Accepted Manuscript

Recycling of End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) for building products: Concept of

processing framework from automotive to construction industry in Malaysia

Yee Choong Wong, Karam M. Al-Obaidi, Norhayati Mahyuddin

PII: S0959-6526(18)31172-7

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.145

Reference: JCLP 12726

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 09 February 2018

Revised Date: 12 April 2018

Accepted Date: 16 April 2018

Please cite this article as: Yee Choong Wong, Karam M. Al-Obaidi, Norhayati Mahyuddin,
Recycling of End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) for building products: Concept of processing framework
from automotive to construction industry in Malaysia, Journal of Cleaner Production (2018), doi:
10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.145

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Recycling of End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) for building products: Concept of

processing framework from automotive to construction industry in Malaysia

Yee Choong Wonga,b, Karam M. Al-Obaidia,*, Norhayati Mahyuddina

a Centre for Building, Construction & Tropical Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
b Department of Architecture and Sustainable Design, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

*Corresponding author: Karam M. Al-Obaidi

Address: Centre for Building, Construction & Tropical Architecture (BuCTA), Faculty of Built Environment,
University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

E-mail address: karam@um.edu.my karam_arc@yahoo.com .

Abstract
End-of-life vehicle (ELV) waste management and its immeasurable environmental impacts are the subjects
of global concern. This study proposes a new concept of a processing framework to utilise ELV waste from
automotive to construction industries by starting a new trend of circular economy applications to improve ELV
recyclability. The research focuses on building a strong collaboration between automotive and construction
industries to manage ELV waste in Malaysia. A systematic review approach based on classification and comparison
methods was utilised to synthesise the findings through critical analysis. The concept was developed on the basis of
existing ELV policies and legislation, processing framework, waste management and recycling possibilities for
converting ELVs into building products. The findings corroborate that ELV waste in the dismantling and shredding
operations can be utilised by the construction industry. The analysis and proposed framework established a source of
information that provides a new paradigm for prioritising building product development and related policies in
Malaysia. This research will provide a viable option for reducing the disposal problems and curbing the dependence
on raw materials in Malaysia.

Keywords: end-of-life vehicles (ELVs); recycling; waste management; building products; automotive industry;
construction industry

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and the University of Malaya
for financing this research (Grant Number: FP054-2017A) and Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman for the support.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Recycling of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) for building products: Concept of

processing framework from automotive to construction industries in Malaysia

Abstract
End-of-life vehicle (ELV) waste management and its immeasurable environmental impacts are the subjects
of global concern. This study proposes a new concept of a processing framework to utilise ELV waste from
automotive to construction industries by starting a new trend of circular economy applications to improve ELV
recyclability. The research focuses on building a strong collaboration between automotive and construction
industries to manage ELV waste in Malaysia. A systematic review approach based on classification and comparison
methods was utilised to synthesise the findings through critical analysis. The concept was developed on the basis of
existing ELV policies and legislation, processing framework, waste management and recycling possibilities for
converting ELVs into building products. The findings corroborate that ELV waste in the dismantling and shredding
operations can be utilised by the construction industry. The analysis and proposed framework established a source of
information that provides a new paradigm for prioritising building product development and related policies in
Malaysia. This research will provide a viable option for reducing the disposal problems and curbing the dependence
on raw materials in Malaysia.

Keywords: end-of-life vehicles (ELVs); recycling; waste management; building products; automotive industry;
construction industry

1. Introduction

On the basis of the statistics provided by the Department of Statistics Malaysia and World Bank, Malaysia
has a total population of 31.19 million with the nominal gross domestic product of 1,229.0 billion and the nominal
gross national income of 1,191.0 billion in 2016 (Economic Planning Unit, 2016). The Malaysian automotive
industry has developed since the establishment of the national car projects Proton in 1985 and Perodua in 1993.
Presently, Malaysia has four vehicle manufactures, namely, Proton, Perodua, Naza and Modenas. In addition,
Malaysia has 9 motor vehicle assemblers and 343 components/parts manufacturers (Amelia et al., 2009; Malaysian
Automotive Association, 2017). Generally, as an automotive manufacturer, Malaysia ranks 18th globally and ranks
3rd in ASEAN countries after Thailand and Indonesia. In 2014, the new National Automotive Policy (NAP) set a
target to increase the total production volume to 1.25 million vehicles in 2020 compared with 614,664 units in 2015
(Malaysian Automotive Association, 2014; Malaysian Automotive Association, 2017). Amelia et al. (2009) affirmed
that local automakers mostly dominate the Malaysian automobile market. Automotive production in Malaysia shows
a significant increase every year (Table 1). By contrast, Raja Mamat et al. (2016) corroborated that the total number
of motor vehicle units on the road increased to 23,819,256 in 2013.
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Table 1: Production and assembly of passenger and commercial vehicles in Malaysia 1980–2016 (Malaysian
Automotive Association, 2017).

Year Total Vehicles

1980 104,227
1985 107,030
1990 191,580
1995 288,338
2000 359,195
2005 563,510
2006 503,048
2007 441,678
2008 530,810
2009 489,269
2010 567,715
2011 533,515
2012 569,620
2013 601,407
2014 596,418
2015 614,664
2016 545,253
2017 499,639

The rapid growth of population and development in Malaysia has increased the production of waste that
becomes a major source of pollution. The Global Environment Centre (2017) indicated that Malaysia produces more
than 23,000 tonnes of waste every day. This figure is estimated to increase to 30,000 tonnes in 2020. Indications
elucidated that approximately 900 rivers in Malaysia have been polluted because of improper solid waste
management (Department of Environment Malaysia, 2015) (Figure 1). In 2015, Malaysia generated 2,918,478.34
metric tonnes of scheduled wastes. The Department of Environment Malaysia (2015) asserted that the state of
Selangor produced the largest amount of scheduled wastes (33.1%), followed by Johor (18.3%), Perak (14.1%),
Terengganu (12.5%), Pulau Pinang (7.5%) and the rest of the states (14.5%). In fact, end-of-life vehicles (ELVs)
represent one of the major waste streams that are inappropriately managed. ELVs refer to vehicles that are meant to
be discarded when they reach their end of life (Ahmed et al., 2014). ELVs are a leading factor in excessive air, water
and soil pollution (Ahmed et al., 2014). Researchers expect that the number of global ELVs would exceed 100
million by 2020 (Tian & Chen, 2014). In Malaysia, waste treatment methods are based on incineration and dumping
in landfill sites. The incineration process poses several environmental problems in the form of fly and bottom ashes
that contain heavy metal impurities (Tian & Chen, 2014). The waste problem arises when landfill spaces are
insufficient, which leads to the illegal dumping of automotive shredder residue (ASR). Chemsain Konsultant Sdn
Bhd (2011) validated that scrap tyre management in Peninsular Malaysia lacks disposal facilities. Most of the scrap
tyres are dumped with regular household waste in Malaysian landfill sites. Moreover, the disposal of tyres is a
challenging issue as non-biodegradable waste materials that occupy substantial landfill spaces (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: ELVs dumped in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

ELVs can be categorised into retired vehicles and natural ELVs. Retired vehicles are also known as
premature ELVs or unusable vehicles because of physical failures caused by accidents, fire and vandalism.
However, natural ELVs are vehicles that failed during the inspection process (Raja Mamat et al., 2016). Four
scenarios of ELVs, namely, irresponsible disposal, abandoned vehicles, poor management and roadworthiness, have
been identified by the Malaysia Automotive Institute (MAI) (Malaysia Automotive Institute, 2017). Generally, the
deregistration of ELVs in Malaysia is not fully implemented, and the deregistration statistics are improperly reported
to the authority, which is handled by the Malaysian Road Transport Department (RTD). Raja Mamat et al. (2016)
investigated the relationship between deregistered and non-active vehicles based on the transport statistics provided
by the Ministry of Transport Malaysia. The findings affirmed inaccurate ELV figures and the unclear current
condition of ELV waste treatment.

Malaysia Automotive Institute (2017) verified that 5,000 small-scale companies in association with the
Malaysia Automotive Recyclers Association conduct ELV recycling in Malaysia. However, Raja Mamat et al.
(2016) proved that most of the small-scale companies lack standard practices. In fact, the Malaysian government
initiated the ELV scrapping scheme to support Proton and Perodua automakers in 2009. UEM Environment Sdn Bhd
is the first company to operate a systematic ELV disposal management system in Malaysia (UEM Environment,
2011). In this ELV programme, Proton/Perodua supplied the collected ELVs to Special Builders Sdn Bhd (SBSB), a
subsidiary company of UEM Environment Sdn Bhd. SBSB was appointed to dispose ELVs properly in a plant in
Bandar Proton, Tanjung Malim, Perak (Raja Mamat et al., 2016; UEM Environment, 2011). Since its establishment,
SBSB has resolved the issues of ELVs without proper deregistration with the government authorities. However, the
non-valuable ELV components were simply dumped in domestic landfill (UEM Environment, 2011). In Malaysia,
ELV directives do not exist despite the vast expansion of the local automotive industry in recent years (Table 2).
Amelia et al. (2009) conducted interviews with three selected automaker companies to understand the current
practices and problems in implementing ELV reuse in Malaysia. The findings prove that all respondents are not
keen on reusing ELV parts in newly manufactured vehicles. Stringent quality requirements, such as warranty, brand
protection and clients’ satisfaction, are the primary factors in not integrating reusable parts in new products.
Therefore, the management of ELVs is a critical issue that must be addressed because of global warming impacts,
carbon footprint and economic awareness (Ahmed et al., 2014).

Table 2: Comparison of ELV management between nations (Azmi et al., 2013).

Taiwan China Korea Japan Canada Singapore Malaysia
Government Waste Statute 307 The Act for Resource End-of-Life None Vehicle No Law
Involvement / Act Disposal Act Law on Recycling of Vehicle (Voluntary) Quota
ELV Electrical/Electronic Recycling System
Products and Law
Automobiles
ELVs age 10 years 10 years or Not specified Min 3 years Not 10+5 or 10 Proton (10
500, 000km inspection specified years)
once in 2
years
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Recycling Fee paid Manufacturer Market Market driven First owner Market Market Market
by: & Importer driven (Collector pay last upon driven driven driven
when (Collector owner) purchase (Collector (Collector (Collector
purchased pay last pay last pay last pay last
owner) owner) owner) owner)
Operator size 303 Recycling 367 226 Recycling 5000 - - 209
operators, 5 Recycling operators, 7 Recycling Recycling
shredding operators , shredding & sorting operators, operators, 0
&sprting 1 pilot plants 140 shredding &
plants recycling shredding & sorting
centre sorting plants
plants
Effectiveness: 95% 90% 85% 85% - - None
(Recovery rate)

One of the critical strategic activities set by the MAI is to identify opportunities to expand the local
automotive industry and to increase competitiveness at the local and global levels ( Malaysia Automotive Institute,
2017). Hence, the management of ELV waste is a critical issue in Malaysia. Instead of treating ELVs as waste, it
could be a valuable resource for building constructions and applications (Tian & Chen, 2014). In Malaysia, only a
limited number of projects utilised ELV waste as building components, such as shipping containers and tyres. By
contrast, the global construction industry is recently witnessing issues with the declining availability of raw
materials (Liu et al., 2017). Therefore, the Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia (CIDB) focused on
the domestic construction industry to be sustainable, productive and competitive globally (CIDB Malaysia, 2017).
CIDB sets up the construction industry transformation programme CITP 2016–2020 to transform the construction
industry to be highly productive and environmentally sustainable. In addition, the CIDB implemented the Malaysian
Carbon Reduction and Environmental Sustainability Tool (MyCREST) to promote sustainable construction. One of
the initiatives outlined in MyCREST is to reduce the irresponsible waste in the construction industry and to ease the
integration of sustainable practices across the country.

Currently, the collaboration between the automotive and construction industries is not well established in
terms of technological support, investments in standard equipment, training and knowledge transfer. In fact, ELV
recycling can be made possible through the collaboration among multiple local actors in Malaysia. Establishing a
cross-functional collaboration among the vehicle design department (Proton/Perodua), RTD, cars dealers, local
dismantlers, CIDB and other automotive associations would help in forming a connection among these actors.
Therefore, the main contribution of this study is to promote a strong collaboration between the automotive and
construction industries in Malaysia to manage ELV waste by proposing a new concept of a processing framework to
utilise ELV waste as an alternative source of building materials. The outcome of this research would help a multiple
of players, including automakers and policy makers, to deploy effective actions for improving existing recycling
practices. This research provides a viable concept to reduce the disposal problems and curb the dependence on raw
materials in Malaysia.

2. Methodology

The research used a systematic approach to review ELVs in the global context for understanding the
existing scenarios. The study implemented a critical analysis to synthesise the research using classification and
comparison methods. The existing scientific studies were analysed to reconstruct a concept to articulate knowledge
from multiple sources. Different sources of online databases, published official reports and institution documents
from local authorities and government agencies were investigated to reinforce the concept further. The study utilised
the comparison of the existing literature, case studies and systems related to ELV policies, management and
recycling frameworks. The research flow was divided into policies and legislation, processes, waste operations,
programmes and products (Figure 2). The researchers conducted a statistical analysis to illustrate the waste
operations and directions of utilising ELV materials through different processes, as discussed in Section 3.3. The
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study analysed the waste operations in the European Union (EU) based on the Eurostat database under the waste
operations category for 3 years. The analyses targeted waste operations, percentages of reuse, recovery and
recycling and total ELVs by waste types that could meet the demands of the construction industry. Subsequently, the
study covered the fundamental requirements for assessing ELVs as construction products to develop the proposed
framework for prioritising the development of building products in ELV processing in Malaysia.

End-of-Life Vehicles
(ELVs)

Automotive Industry

Processing Waste Resource Products

Policies and Flow Operations Efficiency Recycled from
Legislation Programmes ELV Materials

Classifications Assessment of ELV

of conditions for
Materials buildings requirements

Building Products
Construction Industry

Processing Framework
Automotive + Construction

Figure 2: Research flow of the proposed processing framework.

3. Evaluation of ELVs

3.1. Policies and legislation

In Europe, EU member states have conducted a wide range of activities to address ELV challenges since
the early 1990s. In September 2000, the EU ELV Directive (2000/53/EC) was implemented to regulate automobile
and material manufacturers to meet specific goals: (1) to minimise hazardous substances in the design stage; (2) to
design vehicles for reuse, recycling, disassembly and recovery of ELVs; (3) to promote the use of recycled materials
in new vehicle production and (4) to assure vehicles are free of hexavalent chromium, cadmium and mercury
(Gerrard & Kandlikar, 2007). The EU ELV Directive consists of necessary prescriptions for the design and
production of vehicles to ban heavy metals and requires a mass recyclability of 95%. The assessment methods
should follow proper standards stipulated in the EU ELV Directive (Berzi et al., 2013). One of the activities
stipulated in the EU ELV Directive (2000/53/EC) is to set clear targets for compulsory depollution, quantify targets
for reuse, recycling and recovery of vehicles and push automakers to produce recyclable components when
manufacturing new vehicles. In addition, the directive allows automakers to bear the expenditure to be incurred on
ELV treatment when the targets set are not viable economically (Eurostat, 2017). In 2006, the EU countries set to
meet the rates for reuse + recycling of ≥80% and reuse + recovery of ≥85%. The execution of ELV directives in EU
countries has successfully accelerated the rate. In 2012, the average reuse and recycling rates in the EU accounted
for 81.8%, whereas the average reuse and recovery rates accounted for approximately 84.1% (Amelia et al., 2009).
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In North America, ELV recycling in the United States (US) is controlled by the market instead of
government regulation. The management of ELVs is not driven by a specific ELV directive, but national legislation
that bans hazardous and solid waste disposals exists. On the basis of estimations, 12.5 million ELVs are recycled in
the US every year, and the recycling rate reached 95% from 1993 to 1999 (Staudinger, Keoleian, & Flynn, 2001).
The American Recyclers Association (2014) reported that recycling of vehicles in the US can reduce the average
greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 30,799,991 metric tonnes per year. By contrast, ELV recycling in
Mexico is market driven, where valuable parts are recycled to make profits. Cruz-Rivera and Ertel (2009)
corroborated that no standardised ELV directive exists, which results in various environmental implications, such as
contamination prior to shredding, disposal of fluids in the sewage system, poor collection networks and abandoned
ELVs.

In Asia, the ELV recycling law was implemented in Japan in January 2005. The law aims to lower
chlorofluorocarbon emissions, prevent illegal dumping of ELV waste and promote ELV recycling (JETRO Japan
Economic Report, 2006). The statistics affirmed that approximately 3.5 million vehicles are treated as ELVs
annually out of the 76 million vehicles in use (Togawa, 2008), whereas approximately 5 million vehicles are
disposed every year (JETRO Japan Economic Report, 2006). Generally, ASR is the heterogeneous materials
disposed from the shredding of ELVs composed of metal, fibre, glass, dashboard plastics and rubber/elastomers,
textiles, polyurethane foam, paper, wood and inert fines (Cossu et al., 2014). The Japanese ELV Recycling Law has
set a benchmark recycling rate of 30% for ASR from 2005 to 2009. The rate increased to 50% by the years 2010–
2014 and 70% in 2015 (Ogushi & Kandlikar, 2005). In a period of 1 year after the enforcement of the Japanese ELV
Recycling Law, the ASR recycling rate increased by 21%, airbag recycling rate increased by 57% and fluorocarbon
recycling rate increased by 17% (Togawa, 2008). By contrast, Korea implemented the Act for Resource Recycling
of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Vehicles in January 2008. The act was modelled on the basis of the EU’s
initiative and consists of several requirements for manufacturers: the use of hazardous substances should be
restricted, the use of materials and components should facilitate easy recycling, the waste should be collected
separately and mandatory recycling should be conducted. Signing a contract with the recyclers for processing ELVs
is compulsory for the automakers. Generally, Korea generates 0.5 million ELVs out of 14 million registered vehicles
annually. The average recycling rate is approximately 44% in the dismantling stage, whereas the metal recycling
rate in the shredding stage is approximately 40.2% (Kim et al., 2004).

In Malaysia, no ELV directive that sets basic rules to monitor the reuse and recycling targets for ELVs
exists. Malaysia has approximately 23,819,256 vehicles in 2013 (Raja Mamat et al., 2016). The vehicle’s
registration will increase by 12% on average every year, and researchers estimated that there will be 32 million
vehicles by 2020 (Azmi et al., 2013). Currently, Malaysia has not resolved the ELV impacts on the environment. No
established directive on ELVs for the Malaysian automotive industry exists. Amelia et al. (2009) stated that the
Malaysian government should initiate the automotive reuse programme by motivating local manufacturers. In the
end, although the majority of developed countries have established ELV recycling directives to manage ELVs, they
are limited in the aspects of vehicle design that accommodate reuse, recycling and remanufacturing. Poulikidou et al.
(2015) validated that the evidence of automakers venturing into designing for reuse is limited.

3.2. ELV processing flow

The ELV processing flow is nearly similar in many countries, except for the implementation of legislation
(Sakai et al., 2014). Figure 3 shows the general ELV recycling flow that is managed under legislation in the EU and
Japan. In the ELV recycling process, the first step involves dismantling and collecting parts that contain hazardous
substances, such as mechanical fluids, lead batteries and refrigerant gas, followed by valuable components, such as
engines, tyres and bumpers. The EU Directive requires that the ELV recycling flow begins with the deregistration of
the ELVs by the end users or producers, as shown in Figure 4.
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ELVs are usually collected by the licensed collectors or dismantlers in authorised treatment facilities
(ATFs) from the ELVs’ last owners, car dealers or at auctions from insurance companies (Ferrao & Amaral, 2006).
The EU ELV Directive (2000/53/EC) allocates provisions for the collection of ELVs through producer
responsibility systems to ensure that ELVs are transferred to ATFs (Vidovic et al., 2011). Vidovic et al. (2011)
presented a modelling approach to establish a reverse logistic network by defining optimum locations for collection
points. Their modelling approach provides a detailed network structure by locating collection facilities to minimise
transportation costs, which involve the ELVs’ last owners in transporting their ELVs to the licensed collectors
within a certain radius (Vidovic et al., 2011).

In the depollution stage, ELVs are depolluted to remove fluids, batteries and hazardous substances.
Subsequently, valuable reusable parts/components with high market value, such as engines, batteries, catalytic
converters and mechanical elements are removed to be sold as used spare parts (Ferrao & Amaral, 2006). Berzi et al.
(2013) and Sakai et al. (2014) asserted that car bodies (‘hulks’) have different metal categories, where ferrous metals
are separated from the non-ferrous metals using a magnetic separation process or density properties. Thereafter, the
remaining car bodies/hulks are shredded by shredder operators and recycled as aluminium and ferrous and non-
ferrous metals by metal manufacturers (Berzi et al., 2013; Schmid, Naquin & Gourdon, 2013). The non-ferrous
metals in heavy and light fractions are separated using air classification methods (Ferrao & Amaral, 2006). Further
processing of other non-ferrous metals that have a high market value, such as aluminium, copper and zinc, can be
separated using automatic (eddy current) or manual methods (Ferrao & Amaral, 2006). For the separation and
extraction of aluminium in the shredding process, smelting of aluminium scrap takes place using the smelting
technology. Kanari, Pineau and Shallari (2013) elucidated that the production of aluminium from recycling ELVs is
more energy efficient than that of its ores. Non-metallic ASR, which is recyclable, is treated by specialised recycling
facilities. Finally, less than 5% of unrecyclable ASR waste resulting from the shredding process is targeted to be
landfilled under strict control, whereas others are combusted or incinerated in cement plants to recover energy
(Kanari, Pineau, & Shallari, 2003).

Generally, the shredding of ELVs results in a mixture of ferrous metal, non-ferrous metal and other non-
metallic mixed heterogeneous wastes, such as plastics, glass, rubber and fabric, called ASR. Other names for ASR
are ‘auto fluff’ and shredder light fraction (SLF). Sakai et al. (2014) reported that the percentage of vehicle mass for
ferrous and non-ferrous metals in the EU is approximately 36% to 70%, whereas that in Japan is approximately 50%
to 55%. The amount of ASR (light + heavy) in EU is 12% to 32%, whereas that in Japan is 17%. After the
enactment of the EU Directive and the recycling law in Japan, the percentage of ASR being landfilled is reduced to
only 5% in the EU and 1% to 2% in Japan (Sakai et al., 2014). Generally, ASR is a by-product of the recycling
process, which constitutes approximately 20% to 25% of the average weight of ELVs (approximately 200 kg), with
the total ASR of 1.93–2.34 million tonnes per year produced in the EU. ASR processing is the main concern for
vehicle recycling factories as some of the substances may be contaminated. Given that the ASR composition is
complex, proper vehicle recycling factory planning and technological development are important to separate the
heterogeneous ASR waste materials efficiently (Simic & Dimitrijevic, 2012). Generally, approximately 27 types of
polymeric materials have been encountered in ASR, which constitutes a significant percentage of ASR fraction
(Vermeulen et al., 2011).
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(a) EU (b) Japan

Figure 3: Typical ELV processing flow in the (a) EU (Vermeulen et al., 2011) and (b) Japan (Yoshida & Hiratsuka,
2012).

Figure 4: ELV recycling flow based on the EU Directive (Kanari et al., 2003).

In Malaysia, the traditional approach of ELV processing involves several steps, that is, collection,
deregistration, depollution and dismantling by ATF dismantlers, some parts/components reused and remanufactured
for resale as second-hand parts and recycling of ELV iron/metals and other materials as new products by recycling
industries. ELV bodies (‘hulks’) are shredded and some ASRs are recycled, whereas the rest of the unrecyclable
ASR wastes are disposed by burying in landfills (Malaysian Automotive Association, 2017). The process starts with
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the collection of ELVs for dismantling. The collection station of ELVs for treating or scrapping will be located in
specific workshops called local ATFs. ATFs commonly act as a mediator linking vehicle owners and ELV recycling
industries. ELVs are supplied by the vehicle owners when they reach their end of life. Before scrapping, the vehicle
owners must deregister their vehicles with the local authority RTD of Malaysia to ensure that legal procedures are
applied. In this stage, the RTD will issue a Certificate of Destruction (COD) once the documentation inspection is
complete. However, in certain cases, premature ELVs are disposed because of accident damage, fire, theft, flood,
vandalism and faults during the manufacturing stage. These types of ELVs can also be collected for reuse and
recycling purposes rather than disposing in landfills.

Figure 5 illustrates a proposed Malaysian ELV processing flow by the Malaysian Automotive Association.
The processing flow is fairly similar to that of other countries where the deregistration process should be done
before the dismantling of the ELVs. The ELV collectors must issue a COD to the vehicle owners and payment based
on fixed scrap value. Parties conduct the dismantling of ELVs including vehicle-dismantling companies, parts
remanufacturers, recyclers, shredding companies and disposers. The local government (Environmental and Waste
Disposal) monitors the processes from dismantling to final disposal. Vendors and remanufacturers will manage parts
that are usable, whereas the relevant industries for new products will handle other materials that must be processed
and recycled.

Figure 5: Malaysian ELV processing flow proposed by the MAI (Malaysia Automotive Institute, 2017).
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Generally, the processing of ELVs involves six exemplary steps, that is, recycling, reuse, dismantling,
shredding, recovery/incineration and disposal. Establishing a general understanding with regard to the ELV
operations in the global context by providing an overview of the entire system is essential. The following definitions
and concepts of global ELV operations based on the requirements and standards set by EU Directive and other
related sources were used to distinguish each process clearly:

i. Reuse: The concept of reuse indicates any operation by which parts and components are being used directly for
the same purpose as the original one without major reprocessing to alter their physical characteristics to prevent
waste generation (Addis, 2012; Decreto, 2002; EUR-Lex, 2017; Union, 2017). For instance, an undamaged
engine could be mounted in another similar vehicle (Decreto, 2002). A vehicle part that reaches its end of life
can be used directly in the reuse stage that could ensure savings in energy use and production costs and prevent
unhealthy emissions. Reuse is the highest in the hierarchy of the recovery processes (Giudice et al., 2006).
According to the Nissan Environmental Report (2004), vehicle parts that are reusable can be reused back on
other vehicles after undergoing quality check and washing without dismantling work. In accordance with the
Directive 2000/53/EC proposal, reuse is defined as the ‘use of used/dismantled parts in the replacement
automotive market’ (Rasshofer & Weigand, 2001).

ii. Dismantling: Two ways to reduce ASR disposal are to increase the dismantling of ELV parts before shredding
to promote reuse of non-metal materials and to establish post-shredding technologies for ASR treatment, for
instance, sink–float techniques to sort every material and mechanical recycling (Berzi et al., 2013). Large-scale
mechanical dismantling is adopted in the US and Europe because of expensive labour cost, whereas
‘mechanical + manual’ dismantling methods are mostly adopted in Asian countries because the labour cost is
relatively cheap (Coates & Rahimifard, 2009; Santini et al., 2011). In China, manual and mechanical
dismantling approaches are usually adopted to process ELVs. Tian and Chen (2016) confirmed that the
traditional method of dismantling can guarantee the highest rate of recycling.

iii. Recycling: The concept of recycling indicates that usable materials from waste are collected, sorted, processed
out of one form and used to remake new products. Recycling is a process used to convert ELV waste into new
products when other options for recovery cannot be achieved (Addis, 2012; Ahmed et al., 2014; Blount, 2006;
EUR-Lex, 2017). As stated in the EU Directive, recycling is defined as the reprocessing of ELV waste materials
for the original purpose or other purposes in a production process, but the processing for use as fuel or energy
recovery is excluded (EUR-Lex, 2017; Rasshofer & Weigand, 2001). The recycling operation involves
mechanical and feedstock recycling (Rasshofer & Weigand, 2001). The materials of the damaged engine could
be recycled (Decreto, 2002). Recycling is lowest in the hierarchy of the recovery processes as it has to go
through the external production cycles to recover it (Giudice, La Rosa, & Risitano, 2006).

iv. Shredding and metal separation: Shredding is a process where ferrous metal is the main output that will be
sent to the metal industry for recycling (Aboussouan et al., 1999). A shredder is a device used for tearing into
fist-sized pieces or fragmenting ELVs at the rate of four vehicles per minute in the largest machines to obtain
reusable metal scrap directly (American Recyclers Association, 2014; EUR-Lex, 2017). In the shredding and
metal separation processes, specific ASR materials are separated into two different material fractions (ferrous
iron and steel) from non-ferrous metals (aluminium) with magnetic properties and separators (American
Recyclers Association, 2014; Delogu, Del Pero, Berzi, Pierini, & Bonaffini, 2017). The material fractions are
(1) shredder heavy fraction, which consists of pure ferrous metals (iron and steel alloys) and non-ferromagnetic
materials (aluminium, brass and copper) and (2) SLF, which is a mixture of other materials (fibres, plastic, glass
and polymers), as shown in Table 3 and Figure 6. In the metal separation process, eddy current separator, laser,
infrared and flotation separation technologies are employed to segregate the non-ferrous metals to extract pure
materials for smelting (American Recyclers Association, 2014; Ferrao & Amaral, 2006).
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Table 3: Material compositions of ELVs under different material fraction categories (Delogu et al., 2017).

Material fractions categories Materials

Shredder heavy fraction (SHF) Pure ferrous materials:
Steel, iron and alloys
Non-ferrous materials:
Aluminium, copper, brass

Shredder light fraction (SLF) Mixture of materials:

Plastics, fibers, glass, elastomers and residue

Figure 6: Views of different samples from the shredder (Schmid, Naquin & Gourdon, 2013).

v. Recovery/incineration: According to the definition proposed in Directive 2000/53/EC, recovery entails reuse,
recycling and energy/thermal recovery. Recovery includes mechanical, feedstock and energy recycling, which
is sometimes referred to as combustion (Rasshofer & Weigand, 2001). As listed in Annex IIB to
Directive/442/EEA, ELV recovery operations should not endanger human health and employ processes that are
harmful to the environment. The recovery process principally uses fuel for incineration and other purposes to
generate energy. Other recovery operations include the recycling/reclamation of metals and metal compounds,
regeneration of acids or bases, oil re-refining or other reuses of oil (EUR-Lex, 2017). The resources in ELVs,
for instance, scrap tyres (Ahmed et al., 2014; Decreto, 2002) and roof surfacing (Ahmed et al., 2014), are
reused. In the energy/thermal recovery process, combustible wastes are used for energy generation via direct
incineration with heat recovery (EUR-Lex, 2017). Incineration is a process where solid wastes are sent for
combustion for gaseous and residue products. The incineration processes of scrap tyres include dedicated
incineration, industrial boilers, cement kilns and pyrolysis (Ferrão, Ribeiro, & Silva, 2008). When waste cannot
be processed anymore, it will be discarded and disposed in landfills (Ahmed et al., 2014). Given the growing
rate of illegal dumping of ASR globally and limited capacity of the landfill sites, appropriate collection and
sound treatment of ASR are required (Nissan Environmental Report, 2004).

vi. Disposal: This process involves any of the applicable operations provided in Annex IIA of Directive
75/442/EEC. ELV waste must be disposed without endangering human health and harming the environment
with any processes/methods. Disposal operations include the deposition of ELV waste into or onto land
(landfill), release into seas/oceans, incineration on land or at sea and surface impoundment (discard
liquid/sludge into ponds) (EUR-Lex, 2017).
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3.3 Waste operations in the EU and Malaysia

The statistical information provided by Eurostat on ELVs in the EU is in accordance with Directive
2000/53/EC on ELVs and Commission Decision 2005/293/EC. This directive sets rules for monitor reuse–recycling
targets and reuse/recovery of ELVs. Raw material manufacturers, original equipment manufacturers, vehicle
owners, workshops, ATFs and shredders are required to accomplish recycling quotas in developing new
technologies and emphasising the need for design-for-reuse, design-for-recycling and design-for-remanufacturing
(Ferrao & Amaral, 2006). Each year, EU member states and EEA/EFTA countries report data on the total number of
ELVs and its weight, as well as the total reuse and recycling rates.

In this section, statistical analyses are conducted to illustrate the waste operations and directions of utilising
ELV materials. The study analysed the waste operations in the EU that are reported in the Eurostat database under
the waste operations category. In the year 2012, EU targets for reuse, recycling and recovery of more than 80% were
achieved (Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). However, the latest data provided in the Eurostat website are
only until 2014 (Eurostat, 2017). Therefore, the data ranging from 2012 to 2014 were used for analysis in this
research. Figure 7 shows the total ELVs by waste operations in metric tonnes for 3 years in the selected 13 EU
countries that have produced data. The data affirm that France was the primary contributor among all of the EU
countries with the highest ELV weights reported approximately 289,296 metric tonnes in 2012, 375,129 metric
tonnes in 2013 and 357,680 metric tonnes in 2014. Meanwhile, other major contributors included Spain (245,331
metric tonnes in 2012, 282,878 metric tonnes in 2013 and 271,722 metric tonnes in 2014) and Germany (157,202
metric tonnes in 2012, 146,054 metric tonnes in 2013 and 156,157 metric tonnes in 2014).

Figure 7: ELVs by waste operations in metric tonnes from 2012 to 2014 in the EU.

On the basis of the information and data provided by the Eurostat database, five major types of ELV waste
operations, namely, disposal, reuse, recovery, incineration/energy and recycling, are shown in Figure 8. These data
were collected on the basis of the Directive 2000/53/EC on ELVs and the Commission Decision 2005/293/EC. The
EU Directive plays a role in laying down rules on the monitoring of the reuse/recovery and reuse/recycling targets of
ELVs. The EU member states must submit their report on the total numbers and rates of ELVs for reuse/recycling
on a yearly basis. Figure 8 provides the total number and percentages of the ELVs that were contributed by the five
major processing operations for 3 years on average in the EU (2012–2014). Out of the five processing operations,
reuse, recovery and recycling were the major contributors, where the highest average rates recorded are the reuse
activity in Spain (111,748.3 metric tonnes), France (118,293 metric tonnes) and Greece (17,312.67 metric tonnes).
Recovery activity in Spain is recorded at 77,447.67 metric tonnes, that in France is recorded at 111,204 metric
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tonnes and that in Belgium is recorded at 11,737.5 metric tonnes. Meanwhile, recycling operations were 70,054.67
metric tonnes in Spain, 98,244 metric tonnes in France and 57,340 metric tonnes in Germany.

(a) (b)
Figure 8: (a) ELV waste operations for 3 years on average in percentage (2012 to 2014) in the EU. (b) ELV waste
operations for 3 years on average in metric tonnes (2012 to 2014) in the EU.

Figure 9 shows the directions of utilising ELV materials through different processes, such as reuse,
recovery and recycling. The analysis is broken down into several waste types, that is, tyres, oil filters, other
materials arising from depollution, metal components, large plastic parts, glass, other materials arising from
dismantling, batteries and accumulators (Eurostat, 2017). The analysis of data showed that parts of other materials
arising from dismantling and metal components represent the highest percentage for the reuse operation. However,
for the recovery and recycling operations, the comparison analysis showed that tyres, metal components and
batteries are the highest elements that have been utilised in these operations. The data indicated that significant
plastic parts and glass are slightly involved in all operations. By contrast, oil filters and other materials arising from
depollution have not been utilised in these processes, as well as other processes, such as disposal and
incineration/energy.

Figure 9: Reuse, recovery and recycling percentages from 2012 to 2014 in the EU.
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Figure 10 shows the total ELVs as an average of 3 years by waste types in the EU. Metal components are
reported to be the most waste processed out of the eight types of wastes identified. The rates were contributed by
recycling (146,157 metric tonnes), recovery (145,053 metric tonnes) and reuse (107,879.7 metric tonnes) mostly
because 75% of the overall ELV weight is mainly metal components, which are commonly recyclable in the EU.
The demand for ELV tyres appeared to be fairly high, with recycling of 54,671 metric tonnes, recovery of 94,358
metric tonnes and reuse of 21,509.16 metric tonnes, followed by other materials, such as batteries and accumulators,
glass and large plastic parts.

Figure 10: Total of ELVs by waste types from 2012 to 2014 in EU.

In Europe, extended producer responsibility (EPR) has received increasing attention with the increasing
problems from the production of waste and pollution. The main objectives of EPR are to internalise the
environmental externalities that are linked with final product disposal through incentives to curb waste production
and to promote eco-design products and recycling practices (Ferrão et al., 2008). For instance, the Spanish
Association for the Environmental Treatment of ELVs conducted a study in 2010 to determine the level of ELVs
recovered in Spain by studying 1100 vehicles recovered by 10 ATFs (Figure 11). The study proved that 86.5% of
the total waste was recovered while approximately 13% of the total ELV waste went to landfills. The 13% waste
(other materials) that was meant to be landfilled was targeted to be reduced to at most 5% by 2014.

Figure 11: ELV waste recovery level in percentage breakdown in Spain for 1100 ELVs in 2010 (López, 2011).
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In Malaysia, the amount of waste from ELVs during the disposal process under improper management is
alarming (Ahmed et al., 2014). Although the NAP 2014 policy was established, it has not addressed the ELVs’
impacts on the environment. The environmental impacts continuously increase with the development of the local
automotive industry. The waste from retired vehicles is not dealt with upon reaching its end-of-life phase. In the
literature, precise statistics on the number of disposed ELVs in Malaysia is lacking. In 2006, Malaysia produced
approximately 1,103,457 metric tonnes of hazardous waste (Amelia et al., 2009). The Department of Environment
(DOE) Malaysia has identified 77 categories of scheduled wastes generated by the chemical, automotive,
petrochemical, steel and pharmaceutical industries. However, the detailed breakdowns of ELV wastes disposed have
not been recorded correctly by the DOE. Table 4 shows that 3,048.66 metric tonnes of waste from batteries
containing cadmium, hg or lithium and 6,062.59 metric tonnes of waste from acid plumbum batteries were generated
in 2015. If these wastes are not effectively managed, then they can cause severe water and air pollution (Department
of Environment Malaysia, 2015).

Table 4: Quantity of scheduled waste generated in Malaysia in 2015. (Department of Environment Malaysia, 2015)

Name of waste Metric Tonnes/year Percentage %

Rags / plastics / papers contaminated with scheduled waste 20, 827.07 0.71
Residue from recovery 11,888.79 0.41
Waste of resin containing organic 1930.79 0.77
Oily residue from workshop 526.36 0.22
Contaminated oil 9516.71 0.33
Spent lubricating oil 49, 280.71 1.69
Waste of batteries containing cadmium, hg/ lithium 3, 048.66 0.10
Waste of acid plumbum batteries 6,062.59 0.21
Rubber/latex waste containing heavy metal 12, 956.18 0.44
Heavy metal sludges 816,680.03 29.01

3.4. Programmes for resource efficiency

Several automakers worldwide have developed a resource efficiency programme for recovering car wastes
as part of their sustainable waste management strategies. In Sweden, Volvo incorporates the waste management
hierarchy in decision-making to increase the use of renewable materials in their products to reduce virgin materials
consumption by increasing non-metallic materials in vehicles production. In 2016, tyres were recycled to produce
sealing plugs for Volvo vehicles. In addition, vehicle weight has been reduced through the design and the use of
lightweight materials. Metal, which is the primary waste stream generated by Volvo car production, is fully
recycled. Approximately 4900 tonnes of scrapped metal are recycled every year at the plants in Europe, and 9, 696
tonnes at plants in Asia (Volvo Car Group, 2016). In addition, Volvo also introduced exchange system
remanufacturers to replace parts to their original specifications to achieve environmental and cost benefits.
Approximately 85% less raw materials and 80% energy are required to remanufacture products compared with
manufacturing an entirely new product. This system saved approximately 602 tonnes of metal and 292 tonnes of
aluminium in 2016. For Volvo ELVs, 95% of materials are recoverable and 85% are recyclable (Volvo Car Group,
2016).

In response to the Japan Recycling Law, Nissan set three mandatory items to be recycled by Nissan automakers:
airbags, Freon gas and ASR. Nissan adopted a global approach in treating ELV wastes across the countries under its
operations. Accordingly, Nissan created systems that are appropriate for the characteristics of these countries. The
recycling programme promoted is based on the principle of ‘making products globally, treating ELVs locally’
(Nissan Environmental Report, 2004). Nissan automakers focus on four main areas in the ELVs recycling approach.
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The first area involves the new vehicle development stage at which heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium and
hexavalent chromium, are avoided as they may pose severe environmental impacts. The next area involves the
design for ease of recyclability. Nissan has integrated dismantling research in the new design. The third area is waste
reduction at the manufacturing stage. The fourth area is quality assurance, that is, no material quality should be lost
or no downcycling is allowed (Nissan Environmental Report, 2004).

In Malaysia, the government has set ELV objectives only through the Malaysian Automotive Institute
(MAI) to generate new business models in ELV recycling and disposal. The use of recycled materials is promoted to
reduce production costs (Malaysia Automotive Institute, 2017) (Figure 12). The new NAP 2014 sets a target for the
export of recycled materials and remanufactured components amounting RM 2 billion in year 2020 from nothing
today. This clearly shows that the local government has recognised the opportunity in local recycling operations
(Malaysian Automotive Association, 2014).

Figure 12: Summarised ELV management options and sustainable business area for Malaysia (Ahmed et al., 2014).
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3.5. Products recycled from ELV materials

The options for recycling ELVs largely depend on the materials used to manufacture the vehicles and the way
their components and parts are assembled (Kanari et al., 2003). Figure 13 illustrates the average material
composition of a EU car (Kanari et al., 2003). Steel (steel sheet and plain steel) constitutes approximately 59% of
the total weight of a vehicle, followed by plastics at approximately 9.3%, aluminium at 8%, cast iron at 6.4%, rubber
at 5.6% and non-ferrous metals-zinc, copper, magnesium and lead at 2%. The other materials included in a vehicle
are paints (3%), textiles (0.9%) and glass (2.9%).

In 2018, UK Prime Minister Theresa May defends the ‘long-term’ plastic waste plan as an environmental
strategy that aims to stop needless plastic waste in 2018 and a commitment to help developing nations tackle
pollution and reduce plastic waste. The commitment is part of the government’s 25-year plan to improve the natural
environment. Mainly, the recycling of all plastics generated from ELVs should be improved progressively to keep
valuable materials out of landfills and prolong their useful life for manufacturing vehicles and other products.

Plastics are used in various parts of an average car, including ABS dashboard, PVC upholstery, polyurethane
seats, instrumental panels, seat belts, interior and exterior panels, bumpers, ceiling fabric and tyres. The EU
Commission is conducting a study to examine the impacts of PVC on the environment. The use of PVC was
examined to understand its environmental impacts and an appropriate proposal on the use of PVC was made for
vehicle applications (EUR-Lex, 2017). The polyurethane foam in ASR has a market value as a secondary raw
material for creating indoor and outdoor recycled products (Cossu et al., 2014). In the predicted future trend, the
global automotive industry will opt for lighter materials, such as plastics, in lieu of traditional ferrous metals to
reduce vehicle weight. The use of plastics in the automotive industry has increased from 10 kg in 1960s to 180–200
kg in the 2000s (Liu et al., 2017). Research has proven that reducing vehicle weights can improve fuel efficiency by
6%–8% for each 10% reduction in weight (Joost, 2012). In Belgium, different types of plastics are retrieved using
post-shredder technologies because secondary plastics production has significant potential (Soo et al., 2017).

The recycling of all plastics from ELVs should be continuously improved as the percentage of plastics used in
manufacturing vehicles has increased considerably in recent years because plastics are lighter and corrosion-resistant
(EUR-Lex, 2017). Although the proportion of plastics in vehicle manufacturing has risen significantly in recent
years, the proportion of plastics recycled from ELVs has inconsiderably increased. The recyclability rate of plastics
is low because the type of polymers used are not readily identified. The recycling rate is lagging the rate of virgin
plastics produced. This aspect triggers political issues because a larger proportion of plastics than before has to go in
landfills (Merrington, 2017). Recycled ELV plastics can be utilised for building applications and in other industries.
However, due to economic reasons, most plastic recyclers today focus on homogenous high-value plastics, leaving a
gap for the rest of the heterogeneous plastics that has to go to a landfill or through incineration (Merrington, 2017).
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Figure 13: Average material compositions of a car produced in the EU (Association of Plastics Manufacturers in
Europe, 1999).

Several projects that have produced useful products from ELVs in the automotive and construction
industries globally are presented in Table 5. Tyres and glass are among the most popular materials that are recycled
into building products. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are commonly recycled into new metals for manufacturing
new vehicles or creating other metal products.

Table 5: Classification of products recycled from ELV materials globally.

ELV materials Products recycled Countries References

1. Steel New steel for car UK (Toyota, 2016)

2. Steel (body, trunk, hood Steel products and car parts Japan (Go et al., 2011;
and door) JETRO Japan
economic report,
2006)
3. Ferrous and non-ferrous Titanium nitride (TiN) and Titanium carbide Australia (Handoko et al., 2016)
metal (TiC) ceramics
4. Aluminium (on-ferrous New non-ferrous metal UK (Toyota, 2016)
metal), alloy wheels
5. Engine transmission, General steel and aluminium products Japan (Go et al., 2011;
suspension and wheel JETRO Japan
(steel and aluminium) economic report,
2006)
6. Catalytic converter (rare Catalytic converters Japan (Go et al., 2011;
metals) JETRO Japan
economic report,
2006)
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7. Wire harness (copper) in Copper products Japan (JETRO Japan

fuse box economic report,
2006;
Recyclingtoday,
2014)
8. Wire harness (copper) Copper products and engines (cast Japan (Go et al., 2011)
aluminium reinforcement)
9. Radiators (copper and Gun metal ingots, brass and aluminium Japan (Go et al., 2011;
aluminium) products JETRO Japan
economic report,
2006)
10. Batteries and electronics Reused lead, plastic and acid. Recycled wire. UK (Toyota, 2016)
11. Batteries Support building energy management system Japan (Aziz, Oda &
(BEMS), support electricity of building Kashiwagi, 2015)
12. Glass (windscreens) Tiles Japan (Go et al., 2011)
13. Glass (windscreens) Fibreglass insulation, concrete blocks, glass USA (NAPA, 2016)
bottles
14. Glass (windscreens) Glass wool (fibreglass) building insulation Japan (JETRO Japan
economic report,
2006)
15. Glass (windscreens) Fuel UK (Toyota, 2016)
16. Glass (windscreens) Construction, insulation, asphalt and glass of Spain (López, 2011)
lower quality
17. Plastics (mixed with clay) Lightweight expanded aggregates for Australia (Liu et al., 2017)
manufacturing building concrete blocks
18. Plastics Auto plastics UK (Toyota, 2016)
19. Plastics Radiator fan for turbine ventilators Malaysia (Al-Obaidi et al.,
2016a & 2016b)

20. Polymer fibres (car timing Concrete Iran (Khaloo et al., 2015)
belts)
21. Bumper (resin) Vehicle interior parts, toolbox and bumper Japan (Go et al., 2011)

22. Carpet Backing material for new carpets UK (Toyota, 2016)

23. Fluid Oil, coolant and hydraulic fluids are cleaned UK (Toyota, 2016)
and reused
24. Coolant engine and gear Alternative fuel for boilers and incinerators Japan (Go et al., 2011)
(oil)
25. Tyres (rubber) Raw material and alternative fuel for cement Japan (Go et al., 2011;
manufacture JETRO Japan
economic report,
2006)
26. Tyres Insulation, athletics tracks, tarmac road, Spain (López, 2011)
artificial-grass sports fields
27. Tyres (rubber) Crash barrier and flood defences. UK (Toyota, 2016)
Playground surfaces
28. Tyres (rubber particles) Fine aggregates replacement in traditional Egypt (Rashad, 2016)
cementitious materials (concrete)
29. Tyres (textile fibres) Innovative solution for partition walls: Portugal (Vasconcelos et al.,
masonry block made of an eco-efficient new 2013)
composite material

30. Tyres Rubberised asphalt for highways USA (NAPA, 2016)

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31. Tyres Environment-friendly rubber roofing: Canada (Euroshield, 2014)

heritage slate roof shingle
32. Seat (fibre and foam) Vehicle soundproofing and filler materials Japan (Go et al., 2011)

33. Natural fibre composite Eco-friendly recyclable foam sandwich Italy (Petrone et al., 2014)
parts for vehicle interior panels
applications (foam)
34. Automotive seat covers: Rebonded polyurethane foam as composite France (Sims & Angus,
foam/fabric laminates by for automobile parts 1996)
incorporation of polyester
polyeurethane foam
35. Textile, fibre and foams Energy recovery of this light fraction in Spain (López, 2011)
(shredder light fraction cement plants as alternative fuel
(SLF) or ‘fluff’) Subject to industrial research to increase its
recycling possibilities and reduce the waste
disposed to landfills
36. Zinc and lead (ASR fines) Ordinary retardants for Portland cement France (Péra, Ambroise &
Chabannet, 2004)

37. Safety belts Reuse in furniture parts Italy (Berzi et al., 2013)

Practices on ELV waste recycling in housing construction have been implemented in other countries many
years ago. For instance, the earth-sheltered houses by Architect Michael Reynolds were built using rammed earth
tyre walls that act as a thermal mass to insulate against hot summers (Freney, 2009; Grindley & Hutchinson, 1996).
Yesilata, Bulut and Turgut (2011) conducted an experimental study on a concrete building structure using exterior
walls that were made of tyres rubber pieces, which improved the indoor air temperature by 12% compared with a
structure without the tyres rubber pieces. In Malaysia, various parties in building construction have recycled waste
tyres, which can act as a heat sink for concrete and reduce driveway surface temperature once buried as a
foundation. Various developers and builders have developed eco-home projects using waste tyres to lower the
surface temperature (Aziz, Rao & Salleh, 2013). Smart and Cool Home Developer explored various methods to
lower the indoor temperature for their housing projects by burying waste tyres as a building foundation and using
aerated concrete blocks, double layer glass windows and ‘Bernoulli Effect’ ceiling (Muhammad Azzam & Fahanim,
2011). An investigation of the heat sink was conducted on a driveway exposed to sun in one of the pilot houses built
by the Smart and Cool Home Developer. The surface of the driveway that was embedded with three layers of waste
tyres laid around ground beams beneath the concrete slab was proven to be cool under the scorching afternoon
(Figure 14). Subsequently, a local developer, Mainstay Development, applied the same technology and used
approximately 220,000 tyres to form the foundation of a new shopping complex, Space U8 in Shah Alam, Malaysia.
This revolutionary construction technique creates a heat sink that helps cool the interior of the building naturally by
draining heat through autoclaved aerated concrete bricks (Cheang, 2009).

(a) (b)
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Figure 14: (a) Thousands of scrap tyres are being used to form the foundation of the new shopping complex, Space
U8 in Shah Alam, Malaysia. (b) Heat sink phenomenon of a building foundation made of scrap tyres (Cheang,
2009).

Several researchers have investigated the application of scrap tyres as part of building components, such as
foundation, and building envelopes as heat sink. Other researchers have studied the strength, lifespan and indoor
comfort of buildings constructed with multi-storey containers under hot-humid tropic conditions (Table 6).
However, relatively few studies on recycling ELV wastes to manufacture new building products in Malaysia have
been conducted.

Table 6: Latest study about recycling ELV materials for building applications in Malaysia.
ELV Building applications Research scopes Years References
materials
1. Tyres
T Foundation for the house Measurements on the surface 2013 (Aziz et al.,
concrete driveway temperature of the driveways and 2013)
porches of the sample houses for 3
consecutive days

a) A hand-held infra-red thermometer

to read the surface temperature.
b) A compact thermo hygrometer to
measure the relative humidity and
ambient temperature held at 1m above
ground surface.

2. Tyres Foundation of new The system uses tyres to create a heat 2009 (Cheang, 2009)
shopping complex Space sink that drains the heat from walls
U8 Shah Alam built with autoclaved aerated concrete
bricks

3. Tyres Building envelope (ground
floor slab, wall and roof)
of experimental room
integrated with ELT at
foundation
4. ISO Multi-storey container
Containers buildings in hot-humid
tropics
Heat Transfer Potentiality of Ground 2013 (Eusuf & Al
Floor Slab. So, the R value (thermal Hasan, 2013)
resistance) for the concrete Integrated
with ELT at Foundation
Strength, durability and lifespan. 2013 (Ismail et al.,
Sustainable building and Indoor 2015)
comfort

Recently, refurbished and fabricated second-hand containers are rapidly gaining popularity in the built
environment in Malaysia. These containers have been used as container cafe, container living room, container hotel
rooms, container office, container storage and container shutter (Ismail et al., 2015; MK United Resources Sdn Bhd,
2017). Container can be used for other purposes, such as exhibitions, building construction site, temporary storage
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and shipping. Various types of containers are available, such as cargo worthy containers (used for storage),
seaworthy containers (used for storage in ships) and standard containers carried by road vehicles (Figure 15).
Container traders offer a wide range of services to potential users, which include container leasing, purchase and
retail of second-hand containers, depot services, logistic service, project cargo handling and fabrication of custom-
made containers to fit specific market requirements (MK United Resources Sdn Bhd, 2017). Container homes have
become increasingly popular due to several factors: durability, modularity and cost-effectiveness. Containers are
flexible in terms of architectural design due to its modular nature and adaptability. They are also proven robust,
which satisfies international strength and safety standards; they are fireproof and hurricane proof; they satisfy the
uniform building by law (UBBL) codes and are easily customised, low maintenance and affordable (Housetec
Malaysia, 2014; Ismail et al., 2015). Figure 15(b) illustrates the container homes designed by a Malaysian architect
that incorporated rainwater harvesting and natural ventilated design and daylight harvesting design to create an
energy and water efficient building (Bridgette Meinhold, 2010).

(a) (b)

Figure 15: (a) Road vehicle (container truck) that could be adapted to building use upon reaching its end-of-life. (b)
Smart green home built by stacked containers in Bukit Tinggi, Malaysia (Bridgette Meinhold, 2010).
4. Assessment of ELV conditions for buildings requirements

Several technical challenges should be overcome in the construction industry to elevate the circularity of
materials at the highest value and performance (Geng & Doberstein, 2008). Challenges may exist in the products,
materials and building level (Wallace & Raingold, 2012; Llompart et al., 2013). Poulikidou et al. (2015) proposed a
developed framework for life-cycle based materials selection for vehicles. It consists of five major steps: definition
of design target, selection of material families and candidate materials, weight minimisation, life cycle modelling
and assessment and results analysis and material selection, as shown in Figure 16. Underlying questions regarding
the conditions of ELVs should be noted to introduce the recycling of ELVs for building products. The analysis of
conditions ensured that the selected materials satisfy the application performance requirements. Several key
elements regarding material characteristics that are highlighted below should be considered.
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Figure16: Developed framework for life-cycle based materials selection (Poulikidou et al., 2015).

4.1. Quality requirements of ELV materials

The quality and functionality of recycling ELV materials should be analysed. In addition, how these materials
are valued and examined for future building use should be investigated. The viability of ELVs for building
construction might be questioned. Some modern buildings and construction methods may require high quality
requirements to meet client satisfaction, especially for long-lived structures (Adams et al., 2017). The recycled
materials’ degradation issue should be acknowledged as impurities in the multi-material within ELVs, which might
hinder material recovery with high-quality requirements. Hence, life cycle analysis should be included in
consideration of the aforementioned factor (Reuter et al. 2006; Soo et al., 2017). Generally, several products from
recycled plastics from ASR have achieved satisfactory quality, such as outdoor equipment (i.e. benches, fences,
containers, pavers) (Cossu et al., 2014). Nevertheless, special attention should be given to the emissions of
hazardous compounds.

Habitability issues also exist and must be addressed before promoting ELV materials for manufacturing
building products. For instance, the scrap containers recycled for the container building project are usually covered
with lead-based paint; the paintwork must be properly coated with zap oil to prevent lead poisoning upon contact
with the paint for health reasons (Container home review, 2014). Although containers are made of corten steel, they
are not 100% corrosion/rust proof (Container home plans, 2018). Containers usually rust during transit and
movement; their protective coating could be removed when damaged. Container rust treatment can be performed by
sandblasting the rust away, followed by the application of seal paint/coating on its interior and exterior surfaces. The
structural integrity of the recycled containers must be maintained. Meanwhile, cutting out big portions of the
recycled containers to install doors and windows requires expert advice and sound planning (Container home plans,
2018; Container home review, 2014; MK United Resources Sdn Bhd, 2017). The recycled containers must also be
field evaluated to establish acceptable levels of thermal and acoustic performances. In terms of the thermal
behaviour of the recycled containers, they can work well if appropriate measures are employed by incorporating
insulators, such as fibreglass wool, EPS, closed cell polyurethane foam or even plywood as a vapour/heat barrier.

4.2. Safety requirements of ELV materials

The analysis of the conditions (physical and chemical characteristics) of ELVs adopted for building
applications, especially focusing on the well-being requirements, is vital to ensuring the safety and security. A
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careful planning of the production processes from materials selection to recycling processes is necessary to ensure
no harm to human health. All ELV materials must undergo thorough checking for possible environmental impacts to
satisfy the safety requirements (free of toxic chemicals) through their life cycle (Schmid, Naquin & Gourdon, 2013).
Strict laboratory tests in control conditions should be carried out prior to introducing them in building applications.
This concern is raised to examine its potential contributions to hazardous gaseous emissions during production and
final use by the end-users (Tian and Chen, 2014).

As presented earlier, the use of scrap tyres in the built environment has been successfully implemented
worldwide which has a net environmental advantage as a recycled component that avoid the production of certain
primary materials. Despite these advantages, the probability of pollution issues should not be overlooked. For
instance, recycled rubber tyre playgrounds should be carefully controlled and regulated as research has proven the
presence of hazardous chemicals (Llompart et al., 2013). Proper investigations should be carried out on pre-
treatment and chemical processes to transform the scraps into a material suitable for use. Techniques to reduce the
hazard levels of ELV materials should be developed to comply with building materials standards (Ismail et al.,
2015). Moreover, some ELV materials could be fire hazards under certain circumstances. The burning of tyres result
in the emission of air pollutants, including black smoke and toxic gases. Hence, the productions and applications of
tyres in the construction industry require some careful adaptations and treatments (Ferrão et al., 2008).

5. Discussion

The existing ELV recycling approach in Malaysia is still underdeveloped, which explains why the exact
figures are not available. One of the main limitations found in the study is the inadequacy of research, development
and capacity for establishing collaborations between the Malaysian automotive and construction industries.
Moreover, the interactions between both industries and different governmental agencies are insufficient in
consideration of the sustainable production and integrated development system for managing ELVs. In addition, the
ELV waste flow in Malaysia is unclear as most dismantlers are merely concerned about the high-value parts for
reuse and recycling. Therefore, the parts that have lower demands for recycling usually end up in the landfills. To
solve this issue, technical and legal aspects and environmental rationale should be carefully addressed to reach a
consensus. The study affirmed that various treatment strategies can be adopted in Malaysia to reduce the
environmental impact of and sustain the economy tied to material waste. The local construction industry could
create more environment-friendly products by utilising existing ELV wastes. This transformation will enjoin the
automotive and construction industries, from building experts to product manufacturers, to be part of this change.

The study corroborated that a vehicle consists of various complex components and materials that could
cause various environmental issues in its consumption and disposal phases. In Malaysia, many ELV wastes are
disposed in landfills. For instance, end-of-life vehicle tyres, seats, glass, carpets, interior fabric, mat, sponges and
insulating blankets are usually dumped improperly. These wastes are potentially recyclable for building applications.
In fact, the development of building products from ELV wastes, especially the utilisation of ASR composed of
plastics, textile/fabric and glass, is limited. Based on the investigations and analysis, Table 7 classifies the recyclable
ELV materials that could be turned into multiple valuable building products in Malaysia. Disposed wastes could be
recycled to replace the raw materials in the product manufacturing stage. Recycling ELVs would decrease the waste
discarded by recovering the useful materials and reduce the wastes in landfills.

ELVs have various building applications, including the use of insulating building wraps (thermal and
acoustic performance), roofing options and flooring materials. The scrap tyres may be recycled directly for building
applications: building foundations, replacement of traditional cementitious materials and for floor surface materials.
Additionally, scrap tyres could undergo the pyrolysis process for producing carbon black, fuel gas and oil for other
industries. Scrap tyres can also be used as an alternative fuel for the recovery of energy. Vehicle chassis and metal
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

parts/components could be melted for recycling as basic metals sheets for manufacturing new vehicles and building
products: cladding, roofing and flooring. Aluminium is the second widely used specified metal in buildings after
steel. The primary markets are windows, roofing, wall cladding, partitions, pre-fab buildings and structural glazing.
The scrap value of aluminium is retained at vehicle end-of-life and creates opportunities for dismantling for other
utilisation instead of being landfilled. The recycling rate of aluminium is virtually 100%; it can be repeatedly
recycled without losing its quality (Jirang & Roven, 2010). The resmelting of recycled aluminium is an energy
saving process that saves approximately 95% of the energy used in its primary production through the Bayer process
(Das & Yin, 2007).

Table 7: Classifications of proposed building products that could be recycled from ELV materials in Malaysia.
ELVs materials category ELVs part/ Allocation to ELVs Building products Building
Component processing/treatment applications

Non-ferrous  Aluminium  Body  Dismantling  Roofing sheet  Roof

metals  Rim  Recycling  Aluminium  Wall
 Wheel Non-metallic residues cladding
 Engine treatment

 Aluminium foil  Roof panel  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof

 Floor  Recycling
 Under-bonnet Non-metallic residues
treatment

Plastics  Polyurethane (PUR) foam  Seat  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof

 Cushion  Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Foam insulation  Non-metallic residues  Filler material
panel treatment
 Hard plastic parts
 Polypropylene (PP) – Thermoplastic  Carpet fibres  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
polymer  Bumpers  Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Safety belt  Non-metallic residues  Carpet textiles  Floor
treatment  Piping
 Drainage mats for
green roof

 Polyester  Seat  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof

 Safety belt  Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Boot liners  Non-metallic residues
treatment
 Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (PVC) fabrics  Seat  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Interior trim  Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Upholstery  Non-metallic residues
treatment
 Polyethylene closed cell foam core  Seat  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Non-metallic residues
treatment
Rubber  Tyres  Wheel  Dismantling  As heat sink for the  Roof
 Recycling concrete floor slab  Wall
 Non-metallic residues (foundation)  Floor
treatment  Road surface  Foundatio
 Asphalt n
 Garden mulch  Road
 Carpet underlay
 Crash barriers
 Flood defences
 Rubberised asphalt
for highways
 Roof tiles
 Fine aggregates
replacement in
traditional
cementitious
material (concrete)

Glass  Glass  Windscreen  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof

 Safety glass  Recycling  Concrete blocks  Wall
 Non-metallic residues  Carpet glues  Floor
treatment  Paving tiles
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

 Roof canopy

 Fiberglass  Under-bonnet  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof

component  Recycling  Wall
 Under-roof  Non-metallic residues
insulation treatment
Textile  Cloth  Seat cover  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Non-metallic residues
treatment

 Nylon  Safety belt  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof

 Seat cover  Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Carpet  Non-metallic residues
 Airbag treatment
 Vinyl  Seat, interior trim  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Non-metallic residues
treatment
 Blankets  Exhaust system  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Cockpit  Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Non-metallic residues
treatment
 Linen  Seat  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Non-metallic residues
treatment
 Cotton  Seat  Dismantling  Thermal insulation  Roof
 Recycling  Acoustic insulation  Wall
 Non-metallic residues
treatment

The absence of ELV directive in Malaysia is the main factor of poor ELV waste management. Therefore,
establishing a processing framework in ELV operations and recycling technologies and tools can provide multiple
benefits to various players. The understanding of the economic benefits of utilising ELVs could elevate the interests
of local building manufacturers and reduce environmental costs. This endeavour can be accomplished through a
process at the national level that stimulates long-term collaborative efforts between automakers, dismantlers and
relevant industries in understanding the overall processes and technical knowledge of recycling ELVs for inter-
industry benefits. In addition, further research on the applications of ELV materials for buildings, explicitly focusing
on recycling possibilities/capabilities of ELV materials, manufacturing technologies and actual mechanical
performances, are deemed necessary. Therefore, this research established an ELV processing framework, which is
illustrated in Figure 17, to establish a connection between the automotive and construction industries in Malaysia in
terms of cross-functions efforts, resource sharing, processing methods and products development possibilities. The
ELV process can be divided into stages: collection, de-pollution, dismantling, shredding and disposal.

 The collection of ELVs can be done by licensed authorised treatment facilities (ATFs).
 In the de-pollution stage, hazardous substance, fluids and batteries are removed. The recycling of fluid in
the feedstock market will be allowed, while the scrap metals from vehicle batteries can be recycled for
manufacturing new batteries.
 In the dismantling stage, valuable auto parts, such as engines and gearboxes, are removed and sold as
spare-parts and remanufacturer parts. Other dismantled ELV materials, such as seats, carpets and tyres, can
be separated and collected for recycling and use in the construction industry without going through
shredding process, thereby protecting the environment. This approach is adopted in the EU for recycling
ASR, that is, materials are separated and collected at the intensive dismantling stage to reduce the materials
before going through the shredding stage.
 In the shredding stage, the chassis/hulk is baled and then sent to the shredding plant for crushing. In this
post shredder treatment (PSTs) stage, ferrous and non-ferrous metals (aluminium, copper) are separated
using magnetic properties, while non-metallic mixed heterogonous materials (plastics, rubber, glass, fabric)
are recycled to create new products.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

 The remaining ASR wastes that are unrecyclable will go to landfills at a controlled percentage of
approximately 5%. Combustible ASR can be utilised for energy recovery purposes by turning ASR into
ash, fuel and heat for cement plants and power generation. Aluminium and plastics constitute a large
percentage of the overall weight of a vehicle. They can be potentially recycled back for manufacturing of
raw materials in the construction and automotive industries.

The process shows that the construction industry can receive materials from ELVs through two activities: one is the
dismantling stage, through the recycling of seats, carpet, plastics and tyres; and the second is the shredding stage,
through light and heavy shredding by recycling (non-metallic residue treatment), melting and refining to create raw
materials and smelting of aluminium scrap. This process will help produce roof tiles, flooring materials, foundation,
insulation materials, concrete blocks, aluminium cladding, windows, structural glazing, composite panels, partition
walls, interior furnitures and container buildings. The implementation of the ELV recycling approach in the local
construction industry is a future direction and a potential movement for enhancing the manufacturing industries.
Figure 17: Proposed concept of the ELV processing framework from the automotive to the construction industry.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

6. Conclusions

This paper presents an overview of ELV management scenarios and challenges from the global to the local context.
It provides a new perspective for Malaysia, as one of the major vehicle manufacturers, in its exploration of a
sustainable ELV processing business for economic benefits and waste reduction across the country. The following
conclusions are drawn:

- A new processing framework is proposed for the Malaysian ELV recycling industry. The framework
provides an alternative option for obtaining raw materials in an environment-friendly manner and reducing
the ELV wastes discarded in landfills.

- Different types of ELV wastes could be utilised in manufacturing building products to reduce the disposal
of ASR in Malaysia. The proposed processing framework utilises ELV wastes as alternative building
materials to reduce energy, raw materials and manufacturing cost. It supports the implementation of
circular economy thinking, which will enhance the supply chain collaboration between the automotive and
construction industries.

- The process framework shows that the construction industry can receive materials from ELVs from two
activities: dismantling through the recycling process and shredding through light and heavy shredding.
However, the quality, functionality and environmental impacts of recycling ELV materials should satisfy
the safety requirements before these materials are transferred to the construction industry.

- From the five major waste processing operations, the reuse, recovery and recycling processing operations
are the major contributors. The data indicated that the metal component accounts for the highest percentage
in reuse operation. Tyres, metal components and batteries are the elements of highest utilisations in
recovery and recycling operations. Meanwhile, significant plastic parts and glass are slightly involved in all
operations.

- The proposed building products that could be recycled from ELV materials in Malaysia were classified as
non-ferrous metals, plastics, rubber, glass and textile. In addition, several building products were identified
as roofing sheet, aluminium cladding, thermal insulation, acoustic insulation, filler material, carpet textiles,
piping, drainage mats for green roof, roof tiles, concrete blocks, paving tiles, garden mulch, fine aggregates
replacement in traditional cementitious material (concrete) and heat sink for the concrete floor slab
(foundation).

The outcome of this research could be used to develop a platform for vehicle-to-building industry to improve the
recycling in the construction area through innovations and technologies. In addition, this research will help shape the
requirements for improving the ELV supply chain in terms of material quality and performance to satisfy customer
demands. Research on product reusability and recyclability could offer many opportunities for the circular economy
in Malaysian construction. The process framework can serve as a reference for the local authority in implementing
proper ELV processing and management and developing innovative treatment lines. Finally, this research could
contribute to the Malaysian government in setting a target of becoming a regional hub of EEVs and penetrating
global markets by 2022 through the application of high technology and strategic investments.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Recycling of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) for building products: Concept of

processing framework from automotive to construction industries in Malaysia

Highlights

 A collaboration concept between automotive and construction industries to manage end-

of-life vehicles (ELVs) is established.

 A novel processing framework to utilise ELV waste as building materials is proposed.

 The developed ELV framework links the construction industry through the dismantling
and shredding operations.

 The proposed building products recycled from ELVs were identified and classified.