031846 m/s2, a=0.005278895, b=0.000023462

IRE: Latitudinal dependence of the radius of an oblate spheroid of ellipticity (or polar
flattening) f is:! r( ") = Re (1# f $ sin 2 ( ")) with equatorial radius Re=6378.137 km and
f=1/298.257

T12 r13 ! 4! 2 r 3
= T2 =
T22 r23 GM

Gravity Corrections:
|ΔgF| = (2g/r)×h = (0.3086 mgal/m)×h(m)
|ΔgB| = 2πGρh and/or |ΔgB| = 2πGΔρΔh
ΔgL= 0.812×sin(2λ) (mgal of per km of N-S displacement) where λ is the latitude of the
Base station in degrees.

Universal gravitational constant G = 6.672×10-11 m3kg-1s-2

Typical densities: crust - 2670 kg/m3, mantle - 3300 kg/m3, ocean water - 1030 kg/m3

Earth’s Heat and Temperature Section

Depth of the ocean:
d = 2.5km + 0.35 t following Airy’s model (for t<70Ma)
"t
d = 6.4km " 3.5e 62.8 following Pratt’s model (for t≥70Ma)

! Lithosphere thickness:
! L = 11 t L = 2.016 "t = 160km
where or where
" = 10#6 ms#1 " = 10#6 ms#1
and and
L(km),t(Ma) L(meters),t(seconds)

! !
 GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 5 of 5
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

Seismisity of the Earth Section

K + 4 3µ ε =Δl/l σ =F/A
" = Vp = =
(1$ % ) & E
Bulk modulus: K=σ/ε=ΔP/(ΔV/V)
# (1+ % ) & (1$ 2% ) & # Shear modulus: µ = (ΔF/A)/(Δl/l)
Young's modulus: E = (F/A)/(Δl/l)
µ E 1 Poisson's ratio: ν = (ΔW/W)/(Δl/l)
" = VS = = $
# # 2(1+ % ) Lame's constant:
!
λ =K-(2µ)/3=νE/{(1+ν)(1-2ν)}
Density: ρ = M/V
sin"1 sin" 2 " 2" 2!
! Snell's law: = = constan t V = !f = ! = 2"f = k=
V1 V2 k T "

!
Earth Magnetism Section

tan(I)=Br/Bθ=2cot(θm)=2tan(λm)

Br = (µo/4π)2m⋅cos(θ)/r3
Bθ = (µo/4π)m⋅cos(θ)/r3, where m = dipole moment

B = µµ0(M + H)=(1+k)⋅µ0H, in vacuum

B = µµ0H

µ0 = 4π x 10-7 Tm/A

In paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials M = kH

µ=1+k
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 1 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

Geophysics 210 (Physics of Earth)

9:00 to 11:00 AM, Room CEB-436

• Show all work leading to a numerical answer; a numerical answer by itself will
receive no marks.
• Closed book, calculator and drawing aids allowed. Relevant formulas are included at
the bottom.
• The exam question and formula sheet must be handed in along with your exam
booklet.
• Total number of points for the questions is 100.

Seismology and Structure of the Earth

1. What is the difference between Fermat’s and Huygens’ principals?

(10 points)

Solution

Huygens' Principle. Every point on a wavefront can be considered a secondary source of

spherical waves, and the position of the wavefront after a given time is the envelope of
these secondary wavefronts.
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 2 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

Applying Huygens' principle to determine the position of the wavefront at t2 after an

interval of time D t. Given the position of a wavefront at time t1 and applying Hyugens'
principle, the position of the wavefront at time t2 is determined.

* Huygen’s construction can be used to explain reflection, refraction and diffraction

of waves

* However, it is often simpler to consider wave propagation in terms of rays, though

they cannot explain some effects such as diffraction into shadow zones.

Fermats’s Principle. Fermat developed the principle of least time. The principle states
that in the propagation of waves, the wave path between any two fixed points is that one
along which the time of travel is the least of all possible paths.
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 3 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

2. What is the low viscosity zone? At what depths was it found? What are P-
wave velocities for this layer? (10 points)

Solution

Between ~100 to 200 km, weak or negative gradient in velocity - called the LVZ.
Possibly a zone of partial melt? Associated with the Asthenosphere. The asthenosphere
may provide a low viscosity zone upon which the lithosphere can move.
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 4 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

3. In the figure below are shown a number of focal plane solutions for
earthquakes of March 2005 at a number of localities around the world:
1) Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge, 2) Turkey, 3) Red Sea, 4) Japan, and 5) South
American West Coast. Indicate what tectonic regime occurred for these
earthquakes (type of the fault, type of the plate boundary). (15 points)

Solution

1) Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge – normal fault indicates the spreading process in the Oceanic
Ridge. Plate boundary: divergent.
2) Turkey – strike-slip fault. Transform plate boundary. Anatolian fault.
3) Red Sea – normal fault indicates the spreading process in the Oceanic Ridge. Plate
boundary: divergent.
4) Japan – thrust (reverse) fault. Mostly convergence but very small amount of obliquity
(strike-slip motion). Subduction of the Pacific plate under Eurasian plate. Plate boundary:
convergent.
5) Chile – thrust (reverse) fault. Mostly convergence but very small amount of obliquity
(strike-slip motion). Subduction of the Pacific plate under South Amerian continent. Plate
boundary: convergent.
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 5 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

4. Sketch the ray paths of the seismic waves through the Earth: P, PP, PPP, PKP,
PKIKP, PKiKP. (15 points)

Solution

The Earth's Heat

5. As noted in class, the seafloor depth can be described essentially by its age.
Calculate the expected depth of the 50 Ma old oceanic crust adjacent to the
passive continental margins of eastern Canada. (10 points)

Solution
d = 2.5km + 0.35 t
d = 2.5km + 0.35 50Ma = 4.97(km)
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 6 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

6. Draw a scheme of a cross-section of the earth, showing the relationship

between the melting points of rocks and the estimate temperature from the
surface to the core. What the scheme illustrates in terms of internal structure
of the earth? (10 points)

Solution
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 7 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

Earth Magnetism and Paleomagnetism

7. You core an early Cretaceous basalt flow today at a location of 45ºN, 115.6ºW
(West cost of Oregon, USA) which you have dated to be 100 Ma (100
Million) years old, a time period during the Cretaceous Quiet Interval where
the earth's magnetic field had normal polarity. The inclination angle of the
magnetization of this rock is 17.5º and the rock's magnetization points due
North (geographic). Where on the globe was the lava erupted (what is the
paleolatitude and what is the latitude difference with the present day
position)? (15 points)

Solution

Observed inclination I=17.5°.

tan(I) = 2tan( λm )
So, paleolatitude is
⎛ tan(I) ⎞ o
λm = tan−1⎜ ⎟=9
⎝ 2 ⎠
which is near equatorial latitude.
The rock is at 45°N today, so it was moved 45°−9°=36° north since formation.

8. Explain paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties of materials.

Give an example(s) of common minerals that have such properties.
(15 points)

Solution
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 8 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination
Formulas and Constants:

Normal gravity gn on IRE: gn = ge {1+ a ⋅ sin 2 (λ ) + b ⋅ sin 4 (λ)}

where ge=9.78031846 m/s2, a=0.005278895, b=0.000023462

IRE: Latitudinal dependence of the radius of an oblate spheroid of ellipticity (or polar
flattening) f is: r( λ) = Re (1− f ⋅ sin2 ( λ)) with equatorial radius Re=6378.137 km and
f=1/298.257

4π r
2 3 2 3
T1 r1
T =
2
2 = 3
T2 r2 GM

Gravity Corrections:
|ΔgF| = (2g/r)×h = (0.3086 mgal/m)×h(m)
|ΔgB| = 2πGρh and/or |ΔgB| = 2πGΔρΔh
ΔgL= 0.812×sin(2λ) (mgal of per km of N-S displacement) where λ is the latitude of the
Base station in degrees.

Universal gravitational constant G = 6.672×10-11 m3kg-1s-2

Typical densities: crust - 2670 kg/m3, mantle - 3300 kg/m3, ocean water - 1030 kg/m3

Earth’s Heat and Temperature Section

Depth of the ocean:
d = 2.5km + 0.35 t following Airy’s model (for t<70Ma)
−t
d = 6.4km − 3.5e 62.8
following Pratt’s model (for t≥70Ma)

Lithosphere thickness:
L = 11 t L = 2.016 κt = 160km
where or where
κ = 10 ms
−6 −1
κ = 10−6 ms−1
and and
L(km),t(Ma) L(meters),t(seconds)
GEOPH 210 December 11, 2006 Page 9 of 3
Dr. V. Kravchinsky Final Examination

Seismisity of the Earth Section

K + 4 3μ ε =Δl/l σ =F/A
α = Vp = =
(1− ν )⋅ E
Bulk modulus: K=σ/ε=ΔP/(ΔV/V)
ρ (1+ ν )⋅ (1− 2ν )⋅ ρ Shear modulus: μ = (ΔF/A)/(Δl/l)
Young's modulus: E = (F/A)/(Δl/l)
μ E 1 Poisson's ratio: ν = (ΔW/W)/(Δl/l)
β = VS = = ×
ρ ρ 2(1+ ν ) Lame's constant:
λ =K-(2μ)/3=νE/{(1+ν)(1-2ν)}
Density: ρ = M/V
sinΘ1 sinΘ2 ω 2π 2π
Snell's law: = = constant V = λf = ω = 2πf = k=
V1 V2 k T λ

Earth Magnetism Section

tan(I) = Br/Bθ = 2cot(θm) = 2tan(λm)

Br = (μo/4π)2mcos(θ)/r3
Bθ = (μo/4π)mcos(θ)/r3, where m = dipole moment

B = μμ0(M + H) = (1+k) μ0H, in vacuum

B = μμ0H

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 Tm/A

In paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials M = kH

μ=1+k
Geophysics 210 Fall 2007 Assignment 1 – Gravity

Question 1
A number of countries use geothermal heat sources to generate electricity. Gravity data is
sometimes used to investigate subsurface structure in such regions. The data shown below
were collected on the island of Leyte in the southern Philippines.
Data were collected on a grid, but we will consider a single profile that crossed an
inactive andesite volcano.
Note that the measured gravity data mirror the topography of the volcano. This is because
gravity becomes weaker as the measurement point moves away from the centre of the
Earth.
The numerical data are listed in the Excel spreadsheet that is also on the class webpage.

In (a)-(d), do the calculation by hand for the point on top of the volcano. Show your
working. For the other points use the spreadsheet.

(a) Compute the Free Air correction using the formula in your notes.
(b) Compute the Free Air gravity anomaly.
(c) Compute the Bouguer correction using the formula in your notes.
(d) Compute the Bouguer anomaly.

(e) Plot the measured gravity, Free Air anomaly and Bouguer anomaly.
(f) What is the maximum value of the Bouguer gravity anomaly?
(g) Compute the half width of the anomaly on east and west sides.
(h) Compute the average half width.
(i) Estimate the depth of the body that causes the Bouguer anomaly
(j) Given the location, what could cause this density change?
Question 2
A 4 km high plateau is located in a region where the crust is 30 km thick. The crustal
and mantle densities are 2800 kg m-3 and 3100 kg m-3 respectively and the plateau is in
isostatic equilibrium. Answer the following assuming that Airy’s hypothesis applies.

(a) What is the thickness of the crustal root needed to support the plateau?

(b) Erosion removes 1km from the plateau and the system is no longer in
equilibrium. Is the plateau under or over compensated?

(c) Compute a value for the isostatic gravity anomaly on the plateau.

(d) Isostatic equilibrium is regained. How high will the mountain range be now?

Question 3
In Eastern Turkey a collision between the Arabian and Eurasian plates has formed the 2
km high Anatolian plateau. Over much of this plateau the Bouguer anomaly is -150
mgal (blue colours above).

(a) Is the Anatolian Plateau in isostatic equilibrium, under compensated or over

compensated?
(b) What other forces could maintain equilibrium in this case?

Assume that crustal and mantle density of 2800 kg m-3 and 3100 kg m-3 respectively

Question 4. Read chapter 5 from the text book.

This assignment will be due at 5pm on Thursday October 4 2007

Please feel free to contact me, or the teaching assistant if you have questions.
Geophysics 210 Fall 2007 Assignment 2 – Seismic methods
1. A P-wave is generated by a large earthquake and travels vertically downwards.
Assume that the P-wave velocities in the mantle, outer core and inner core are 12, 9 and
10 km/s respectively. The wave has an initial amplitude A=1. Assume that density is
constant throughout the Earth.

Compute the amplitude of:

(a) The seismic wave that travels through the centre of the Earth and reaches a
seismic station on the far side.
(b) The seismic wave reflected from the core-mantle boundary (CMB) and recorded
close to the epicentre.
(c) The seismic wave reflected from the inner-core to outer core boundary and
recorded close to the epicentre.
(d) What other factors can also change the amplitude of a seismic wave? List three.

2. An earthquake with magnitude MS = 7 occurs at a distance of 28°. What will be the

amplitude of the surface waves with a period of 20 seconds?

3. An earthquake on a thrust fault has a moment magnitude of Mw = 7.6 The earthquake

had a rupture length of 70 km which extended from the surface to a depth of 12 km.
Shear modulus of the crust at this location 100 GPa.

What was the magnitude of the slip?

4. An interface separates two layers.

Above the interface vp= 4.0 km/s and vs= 3.1 km/s. Below the interface vp= 6.5 km/s
and vs= 4.1 km/s A seismic wave is incident on the interface with θi = 30°. Consider the
case that the incident wave is

(a) P-wave
(b) S-wave, polarized parallel to interface (SH)
(c) S-wave, polarized in the vertical direction (SV)

For each case, what waves will be transmitted and reflected. Compute the angles of
reflection and transmission. Assume that the density of both layers is the same.

5. Sketch the focal mechanism that would results from:

(a) Earthquake on a left-lateral strike-slip fault with strike of N70°E

(b) Thrust fault with strike N135°E and dip 20°
(c) Underground nuclear explosion

6. Read sections 4.1 and 4.2 from the text book (pages 100-140)

This assignment will be due in class on Tuesday October 16 2007 and will be reviewed
in class on Thursday October 18 2007
Please contact me, or the teaching assistant if you have questions. Office hours will be
announced by e-mail and in class.
Geophysics 210 Fall 2007 Assignment 3 – Earthquake seismology

Question 1
During a micro-earthquake survey in Turkey, an earthquake was recorded by three
seismometers. The travel times are listed in chapter 4, problem 5 in the text book. A map
showing the seismometer locations is attached below.

Assume that the earthquake occurred at the surface. P-wave and S-wave velocities in this
area are 5.6 and 3.4 km/s respectively.

Answer the following:

(a) Distance of earthquake from station 1 = _________ km

(b) Distance of earthquake from station 2 = _________ km

(c) Distance of earthquake from station 3 = _________ km

(d) Time at which earthquake occurred = _________________________

(e) Mark the epicentre of the map above

Question 2

Prior to the construction of a nuclear power plant in Alberta, a seismologist is estimating

the probability of large earthquakes.

The area has been monitored for 50 years and ten M = 3 events have been recorded.

(a) Sketch the appropriate Gutenberg-Richter relation. Assume b = 1

(b) Estimate the a value

(c) Estimate the repeat time of a M = 6 earthquake in this area.

Question 3

A newly discovered planet is being investigated by a seismologist.

It has a radius of 5000 km and is believed to have a core.

The outer layer has a uniform P-wave velocity of 8 km/s.

(a) P-waves are recorded from Δ = 0° to Δ = 110°. Beyond Δ = 110° is a shadow zone
where no P-waves are observed. Estimate the radius of the core.

(b) The travel time for the P-waves arriving at Δ = 180° and travelling through the centre
of the planet is 23 minutes.

What is the P-wave velocity of the core?

Question 4

On the figure below, sketch the ray paths for the following teleseismic phases

(a) ScP and PcS for Δ = 60°

(b) PKKP at Δ = 60°
(c) PKIIKP at Δ = 80°
(d) SKKS at Δ = 90° (2 possible ray paths)

Question 5 Read sections 4.2, 8.1 and 9.6 from the text book.

This assignment will be due in class on Thursday November 15 2007

Office hours will be announced shortly.

Geophysics 210 Fall 2007 Assignment 4 – Geomagnetism

Question 1
The magnetic dipole for Mercury has a value of M = 3.2 x 1019 Am2 and the planet has a
mean radius r = 2439 km. Assume the magnetic dipole is perfectly aligned with the
rotational axis of Mercury. μ0 = 4π x 10 -7 H/m.

(a) Calculate the maximum and minimum magnetic field strength on Mercury.

(b) Compare these values to the maximum and minimum values on the Earth.
For the Earth M = 7.94 x 1022 Am2 and r = 6371 km.

(c) Where will the maximum and minimum values of field strength occur?

Question 2
A long iron cylinder is buried in the ice at the north magnetic pole, with it’s axis
horizontal. The total magnetic field (F) is measured on a surface profile (A-A’) that is at
right angles to the axis of the cylinder.

(a) Suppose the cylinder has an induced magnetic moment. Sketch the variation in the
magnitude of F along the profile (A-A’)

(b) Consider the case when the cylinder has no induced magnetic moment. However it
has a strong remnant magnetic moment with M horizontal and parallel to the profile.
Sketch the variation in the magnitude of F along the profile (A-A’)

In each part, include a figure showing how you have added the magnetic field vectors at
key points along the profile.
Question 3

A sample of kimberlite was collected from the Wajrakarur area in India as part of a
diamond exploration project. Sample location was at 15.42° N and 77.53°E

The samples showed a paleomagnetic direction is D = 343.8° and I = - 49.7° degrees.

(a) Compute the angular distance from the kimberlite pipe to the magnetic pole at the
time it was erupted.

(b) Compute the location of the magnetic pole of that time.

If you need some further explanation, please see pages 52-54 in the textbook.

Question 4 Read Chapters 3 and Chapter 8 from the text book.

This assignment will be due at my office (CEB348B) on Monday December 3rd 2007

It will be available for collection on Thursday December 6th 2007

Office hours will be announced shortly.