醫研所-神經暨精神科學組

Dr. 王志煜
Phone : 5092
E-mail :
jizyuhwang@cc.kmu.edu.tw
Chapter 49

Neural
Regulation in
Animals

Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Concept 49.1
Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons
and supporting cells
• Each single-celled organism can respond to
stimuli in its environment
• Animals are multicellular and most groups
respond to stimuli using systems of neurons
• The simplest animals with nervous systems,
the cnidarians腔腸動物, have neurons arranged
in nerve nets
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Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons
and supporting cells

• A nerve net is a series of interconnected nerve

cells
• More complex animals have nerves
• Nerves are bundles that consist of the axons of
multiple nerve cells
• Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm
connected by radial nerves to a central nerve
ring
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nerve
 Eyespot
Brain Brain
Radial
nerve Nerve
cords Ventral
Nerve
Transverse nerve cord
ring
Nerve net nerve
Segmental
ganglia

(a) Hydra (cnidarian) (b) Sea star (c) Planarian (d) Leech (annelid)
(echinoderm) (flatworm)

Brain

Brain Ganglia
Anterior Spinal
Ventral nerve ring Brain
nerve cord cord Sensory
(dorsal ganglia
Longitudinal Ganglia nerve
nerve cords cord)
Segmental
ganglia

(e) Insect (arthropod) (f) Chiton石鱉(mollusc) (g) Squid (mollusc) (h) Salamander
(vertebrate)
Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons
and supporting cells
• Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit
cephalization頭部專化, the clustering of neurons
at the front end of the body
• Relatively simple cephalized animals, such as
flatworms, have a central nervous system (CNS)
• The CNS consists of a brain and longitudinal
nerve cords
• Annelids and arthropods have segmentally
arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia
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Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons
and supporting cells
• Nervous system organization usually correlates
with lifestyle
- Sessile molluscs (for example, clams and chitons石
鱉) have simple systems, whereas more complex
molluscs (for example, octopuses and squids) have
more sophisticated systems
• In vertebrates
- The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord
- The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed
of nerves and ganglia
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Glia
• Glia have numerous functions to nourish,
support and regulate neurons
– In embryos, radial glia form tracks for newly formed
neurons to migrate in the CNS
– Astrocytes induce endothelial cells lining capillaries in
the CNS to form tight junctions, resulting in a blood-
brain barrier and restricting the entry of most
substances into the brain
– Radial glial cells and astrocytes can both act as stem
cells
– Researchers are exploring approaches to using neural
stem cells to replace brain tissue that has ceased to
function normally
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 CNS PNS

VENTRICLE Neuron

Cilia

Capillary

Ependymal Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Schwann

cells cells

Glia in the vertebrate nervous system

Newly born neurons in the brain of an adult mouse
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous
System
• Invertebrates usually have a ventral nerve cord
while vertebrates have a dorsal spinal cord
• The spinal cord and brain develop from the hollow
embryonic nerve cord神經索
• The cavity of nerve cord gives rise to the central
canal and ventricles in the CNS
• The central canal of the spinal cord and the
ventricles of the brain are hollow and filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous
System
• The CSF is filtered from arterial blood and
functions to cushion the brain and spinal cord as
well as to provide nutrients and remove wastes
• The brain and spinal cord contain
– Gray matter, which consists of neuron cell bodies,
dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
– White matter, which consists of bundles of
myelinated axons
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ventricles, gray matter, and white matter

Gray matter

White
matter

Ventricles
 The Vertebrate Nervous System
Central nervous Peripheral nervous
system (CNS) system (PNS)
Brain Cranial nerves
Spinal cord
Ganglia outside
CNS

Spinal nerves
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous
System
• The spinal cord conveys information to and
from the brain, and generates basic patterns of
locomotion
• The spinal cord also produces reflexes
independently of the brain
• A reflex is the body’s automatic response to a
stimulus
– For example, a doctor uses a mallet to trigger a
knee-jerk reflex膝跳反射
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Cell body of Gray
sensory neuron in matter
Quadriceps股四頭肌 dorsal root
muscle ganglion

White
matter

Hamstring
muscle
大腿後肌(膕繩肌)
Spinal cord
(cross section)

Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
Interneuron
 The Peripheral Nervous System
• The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS
and regulates movement and internal environment
• In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information to
the CNS and efferent neurons transmit information
away from the CNS
• The PNS has two efferent components: the motor
system and the autonomic nervous system
- The motor system carries signals to skeletal
muscles and is voluntary
- The autonomic nervous system regulates smooth
and cardiac muscles and is generally involuntary
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Functional hierarchy of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system
CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
(information processing)

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Afferent neurons Efferent neurons

Autonomic Motor
nervous system system
Sensory
receptors
Control of
skeletal muscles

Enteric
Internal Sympathetic Parasympathetic nervous
and external division division system
stimuli
Control of smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles, glands
 The Peripheral Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric divisions
• The sympathetic regulates arousal and energy
generation (“fight-or-flight” response)
• The parasympathetic system has antagonistic
effects on target organs and promotes calming
平靜 and a return to “rest and digest” functions
• The enteric division controls activity of the
digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
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Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division
Action on target organs: Action on target organs:
Constricts pupil Dilates pupil of eye
of eye

Stimulates salivary Inhibits salivary

gland secretion gland secretion
Sympathetic
Constricts ganglia Relaxes bronchi
bronchi in lungs Cervical in lungs

Slows heart Accelerates heart

Stimulates activity Inhibits activity of
of stomach and stomach and intestines
intestines
Thoracic
Stimulates activity Inhibits activity
of pancreas of pancreas

Stimulates Stimulates glucose

gallbladder release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Lumbar
Stimulates
adrenal medulla
Promotes emptying Inhibits emptying
of bladder of bladder

Promotes erection Sacral Promotes ejaculation

of genitalia Synapse and vaginal contractions
Concept 49.2
The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized
• Brain structures are regional specialization for specific
brain functions
• These structures arise during embryonic development
• The forebrain has activities including processing of
olfactory input, regulation of sleep, learning, and any
complex processing
• The midbrain coordinates routing of sensory input
• The hindbrain controls involuntary activities and
coordinates motor activities
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult

Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white

Telencephalon
matter, basal nuclei)
Forebrain
Diencephalon Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus,
epithalamus)

Midbrain Mesencephalon Midbrain (part of brainstem)

Metencephalon Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum

Hindbrain
Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)

Mesencephalon Cerebrum Diencephalon

Metencephalon Midbrain
Midbrain
Diencephalon Myelencephalon
Hindbrain

Pons
Medulla
Spinal oblongata
cord
Forebrain Telencephalon Cerebellum
Spinal cord

Embryo at 1 week Embryo at 5 weeks Child

• The cerebrum controls skeletal muscle contraction
and is the center for learning, emotion, memory,
and perception
• The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the
cerebral cortex and is vital for perception,
voluntary movement, and learning
• A thick band of axons called the corpus callosum
enables the right and left cerebral cortices to
communicate
• The cerebellum coordinates movement and
balance and helps in learning and remembering
motor skills
 Left cerebral Right cerebral
hemisphere hemisphere

Cerebral cortex

Corpus callosum
胼胝體
Cerebrum Basal nuclei

Cerebellum

Adult brain viewed from the rear

• The midbrain receives and integrates sensory information
and sends it to specific regions of the brain
• The medulla is also in control of several automatic
functions such as breathing, heart and blood vessel
activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Pineal gland Brainstem
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Pituitary gland
Pons

Medulla
oblongata

Spinal cord
 Arousal and Sleep
• The brainstem and cerebrum control arousal
and sleep
• The core of the brainstem has a diffuse network
of neurons called the reticular formation
• Reticular formation regulates the amount and
type of information that reaches the cerebral
cortex and affects alertness警覺
• The pons and medulla contain centers that
cause sleep, and the midbrain has a center that
causes arousal
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Reticular formation acts as a sensory filter

Eye Input from nerves

of ears
Reticular formation

Input from touch,

pain, and temperature
receptors
 Arousal and Sleep
• The hormone melatonin is released by the
pineal gland and plays a role in bird and
mammal sleep/wake cycles
• Sleep is essential and may play a role in the
consolidation of learning and memory
• 海豚怎麼睡覺？
以下敘述，何者「正確」？
1.海豚會把石頭當成枕頭，把頭靠在上面休息。
2.海豚會收集海藻當床，躺在上面睡覺。
3.海豚只有一邊的腦子會休息，另一邊的腦子則保持清醒。
4.海豚從來不睡覺。
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Arousal and Sleep
• Dolphins sleep with one brain hemisphere at a
time and are therefore able to swim while
“asleep”
• 海豚是哺乳動物，必須浮上水面呼吸，為了避免睡著時沈入深
海而「溺水」，牠們一次只讓半邊腦子睡眠，另外半邊腦子則
保持清醒。
• 以瓶鼻海豚為例，睡覺時只「關閉」半邊大腦，另一半邊仍保
持清醒。因此出現「睜一隻眼、閉一隻眼」的現象。牠們會張
開一隻眼睛在海中游動，並會浮上海面呼吸，休息夠了後（大
約兩個小時左右），再換另外一半邊大腦休息。

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Dolphins can be asleep and awake at the same time
Low-frequency waves characteristic of sleep

High-frequency waves characteristic of wakefulness

Location Time: 0 hours Time: 1 hour

Left
hemisphere

Right
hemisphere
 Biological Clock Regulation
• Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are one
example of a circardian rhythm晝夜節律, a daily
cycle of biological activity
• Mammalian circadian rhythms rely on a
biological clock, a molecular mechanism that
directs periodic gene expression and cellular
activity
• Biological clocks are typically synchronized to
the cycles of light and dark
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Biological Clock Regulation
• In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated
by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus
called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
• In response to sensory signal by the eyes, SCN
acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the
biological clock to the natural cycles of day
length

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Emotions
• Generation and experience of emotions
involves many brain structures including the
amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the
thalamus
• These structures border the brainstem and are
therefore grouped as the limbic system
• The limbic system also functions in motivation,
olfaction, behavior, and memory

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The limbic system
 Emotions
• Generation and experience of emotion also require an
interaction between the limbic system and sensory
areas of the cerebrum
• The structure most important to the storage of emotion
in the memory is the amygdala, an almond-shaped
mass of nuclei near the base of the cerebrum
Nucleus accumbens Amygdala
A center of emotional memory

Real-time fMRI

Happy music Sad music

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 49.3
The cerebral cortex controls voluntary
movement and cognitive functions
• The cerebrum, the largest structure in the human
brain, is essential for awareness, language,
cognition, memory, and consciousness
• Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal,
occipital, and parietal) are physical landmarks for
particular functions

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The human cerebral cortex
Motor cortex
(control of Somatosensory cortex
skeletal muscles) (sense of touch)
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Prefrontal cortex
(decision making, Sensory association
planning) cortex (integration of
sensory information)

Visual association
cortex (combining
Broca’s area images and object
(forming speech) recognition)

Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

Auditory cortex (hearing)
Visual cortex
Cerebellum (processing visual
Wernicke’s area stimuli and pattern
(comprehending language) recognition)
 Information Processing
• The cerebral cortex receives input from
sensory organs and somatosensory receptors
• Somatosensory receptors provide information
about touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and
the position of muscles and limbs
• The thalamus directs different types of input
to distinct locations

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Information Processing
• Association areas process features in the
sensory input and integrate information from
different sensory areas (e.g. recognize faces)
• Integrated sensory information passes to the
prefrontal cortex, which helps plan actions and
movements (e.g. move a limb or say hello)
• In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex,
neurons are arranged according to the part of
the body that receives sensory input or
generates motor commands
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body part representation in the primary motor and
primary somatosensory cortices
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Trunk
Head
Knee

Neck

Leg
Hip
Hip

Toes Genitalia

Jaw
Tongue Primary
Pharynx somatosensory
Tongue
Primary cortex
motor cortex Abdominal
Control organs Process
 Language and Speech
• Studies of brain activity have mapped areas
responsible for language and speech
• Broca’s area in the frontal lobe is active when
speech is generated---------表達性失語症
• Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe is active
when speech is heard --------理解性失語症
• These areas belong to a larger network of
brain regions involved in language
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mapping language areas in the cerebral cortex
Max

Hearing Seeing
words words

Min

Speaking Generating
words words
 Lateralization of Cortical Function
• The two hemispheres make distinct
contributions to brain functions
• The left hemisphere is more adept at language,
math, logic, and processing of serial
sequences
• The right hemisphere is stronger at pattern
recognition, nonverbal thinking非言語思維, and
emotional processing
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Lateralization of Cortical Function
• The differences in hemisphere function in
humans are called lateralization側化
• Lateralization is partly linked to handedness慣
用手
• The two hemispheres work together by
communicating through the fibers of the corpus
callosum胼胝體

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Frontal Lobe Function
• Frontal lobe damage may impair decision making
and emotional responses but leave intellect and
memory intact
• The frontal lobes have a substantial influence on
what are often called “executive functions”
菲尼亞斯·蓋奇
Phineas Gage became emotionally
detached, impatient and erratic in
his behavior

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Concept 49.4
Changes in synaptic connections underlie
memory and learning
• Two processes dominate embryonic
development of the nervous system
– Neurons compete for growth-supporting factors in
order to survive. Half of neurons formed in the
embryo are eliminated.
– A developing neuron forms synapses more that the
its requirement for proper function. Only half the
synapses that form during embryo development
survive into adulthood
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Neural Plasticity
• Neural plasticity describes the ability of the
nervous system to be modified in response to
its own activity or external stimuli after birth
• Much of the reshaping of the nervous system
occurs at synapses
• Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at
a synapse

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Synaptic connections can change over time, depending on the activity level at the synapse

N1 N1

N2 N2

(a) Synapses are strengthened or weakened in response to

activity.

(b) If two synapses are often active at the same time, the
strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at
both synapses.
 Memory and Learning
• The formation of memories is an example of
neural plasticity
• Short-term memory is accessed via the
hippocampus
• The hippocampus also plays a role in forming
long-term memory, which is stored in the
cerebral cortex
• Some consolidation of memory is thought to
occur during sleep
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Long-Term Potentiation
• In the vertebrate brain, a basis of memory called
long-term potentiation (LTP) involves an
increase in the strength of synaptic transmission
• LTP involves glutamate receptors (e.g. NMDA
and AMPA receptors)
• In response to an active synapse and a
depolarizing stimulus, the set of receptors
present on the postsynaptic membranes changes

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Long-term potentiation in the brain
The NMDA receptors open in
response to glutamate but blocked
by Mg2+

Activity at nearby synapses

depolarizes the postsynaptic
membrane, causing , and 

Glutamate release activates 

AMPA receptors that trigger 
depolarization. The depolarization
causes  and .
Concept 49.5
Nervous system disorders can be explained in
molecular terms
• Disorders of the nervous system include
schizophrenia, depression, drug addiction,
Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease
• Genetic and environmental factors contribute
to diseases of the nervous system

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Schizophrenia
「精神分裂症」更名為「思覺失調症」

• About 1% of the world’s population suffers from

schizophrenia
• Schizophrenia is characterized by
hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms
• Available treatments focus on brain pathways
that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter
• Schizophrenia may also alter glutamate
signaling
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Genetic contribution to schizophrenia
50 Genes shared with relatives of
person with schizophrenia

Risk of developing schizophrenia (%)

12.5% (3rd-degree relative)
40 25% (2nd-degree relative)
50% (1st-degree relative)
100%
30

20

10

Full sibling

Fraternal
twin
Parent
Half sibling

Child
Grandchild
First cousin

Identical
twin
general
Individual,

Uncle/aunt
population

Nephew/
niece

Relationship to person with schizophrenia

 Depression
• Two broad forms of depressive illness are known:
major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder
• In major depressive disorder, patients have a
persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most
activities
• Bipolar disorder is characterized by manic (high-
mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases
• Treatments for these types of depression include
drugs such as Prozac (increasing biogenic amines)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Brain’s Reward System
and Drug Addiction
• Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive
consumption and an inability to control intake
• These drugs include cocaine, amphetamine, heroin,
alcohol, and tobacco etc.
• All of these drugs are addictive for the same reason:
Each increases activity of the brain's reward
system獎賞系統, the neural circuits normally
functioning in pleasure, motivation and learning.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Brain’s Reward System
and Drug Addiction
•The reward system : ventral tegmental area
(VTA)  nucleus accumbens  cerebral cortex
•Addictive drugs enhance the activity of the
dopamine pathway
•Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in
the reward circuitry that cause craving for the
drug

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Effects of addictive drugs on the reward system of the mammalian brain

Nicotine stimulates
dopamine-releasing Inhibitory neuron
VTA neuron.

Opium and heroin decrease

Dopamine-
activity of inhibitory neuron.
releasing
VTA neuron

Cocaine and amphetamines

block removal of dopamine
from synaptic cleft.

Cerebral neuron of
reward pathway Reward
system
response
 Alzheimer’s Disease
• Alzheimer’s disease is a mental deterioration
心智衰退 characterized by confusion and
memory loss
• Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the
formation of neurofibrillary tangles and
amyloid plaques in the brain
• There is no cure for this disease though some
drugs are effective at relieving symptoms

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Microscopic signs of Alzheimer’s disease
Amyloid plaque Neurofibrillary tangle 20 m
 Parkinson’s Disease
• Parkinson’s disease is a motor disorder
caused by death of dopamine-secreting
neurons in the midbrain
• It is characterized by muscle tremors, poor
balance, a flexed posture, and a shuffling gait
• There is no cure, although drugs and various
other approaches are used to manage
symptoms
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.