SANVICK ModernMetalCutting

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Modern Metal Cutting

Modern
Metal Cutting
A P RAC T I CA L HA N D B O O K
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Modern
Metal Cutting
A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK
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Sandvik Coromant
1702 Nevins Road
Fair Lawn, NJ 07410
© 1996 Sandvik Coromant
First North American edition published 1996

ISBN 91 - 97 22 99 - 3 - 0

- a practical handbook
Sandvik Coromant, Technical Editorial dept.

Production: Idéreklam, Sandviken
Graphics and repro: Sjöströms Text & Repro, Sandviken
Printed in Sweden by: Tofters Tryckeri AB
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electro-
nic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of AB Sandvik Coromant.
This work is published with the understanding that Sandvik Coromant and its editors are supplying
information aimed to present a general orientation and direction for metal cutting and some peripheral
sciences. If professional services are required for specific applications, the assistance of an appropriate
professional from Sandvik Coromant locally should be acquired. Neither Sandvik Coromant nor its
editors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information.
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To people everywhere
who cut chips and keep
production running.
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CONTENTS
Chapter
INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL METAL CUTTING
METAL CUTTING I
MACHINABILITY II
TOOL MATERIALS III
TOOL WEAR IV
MACHINING ECONOMICS V
TURNING VI
BORING VII
PARTING AND GROOVING IIX
THREADING IX
MILLING X
DRILLING XI
DEEPHOLE DRILLING XII
TOOLHOLDING XIII
TECHNICAL DATA
INDEX
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INTRODUCTION
This handbook is an exploration in modern very much based on providing continual
metal cutting. The aim has been to cover improvements to metal cutting production.
most of the major methods that involve This fuels the race towards improved tool
hard material cutting tools. This is mainly materials, cutting edge geometries and met-
cemented carbide, cermet and ceramic cut- hods of toolholding, providing industry with
ting edges on indexable insert tooling for more economic production alternatives.
turning, milling and drilling. In a unique
way, the contents include basic definitions, The issues relating to developments in
application methods, tool descriptions, prac- manufacturing industriy can often be seen
tical production examples from industry as a sequence of logical activities. Starting
and references to peripheral sciences. with the question:
- what is the situation in the machine shop
The book can be read as a textbook or used today?
as a reference handbook for tool applica-
tions. There are many specific examples and then continuing with the following pro-
and the contents can be seen as a general cedure:
indicator of alternatives for engineers and - set goals, consolidate, make plans, and
training officers in industry and what metal carry out a machining survey;
cutting is all about today. - analyse and draw up an action plan;
- implement better methods and tooling;
In addition to providing basic information - standardize tooling and train people;
on metal cutting, this book also describes - ensure that the right support from sup-
the level of modern technology, adopted, pliers is available;
by varying degrees, by industry in general. - make certain that the improvements in
The material has been based, broadly, on metal cutting technology are continually
the coverage of the specialized magazine being implemented.
Metalworking World. Contributions to this
publication which hopefully are clearly This is an example of a formula which
evident, have come from many people in works well for metal cutting production. It
manufacturing companies involved in metal usually leads to higher quality, producti-
cutting, and from product specialists and vity, performance, improved economics,
development engineers within Sandvik reliability, motivation, control, handling,
Coromant. maintenance and, in turn, to improved
return on investment.
Metal cutting is a dynamic technology, in-
volving several disciplines of science, as is Join the metal cutting enthusiasts who see
reflected in the book. It is continually machining as a performance race, with
changing in line with strategies and material down-times as pit-stops to be minimized,
developments throughout the manufactur- who thrive on producing fine components in
ing industry worldwide. On the other hand, metal and enjoy the atmosphere of power,
it is also changing as a consequence of heat and smell of newly cut chips. Here are
developments within the cutting tool indu- nine-hundred pages to set the modern
stry. The competitive ingredient here is scene! But first, a description of the past.
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HISTORICAL
METAL CUTTING
- A BRIEF OVER-VIEW
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HISTORICAL METAL CUTTING

Metal cutting is a fascinating science Significantly, the great technical
with an exciting history, most of advances of the eighteenth century
which, from our perspective, is fairly took place in the earliest biblical or
new. The development seems to have industries of the copper-age and
gone hand in hand with the industrial onwards.....Large capital investments
revolution of the eighteenth and in the metallurgical (military)
nineteenth centuries, then accelerated industries spurred the pre-Industrial
during the twentieth. Revolution economies.....”
Although this outlook may seem fair These early developments should
from a productivity-oriented point of consequently be considered the base
view, it can seem grossly unfair to the for later industrial developments.
progress of craftmanship prior to the Nevertheless, metal cutting in
industrial revolution. A lot of per- machine tools is something relatively
sonal skill and know-how in the craft new as are the tool materials and
of metalworking developed long science that have shaped this century’s
before industry as we know it today. development. The immense craving for
manufacturing has spurred the quest
In The Myth of the Machine, his for productivity and taken us to today’s
account of techniques and human technology. This brief historical over-
development, American historian view begins with the introduction of
Lewis Mumford writes in reference to powered machine tools.
metalworking: “What is usually treated as
the technological backwardness of the six Metal cutting, then, is really not a new
centuries before the so-called Industrial science, but has played an important
Revolution represents in fact a curious role in the development of civilization.
backwardness in historical scholarship. Into the eighteenth century, wood was
2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

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Early hand-held turning and boring
the dominant workpiece material. Machining was very slow at the begin-
The machining of metal in machines ning of the nineteenth century. The
was very limited and rather crude. It shaping of just 14 square feet of an
was a slow task for a blacksmith until iron surface would take one long
the nineteenth century, when machine working day. Shaping was a widely
power became available from the used operation to face-machine
steam engine, and later electricity. surfaces. A predecessor to facemilling,
it was performed with a turning tool
Machine tools developed considerably mounted in a tool post which made
in response to newly found power, reciprocal movements across the surface
which was transmitted throughout the as it was fed across the width of the
workshops by way of axles, belts and face. The cutting depth and the length
pulleys. There were early planing and of stroke were set and the shaping
milling machines, as well as lathes, machine was left to run. Today, this
that could perform threading. The in- method has almost completely been
troduction of the cross-slide on a lathe replaced by facemilling operations. It
is one example of a major step for- remains mainly as the principle for
ward. It meant that tools no longer broaching and similar operations. The
needed to be held by hand but could picture below shows an early hand-
be secured in a tool-post instead. powered shaping machine.
Belt-driven lathe and hand-driven shaper
MODERN METAL CUTTING 3

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–1900
Forged and hardened carbon steel tool Milling machine and cutter
Nineteenth century machine shop with belt-driven machines

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The development of workshops and developed, to produce tool steels.

their machinery was extensive in High-carbon steel and alloy carbon
Europe and in America during the steel were the best tool materials avail-
nineteenth century. On the American able. They were very hard thanks to
continent, arms makers led the pro- heat treatment by blacksmiths, but be-
gress, developing machines as they came soft quickly due to heat gene-
needed them and introducing manu- rated at cutting speeds of only a few
facturing based on interchangeable feet per minute. Tool-life was extrem-
parts and standardized measurements. ely short and unreliable as heat
This paved the way to mass production. treatment and metallurgy were un-
By the mid-century, there were universal developed sciences. The early work-
milling and grinding machines. The piece materials of machinery were not
lathe-turret was introduced as a major too demanding: grey cast-iron, bronzes
quick-change of tools and turret lathes and wrought iron. Steel, and espe-
and automatic screw machines were cially alloy steel, turned out to be
widely in operation by the end of the much more demanding and costly.
century in industrialized countries.
The first really improved tool mate-
Although there were many varying, rial to resemble high speed steel was
parallel developments and innova- Mushet steel, the result of an accidental
tions throughout the metalworking find. Experiments with manganese led
industry during the nineteenth and to air-hardening of steel and the
especially the twentieth century, this discovery of tungsten in the steel. This
chapter will concentrate on cutting resulted in alloy steel with much
tool material evolvement. better machining capability than car-
bon steel - in fact, the Mushet steel
The adjoining three operations in nine- eventually led to a doubling of output
teenth century metal cutting are (A) in turning. It was the ability of the
turning iron and steel, (B) turning soft tool material to withstand somewhat
metal and (C) a surface finishing higher cutting temperatures than car-
operation. bon steel that spread its use and pro-
moted further development of alloy
During the nineteenth century, various steel, thus directing more interest to
iron and then steel processes were heat treatment methods. Speeds of
A B C
Turning steel, soft metal and a finishing operation

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around 32 ft/min were attained and

more workpiece materials could be HSS
machined at higher speeds.
The big event at the turn of the century,

which was to influence machining and
thus manufacturing on a large scale,
was the demonstration by Fredrick
Taylor at the Paris Exposition in 1900.
He performed machining at such
great speeds and feeds that the chips
were blue. The cutting tool was red-
hot but stayed sharp. A special, High speed steel tool and clamping
independently driven lathe machined
mild-steel forgings at levels that were tion of finding a new material alloy.
unbelievable to visitors. Cutting data Instead it was the development of
was: 130 ft/min cutting speed, .062 in. metallurgy and heat-treatment of alloy
feed and .19 in. cutting depth. steel, which provided a higher degree
of hot-hardness: from 250 with carbon
Afterwards, the cutting tools were steel to over 600 degrees C. Manufacturing
tested to their maximum, red- hardness capability was boosted, motivating the
capability in Germany, rendering the building of more specialized machinery for
machines used into scrap metal in less emerging industries such as the auto-
than a month. The world’s population motive and shipbuilding.
of machine tools had become obsolete
with the turn of the century! Taylor turned metal cutting into a
science, performing tens of thousands
High Speed Steel (HSS). of tests with fellow engineer Maunsel
The scope of the development to a White. Their analytical work, machin-
more capable cutting tool material was ing some 90 tons of steel forgings and
enormous. It was actually not a ques- rebuilding machine tools to cope,
High speed steel

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ORIGINAL TAYLOR DATA FOR HSS, 1906. (Note tool-life!)

Tools and data that made the world’s population of machine tools obsolete.

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Typical programs of HSS cutting tools for turning, milling and drilling, showing various
developments in tool types such as HSS-bits held in holders, profile milling cutters, slitting
cutters, endmills and space drills as well as deep hole drills for trepanning.

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brought manufacturing and thus civi- took 26 minutes with HSS at the be-
lization another step forward. They ginning of the twentieth century.
started the twentieth century off on
new production levels. HSS bits were Well into the twentieth century, at
later to become the most widely used around 1915, cast alloys were intro-
turning tools until they were super- duced and another step forward in the
seded. Holders held bits that could be evolution of cutting tool materials was
replaced for grinding - predecessors taken. Cast alloys is the collective name
to indexable inserts. HSS was also to for some non-ferrous alloys based
develop into important form-tools for mainly on cobalt, chromium, tungsten,
turning radii, angles, grooves and more etc. These were castings containing
complex shapes in one plunging opera- around 50% hard carbides. They had
tion. Being a relatively easy material to different names depending upon the
grind, HSS tools became the backbone manufacturer: Stellite, Speedaloy and
of machining in production lathes. Tungaloy were probably the best
known. The cast alloys were very hard,
What was the result of Taylor and
White’s work? They made it possible
to considerably increase cutting data
but more importantly, they extended
the tool-life of cutting tools. Taylor
also provided the basis of equating
economic tool-life, which is still valid
today. He worked extensively with
production management and time
studies. In 1903, he presented the
results of his metal cutting research,
including the Taylor formula, in an
address to the American Society of
Manufacturing Engineers.
Beginning with experiments using

Mushet steels, Taylor and White varied
the compositions of tool steels, in-
creasing the alloy content, mostly with
tungsten and chrome. They also
increased the hardening temperatures
and the contents of hard, heat-resistant
carbides. Thus commenced the deve-
lopment that led to the high speed steel
tools of the twentieth century. Practic-
ally, it meant that a turning operation
that took 100 minutes with high-carbon
steel during the nineteenth century Cast alloy turning tools

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had relatively high hot-hardness, 800° high toughness, carried on for many
C, and high resistance to abrasive wear decades and still goes on today.
but were very brittle and difficult to
use for making tools. The tool program on page 8 shows
some early models of turning, milling
Cast alloys are forerunners and, to and drilling tools. Form cutters were
some extent, related to cemented car- ground in large quantities from HSS
bides through their composition and for turning and milling. Spade drills
in many ways, their qualities. Stellite were the forerunners of the twist drill
tips could in fact be welded onto while hollow drills were developed for
shanks of carbon steel. They are, how- deeper holes.
ever, melted and cast and not a pro-
duct of powder metallurgy as ce- Around the mid-nineteenth century, the
mented carbides are. Cast tips were basic machines were developed. From
brazed onto steel toolholders and then on, machinery was refined, made
milling cutters as was to be the case larger, more stable and powerful, and with
with cemented carbide later on. added controls. Production engineering
and methods along with machinability
Cast alloys offered considerable im- challenges became the dominating fac-
provement over the high speed steels tors. At an early stage, however, the
at this time but only had about half cost factor began to emerge in relation
the toughness of HSS. The high hot- to machining time. The slowness of
hardness and wear resistance improved metal cutting put pressure on resources
performance in many operations at the and the race was on to cut machining
time, particularily involving workpiece times with new tools. Engineers were
materials that generated high heat dur- proud, skillful people playing vital roles
ing machining. in producing transport, machines, arms
and increasing amounts of equipment
Some operations that had taken HSS of the modern age. Machines became
26 minutes took only 15 minutes with flagships in industry.
cast alloy tools.
Power saws, large planing machines,
High speed steel development, mean- shapers, radial drilling machines, lathes
while, did not remain static. Super- and boring mills were developed and
HSS appeared just before 1930. This made rigid to cope with emerging cutting
high speed steel had cobalt added to it. tool materials during the nineteenth and
It became a good tool material for especially the twentieth century,
machining various workpiece materials,
including aluminum and magnesium It was during the 1930s that the era of
which were growing rapidly in use. cemented carbide as a cutting tool ma-
Cutting speeds of around 230 ft/min terial was commencing. This was ano-
could now be attained. The quest for ther of the truly great milestones in
increased properties of hard carbides, cutting tool development.
to around 25%, in combination with

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Pride of the plant - large planer mill from the 1930s.
Demonstrating capacity of the boring mill

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CEMENTED CARBIDE
Cemented carbides, also known as sin- cutting performance had taken a quan-
tered carbides, tungsten carbide and tum step forward, thirty years into the
hard metals, were developed in parallel twentieth century.
during the 1930s. These were the revo-
lutionary powder metallurgy products What took high speed steel 26 minutes
that contained more than 90% hard to machine and cast alloy tools 15 mi-
carbides in a binding metal. Material nutes, took the first cemented carbide
powders are pressed and sintered, and tools only 6 minutes.
only the binder melts, to form the
cutting tool material. The first cemented carbide types used
tungsten carbide (WC) as the hard
The material, which originated in Germany particles and cobalt as the binder.
during the 1920s, was introduced at an These first cutting edges were excellent
exhibition: the 1927 Leipzig show, where and a vast improvement for machining
yet another new level of metal cutting cast-iron, aluminum, etc., but were only
was demonstrated. Early demonstrations a moderate improvement in machining
also took place in the U.S. where cutting steel, mainly due to fast crater wear.
speeds several times that of HSS were This led to intensive research and
employed and the resulting tool-lives development in the emerging field of
seemed eternal. cemented carbide cutting tools. Based
on the form and geometry of solid HSS
During the 1930s, cemented carbide tools, small cemented carbide tips were
was developed as a cutting tool mate- brazed into pockets on toolholders to
rial by several manufacturers in diffe- form the cutting edge.
rent countries. It meant that metal
WC
Brazed tungsten carbide turning tool

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HV
1200
1000
800
700 4
600 3
1 2
200 600 1000 C°

A new era in metal cutting
Again, one of the primary reasons for the
improvement in performance was due to The development of cemented car-
the better hot hardness of the material. (1) bides, based on the early successful
Carbon steel, (2) HSS, (3) cast alloys and WC-Co grades, carried on with the aim
(4) WC cemented carbide.
of overcoming the diffusion wear that
quickly led to breakdown of cutting
However, the existing machine tools edges when machining steel. This wear
were not of the strength, rigidity and even occurred at cutting speeds not
power to make use of what cemented much higher than those used with high
carbide had to offer. Also the tips of speed steel tools. Several other carbide
cemented carbide were in some cases types were examined, (TaC, NbC, TiC,
regarded as an exotic material and as etc.). The three mentioned, tantalum,
a very specialized product during niobium and titanium, were discovered
parts of the depressed thirties. This early on to be advantageous as addi-
made a broad introduction slow in tional elements in cemented carbide.
coming and it was not until nearly the This development led to steel grades of
end of the 1930s, leading up to the cemented carbide based on tungsten
war, that powerful machines were carbide in one phase, other carbides in
widely available and wheels started another phase and the binding metal in
turning to produce arms and tran- the third phase. By 1934, there were
sportation. It was then that cemented one-hundred and thirty-four cemented
carbide cutting tools began to see wide carbide grades patented. Thus, deve-
general use. lopment was rapid but the commercial
use and the potential rise in pro-
ductivity was to remain dormant for
several years.

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Earliest turning and milling with tungsten carbide

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Research into cemented carbide as a ufacturing productivity was there, as it

material for rock drills and cutting had been since the start of the indu-
tools began at the Sandvik Steel Works strial revolution, and machining times
in Sweden during the 1930s. In 1939, had to be improved for companies to
an R&D plant was set up for manu- remain competitive. And there were
facturing. This was done in collaboration sales engineers on their doorsteps
with a lightbulb manufacturer that was offering just that.
using powder metallurgical methods for
tungsten filaments. Brazed tools were costly. Cemented
carbide tips had to be made to not
Sandvik Coromant was formed and only comply with machining demands
began operating as a department with- but to be suitable for brazing into the
in the company in 1942. The emphasis toolholder as well. Brazing stresses and
from the start was to develop, manu- continual re-grinding did not improve
facture and market complete cutting the tools. Tool costs for manufacturers
tools for turning, milling and drilling. had to include more than just the
There were three grades for machin- purchase price and inventory costs.
ing steel, one for cast-iron and one for
other types of workpiece materials. Moreover, there was little room for
Early during the 1940s, a service was providing cutting edges with much
developed with grinding stations closer variation in cutting geometry. Efforts
to customers, providing repairs and had to be concentrated on providing
training. suitable rake and clearance angles
along with an edge, that could serve as
The use of brazed cemented carbide a chipbreaker.
tools grew considerably towards the
end of the 1940s and during the 1950s. Grinding of brazed tools could be
These were relatively expensive tools varied according to a few different
compared to the existing high speed edge-types, where the shape of the
steel tools and there was considerable grinding wheel formed the chipbreaker
ground-work to be done to motivate geometry. Suitable rake angles, radii
their use, especially in factories where and ridge heights for various applica-
machine tools were sub-standard. But tions were achieved with diamond
the underlying push for improved man- grinding wheels and adjustable fixtures.
Mass-production of brazed tools during 1940s.

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Brazed tungsten carbide tools for turning and milling

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The development of cemented carbide but with speeds several times that of
grades for brazed tools to optimize HSS in the corresponding operation.
various applications had also begun. In - G1: cast-iron and other short chip-
1947, there were six grades in the ping materials as well as aluminum
Coromant range and a large number with high cutting speeds.
of carbide manufacturers in the - G2: hard wood, plastics etc.
industrialized world. Each of the six - H1: hard cast-iron, aluminum alloys
grades had different colors on the and other very abrasive materials.
holders to identify them and were de-
veloped to cope with machining of As development progressed, varying
various materials. Cutting speed capa- the powder manufacturing and the sin-
bility with these grades was higher tering processes as well as grain sizes,
than those mentioned in the previous made it possible to obtain different
table, limited by machine tools. characteristics. Some of the grades had
- S1: steel and steel castings with high a very fine grain structure which en-
cutting speeds, primarily finishing in abled grinding to high edge sharpness,
modern machines. making the tools suitable for turning
- S2: the same material and data but tools working with very small chip
for somewhat more demanding con- thicknesses. At the other end of the
ditions involving varying working scale, other grades had higher toughness
allowance. allowing high positive rakes and low
- S3: again the same material but for cutting speeds under very unfavorable
moderate speeds requiring more conditions. The wear resistance, how-
toughness in unfavorable conditions, ever, was quite low.
Various tungsten carbide grades optimized performance

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% B
1
()
WR
1 2
3
2
3
0
A T 0 % ()
Wear resistance/toughness and carbide phases
It was the compromise situation that erties of the cutting tool material is
was to characterize cemented carbide reflected.
grades for several years. Grade (1) had
a high level of wear resistance and a In time, new grades were developed
very low level of toughness. Grade (2) that were able to replace two or more
had moderate levels of both qualities existing grades. These covered a broad-
and grade (3) had very high levels of er range of applications with improved
toughness but low levels of wear re- properties. The intention was, in addi-
sistance. (WR is wear resistance and tion to broader grades, to have an im-
T is toughness in diagram (A).) proved combination of toughness and
wear resistance; moving horizontally
The developing cemented carbides nor- and vertically in the WR/T diagram.
mally contained two or three phases: This was later achieved with the im-
tungsten carbide (WC), binding metal proved premium grades. At the ex-
() and additional carbides, such as TiC, treme ends there were grades F1,
TaC or NbC, if any were present (). which was described as having ceramic
With a given composition, the proper- properties and S8, said to possess HSS
ties of the phases were controlled by the properties.
manufacturing processes. The WC phase
was said to provide the basic strength, Experiments with ceramics as a cutting
the () determined the toughness and tool material started during the thirties.
the () had particular bearing on the But as inserts, they were developed
wear resistance. Plotted on a diagram more widely during the fifties. Even
(B) with the ( and ) phases, the then, it was only the aluminum oxide
compromise between the main prop- which was found suitable. Again, the

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 19
and distances from the cutter center.

Cutting depths of .50 in. were possible
in four x .125 in. increments. Larger
feed per tooth rates could be em-
ployed because the feed per rev. be-
came the same - .016 in. and above for
ordinary steel applications. Surface
texture was improved since it was
generated entirely by one cutting
edge. If the milling machines were up
to it, (and very few were), table feeds
of 26 in/min could be employed and
cutting speeds of 328 ft/min. This was
an impressive performance as early as
the end of the 1940s.
Early facemills
Geometry and entering angles could
cutting tool material was difficult to be varied considerably to best suit the
utilize satisfactorily as it too demand- applications with these milling cutters.
ed very stable conditions and high Regrinding and setting the tools was,
speeds. Its application range was very however, a major time-consuming
limited and has remained so, even task. Although the tools were very
though more modern grades have ex- productive with high metal removal
tended the use of ceramics. Super- rates and reasonable surface texture,
hard cutting tool materials such as cubic a lot of preparatory tool room work
boron nitride and polycrystalline dia- and machine setting was necessary.
mond were not introduced until the end
of the seventies. These have even more
limited application areas.
TOOL DEVELOPMENT
Milling cutters were also developed
beyond the brazed facemills, where
cemented carbide tips were brazed into
pockets in the cutter body and then
ground. Large diameter facemills were
designed based on the use of brazed
turning tools. At first, the turning
toolholders were clamped in various
ways in facemill heads up to 16 in. in
diameter. Then stepped milling cutters,
with the holders positioned to take in-
dividual cutting depths, were introduced.
The holders were set at various depths Stepped facemill

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In the middle of the 1950s, yet another

major milestone in the development
towards modern cutting tools was
passed. It started with developments
of mechanically held cemented carbide
tips - or inserts as they were to be
called. Brazing of the tip in the tool-
holder could be eliminated and the tips
could be ground separately in a fixture.
The band-type toolholder was one of

the early versions where a prismatic
rod of cemented carbide was held ver-
Band-type turning tool tically, providing a constant cutting
edge profile after regrinding. These
were used widely, especially in copying
machines in the rapidly rising mass-
production industries. The automation
and machine industries that grew during
the 1950s demanded a lot of metal
cutting and the copying machines with
templates and cams became the work-
horses of huge machine shops. These
machines were to last well into the se-
venties when numerical control began
to take over.
The band-type, tangential tools were

Early insert turning tool quite high and bulky. Consequently,
T-MAX
Indexable insert turning tool

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1910
1940
1950
The main development of lathes during the first half of the twentieth century

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 22
they were not suitable for center lathes of square and triangular shaped insert
and other turning machines. To solve holders was introduced. Different sizes
this problem, the horizontally-placed, and thicknesses of inserts, entering
flat insert type toolholder was angles and negative and positive rake
successfully launched. Although longer inserts were incorporated.
flat strips of cemented carbide had
previously been mechanically clamped The negatively shaped square insert
on top of an HSS shim or anvil in the offered eight cutting edges for index-
seat to protect the holder, this new tool ing. The positive insert had four edges
was an insert as we know it, tilted to a but provided the advantages of lower
large top rake and held in a seat with a cutting forces and power requirements
screw-clamp. The GAMMAX tool- and often gave better surface texture
holder from Sandvik Coromant also had and accuracy. The twelve degree
a loose chipbreaking plate made of difference between the negative and
carbide clamped on top of the insert. positive tools meant a 10-30% difference
in power requirement, depending on the
Development of clamped cemented workpiece material. It was also possible
carbide inserts had also been carried to use the positive tool to increase the
out in the U.S. during the fifties and it metal removal rate. Moreover, it was
was during the latter half of this decade found that the positive inserts provided
that the indexable insert cutting tool better tool-life. As a result of this and
was introduced: Coromant T-Max. the developments from Sandvik, more
Flat, square or triangular indexable in- advantageous chip formation was achieved.
serts, clamped in toolholders with ce- Machining with indexable inserts also led
mented carbide shims, were designed to new ways of reasoning in regards to
to provide a wider variety of turning machining economics.
tools. Over a period of time, a program
Initially, the marketing of indexable in-
serts as throw-away tips caused a nega-
tive reaction among many engineers
and operators. A cutting edge was pre-
cious. It was used, ground, used again
and so on until it was no longer
operable. Cutting tools were not
thrown away, especially when the tips
were made from an exotic material
such as cemented carbide. Also the
cutting tools were very much a
specialty of the operator, who knew
how to grind the most suitable cutting
edge for the job in question.
Cemented carbide tools revolutionized machining

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 23
idea gave birth to another, as the case

often is in technology. When inserts
no longer needed brazing or grinding,
the previously austere demands for
homogenity in cemented carbides dis-
appeared. Consequently, the further
development of the tool material could
be concentrated solely on that of metal
cutting.
Copy turning
The acceptance and use of indexable
inserts was, however, to take place in
the continued post-war growth of
mass-production industries with their
hordes of copying lathes and transfer-
lines. High metal removal rates, good
results and the disposal of many hours
of tool-room work involving grinding
and setting of tools made good
production sense economically. Radical
cost cuts could be made within large
parts of turning and milling areas.
One of the driving forces behind this

development was Sven Wirfelt. A
leading tooling innovator, he was one
of the pioneers of Sandvik Coromant
since the early fifties and was to pro-
vide the company with a shrewd
outlook and many tool innovations for
several decades after. His legendary
role in the evolution of cutting tools
was one of the major contributions
that made the company world leader
in cemented carbide cutting tools.
There was another very important as-

pect of indexable insert cutting tools
which was to become the major cata-
lyst for continued development: One Development of copying tools

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 24
= WR
=T
WR HIP
HIP
FO2 S4 S6 SIP HIP T 164 328 490 Vc ft/min
The effect of premium grades

In another direction, F02, an extreme
The premium grades: S1P and H1P, finishing grade for steel, was developed
were such examples, developed at the to have very high wear resistance but
end of the fifties and continued into not much toughness. This was an early
the sixties. These grades, especially developed cermet grade: a molybde-
H1P, meant that a new step was taken num-alloyed titanium-carbide based
to attack the weakness of cemented grade with nickel as the binding metal.
carbide, namely the compromise This brought forth the higher, hot-
between wear resistance and tough- hardness capability of TiC and also the
ness. With H1P came a new com- much lower tendency for workpiece
bination of these properties. (WR = material to weld onto the cutting edge
wear resistance, T = toughness). - again there was a comparison to cera-
mics. However, the grade, as with all
The H1P grade had a tungsten carbide/ cermets, required very stable condi-
cobalt base with added proportions of tions and high speed capacity for it to
titanium, tantalum and niobium carbid- be well utilized.
es. The composition was processed to a
fine-grained bonded structure, giving Metal cutting during the 1960s was more
high hardness which could resist wear suited to cemented carbides based on
and deformation at high cutting speeds. tungsten carbide, which had more
Both steel and cast-iron were suitable toughness and cutting edge strength. Not
workpiece materials. The grade could many machines were capable of the
improve performance and cover the necessary conditions for cermets. This
application ranges of several existing led to the early introduction of a cermet
grades for cast-iron machining. The grade, or titanium-based cemented
application area extended from finishing carbide as it really should be called. It
to roughing operations and did not had very minimal use and in fact only
demand favorable conditions, yet it represented 0.15% of Coromant pro-
provided a sharp cutting edge where duction in the mid-sixties. Cermets were
required. to wait for more suitable machinery and
conditions in the 1980-1990s.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 25
With the advent of indexable insert

cutting tools came important aspects
of improved designs of: toolholder, cut-
ting geometry and chipbreakers. The
performance demands were higher and
required well-thought-out concepts. For
example, the inserts needed good sup-
port and retention in a carefully de-
signed toolholder. A cemented carbide
shim or anvil had to be used and high
degrees of flatness were necessary.
The clamp and screw had to stand up
to severe conditions. The shim screw
could seize in the toolholder and it was
therefore necessary to introduce a
tubular rivet instead. Furthermore, in- Turning tool components
dexing had to be facilitated by a spring
pin which lifted the clamp up when the be done much more quickly and
clamp-screw was undone. A major accurately - machine down-time was
component was the loose chipbreaker, reduced considerably. Especially in
clamped against the insert. Three mass-production industries and other
serrations meant that it could be companies doing a lot of machining, this
moved and set to suit chip formation rationalization was the motivation to fo-
for various cutting data. cus the factors of machining economics,
introduced by Taylor, on fundamentals.
The process of ER treatment, edge re-
inforcement in the mass-manufacturing The wide spread use of copying/tracer
of inserts, was developed during the lathes, as well as multi-spindle auto-
sixties. This rounding off, which took matics, took place to a considerable
place in a tumbling operation, made a extent from the fifties through the
great difference in the performance of seventies, until numerical control was
indexable inserts. The micro-strength- mature enough to be applied to pro-
ening meant that inserts could stand duction machines. Turret and capstan
up to scale and material inconsistency lathes were also employed on a broad
much better. basis but required more manual opera-
tion. The mass-production bar-type
The T-Max toolholder marked the in- components with contours, flanges, etc.
troduction of the indexable insert tech- grew, especially in the automotive in-
nology on a wide scale with standard dustries. With it the need for capable,
inserts. Inserts were indexed to a new pointed turning tools expanded. The
cutting edge and replaced while the aircraft industry and other machine
tool was still in the machine. Although shops doing milling with complex
the job required a little “fiddling” on components could also utilize the
some machine tools, tool changing could copying technique with a model.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 26
Copy milling Spherical turning arrangement

A template and later punched tape and it was important to prevent the
defined the desired profile of the bar. insert from turning or gliding in the
One and two-axis copying ability made seat. The clamp therefore was designed
these machines very capable and ma- to clamp down on the inclined faces of
chine tool development made the the chipbreaker and a small clamping-
lathes very sophisticated. flat.
The continued development of index- The high performance of the premium

able inserts in response to market cemented carbide grades S1P in com-
changes produced the almost classic bination with indexable inserts, and
KNUX insert in the early sixties. This especially KNUX, were put to good
was a 55 degree pointed insert with use in the new productive environment.
sintered-in chipbreakers in the insert. The combination of KNUX/S1P came
to represent a formidable cutting tool
Based on a copying version of the T- which is still used even today. It be-
Max tool, a rhomboidic insert was de- came a best-seller and laid the founda-
signed to fit very securely in a special tion for much of the R&D that was to
copying toolholder. The forces came bring cutting tool technology forward
from many directions in copy-turning yet again.
Copying KNUX

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 27
Some of the next steps in the mid-six-

ties included the introduction of index-
able insert facemills and a deep hole
drilling system. The objective behind
the T-Max facemill was to introduce a
true indexable insert milling cutter, on
the same principles as the successful
turning tool. Surface texture and chip
flow were primary factors. The existing
combination cutters, with clamped tool-
holders, seemed a pretty crude tool
when the smooth, well-designed T-Max
facemill with negative and positive in- Indexable insert facemill
dexable insert geometry was introduc-
ed. The program grew to include cutters iron. Although it took some years, the
of diameters ranging from 3 to 20 in., close-pitch T-Max facemills were eventually
where the larger diameters had axial ad- chosen over the well established brazed
justment facilities to optimize surface facemills, which could produce an
texture capability. Inserts were held in a excellent surface finish but required
specially shaped shim with an axial extensive grinding. Engine blocks
support and clamped by a wedge with were eventually facemilled widely with
axial support and three screws. T-Max, and milling in general took a
major step forward with these tools, still
Indexable inserts having a parallel land in use to some extent today.
and later a wiper insert, made the T-
Max into a productivity booster for
industry. Milling machines and trans-
fer lines employed these cutters which
were developed to machine a large
range of materials from steel to cast-
Brazed blade facemill Wedge-clamped insert

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 28
Deep hole drilling in a lathe
The Ejector drill was a major innova- evacuating chips, it was a neat and
tion which revolutionized deep hole productive tool for deep, straight and
drilling. Until this development, accurate holes. One advantage was
gundrilling was the main method that it could be adopted by almost any
used. The Ejector drill came to lathe, transforming it into a deep hole
represent a complete system of drilling machine. This was one of the
drilling heads, tubes, connectors and advantages since at that time, and for
sets of tanks, filters, etc. Based on a several years after, special purpose
twin-tube method of holding the deep hole drilling machines were
heads, transporting cutting fluid and almost non-existent.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 29
The late sixties saw further major possible through the widely established
developments in indexable insert tech- indexable inserts. Fortunately, the
nology. Production methods had improved world’s machine tool population did
considerably and pressing and sintering not become obsolete overnight as it
chipbreakers and holes in inserts became had with the introduction of high
common practice. Two systems were speed steel. Machines were better
introduced: the negative basic shape P- built, more powerful and generally
type tools and the positive S-type tools. more capable to make use of higher
cutting capacity.
Both insert clamping types had sin-
tered-in chipbreakers. The P-type The introduction of gamma coating by
featured a multi-step chipbreaker Sandvik Coromant, already the world
which meant that one insert could leader in cemented carbide cutting
cover a very broad range of cutting tools, marked the advent of coated
data, beyond that of the loose indexable inserts.
chipbreaker style of the T-Max
version. ISO standards were also A cemented carbide insert formed the
established for indexable inserts. A substrate which was given a very thin
seven-digit identification code was surface layer of pure and extremely
developed to make choosing inserts fine-grained titanium carbide. This
easier - all manufacturers would use meant that an insert with a certain
the same description for inserts. amount of toughness received a radical
increase in wear resistance. The dream
The turn of the decade, from the of every cutting tool material develop-
sixties to the seventies was to mark a er came true - the haunting vision of
mega-step forward in metal cutting. the possible combination of high wear
Productivity was to take a really marked resistance and toughness had become a
step up. This was an evolvement made reality.
P-type turning tool S-type turning cartridges

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 30
The first coated cemented carbide grade in 1969 - GC125
The GC layer, obtained by means of a first and each time metal cutting effici-
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) ency improved and manufacturing costs
method, was only a few microns thick were reduced in engineering industries.
but had a remarkable effect. Even when
it was, to a large extent, worn away at The following chart from a German
the place of contact between the chip manufacturing company indicates typi-
and the insert, it still had a potent wear- cal effects of the introduction of new
resisting effect. Industry could choose cutting tools. Starting with the
how they wanted to cash in on the newly situation as it was up to the mid-sixties,
provided potential used in the existing turning had been performed with
indexable insert turning toolholders. By brazed cemented carbide tools with a
changing to an insert in a GC grade typical, relatively high cutting speed
cutting speeds could be increased by of 260 ft/min and a feed rate of 7
fifty percent or tool-life doubled. The in/min. The company introduced
improvements varied with the applications indexable KNUX/S1P inserts in 1964.
but they were a happy reality. The Taylor Cutting speeds were increased to 490
formula and machining cost curves proved ft/min and feeds to 12 in/min. The
the substantial cost benefits to metal situation remained at this level until
cutting. 1971, when GC P-type inserts were
introduced to elevate cutting speeds to
The GC generation was born with grade 656 ft/min and feeds to around 18 in/min.
GC125 in 1969 and with it a long series During the seventies, subsequently
of improved insert grades that are still improved coated inserts raised speeds
being developed today. The seventies to 800 ft/min and more, and feeds to
saw several improved versions over the 28 in/min.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 31
Vƒ in/min
Vc
ft/min 28
25
656
490
24
490
360 12
260 7
1965 1970 1975 1980
%
2
240
200
150
100
50
1
3
1965 1970 1975 1980
Typical development of machining economics, capacity and costs in line with cutting
tool introduction

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 32
The corresponding machining cost-per- The milling machine became a very

component chart indicates the affect of versatile machine when several hori-
the improved tool materials on ma- zontal, vertical and universal types
chining economics. With an index of were introduced. Boring mills became
100 in 1964, the cost dropped to index more sophisticated during the thirties.
49 in the mid-seventies (1). In order The aircraft industry led the progression
to assess the improvements in relation to new methods while in the automotive
to the change in industrial price index, industry a parallel development led to
all cost values were changed according surface broaching machines.
to the following: 92 in 1964 to 141 in
1976. Special purpose machinery had been
used widely since the twenties. In fact,
The volume of components produced all machines were special-purpose prior
per hour (2) had risen from index 100 to the establishment of the machine
to 230 in 1976 and the tool cost per tool industry. Cam control was used for
component (3) to index 41, a reflec- automation until hydraulics, electrics
tion of a trend which has had very posi- and, more importantly, limit switches
tive implications for manufacturing in- were developed. Limit switches could
dustries and general standards in living. be set to control mechanical motion
and also connect machine tools. Panels
Copying by means of templates, cams, were constructed for machines with
plugboards, etc. had developed widely limit switches for operations such as
not only in turning but also in milling. copying.
The workhorse of the mid-twentieth century - the copying lathe

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 33
NC CNC
The development of numerical control
It was the aircraft industry that pushed large control units, shown in the time
progress forward on the machine tool scale figure on NC development
front, especially in the U.S. from the above. This was the first continuous
forties to the seventies. The American path NC machine. Considerable
Air Force ordered an in-depth study development was sparked off in the
into how the over-manned machine U.S. and Europe leading to increased
shops could be made more efficient use and simpler point-to-point and
with numerical control (NC). linear path control with punched tape.
In the mid-fifties, the aircraft industry
Aircraft design was changing; instead used magnetic tape to control a boring
of individual stringers and ribs with mill. Some of the first NC lathes were
metal skin fixed to the frame, contour- shown at IMTS in Chicago in 1955.
ed, integral skins were to be machined
by way of routing. A new, very different The numerical control evolution which
machine concept was proposed at the began during the fifties was, at first,
end of the forties consisting of a based on electric tube technology and
seperately controlled boring and milling took up huge volumes of control
machine. John Parsons proposed the use space. Limit switches and later the de-
of punched cards to control machinery, velopment of electronics with the
which initiated the birth of NC. Parsons transistor, printed circuits and inte-
was later acclaimed the father of the grated circuits, led the way forward
second industrial revolution. into computer numerical control and
sophisticated machining centers.
With the use of servo-mechanisms, the
famous working multi-axis milling ma- Automatic tool changing was the mis-
chine at the Massachusetts Institute of sing link in the development from mil-
Technology led the air force to adapt ling and boring machines to machining
the technology for their own needs. The centers. Near the very end of the fifties,
modified machine was surrounded by this had been incorporated on the first

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 34
the development for many years. These

machines were, however, doing the bulk
of metal removal in most other
industries and carrying forward the
development of cutting tools.
In 1980, the U.S. Air Force received

another sponsored survey of the tech-
nology of machine tools by the machine
tool task force at Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory. One volume concentrated
on the situation of the management and
Machining centers with pallet changers utilization of chip breaking machinery.
In some of its conclusions for the future,
NC, multi-function machining center. the report stated the importance of
Tools were also moved from the spindle combating rising costs of production
of the machine to a rack with a code through increased productivity and
included in the NC program. The time utilization. Once again it was pointed
for revolving racks - magazines - was out that one of the approaches to
not far off. improvements and machining cost
reductions was to apply improved tool
Pallet shuttle, advanced measuring, materials with higher capability, operate
temperature compensation, hydrostatic equipment at optimum conditions and
slideways and other developments such employ state-of-the-art machines that
as drum magazines with random access, permitted minimum down-time.
led to shortened manufacturing times in
the Californian aircraft industry at the The survey pointed out that utilization
end of the fifties - true machining levels were low in the U.S. industry:
centers were in production. Single set- 6% average productive cutting time (of
up of multi-operation workpieces meant the theoretical capacity) for low-volume
a lot to productivity in the aircraft industries, 8% for mid-volume and 22%
industry. The machining centers were for high-volume manufacturing. It
used for complex, one-of-a-kind pointed to activities such as tool change
components in boring-mills/machining and setting up for machining and gaug-
centers. Although very advanced in ing in the machine as being responsible
machinery, process and controls, this for 15% or more of down-time. This
remained a metal cutting area proportion of the theoretical production
dominated by low-performance high time meant that a much higher
speed steel tools. proportion of the actual available
production time was lost, since plant
The copying machines, transfer- shut-down and incomplete shift use
lines, milling machines, multi-spindle accounted for about 70% of production
automatics and other conventional time. This clearly implied that anything
machines were mostly unaffected by that could be done to cut the idle time

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 35
for a machine tool would provide huge cutting and holding tools and it was in
gains. 1980 that the Block Tool System for
lathes, the Varilock system for machi-
During the seventies, Sandvik Coro- ning centers and the Variant system
mant had also recognized this poten- for milling machines were introduced
tial for added productivity and utiliza- and gave birth to the widespread con-
tion. The T-Max Automatic was the cepts of the modular tools of today.
first step in this direction for copying
machines. However, this was the begin- The key to successful modular tools lay
ning of the CNC age, especially for in the coupling between holder and
lathes and machining centers. Devel- cutting unit and for these systems there
opment was directed towards modular was no compromise. Introduction took
years of OEM work but demand for
higher machine utilization rose steadily
throughout the eighties and by the
nineties, thousands of machine tools all
over the world were equipped with
these systems.
For the nineties and beyond,

development had to come up with a
system that would satisfy requirements of
the machine shops of tomorrow as well as
today. Interchangeability is the key word
as machinery becomes integrated with
common tool position-types throughout
the shop, tool management becomes
Automatic insert changing... more common, and productivity and
results increase. The Coromant Capto
system was introduced as the universal
answer and solution for this development.
The 1970s was the start of even more

progressive decades in the develop-
ment of metal cutting capability. Much
progress was concentrated into these
decades. Compared to what had
happened previously, the acceleration
in improvements of cutting tools, ma-
chine tools, controls and methods is at
least impressive when reviewed. To
take all these developments into
worthy account would take more than
... in copying operations another chapter in this book.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 36
Three-step chipbreaker
with large application
area in the 1960s.
However, a short review will reflect techniques being advanced so that

the considerable amount and depth of edge grinding was not always necessary.
innovation as well as the impact on There now existed the possibility to
metal cutting manufacturing. implement the results of a lot of R&D
into cutting geometries. Many factors
The introduction of coated indexable had to be taken into account for cut-
inserts marked an all important step. ting edge design, apart from the basic
However, not much had changed in rake, clearance, entering angles and
cutting tool geometry. Chipbreakers chipbreaking. Material deformation,
were comparatively simple, changing contact zones, cutting forces, strength,
from ground ones on brazed tools to temperatures, wear resistance etc. were
loose, stepped chipbreakers on flat new areas of combined study dealing
inserts, to sintered-in grooves on P- with the geometry that led to new,
type inserts. wavy edge and chip face designs. Along
with the improved tool materials, these
Indexable inserts developed as double- did a lot to improve the performance,
sided and single-sided. The single-sided reliability and application possibilities
inserts could be provided with a broad of indexable inserts for turning.
chipbreaking capability as the under-
side was left flat for optimum support. The first of the new-perspective insert
With the growing use of NC lathes, geometries was introduced in the early
where each turning tool had to do a seventies targeted especially at the goals
more varied job, the availability of a of reducing the contact between chip
more capable multi-function chip- and tool, the tangential cutting force and
breaker would be welcome. improving chipbreaking for new, wider
areas. The single-sided 71-style insert
Cemented carbide manufacturing pro- was a breakthrough in performance that
cesses had improved greatly in the was to remain in the forefront for many
seventies, with pressing and sintering years, and pave the way for today’s in-

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 37
The first wavy-shaped indexable insert in the 1970s.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 38
sert geometries. There was also the first materials that evolved in the aircraft
version of the double-sided 61-style industry, especially, led to a continuous
insert geared mainly to the automotive lowering of cutting speeds, in spite of
industry. Turning in this industry the machine and tool developments
generally had lower cutting depths but made up to the introduction of coated
not against shoulders and for out- carbides. Aluminum alloys, titanium
copying operations. The chipbreaking alloys and super alloys grew in strength
here had to be satisfactory over a rela- with time and decreased cutting
tively wide area of cutting data but also speeds.
had to be somewhat on the harder side
for security in the production lathes. On the other hand, the general im-
The diagram shows the 61 insert com- provement of machinability in more
pared to the conventional chipbreaker- common workpiece materials such as
groove insert at that time (NMG). This steel contributed to an improvement
marks the beginning of insert geometry in productivity. Also the reduction in
optimization to better suit operations necessary working allowance, through
within a specific type of industry. improved blank manufacturing for
forged and cast components led to
Workpiece material development play- lower machining costs.
ed a contributory role in the improve-
ment of productivity. Although these The expansion of machine tool
materials become stronger, harder and capability compared to the growth of
better in many ways, machinability had machine tool population was quite
to be part of the material improvement dramatic during the establishment of
towards optimizing metal cutting. The the industry itself. This was in spite of
ap 61
inch
NMG
.200
0 ƒ
.020 in/rev
Optimization of insert geometry for the automotive industry

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 39
the impressive growth of machine increased on comparable levels. These

capability. Since the introduction of are trends that were to continue in line
indexable inserts in 1957 until the with developments into the age of CNC
introduction of GC in 1971, both trends and even more with modern cutting
followed unchallenged trends. Curve (A) tools.
indicates the increase in metal cutting
production capacity. Curve (B) indicates The seventies saw some completely
the development of the machine tool new concepts in cutting tool
population during this period. This engineering innovated and introduced
indicates that there has been a substantial by Sandvik Coromant. The company
improvement of metal cutting capability, had taken the world of metal cutting
and thus productivity, reflected by the by storm twice through the broad
difference in development between the introduction of indexable inserts and
two curves (+). This of course is due to coated insert grades. Cemented
several factors of improvement in carbide indexable inserts were
machinery, methods and cutting tools. introduced for threading. This was an
area previously dominated by HSS
A similar development is reflected by and subsequently brazed cemented
typical curves of change for production carbide tools. But this had been a
rate (C) alongside corresponding mach- costly and unproductive area and the
ine time cost (D). There was a growing number of threaded components were
gap between the costs of machining growing in industry. Grinding and
components when the available inspection facilities were also
improvements were put into use. This complicated and expensive and many
meant that the cost of metal cutting machine shops were unable to cope
decreased and that standards of living with screw-thread machining.
+ C
D
B
1957 1970 1957 1970

Metal cutting capacity (A)/machine tool population
(B) Productivity (C)/machine time cost (D)

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 40
difficult in practically every lathe. The

toolholder was made from a spring-
steel blade with an arm to hold the
insert on a V-shaped seat. With the
turn of a key, the insert was changed
very quickly and easily in the machine.
The blade was held in a tool-block
which could fit into any tool-post or
turret.
The parting insert was also of a

unique design with a rill in the cutting
edge. This was the result of previous
development work at Sandvik with
milling inserts. The rill created a rein-
forcement and contracting of the chip
Early indexable insert threading which facilitated the evacuation out of
chip pockets. It was ideal for letting
Development of the program of the chip curl out, between the walls of
threading tools was carried out in col- the groove being turned. Also tool-
laboration with Cri-Dan, the leading life and performance was high with
manufacturer of screw-threading ma- the use of coated GC inserts.
chines. Inserts were triangular and
had three cutting edges with full
thread-profile. Chip formation was
done by a loose chipbreaker between
the clamp and insert. This develop-
ment went a long way in helping ma-
chine shops to arrive at components
in a cost-effective way.
1973 saw the cutting tool that was to

revolutionize another very common
area in turning, also dominated by HSS
and brazed tools. Another early
Sandvik Coromant innovation, the in-
dexable insert parting and grooving
tool was to be a huge success and the
envy of other tool manufacturers. This
was the forerunner of the leading,
broad Q-Cut system of today.
The T-Max parting tool made effective The forerunner and original insert parting
an operation that was often slow and tool of the early 1970s.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 41
Drilling, by the mid-seventies, was lag-

ging behind turning and milling in in-
dexable insert, cemented carbide per-
formance. Out-dated, slow twist drills
or spade drills stood out as drama-
tically costly in expensive machines.
Drilling of shorter holes accounted for
more than a quarter of all metal cut-
ting and thus seriously kept a lid on
productivity.
Cast-iron milling tools In response to this, another revolution-

ary introduction by Sandvik Coromant
On the milling side, the Sandvik Coro- was the T-Max universal indexable
mant innovation to change the course insert drill. Drilling demands cutting
of cast-iron milling history, the Auto edge performance at high cutting
program of facemill cutters, was in- speeds at the periphery, ranging down
troduced. This was in response to re- to zero at the center. Also chipbreaking
quirements by the automotive indus- has to be satisfactory for evacuating
tries to mill contact faces of engine and chips reliably at high machining rates,
gearbox, blocks and housings. and tool shank stiffness is a
requirement for stability. Again the
The Auto cutter was a completely new cutting edge rill design was employed
tool. Inserts were retained by spring- on the drill, which was self-starting and
loaded wedges, which when pressed had carefully balanced cutting forces.
down, released the inserts. These ac-
curate, very close-pitch facemills with R&D at Sandvik Coromant led to the
triangular and square inserts for rough- short-hole drill that was to stand as the
ing and finishing respectively, up-grad- model for its own further development
ed milling performance and tool hand- within this area and also to map out
ling within the area of transfer-line the path for all other tool manufacturers
machining, etc. to follow in the future.
For large facemills, CAP type cutters

improved the combination of small-
diameter machine spindles and large
diameter tools. Precision and the
mounting of heavy cutters was facili-
tated by a permanently mounted,
ground contact-face support body on
the machine and a light cutter body.
This meant quick change of tools and
insert indexing in the tool-room.
The first indexable insert drill - early 1970s.

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 42
Coated and uncoated cemented car- Improved grades for steel milling were
bide grades developed at a fierce also developed for a demanding area.
tempo during the seventies and con- Cutting edges often broke down pre-
tinously raised machining productivity. maturely, giving poor tool-life and in-
In a few years, cutting speed/tool-life ferior results. A new P30 grade, SM30,
improvements had been raised by some changed this with a finer grain and bet-
twenty percent over the dramatic per- ter balanced structure allowing edges
formance introduced by the first coated to be worn out by flank wear, instead of
grade. A new grade was introduced being chipped or plastically deformed.
approximately every other year and
reduced machining costs continually. Cutting tool development had come
far by 1980. Tool material improve-
Aluminum oxide was used as a top ments on the hardened carbon steel at
layer on top of a titanium carbide layer the turn of the century to modern
which had been applied to a newly de- coated cemented carbide grades meant
veloped substrate. This meant a layer a reduction of machining time, for a
of 100% hard carbides on the previous- certain component, from 100 minutes
ly coated insert. Also manufacturing to less than one minute. This was the
processes had been improved and the case for a typical unalloyed steel bar
resulting indexable inserts were more to be turned. It was related to the
reliable and had an even better bal- cutting edge - material and geometry,
ance of wear resistance and toughness only. The slow, arduous peeling off of
for steel and cast-iron operations. metal with a cutting edge on the verge
A turning operation that took 100 minutes in 1900 with a hardened carbon steel tool took
1 minute in 1980 with coated carbide

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 43
of heat breakdown was a long way continuous evolvement of a secure and

from the minimized contact-zone, wavy stable method of presenting the cutting
cutting edge that almost invites chips edge to the workpiece has been of
to come off. Centuries of craftmanship inmense importance to the longevity of
has perfected the art of metal cutting, the tools, quality of components and
from yesterday’s forge to today’s com- utilization of production resources. The
puter aided design and testing. modern toolholder or cutter body is a
carefully designed, complex and accu-
Seen from a tool-life point of view, the rate component. It has to stand up to an
number of components machined per extremely harsh environment for a long
cutting edge can be seen as having in- life, yet provide quick and easy handling
creased from two and a half with HSS of the insert that it carries.
to around sixty with a multi-coated,
cemented carbide insert in 1980. Also, as pointed out previously,
productivity improvements in metal
An additional important factor in the cutting manufacturing have gained a lot
improvement of tools for turning, mil- from machine tool, control unit,
ling and drilling is that of the toolholder workpiece material and methods de-
development. From the solid steel and velopment. Put together, the evolution
high speed steel bits to brazed tools, during this century of these compli-
from the first stages of clamped index- mentary fields has included some of the
able inserts to modern lever, wedge and most important factors contributing to
screw clamped cutting tools, this the high rise in standard of living.
Production of components per cutting edge changed considerably, with that of HSS to
cemented carbide

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.49 Sida 44
The eighties saw a continued rate of

improvement in metal cutting but at an
1900 increasing rate of introduction. Gone
were the times when a decade or more
would pass before a major tool intro-
duction was due. Today the race for
competitiveness means almost a con-
tinual flow of new means to produce
1940 components. But components and
operations have changed considerably
as well. Rarer are the huge volumes of
metal to be cut off in giant machines.
Parts today are more cleverly designed,
1955 workpieces are closer to net-shape and
materials more capable. Parts can be
made smaller. Metal cutting is, with
better tools, increasingly becoming
mainly light-roughing, semi-finishing
and finishing operations. The heavy
1957 duty operations that do remain are per-
formed with much greater efficiency,
with lower manufacturing costs as a
result.
1961 In addition to the cutting edge develop-

ment that followed a long line from
carbon steel to the chipbreaker to
geometry development, the eighties
were an important decade for the
introduction of modular tools for
1967 turning machines and machining
centers. This became all the more
common, and going into the nineties,
has become the obvious route for the
majority of set-ups to follow, with
1973 considerable down-time and tool
management improvements as a result.
Complemented by new generations of
cutting tools, the modern machine tool
is today capable of very high production
rates and a high degree of utilization.
1986
Approximate trend of
cutting edge development

19158 00_Historic 07-04-12 07.50 Sida 45
New generations of metal cutting The following then, is a guide to the

engineers are performing tasks in to- means and methods of modern metal
day’s machine shops which the cutting. It is a dynamic science that is
craftsmen at the turn of the century changing with increasing speed, and
could hardly have dreamed possible. always with easy and direct access to
the latest and best it has to offer.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida 1
METAL CUTTING
INTRODUCTION 2
THE METAL CUTTING PROCESS 3
CHIP FORMATION 8
CUTTING FORCES 24
HEAT IN METAL CUTTING 31
19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-2
METAL CUTTING
INTRODUCTION
Metals are hard to cut - some more environment, requiring extraordinary

than others. Today, however, most me- measures to study.
tals, in various shapes and conditions,
are cut very efficiently. Metal cutting It is, however, an exciting and very
has been developed to a fine art where dynamic process. For who can fail to
carefully designed cutting edges and be impressed when nicely formed chips
tool materials are applied to the work- smatter against the cover of a CNC
piece in a well-planned way to give machine at a forceful rate, while a tool
accurate pre-determined results. travels at speed along the contours of
the workpiece, transforming in minut-
The cutting process has been the sub- es the raw blank into a precise, smooth
ject of scientific study for several de- and shiny part.
cades. Theoretical and emperical de-
scriptions and models have described The dynamics involved during a mod-
this process, to which it is difficult to ern machining operation, using the
gain absolute insight. The process is small, accurately shaped cutting edge,
well hidden behind a combination of of an exotic tool material, applied cor-
metal, high speed, temperatures and rectly, is indeed an impressive event by
pressure. It is an exceptionally hostile any standards.
I-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-3
THE METAL CUTTING PROCESS

Metal cutting today is a chip formation
process. Although the process is
directed at cutting metal to shape and
size, this has to be done by creating de-
fined chips. Metal cutting has become a
chip generating and, where necessary,
breaking process. Behind this lies not
only the handling of removed metal
during the process but also the control
of the chips away from the cutting area,
hopefully carrying with them most of
the heat generated in the process.
Modern metal cutting produces a lot of
chips and controlled chip formation is a
prerequisite for any operation, whatever
the volume of metal removed.
To understand the metal cutting

process, one must understand the
behavior of various types of metal as
they are formed into chips. Part of this
process requires predicting deformation,
temperatures and forces, as these play a
dominant role in the quality of the
process. Temperatures affect the pro- Throughout this book, seven basic
cess itself and, if high enough, can types of material-related chip format-
negatively affect the cutting tool ma- ions will be referred to:
terial. Forces affect the power and (1) continuous, long chipping, such as
strength needed to perform the pro- most steels
cess. Designing the cutting edge means
(2) lamellar chipping, such as most
controlling temperature, forces and chip stainless steels
formation during certain machining
(3) short chipping, such as most cast-
conditions. The effect of the process
irons
on the tool-life and security of the
edge are important factors in the (4) varying, high force chipping, such
designing of the cutting geometry. as most super alloys
(5) soft, low force chipping, such as
In the actual cutting of metal by an aluminum
edge, the tool deforms some of the (6) high pressure/temperature
workpiece material and then separates chipping, such as hard materials
the chip. Large stresses build up as the (7) segmental chipping, such as tita-
layer, which is to become the chip, ap- nium
proaches the cutting edge. Elastic and
MODERN METAL CUTTING I-3

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-19 09.37 Sida I-4
h1
VC
ø
SP
SP
h2

Shear plane and chip forming factors
plastic deformation of the metal takes shear plane (SP). This has an angle to
place as it reaches the yield strength the workpiece called the shear plane
of the material. Chips vary consider- angle (). The metal to the right of the
ably with the type of workpiece mate- plane is the deformed chip, with thick-
rial, but if the metal is sufficiently ness (h2), and the metal to the left is
tough, the process resembles a continu- the undeformed chip, thickness (h1).
ous flow of plate-like elements which The chip deformation is related main-
are sheared consecutively. ly to the thickness of the undeformed
chip, the rake angle () between the
The boundry-line between the chip/ chip face and a normal to the work-
workpiece, which separates the de- piece surface, and the workpiece-
formed/undeformed metal is called the material mechanical properties. These
factors also affect the shear plane
angle and forces in the cutting process.
The magnified view of the cutting pro-

cess shows an insert machining carbon
steel at a cutting speed of 490 ft/min.
A stagnation zone follows the tip of
the edge. Softened metal protects the
tool by sticking/sliding on the surface.
A flow zone takes over after the shear
plane, visible in dividing the unde-
formed/deformed material.
Thus the principal cutting action occurs

at the shear plane, determined to a
great extent by the cutting ratio be-
tween the undeformed and deformed
Stagnation zone and flow zone chip thicknesses.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-5
Metal cutting causes considerable plas- is high, as in the below diagram. The
tic deformation. Most of the energy size of this angle and the area of the
needed in the metal cutting process is shear plane are therefore influential to
used around the shear plane, since the cutting performance. Practically, factors
concentrated shear takes place when the such as the rake angle and cutting data
metal is forced against the edge, also affect the conditions of shear.
allowing the chip to flow along the face
of the tool. Flow lines appear at the The created shear plane is the turning
back of the deformed chip after the point for the metal being cut - material
shear plane and the surface turns rough yields and the chip is born. But the
due to the varying strain in metal. shear strain and stress that take place
at this point also depend on what
The plastic behavior of the metal happens along the tool face. There is
through the shear plane is influential interaction between what happens at
to the process in that it affects the the shear plane and the contact be-
strain hardening of the chip and the tween the chip and tool. The chip for-
cut surface. This takes place when the mation process is affected by the shear-
metal is plastically deformed at a high ing angle influencing the contact length.
temperature through hot working.
Structual change and the work harden- The character of the movement of the
ing is a result. Work hardening in- chip along the contact length with the
creases the cutting force, reduces the tool face is the next important factor
shear angle, with a thicker chip flow- in the metal cutting.
ing harder over the rake face of the
insert. The amount of deformation Friction comes partly into the process
depends considerably upon the rake as the metal is forced along at great
angle of the tool. When the shear pressure and high temperature. In fact,
plane angle is small, the shearing force according to some research into this
F F
5 45° ø
Shear plane angle

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-6
Flow zone
area, the two faces join up at contact interface to higher levels further from
so as to stop the sliding of metal, i.e. the tool. Thus, the chip moves along
the two faces have seized up and a the tool face through shear. Consequ-
flow zone created at the interface. Al- ently, more heat is generated in this
though this theory applies to most zone of stationary and flowing metal.
metal cutting, the sliding effect does The pattern of movement is to a large
take place in some instances. extent characteristic of the workpiece
material being cut as well as the cutting
The flow zone (FZ) is thus created data used.
when the surfaces seize, but the move-
ment between chip and tool continues. The contact between chip and tool
The speed of the chip material increas- along the contact length can be divided
es from zero, or virtually zero, at the into three areas where different reac-
tions take place in the process: stick-
ing (A), adhesion and diffusion (B)
and abrasion (C), where with higher
temperatures, the diffusion and adhe-
A sion increase.
B
C
The flow zone is one of molten metal
at high temperatures and for different
A B C types of materials, various levels of
stress are required to achieve shear in
the machining process. The thin flow
zone plays an important part in metal
Chip contact areas cutting.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-19 09.37 Sida I-7
;
; ;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
BUE
Built up edge formation
At certain conditions and materials, especially and the chip thickness. The
successive layers of flow zone material formation of BUE increases with larger
are built up and hardened on the tool rounding of the cutting edge (ER) but
face. decreases with more positive rake
angles. The strength () of the BUE
The flow zone moves up along with the decreases with increasing temperatures,
top of the formed layer and, in this way, as shown in the diagram. The photo
the built up edge (BUE) is formed. shows that pressure welded BUE can also
Metal is pressure-welded continuously form on the flank side, reducing clearance
onto the tool. This structure alters the until the cutting edge breaks away.
rake angle of the tool and eventually
becomes unstable. It breaks off at a
certain point in the process whereupon
BUE
the building up of a new layer
commences. The built up edge is a
negative factor appearing in various
forms and states in machining and can
usually be eliminated by altering the
conditions of the process at any point it
occurs and thrives.
Often there is a certain temperature/

cutting speed range which promotes the
growth of built up edge. Also, certain
workpiece and tool materials are more
prone to it than others. High speeds
soften the layer and replace it with a
flow zone. The built up edge can take
some of the cutting edge with it when it
breaks off, but it is also hard enough to 600 800 1000 °c
function as a cutting edge. The form of
the built up edge affects the rake angle BUE strength related to temperature

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-8
The shear angle, thus, has some effect CHIP FORMATION

on the contact length between work- The chip form is, as mentioned, greatly
piece metal chip and tool face and it is influenced by the materials being cut:
in this area that forces and tempera- various continuous forms to crumbling
tures mostly affect the tool. Again, the material. The deformed chip is, in dif-
rake angle is influential in that the con- ferent segmental forms, usually held
tact length decreases with a growing together in the ductile materials.
rake - more positive rake means less
contact length. With the actual chip When comparing a medium-carbon
formation being dependent upon the content steel and an alloyed steel, with
undeformed chip thickness/feed and different mechanical properties, the
rake angle, as well as the workpiece first is more deformed and has a larger
material strength, the chip is born in initial curve. Because of the lower ma-
the deformation zone. The chip is then terial strength, reduced further with
formed further by the bending force of deformation, the unalloyed steel is
the cutting action and from the rough broken more easily than the stronger
top surface of the chip being shorter alloyed steel. Chipbreaking is also
than the underside, against the tool. softer for the unalloyed steel when
the feed rate is high. The deformation
There are also a number of theories of the alloyed steel will be lower at
as to the cause and effect of the initial higher feed rates, and so the
formation of the chip (A) and that it recommended chipbreaking area tends
is also related to the cutting speed. A to be positioned towards higher feed
large rake angle means less chip curl rates. The segments will be com-
through a larger radius, and lower pressed depending upon how the chip
forces. The actual shear that takes is subjected to pressure through the
place in a very idealized view of the size of the rake angle - harder com-
cutting process can be expressed pression leading to a thick chip means
through the relationship for () be- less strength and, in some cases, that
tween x/y in (B). the chip self-breaks at certain lengths.
x
h1
y y
x = x
y
ø

A B
Forming and shear of chip

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-9
A B
aP aP
ƒ ƒ
Orthogonal and oblique metal cutting
In general, however, chipbreaking there is more than one edge and nose
cannot be resolved by just selecting radius involved, as well as variation in
various combinations of rake angles speed across the width of the chip.
and feed rate values. Instead of a watch-spring type chip, as
in a typical parting operation, there
There are other machining process are various forms of comma or helical
factors involved which can be negative- shapes to the chip.
ly affected by combinations which take
into account only breaking the chip. The lead angle of the tool affects the
Cutting forces, tool strength, tempera- chip formation in that the chip
tures and vibrations are examples of thickness is reduced and the width
factors that become important when increased with a smaller angle. Chip
designing the means with which to formation is softer and smoother with a
form chips at various cutting data. larger lead angle (30-45 degrees). The
Chip formation thus becomes a direction of chip flow is also changed,
technological area of its own, an area usually advantageously, with the
that has seen considerable development spiral pitch being increased. The
especially during the past two decades. shape and direction of chips changes
with the nose radius on the cutting
Most of what has been looked at up to
now has been from an orthogonal (A)
point of view - where the cutting speed
direction or axis of rotation of the
workpiece material being cut is at right
angles to the main cutting edge. This is
an over-simplified view of the cutting
process, employed only in a few opera-
tions such as some facing and plung-
ing. Most metal cutting is oblique (B)
- the cutting direction is not orthogonal
but at a certain angle relative to the
main edge. This changes the geometri-
cal conditions considerably and the
chip flow direction is altered. Also Orthogonal metal cutting

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-23 09.34 Sida I-10
Effect of nose radius/cutting depth on lead angle and chip formation
edge. This is an important part of the rate and depth of cut, rake, the type
cutting edge geometry, seen from and condition of the material and also
above the tool. Just as the lead angle the size of the nose radius. A square
affects the chip flow direction so will chip cross-section usually means ex-
the nose radius in relation to cutting cessively hard chip compression while
depth. Small cutting depths produce a a wide, thin band-like chip is formed in
comma shaped chip cross-section with unsuitably long strands. When the chip
a small angle in relation to the cutting curve becomes smaller for a thicker
edge. A larger depth leads to less chip, the chip/tool contact-length be-
influence from the radius and more comes longer with more deformation
from the actual lead angle of the edge and pressure as a result. Excessive
with an outward directed spiral chip thickness has a negative influence on
as the result. The feed rate also affects the machining process.
the width of the chip cross-section and
the chip flow.
Chip formation starts with the initial

curving and is affected by the combina-
tion of cutting data - especially the feed
Light and heavy chip formation

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-11
Typical chipbreaking sequence
If the feed rate is increased to a point the cutting action as well as the re-
above the level for which the insert moval of chips from the tool, work-
geometry was designed, the chip will pieces and machine.
pass over the chip forming geometry,
so the machining is performed with a Curve, direction, helix and shape of
negative instead of positive geometry the chip are all designed into the
with balanced chipbreaking. ability of the cutting edge. Each insert
type has a geometry developed to
Comma-shaped or helical chips up to provide satisfactory chip formation
a limited length are usually found to within a certain area of feed rate, cutting
be most suitable and formed by a care- depth and material types. Controlled
fully designed cutting edge. Although chip formation is imperative throughout
chip formation may in some cases be the various areas of modern metal cut-
improved with a more negative rake ting. A finishing insert, working mostly
and harder compression for self- with its nose radius, will have the
breaking of the chip, especially when geometry concentrated to the corner of
applying small feed rates, a positive the insert while a heavy roughing insert
rake leads to other advantages. For will have geometry right across the rake
larger feed rates, a more positive rake face. Some inserts are capable of
can be advantageous in that the initial providing satisfactory chip formation
curving of the chip is not excessively across a broad intermediate range,
tight. Chipbreaking is thus seen as an having incorporated combinations of
important factor in modern machining, chipbreakers, ranging from corner ra-
for the performance and reliability of dius to across the insert face.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-12
A B C
Three ways to break a chip

There are different ways for a chip to should always be avoided as this can
break: self-breaking, (A) breaking very quickly lead to tool breakage,
when the chip is stopped by the tool, inferior results, machine down-time and
(B) or when the chip is stopped by the operator injury.
workpiece (C). There are advantages
and disadvantages with all three alter- Short chipping materials need little or
natives. Self-breaking has been men- no chip formation while some long
tioned already, and achieving a suitable chipping materials need chipbreakers
direction of chip is one of the more im- designed into the insert geometry to
portant factors here. Breaking against deform the chip into breaking. The
the tool may be a problem if chip ham- initial curving of the chip is in most
mering takes place against the insert cases not sufficient to break the chip
edge. Breaking against the workpiece into required lengths. A chipbreaker in
may be a problem if the chip affects its simplest form is a built-in obstruc-
workpiece quality or lands up in the tion to the chip flow. This crude form
cutting zone again. Uncontrolled chips has many disadvantages and has in
The three types of chipbreaking

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-13
many cases a negative effect on machi-

ning performance. Various forms of
ground and later pressed indexable in-
sert chipbreakers were developed be-
fore today’s modern inserts. The mo-
dern indexable insert is a complex
combination of angles, flats and radii
designed to optimize chip formation
through cutting action, contact length,
chip breaking, etc.
Most inserts have positive rake angles,

combined with a negatively inclined
position in the toolholder, to promote
good chip formation and positive cut-
ting action. Negative primary lands of
varying lengths, depending upon the
working area of the geometry, are ap-
plied to strengthen the cutting edge.
In many cases, small cutting depths in- being machined. Also in modern high-
volve only, or to a great extent, the performance drilling, chips have to be
nose radius. This gives a comma- of exact form so as to be evacuated
shaped chip cross-section and a small efficiently from the cutting zone - any
angled chip flow direction in relation congestion quickly leads to tool break-
to the main edge. down.
The stagnation zone, that appears in Chip formation, then, is affected by

front of the flow zone, cushions the several factors. The workpiece material
material flow against the primary land, plays a large role. Type, strength,
giving rise to overall positive cutting hardness, structure, shape and size all
action. In this way, the primary lands affect chip formation.
need not deteriorate the cutting action
if applied to the right extent for the The cutting data directly influence the
edge design in question. A sharp edge, size and shape of the chips, especially
however, needs only minimized or no feed and cutting depth and, to some
land, with only some edge rounding. extent, cutting speed. Cutting fluid
application also affects the chip
Chip control is, thus, one of the key formation.
factors especially in turning and drill-
ing. Milling creates a natural chip Tool geometry also influences chip
length thanks to the limited length of formation. The lead angle affects length,
cutting edge engagement. In drilling width and direction of the chip. The
and boring, chip control is vital be- nose radius affects the chip to a certain
cause of the limited space inside holes extent, depending on depth of cut.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-14
ap
ƒ
Chipbreaking area
The cutting geometry on the rake face formation is largely determined, can be
of the cutting edge also influences chip designed using a large number of
formation considerably. It is through different variants. These designs have
the design of this face that chip control to satisfy chip formation demands
can be built into the cutting edge. The across wide application areas as well as
rake angle and the amount of negative provide optimized cutting action, parti-
land are the first and primary factors. cularily through the deformation and
These affect the amount of chip de- contact area. Forces and temperatures
formation in the process and the initial are affected by the geometry design of
curving of chips generated. the cutting edge. Practically, this is in-
strumental to performance, tool-life,
The combination of negative land, rake security and power requirements, part
angle and chipbreaker, by which chip results and chip form.
Two main chip types - comma and spiral shape

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-15
Some of the geometry combinations depths. Some designs limit the edge to
of angles, flats and radii are quite com- a small area, with light feeds and
plex and vary considerably in extent small depths. Others cover a combina-
over the top face of the insert. Com- tion of chipbreaking abilities, at the
puter Aided Design and modern insert nose and across the rake face. A
pressing techniques have made possi- corner chipbreaker on the nose radius
ble many of the forms that have been will form the chip at the lightest cuts
found to be effective in forming, guid- while, as the feed is increased, the
ing, controlling and breaking the chip main cutting edge takes over. At the
as well as maintaining satisfactory heaviest cut, chips are formed by the
working conditions for the cutting edge. design on the rake face.
The chipbreaker design determines In this way, an area of recommended

the ability of the cutting edge to form cutting data is established for an insert
chips at varying feed rates and cutting in which chip formation is acceptable.
Modern chipbreaking geometry

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-16
ap
ƒ
Chip types throughout variation ap/f
Chips outside this area are usually

either in the form of long thin strands
or thick, over-compressed chips.
Consequently, the geometry at the nose

radius of the cutting edge influences
the cutting action in various workpiece
materials and different feeds. The de-
sign of the main cutting edge, at greater
cutting depths, must also take into
consideration the edge strength.
Geometry design is often a compro-

mise to accommodate the best of seve-
ral factors, such as: cutting edge
strength versus power requirement,
optimization versus versatility, tough-
ness behavior versus tool-life, etc.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-17
The study of the chip formation of aus-

tenitic stainless steel machining shows
the difference in workpiece material
and effect of rake angles. Cutting with
a 5 degree rake angle (A) is characte-
rized by a less continuous process (1)
than unalloyed steel. Variations in the
process lead to cutting force fluctua-
tions, which result in waviness on the
machined surface (2). Before yielding
is achieved in the material and shearing
takes place, the workpiece material is
deformed against the cutting edge (3).
Machining with a large positive rake

angle, 15 degrees in (B), leads to a
more continuous process and smaller
variations in the cutting forces (1 and
2). The chip flows over the rake face in
a more stable manner (3). Moreover,
A the tangential cutting force component
is closer to the cutting edge with this
material than when machining unalloy-
ed steel.
Cutting data here, for machining the

stainless steel, is cutting speed: 590
ft/min, feed: .012 in/rev and cutting
depth: .12 in.
Looking at the difficult machining of a

high temperature super alloy, the charac-
teristic stages of the cutting process are
more apparent with different rakes. In
(C), a 5 degree rake angle is used. In
(D) with a 10 degree rake, the yield
strength of the workpiece material is
reached in the shear plane but none of
the material around the plane has been
softened by heat to allow deformation.
This is due to the poor thermal conduc-
tivity of the alloy. In (E), a 15 degree
B rake angle is used. The different effects
of the variation in rake angle in the two

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-18
materials are indicated by these material Cutting data for the high temperature
behavior photos. A comparison can also alloy is cutting speed: 130 ft/min, feed:
be made to the picture shown previously .012 in/rev and cutting depth: .12 in.
of unalloyed steel chip forming.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-19
The shape of the edge also determines chip control for three different inserts
whether the geometry can be incor- (A, B and C) it should be noted how
porated on a double-sided insert or different the demands are on the three
whether it has to be on a single-sided basic ranges and consequently the vari-
insert. A certain amount of support ous priorities listed below:
surface has to be incorporated for the
insert to have two sides. Inserts A and
B, in the adjoining fig., are double- For finishing with insert (A) the usual
sided while C is single-sided. priority factors for the area for satis-
factory machining economy are:
The chipbreaking diagram, in combina-
tion with the tool material, is the key 1. Chip control
to insert application, providing suitable
feed, speed and cutting depth values. 2. Surface texture/Accuracy
In the modern program of inserts, a 3. Cutting edge strength/Forces
few types of cutting geometries will
usually cover the majority, if not all, of 4. Tool-life/Predictability
the machining in regards to operation
types, materials, conditions, etc. Inserts
are available for applications to cover For semi-finishing to light roughing (B):
accurate, close finishing with very light
cuts, various intermediate, semi-finish- 5. Chip control
ing to roughing and heavy duty rough 6. Productivity/Security
machining, overleaf.
7. Cutting edge strength/Forces
There is, of course, an optimum geo-
8. Tool-life/Predictability
metry for each of the different
operations that are performed. Today’s
indexable inserts cover ranges of
For rough machining (C):
operations, offering versatility combined
with performance and scope for keeping
8. Chip control
tool inventories to a minimum. The
right combination of geometry and 9. Metal removal rate
tool material is vital for successful
machining. The geometry can be 10. Cutting edge strength/Forces
designed in such a way so as to provide 11. Tool-life/Toughness
toughness behavior, enabling a more
wear resistant tool material to be used.
It is vital that inserts are established

carefully to overlap where necessary,
and not to an excessive extent, thus
easily offering the correct tool for an
operation. In the mentioned ranges of

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-20
ap
inch
C
ƒ inch
A
8°
18° C
20°
B
20°
13°
7°
13°

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-23 09.34 Sida I-21
Light finishing
Roughing
Heavy roughing

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-23 09.34 Sida I-22
Vc
Tce Tc
ƒ Vc
ap
ap
ƒ
Vc ap
ƒ
ap ƒ Vc ap ƒ Vc
kc P ap
Vc
Vc ƒ
ap
ap ƒ Vc ap ƒ Vc
Four machining factors: tool-life, cutting time, specific cutting force and power
For the application of inserts, some im- the trend diagrams above. Note that the
portant basic factors should always be feed rate has considerable influence.
considered when choosing the most Each of the factors is explained se-
suitable cutting geometry to get satis- parately in other areas of this book.
factory chip control and results. These
have to do with the workpiece material The general principle is that when cut-
and condition, i.e.: presence of forging ting data is selected for an operation,
scale, hardness, intermittent cuts and cutting depth should be maximized and
length to diameter ratio. then feed maximized within the re-
commended application area. Finally,
The three cutting data variables, cutting the cutting speed should be established
speed, feed and cutting depth, have in accordance with recommendations
different effects on the cutting action, for the tool material, relative work-
the operation and result. Four factors in piece material conditions and power.
this context which have further
influence on machining are tool-life (T), Chip control is put to the test when
cutting time (Tc), specific cutting force copy turning or profiling in CNC ma-
(kc) and the power requirement (P). chines. The cutting edge is applied to
How the cutting data influences these cuts that vary along the profile of the
four instrumental factors can be seen in component so as to change entering

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-23
angle, direction of cut, cutting depth, insert machines around the profile of
feed and speed. The chipbreakers have the component, the cutting depth and
to be designed with great flexibility in feed varies. In doing so the values
order to cope. The effect is demonstrated move across the area of the possible
with a shaft having typical variations in ap/f diagram for the geometry.
diameter and tapers.
Chip forms, sizes and directions change
The insert used in this application is but the cutting geometry controls the
double-sided with good chip control chip flow during the rapid transition
at smaller depth of cuts, but over a along the component, as can be seen
wide feed range. Representing a in the figure below and the photos on
common semi-finishing operation the the following page.
forged, alloy steel working allowance
varies between .040 to .120 in. As the
ap
inch
.20

ƒ

ap

.02 ƒ inch
Variation of ap/f combination throughout the application area during different cuts

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-24
Chip formation throughout the application area during different cuts
CUTTING FORCES cutting edges in regards to positive cut-

Metal cutting needs a lot of power to ting action and cutting edge strength.
separate the chip from the workpiece. Carefully designed cutting geometry is
Although today’s cutting tools are much not only a technology for turning of
more power-efficient than those of ductile steel, it is today part of the milling
yesterday, machining rates are con- of cast-iron. There is a relationship be-
siderably higher. The understanding of tween the power needed for the cutting
cutting forces has led to well-balanced process and the cutting forces involved.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-23 09.34 Sida I-25
hD
F
ø
F F
A B
Compressive stress and forces at the cutting edge
Cutting forces can be calculated theo- optimization. It is a key for the control
retically and/or be measured with a of chip formation, cutting forces and
dynamometer. These are mainly made strength of the cutting edge. The tool
up of chip removal and chipbreaking material also affects cutting forces in
forces. The immense pressure and fric- that the contact area is changed and the
tion in the process gives rise to forces cutting geometry is also usually differ-
acting in various directions. The stress ent. The application of cutting fluid
applied on a cutting edge, through the can also affect cutting forces but this is
cutting process, is mainly compressive largely limited to lower cutting speeds.
but there is also usually some shear
stress. The compressive stress is highest Seen from the orthogonal point of
at the edge that is experiencing various view, a state of equilibrium exists with
forms of reduction patterns along the the forces involved in relation to the
rake face (A). The area of contact be- shear plane. The force of the work-
tween chip and rake face is related to piece and chip, along the shear plane,
the cutting forces and, as such, is one and between the tool face and chip is,
of the important reasons for geometry in principle, equal (B).
Chip forming in face-turning and facemilling

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-26
For most workpiece materials, increas-

Vc ing cutting speed leads to lower cut-
ƒ ting forces. The higher temperature in
the flow-zone and reduced contact area
contribute towards this effect. The de-
crease in forces varies with the type
and condition of material and the
range of cutting speed in question, (B).
The size of the tangential cutting force

contributes to the torque that arises
F and in doing so, influences the power
Vc requirement for the cut in question.
In principle, the product of the tan-
FA gential force and the cutting speed
FRN represent the power needed.
ƒ
In diagram (C), a force FTO is indicat-
ed at the lower end of the force axis.
This is the specific force needed to
actually deform the material before
FT any chip is actually formed. The size
of this force varies with the type and
condition of the workpiece material.
A F For a heat resistant, nickel based alloy
an initial chip forming force of more
Tangential, radial and axial force
components
Seen three-dimensionally (A), the cut-

ting force can be divided into three F B
(lbs)
components: the tangential force (FT),
radial force (FR) and axial force (FA).
The tangential force is to a great extent

dependent upon the contact and fric-
tion between not only the workpiece
and tool, but also the condition of con-
tact between chip and rake face of the
cutting edge. The quality of the actual
chip formation and breaking affect the
tangential force considerably. There is
also a direct relationship between the 328 656
undeformed chip thickness (h1) and Vc (ft/min)
the magnitude of this force, (C). Cutting force/cutting speed

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-27
Fc h1
(lbs) ks
2
(lbs/in )
FTO
A
(inch) h1 B
h1
C
(inch) h1
Specific cutting force variation with materials
type of material as can be seen for

(A) stainless steel, (B) alloyed steel
and (C) grey cast-iron. The force de-
FT C pends upon the shear yield strength of
the workpiece material and the area of
Cutting force/undeformed chip thickness the shear plane. This area varies con-
siderably and with it, the cutting force.
than ten times larger is needed than that It is thought to be more influential
necessary for unalloyed aluminum. than the yield strength of the material,
which in fact does not vary that much
The comparison diagram for the speci- for the cutting process. Alloying and
fic cutting force (ks), and the unde- heat treatment, however, increase the
formed chip thickness, varies with the yield strength.
Chip formation in milling

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-28
ks FTO
ks =
(lbs/in2 ) A
A
ap
(inch) h1 ƒ h1 ƒ
P = FT x Vc
= k s x A x Vc
= ks x ƒ x ap x Vc
Specific cutting force/power
This factor is an important influence leading to higher cutting temperatures

when it comes to power (P) calculation generally leads to a lower value, (A).
for any metal cutting process. The ef- Also the geometry of the cutting edge
fect of this force is expressed through is influential, in that a positive rake
the specific cutting force (ks). This is angle leads to a smaller value than a
defined as the tangential cutting force negative rake.
needed per chip cross-section and ex-
pressed in pounds per square inch. As The specific cutting force, thus being a
such, it is closely related to the work/ unit expression for the tangential cut-
energy (specific energy) needed per ting force, is closely related to the size
volume of removed metal. of the undeformed chip thickness/feed
rate. An increase of h1 leads to a re-
The value of the specific cutting force duction of ks. This means, that the
is available for various materials, enab- smaller the chip cross-section used in
ling the calculation of workpiece mate- a process, the higher the specific cut-
rial removed per power unit. It is also ting force - and the more unit power
a factor in the machinability of materials. needed.
The value is valid for a material
under certain conditions and cutting This also motivates the recommendation
data. For instance, the value will vary for feed rates to be maximized in the
with the cutting speed: a higher speed, metal cutting process.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-29
point. The axial cutting force (FA) is

directed along the feed of the tool,
ks axially along the direction of machining
of the component. It is an important
force factor in drilling operations. The
cutting ability of the drill geometry will
considerably influence the size of the
force needed and as a rule the axial feed
force requirement rises with the
diameter of the drill.
Geometry, especially the lead angle, will

determine the size of the two force com-
ponents. Their relationship becomes
especially important when deflection of
A Vc a tool with large overhang or a slender
workpiece is a factor in accuracy and
Specific cutting force/cutting speed vibration tendencies. The rake angle
also influences the size of the radial
The radial cutting force component cutting force component. Positive
(FRN) is directed at right angles to rake angles, of course, also mean
the tangential force from the cutting lower cutting forces in general.
F
(lbs) FT
A
Vc
FA
FRN
FRN ƒ
FA
FT
(in 2 ) A F
Cutting force components

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-30
for FT:FR:FA, 4:2:1. The tangential

cutting force is twice as large as the
FT radial and four times that of the axial
force. In drilling the relationship would
(lbs) be quite different and highly depen-
dent upon the feed rate.
Vibration tendency is one consequence

of the cutting forces. In addition to tool
or workpiece deflection, these can be af-
fected by variations in the cutting pro-
cess such as varying working allowance
or material conditions as well as the
formation of built up edges.
It is essential that the design of the cut-
ting geometry be able to provide smooth
chip breaking. Combined with the use of
A a positive rake angle, (B), higher cutting
speeds generally have a favorable in-
Tangential cutting force/lead angle fluence on the cutting forces/vibrations.
As can be gathered, the size relation- Stability of the entire system, which is
ship between the force components formed by the factors in the machining
varies considerably with the type of process, is important to achieve. The
machining operation. The tangential quality of the toolholder and its ability
force often dominates in milling and to securely hold the indexable insert is
turning operations, especially for the one of the more important factors.
power requirements. The radial force
is of particular interest in boring
operations as is the axial feed force in B
drilling. The size of the radial cutting F
force is dependent upon the lead
angle used and the nose radius. A
zero degree lead angle and small nose
radius will minimize the radial cutting
force component, which can often
deflect the tool and give rise to
vibrations, (A).
All three components increase in size

with increasing chip cross-section,
especially the tangential force. For rough
turning, a typical relationship might be Cutting force/rake angle

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-31
HEAT IN METAL CUTTING

Nearly all of the mechanical energy The tangential cutting force acting at
derived from cutting forces put into a cutting speed represents a certain
metal cutting is transformed into heat. amount of energy. This is consumed
The next important factor in the in the deformation and shearing work
cutting process is therefore that of to make the chip. In addition, some
heat generation and temperatures in energy is used to form the chip over the
the cutting zone. This obviously has rake face and against a chipbreaker.
great affect on the tool performance Considerable heat is generated, princi-
and the workpiece quality. pally in three areas: the shear zone,
rake face and at the clearance side of
Excessive temperatures are the prim- the cutting edge.
ary cause of unsatisfactory tool-life and
limitations on high cutting speed.

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-23 09.34 Sida I-32
tC
tC
Vc ƒ
Temperature/cutting speed/feed
As with cutting forces, the amount of alloying elements and other cutting
heat developed varies with the type of data.
material being machined. The cutting
speed plays a very important role in The development of cutting tool mate-
heat generation, which partly explains rials has evolved to a great extent
the difference in typical cutting speeds around the ability to withstand the ef-
for a high temperature alloy versus fects of high temperatures. Cemented
speeds for aluminum. Feed rate plays a carbide can machine at around twice
more moderate role in heat generation. the temperatures of high speed steel
Isotherms, showing some typical tem- thanks to the much higher hot hard-
perature zones, are indicated in (A and ness property. The understanding of
B), where an alloyed steel is machined heat distribution and temperature con-
with a cemented carbide insert at a trol, especially on the rake face, has
high speed. A typical cutting speed/ been a contributing factor in cutting
temperature relationship is shown but geometry development.
these vary greatly with factors such as
1050 1000
1100
ƒ 1150
100 1200
400
600
400 800
1000
600 1200
1000 A B °c
1100
High metal cutting temperatures

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-33
The temperature in the cutting zone Small shear angles, which may be a
depends to a large extent on the con- result of smaller rake angles, can
tact between chip and tool, the magni- increase heat flow into the workpiece.
tude of cutting forces and the state of
friction between workpiece and tool Less energy is transformed into heat
material. Modern cutting tools operate along the flow zone. The state of the
generally at temperatures above that thin molten zone between chip and
of BUE development. tool is affected by the continuous flow
of new chip material and the shearing
The flow zone then acts as a lubricant action against the siezed material on
at higher speeds but can make the pro- the rake face. In the modern insert,
cess prone to material diffusion and this cutting action is optimized to mini-
deformation. Lower cutting speeds can, mize the heat flow into the cutting
in this context, also raise the amount of edge.
heat that flows into the workpiece and
thus raise temperatures. Higher speeds A third heat source should be kept as
will let the chip take energy away with low as possible: the clearance face,
less heat going into tool and workpiece. where the tool and machined work-
piece part ways. Sufficient cutting
Most of the heat generated in the pro- edge clearance and the avoidance of
cess is ideally removed from the cutting excessive flank wear, which in effect
zone by the chip. Heat in the chip will reduces clearance, are important
only affect the cutting tool for as long factors. If allowed to deteriorate, high
there is contact between the two. temperatures, with rapid tool break-
down may be the result.
Most of the heat arises in the shear
zone and for this reason, the extent
and quality of contact between chip
and tool affects the performance.
A
% C B
B C
80%
10%
A
10%
400 3000 Vc
Heat distribution in metal cutting

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-34
Chip formation during heavy cut with modular tooling

19158 01_MetalCut 07-04-12 08.40 Sida I-35
Chip formation during square shoulder facemilling
Chip formation during drilling with coolant supply through tool

19158 02_Machinabil 07-04-12 08.53 Sida 1
MACHINABILITY
INTRODUCTION 2 MACHINING STAINLESS STEEL 23
WORKPIECE MATERIAL MACHINABILITY
PROPERTIES 4 OF CAST-IRON 29
GENERAL MACHINABILITY EVALUATION -
MACHINABILITY EFFECT TWO EXAMPLES 43
OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS 10
MACHINABILITY OF TOOL,
THE WORKPIECE MATERIALS 11 DIE AND MOULD MATERIALS 48
Supplementary part:
Machining of hard materials 60
Heat treatment of metals 70
Annealing 71
Hardening 75
Tempering 78
Case-hardening 83
Surface harding methods 86
Steel: the equilibrium and structures 91
Alloy Steels 98
19158 02_Machinabil 07-04-12 08.53 Sida II-2
MACHINABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Machinability is not a universally de- holding, machine tool, operation and

fined, standardized property. Gene- machining conditions. Machinability
rally, it is the ability of the workpiece values for materials can, even in the
material to be machined, meaning how most ambitious cases, only serve as a
easy or demanding it is to shape the guide to starting values for further
workpiece with a cutting tool. A optimization.
medium carbon steel is easier to
machine compared to a heat resistant It is essential to know the workpiece
alloy. Grey cast-iron is easier to machine material and use a flexible, modern
than chilled cast-iron, while a sticky low- approach when assessing the factors that
carbon steel can be more demanding can make the machining operation
than some alloyed steels. However, due successful. However, the over-riding
to varying methods and circumstances, priorities of cost-per-component, pro-
and the development of cutting tools, the ductivity rate, predictability of tool-life to
concept of machinability is ambiguous generate a specific finish and machining
and not easily measured in comparable security often establish the basis for
values. assessing the individual production-
related concept of machinability. In per-
A comparison of all properties of the forming a certain number of operations
workpiece material that affect the main a limited range of materials, a machine
chining process is probably a more shop will determine its priorities based
precise but demanding documentation, on the abilities or difficulties in
not easily available from all material machining. Improving machinability may
suppliers. The metallurgy, chemistry, require, for instance, improving the
mechanics, heat treatment, additives, quality of castings, changing to a free-
inclusions, surface skin, etc. of the machining material, changing the tool
workpiece material affect the machina- material, tool geometry, the condition of
bility as does the cutting edge, tool the fixturing or the cutting fluid, etc.
II-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

In a broad sense, machinability is - tool-life

viewed as the operational character of - chip formation
the cutting tool/workpiece, described - surface texture
using criteria such as: - metal removal rate
- cutting force/power
- built-up edge tendency
With a combination of useful work-

piece material data and machining
tests, machinability evaluation can be
performed to suit specific as well as
general production circumstances. How-
ever, what may be good machinability in
one set of circumstances may not be
good in another.
For instance, the strength and hardness

of a workpiece material may not be a
good indication of the machinability.
Other factors are equally important –
inclusions, free-machining additives,
micro-structure, hard and abrasive
constituents, smearing tendency, etc.
Also, what may be considered good
machinability using one tool type and
material for a certain workpiece ma-
terial can be poor for another. The
ability and efficiency of the workpiece
to be machined is thus determined on
a broad basis using several variables:
the workpiece material, machine tool,
the operation, tool, cutting fluid,
cutting data, etc.
The main material groups in metal

cutting are made up of:
1. Steel
2. Stainless steel
3. Cast-iron
4. Heat resistant alloys
5. Aluminum, etc.
6. Hard steels
7. Titanium
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-3

B C
D
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
%C %C
There is also a full grouping of ma- Ductility
terials included according to the CMC Low ductility values are generally posi-
(Coromant Material Classification) sy- tive. Chip formation is advantageous
stem, which provides a logical overview and the cutting process is energy-effi-
of the majority of workpiece materials cient. Low ductility comes with high
in metal cutting. hardness and vice versa. Good machin-
ability is often a compromise between
hardness and ductility. In diagram (A)
WORKPIECE MATERIAL PROPERTIES ductility (D) and hardness (HB) are
When reviewing the most common plotted against tensile strength (TS).
workpiece materials in order to assess
machinability and optimize machining Thermal conductivity
conditions, the main material-related High thermal conductivity means that
properties and their possible affect on the heat generated in the cutting pro-
machining should be considered. The cess is rapidly conducted away from
adjoining diagrams above illustrate the the cutting zone. Therefore, a high
general trends of four mechanical value is generally beneficial from a
properties with varying carbon content: machining point of view. Thermal
A: tensile strength, B: hardness, conductivity can play an important
C: impact strength and D: elongation. role in machinability but unfortunately
it is a property that is not much
Hardness and strength improved within a certain alloy group.
Usually, low values of hardness and The adjoining diagram, (B) shows the
strength are favorable. The exceptions machinability aspects for thermal
are very ductile materials where conductivity. The approximate machin-
problems like poor surface texture, ability rating (M) is seen in relation to
burr formation and short tool-life the thermal conductivity (TC)for five
arise from the formation of built-up material types:
edge. Increasing the hardness using 1. Aluminum 4. Stainless steel
methods such as cold drawing has a 2. Unalloyed steel 5. High temp.
positive affect. 3. Alloyed steel super alloys

D HB M 1
2
3
A TS B TC
Work hardening
When plastically deformed, metals geometry will help to decrease the
increase in strength to a varying extent. layer and consequently reduce the
The increase in strength depends on the stress on the edge. Work hardening,
rate of deformation and the ability of however, can also be an advantage in
the material to work harden. A high that it reduces the tendency for BUE.
work hardening rate means a rapid
increase of strength in relation to the Inclusions
increasing deformation rate. When Macro inclusions are those which fall in
cutting steel the deformation rate is a size range larger than 150 µm (.006
very high locally, especially close to the inch). They are often very hard and
cutting edge. Materials with high work abrasive and it is important to strive
hardening rates are austenitic stainless towards having a material which is free
steels and several of the high tempera- from such inclusions. Macro inclusions
ture alloys. Carbon steels are examples are associated with low quality steels,
of materials with very low work harden- in which they originate from manu-
ing rates. High work hardening rates facturing sources in the furnace, the top
mean that a lot of energy is required for slag, improper slag removal, etc. Many
chip formation (high specific cutting sudden tool failures can probably be
force). A substantial increase in hard- attributed to this type of inclusion.
ness will then also take place in a thin
layer of the machined surface. The micro inclusions are always
present in a steel to some extent.
If the depth of the work hardened layer Their effect on the machinability can
is the same as the feed rate, the cutting be divided into a few categories:
edge will be exposed to severe stress.
The depth of the work hardened layer 1. Undesirable inclusions such as alu-
and the level of hardness is propor- minates and spinells (Al2O3 and Ca).
tional to the deformation rate at the These are hard and abrasive.
cutting edge. A sharp cutting edge with
a large rake angle means a reduced de-
formation rate. Therefore, a positive

2. Less undesirable inclusions like iron of manganese, the sulphur and manga-
and manganese oxides (FeO and MnO). nese will form manganese sulphides.
Their deformability is higher than that During chip formation the sulphide in-
of the previous group and they are able clusions deform plastically to produce
to participate in the chip flow. planes of low strength, along which the
energy required for crack initiation and
3. Desirable inclusions at high cutting propagation is lowered. This facilitates
speeds, such as silicates (Si). The deformation in the primary shear zone
reason for this is that at sufficiently and results in an increase of shear
high cutting temperatures, silicates angle and chip curl, as well as a
get softer and are able to form an reduction in chip thickness, tool/chip
advantageous layer in the cutting contact length and cutting temperature.
zone, thus retarding tool wear. In addition, the sulphide functions on
the tool/chip interface as a lubricant.
There are now machinability improved However, the difference in machinability
calcium-deoxidized steels, where, with for two steels of equal type with exactly
deoxidation of SiCa, it is possible to the same sulphur content can be
achieve inclusions that have a low substantial. Machinability is improved
melting point and are able to form the by inclusions of sulphur and lead, but in
layer. These inclusions are really only addition to the sulphur content, the size,
favorable at relatively high cutting shape and distribution of the sulphides
speeds. can also determine machinability.
Free machining additives Another common additive is lead,

The common way to improve which behaves in a similar way to man-
machinability of steel is to add sulphur. ganese sulphide. It is common to use
The sulphur content in a free-machining combined additions of sulphur and
steel is about ten times the amount in lead. Yet another additive is selenium,
machinability improved steels. Provided also often found in combination with
the steel contains a sufficient amount sulphur. Free machining steels with
sulphur and selenium additions are
common in carbon steels and stainless
steels - ferritic and martensitic, as well as
austenitic. Leaded steels, or combined
resulpherized and leaded steels, are
only found in carbon steels.
Main properties that affect machinability:

• Hardness and strength
• Ductility
• Thermal conductivity
• Work hardening
• Inclusions
• Free machining additives
Steel turning

Higher values of: General

machinability
influence
Hardness and strength -

Ductility -
Thermal conductivity +
Work hardening -
Inclusion content
- macro -
- micro -/+
Free machining
additives ++
Fabricated steel
Other properties in addition to austenite, that more

that affect machinability: directly influence machinability:
• Material structure - Ferrite
• Workpiece conditions - Pearlite
• Alloying elements - Cementite
• Surface integrity
Ferrite is soft and ductile while cemen-
tite is hard and abrasive. Cementite is
Grain structure in fact the hardest structure that can
The structure of the material also affects be obtained, even harder than marten-
machinability. Some structures have site. Pearlite is a mix of ferrite and
abrasive properties. In addition, the cementite, in the form of lamellas of
strength of materials is altered depending ferrite and cementite, and takes up an
on the type of structure. The abrasive intermediate position in hardness.
constituents of steel are carbides. The The hardness of lamellar pearlite also
amount and form of the carbides depends on the size of the lamells. The
influences the material property. The fine lamellar type gives higher hardness
amount of carbon and other alloying than coarse.
elements affects the structure.
The amount of ferrite, pearlite and
Carbon is the most important alloying cementite in the steel structure de-
element in carbon steels and, depend- pends mainly on the carbon content.
ing on the content, different structures
are obtained. At room temperature Due to the extreme abrasiveness of ce-
and in an unhardened condition, there mentite, even small amounts of cemen-
are basically three types of structures, tite have considerable impact on tool-

life, and thus machinability. Further- ture. This is because during hot work-
more, ferritic steels generally have ing the material has been exposed to
better machinability than martensitic high temperatures for a long time,
steels. making the structure comparatively
coarse. When dealing with machinability,
the inconsistent structure can result in
deviations/voids, depending on the
Workpiece conditions amount of uniformity in the material.
The common conditions of workpieces
are: During the normalization process, the
- Hot rolled material is heated to within the aus-
- Normalized tenizing temperature and, after full
- Annealed transformation into austenite, the
- Cold drawn material is immediately cooled down to
- Hardened and tempered room temperature. This is in order to
achieve a finer and more homogenous
The hot rolled condition has in many structure than that of the hot worked
cases an inconsistent and coarse struc- condition. Normalizing aims mainly at
Steel manufacturing, structure and alloying elements affect machinability

improving the toughness behavior of

the material. Due to the more uniform
structure, an improved, even machina-
bility level is achieved.
In most cases, the annealed condition is

such that the material has had a soft-
annealing process to actually soften
the material. In the process, the
cementite lamellas of the pearlite
are transformed into spherodized
cementite, resulting in a structure of
ferrite with a uniform distribution of
spherodized cementite, where the
hardness is significantly decreased.
The spherodized form of the cementite Workpiece condition affects machining
also means that when machined, the
cutting edge will cut into the hard and A material in the cold-worked condi-
abrasive cementite over a shorter dist- tion has generally been exposed to
ance than in a material in non-annealed either normalization or soft annealing.
condition. Normally soft-annealing is Cold working is mostly performed on
only performed in steel with carbon comparatively small size blanks or
contents exceeding 0.5%. At high workpieces. In general, it is easier to
carbon contents, the spherodization produce uniform structures in smaller
should be complete in order to get workpieces. Cold working will increase
optimum machinability. For lower strength – how much depends on the
contents a certain amount of pearlite is area-reduction. The cold working in
beneficial. The lower the carbon content, itself can be favorable from a machining
the higher content of pearlite, which point of view in that it may provide:
provides the optimum machinability. - improved surface texture,
- reduced formation of built-up edge
Soft-annealing should not be mistaken and
for stress-relief annealing. As the name - reduced burr-formation
indicates, stress-relief annealing intends
to release stresses built up in a material The hardness of the workpiece affects
during cooling or during a cold the amount of tool wear. In machining
working operation. If allowed to with cemented carbide tools, approxi-
remain, such stresses may be released mately 200 HB has become a medium
during machining, thereby affecting value where hardness plays an
straightness, tolerances, etc. Stress- increasingly important role in one way
relief annealing is performed at low or another. Considerably softer material
temperatures and should not affect the may lead to tendencies of built-up edge
structure and as such not have much while considerably harder material
effect on machinability. affects machinability negatively.

Milling steel connecting rods for marine engines
The surface integrity of the workpiece alloying elements have a marked posi-
material to be machined may affect tive effect on machinability: lead (Pb),
the result in the same way as macro- sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), etc. and
inclusions, resulting in poor surface are added in free-machining steels.
texture, tool fracture, rapid tool wear, Chip formation is generally improved
etc. A pre-machined workpiece material by elements that reduce ductility. The
may be a better choice in some cases. analysis of the workpiece material often
Large tolerances on blanks may mean focuses a great deal on the machin-
extra machining operations and more ability of it.
effort to achieve dimensions and
required surface texture. Specification GENERAL MACHINABILITY
and inspection of the quality and EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS:
surface integrity of the workpiece
material is an increasingly important Negatively: Positively:
factor in modern production.
Mn
The alloying elements in a material Ni Pb
have a profound effect on its proper- Co S
ties. In steel, carbon is the dominating Cr P
element that determines much of the V
mechanical and machinability proper- C < 0.3% C 0.3-0.6%
ties. Others are nickel (Ni), cobalt C > 0.6%
(Co), manganese (Mn), vanadium (V), Mo
molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb), Nb
tungsten (W), copper (Cu), etc. Some W

THE WORKPIECE MATERIALS The plain carbon steels are mostly mild
Most workpiece materials that are used steel, constructional steel, structural
in metal cutting production are alloys steel, casting steel and some tool
of iron, aluminum, copper and nickel. steels. These are often hot-rolled,
Mechanical properties and machin- normalized, stress-relieved, pressed or
ability of alloys are quite different than cold-drawn. Medium-carbon steels may
those of the base metals. Similar often be machine and pressure vessel
chemical analysis but different structure steels, but are more likely to be
usually means varying machinability. constructional and used for components
Quality and material manufacturing that are machined. Some case- or tough-
processes also affect machinability. It hardening and hardening with tempering
is often useful to rate materials as easy- occurs. Tool steels for hardening are
to-machine, normal-to-machine and high-carbon steels.
difficult-to-machine and to assign the
various workpiece materials to one of With regards to machinability with
these groups. low-carbon steel, the low hardness
and high ductility is often a negative
Steel factor with considerable tendency for
Iron is the main constituent in ferrous smearing and built-up edge, reducing
alloys. Steel has a carbon content of tool-life and giving poor surface
0.05-2% and dominates as the most texture. A higher carbon content
widely used workpiece material. When improves machinability – hardness is
the carbon content is above 2%, cast- increased moderately and ductility
iron is formed. Below 0.05%, wrought decreased. Machinability within this
iron is formed. Carbon steel, also group of materials varies considerably
known as unalloyed steel, contains with the addition of free machining
only iron and carbon. Alloy steel has additives, manufacturing processes
additional alloying elements. By varying and post-process treatment. Some
the carbon content, alloying elements manganese is often present in these
and heat treatments, an enormous steels but not regarded as an alloying
number of different steels with varying element unless it exceeds two percent.
properties can be attained. A carbon
content of less than 0.8% represents the Alloyed steel
under-eutectoid steels. Over-eutectoid When the various alloying elements are
steels contain more than 0.8% carbon. equal to or less than 5% the steel is
rated as low-alloy steel. Above 5% is
Carbon/unalloyed steel considered high-alloy. These are often
These are classified according to their stronger and harder than plain carbon
carbon content: steel and generally more demanding in
regards to machinability, since an
- mild steel, c 0.05-0.1% increase of various alloying elements
- mild steel, c 0.1-0.25% will generally decrease machinability
- medium carbon steel, c 0.25-0.55% by increasing the strength.
- high carbon steel, c 0.55-0.8%

Alloying elements are usually in very elements. Tool steel represents a

low proportions, often less than one variety of different steel types, ranging
percent, and are added for various from carbon steel to low-alloy to
reasons: to affect the alloy structure, high-alloy steel. Typically, the carbon
eutectoid point, transformation, hardness, content is in the region of 0.7-1.3% C.
strength, wear resistance, corrosion
resistance, etc. Nickel (Ni), chromium Alloyed steel represents a large group
(Cr) and molybdenum (Mo) are the of materials that are machined exten-
most typical additives, but vanadium sively. In line with the wide variation in
(V), tungsten (W) and cobalt (Co) occur properties, structure and heat treat-
in many steels. Machining properties ments, the machinability obviously
can also be improved through the addi- varies considerably. While generally of
tion of certain alloying elements, such as good machinability, the correct tool
lead (Pb), silicon (S), manganese (Mn) and cutting data, as well as knowledge
etc. The heat treatment of alloyed steel of the workpiece material for the
plays a role in machinability. various applications, is essential for
optimization.
Some types of alloy tool steel, die and
high speed steel are high alloy steels Machining of alloyed steel components
and are usually machined after having has changed character throughout
been annealed to a suitable hardness several industries. Near-net-shape
where machinability with cemented blanks produced by precision forging
carbide is satisfactory. Cubic boron nit- and casting techniques have only small
ride is a good cutting tool alternative working allowances, which means more
for machining hardened tool steel demanding chip control and other tool
where traditionally grinding is the wear parameters for maintaining
normal method. The refractory metals tolerances. Also hardened components
such as molybdenum, vanadium, chro- are machined to an increasing extent
mium and tungsten form very hard thanks to harder tool materials.
carbides in steel when used as alloying
Turning of forged steel component

Stainless steel
This is an alloyed steel representing a properties: greater workability,
material group of its own. The chief toughness, high-temperature strength,
alloying element is chromium (Cr) with weldability, corrosion resistance, etc.
a content of over 12%. Chromium is an The steel in this state becomes non-
essential part of stainless steel since it magnetic.
forms the oxide film on the surface.
Stainless steels are known for their Molybdenum has the same effect as
ability to resist corrosion. Generally chromium on the structure and gene-
the corrosion resistance increases in rally increases the strength and corro-
line with the increase in chromium sion resistance. These steels are often
content. When the carbon content is of the acid-proof type. Nitrogen
high enough, stainless chromium steels considerably increases the strength of
can be hardened like carbon steel, austenitic steels and affects the
increasing their strength. structure in the same way as nickel.
Copper improves corrosion resistance
Most stainless steels have significant in certain acids. Titanium and niobium
amounts of other alloying elements. stabilize the steel by binding carbon.
The purpose of these is generally to Other alloying elements are manganese,
change the structure, improve corrosion titanium, aluminum and silicone.
resistance and other properties, as well
as strengthen the steel. Some properties The main stainless steel types that are
are directly related to the grain structure used as workpiece materials are:
– strength especially varies considerably.
According to their structure, stainless - ferritic, 16-30% Cr, Ni, No, max
steels can be systemized into three 0.2% C
main groups:
- martensitic (hardenable), 12-18%
- ferritic Cr, 2-4% Ni, 0.1-0.8% C
- martensitic
- austenitic - austenitic, 12-30% Cr, 7-25% Ni
Chromium, as the main alloying ele- - austenitic (with large amount

ment, is a ferrite former and does not manganese and less nickel)
alter the structure of ferrite. Stainless
chromium steels, therefore, have pro- - maraging steels (high strength,
perties resembling those of pure iron. hardenable), 9-25% Ni with varying
Nickel is another major element that amounts of Cr, Co, Mo, Ti and Al
affects the structure and mechanical
properties. It is a stabilizer and in- - Duplex stainless steel (ferritic-
creases hardenability. When the nickel austenitic), 22-25% Cr, 4-7% Ni,
content is high enough, stainless steel Mo, N and little carbon
has an austenitic structure, which leads
to significant changes of the mechanical

Ferritic stainless steels:

100
The most common ferritic steel is the
17% Cr-steel (ex: AISI 430) which has
a fairly low carbon content of below
0.10%. For higher Cr-alloyed ferritic
steels, the carbon content is normally
around 0.25%. Except for trace
contents of silicon (Si) and manganese 50
(Mn), chromium is the only alloying
element. In order to improve corrosion
properties there are also molybdenum
(Mo) alloyed ferritic steels where the
Mo contents vary from 0.5% to 2%.
Free machining types are available in 0

A B C D
the low-chromium alloyed ferritic
steels, where the most common free
machining additive is sulphur. Higher higher. Normally it is machined in this
Cr-alloyed types are selected in cases condition and the hardening operation
where corrosion resistance properties is done after machining.
are more important and the negative
influence of sulphur addition can There are many grades of stainless
normally not be accepted. As indi- steel and the machinability varies con-
cated by the name, this group has a siderably – even for the same type of
ferritic structure with either more or stainless steel. Machinability compari-
less Cr-carbides in the matrix and sons, therefore, can only be approxi-
they are not hardenable. mate and the adjoining diagram gives
only a rough, average indication as to
Martensitic stainless steel: relative machinability between: (A)
If the stainless steel has a sufficiently ferritic, (B) martensitic, (C) austenitic
high carbon content it is possible to and (D) duplex type stainless steels.
harden it and thus obtain a martensitic
structure. In fact there are martensitic Austenitic stainless steels:
steels with a carbon range of 0.2-1.0 This is the most common group. From
and a chromium content of 13-18%. the corrosion resistance point of view
The low chromium/low carbon types the austenitic type is superior to others.
are used in free machining conditions. The two previous groups are gener-
ally only alloyed with chromium. The
Martensitic steels are often available most common type of austenitic stain-
in an annealed condition consisting of less steel is the 18/8-type (ex: AISI 304).
a ferritic matrix with chromium This indicates 18% Cr and 8% Ni. This
carbides. Due to the higher carbon steel represents a basic level of corrosion
content compared to ferritic stainless resistance within the austenitic group.
steels, the carbide content will be If improved corrosion properties are

required, the next step is to add molyb- up edge formation and poor threading
denum, thereby obtaining acid resistant properties will also be reduced.
stainless steel. The 18/8 and 18/8+2%
Mo are responsible for the absolute The ferritic steels have good machin-
majority of austenitic steels. However, ability properties. In fact, they are com-
there are other high alloyed examples, parable to low alloyed carbon steels.
e.g. 26% chromium, 22% nickel and The best martensitic grades, with low
also some with copper, which are mostly Cr/C levels, have similar characteristics.
used to improve corrosion resistance. The austenitic steels generally have a
lower machinability rating than the
There are three different types within martensitic steels.
the 18/8-type:
1. Low carbon content (0.08%) The best machinability in stainless steel
2. Very low carbon content (0.03%) is obtained with the 17% Cr and low-
3. Stabilized (Ti most common carbon type. Increasing the chromium
stabilization element) content will reduce machinability.
Ferritic steels are more advantageous
In the 18/8 group, there are also to machine.
free-machining alternatives available.
Most are resulpherized, but some use The best machinability of the marten-
selenium. Free machining additives, sitic steel is obtained with the 13% Cr
however, impair the corrosion resist- (ex: AISI 405) and low-carbon type.
ance and so these steels are used in At increasing levels of chromium and
favorable corrosion-conditions. In the carbon content, machinability will be
18/8+Mo type there are low and very decreased. The high carbon types
low carbon alternatives but stabilized (0.8-1.0% C) in particular are very
steels are not as common. Common abrasive due to formation of carbides.
delivery conditions are annealed and The most common martensitic type is
annealed/cold drawn. the low Cr/C type.
The austenitic steels in annealed condi-

tion are quenched after annealing to
ensure the corrosion resistance, as
well as to maintain the machining
performance. If the cooling rate is too
slow, hard and abrasive carbides will
be formed in the grain borders.
From a machining point of view, the

annealed/cold drawn condition is usu-
ally beneficial, especially for the soft
austenitic and ferritic steels. Tool-life will
be somewhat decreased but problems
with burr formation, poor surfaces, built- Stainless steel parts

Vc A
(ft/min.)
1640
985
660 B
330 D
165
E
32 C
ƒ
(in/rev.)
.002 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .040 .080

Definition of area having satisfactory machinability
In most cases the martensitic steels are thermal conductivity. Generally, they
machined in an annealed condition, but are more difficult to machine than
sometimes they are machined in a other alloy steel. They tend to bond to
hardened and tempered condition. the cutting edge causing smearing and
High cutting temperatures should be tool fragmentation. Care has to be
avoided to avoid over-tempering the taken to avoid unpredictable tool per-
steel. formance. The austenite itself has a
high work-hardening rate. The work-
The adjoining diagram gives a general hardening effect can be very high,
indication of the most suitable area resulting in areas with extremely high
(cutting speed/feed) for machining hardness on machined surfaces.
austenitic steels with cemented carbide
inserts. Limitations that usually arise Cold working of steel generally means
include: a high rate of crater wear some degree of deformation hardening.
throughout the area around (A), The ferritic and martensitic steels ex-
excessive plastic deformation in the perience about as much as unalloyed
area around (B), and built up edge steel while the austenitic types undergo
formation throughout the low cutting considerably more. Even normalized
speed area (C). Also, there is a grades experience some deformation
tendency for plastic deformation at hardening due to machining, straightening,
speeds above line (D) and for crater etc., which means that an indicated
wear at higher feeds below line (E). hardness from the core of the material
may be up to twice as high at the
The austenitic steels are characterized surface. It is therefore advantageous to
by a high work-hardening rate and low select cutting depths and feed rates to

Unlike unalloyed steel, austenitic steel

HV has less thermal conductivity than
350 carbon steel. When machining carbon
steel the main part of the heat is
carried away by the chips. Austenitic
300
steel, with its lower thermal
conductivity and low heat absorbing
250 capacity, will give rise to higher cutting
edge temperature. Adequate cooling is
200 important for these materials. In-
creased amounts of alloying elements
increase the hot hardness resulting in
inferior machining properties.
20 18 14 10 6 2 0 Ø Regarding cutting force variation,
austenitic stainless steel has a much
penetrate beyond the hardened zones greater force (F) value fluctuation
with the cutting edge. during a given time (T) compared to
unalloyed steel. Whereas steel (1)
It is beneficial to machine austenitic follows a more continuous chip-
steels in a slightly cold drawn condition. forming process, stainless steel (2)
In many cases machining problems with - in this case austenitic - produces
austenitic steels are associated with interrupted, lamellar type chips. Cutting
built-up edge formation, bad surfaces, forces vary more and waviness appears
burr formation and poor chip on the machined surface.
formation. The cold drawn condition
will help to alleviate these problems to Stabilized grades (mostly Ti alloyed)
some degree. This is where deformation are generally more difficult to machine
hardening is actually an advantage. A since the titanium forms Ti (C,N)
coarse structure should be avoided which increase the abrasiveness. As a
since the above mentioned properties result of this formation, the carbon
will be affected by coarse grain size. content of the steel matrix will
decrease, which makes the steel more
sensitive to built-up edge formation.
F
F
T T

The most effective way to improve Machinability of a material is a property

machinability is to add sulphur to the that can have a decisive effect on
steel. Selenium is an alternative addi- productivity. Depending on the type of
tive. Free-cutting austenitic steels are machining and production, machinability
advantageous in that a drastic increase will have an affect on the products,
of machinability will take place in machines, operations, cutting data,
respect of tool-life and chip formation. tools, cutting fluids etc. Machine shops
Surfaces can work harden to 400-500 must consider machinability in order to
HB through plastic deformation, with meet their machining and production
a thickness of around .004 in. This requirements. For example, some
layer should be considered when machine shops demand the best thread-
selecting cutting data. A negative rake ing properties, others drilling, and so on.
or blunt edge increases the layer while Some shops work with higher speeds in
a sharp, positive and smooth edge will modern CNC turning lathes while
decrease it. Stable and rigid machine others use multi-spindle machines with
tools and cutting tools are important. demands for high mass-production
The cutting process is not as continous productivity. Keeping machinability in
as in carbon steel. Variations can give mind, the set-up should be composed so
rise to poor surfaces. A positive edge that there is low tool wear, good chip
helps to make the process more formation and good surface finish, at
continuous with less variations in forces, low and high speeds, with cemented
temperature and deformation handling. carbide tools.
Coronite endmills machine most materials at considerably higher speeds

VB ap
H L
L
H
ƒ
A Tce B
The machinability of stainless steel limit. The testing is done to simulate pro-
varies considerably. There are demands duction of parts, not just to create a
on stainless steels, such as corrosion value for comparison.
resistance and tensile strength, that are
sometimes contradictory to good ma- The effects of well-developed proportions
chinability. For example, it is easy to of inclusions mean considerably
improve the machinability properties by improved machinability, as the adjoining
adding sulphur to the steel. This is done diagrams show for duplex stainless
in some free-cutting steels. While this steels. (H) indicates higher proportions
provides good cutting properties it also of inclusions and (L) lower. The
creates poor corrosion resistance. There amounts of inclusions in both cases are
are other limitations for improving very small but are enough to provide
machinability, including the material longer tool-life, or higher cutting speed
standards, which must be considered. possibilities (A), as well as improved
Therefore, it is important to choose a chip formation (B).
method for improving machinability
properties carefully. Non-metallic inclusions have an
important bearing on the machining
In the development of Sandvik’s characteristics of stainless steels.
SANMAC steels, great importance has Besides having optimized amounts,
been placed on production-related modifica-tion and distribution of
views in machine shops. Machinability- sulphides, SANMAC stainless steels,
improving additions have been made to developed for improved machining,
the steel so that improvement is gained contain soft oxidic inclusions that
over the conventional variants of similar promote good chip formation and
grades. Great importance has also been have a lubricating effect at high cutting
placed on the evenness of properties speeds. The improved machinability is
when choosing cutting data for the achieved without any impairment
lowest limit in the machinability spread. of corrosion resistance, weldability,
SANMAC steels are guaranteed to be toughness or mechanical properties of
tested for machinability at the lowest the material.

Turning and threading stainless steel with CVD and PVD coated carbide grades, respectively
The difference in the machinability of (C) is a different austenitic Mo-alloyed

various grades of stainless steel can be (Cr,Ni) stainless steel with higher
seen in the adjoining series of cutting corrosion resistance than the steel in
speed/feed diagrams. The first two (A) and (B).
diagrams show the difference in yield (D) is a high-alloy (Ni,Cr,Mo,Cu)
strength (YS) and in hardness (HV). austenitic stainless steel for very hot
Indicated in each diagram for the and corrosive environments.
different grades of stainless steel are (E) is a duplex stainless steel (Cr,Ni,N)
the average tool-life achieved in each with relatively high corrosion resistance
area and the limiting factors that and high mechanical strength.
formed the areas. The principal type of (F) is another duplex stainless steel
insert used is coated cemented carbide (Cr,Ni,Mo,N) with high strength and
(GC) for ISO application area M. good resistance to stress corrosion
(G) is a high-alloy, duplex stainless
(A) is a SANMAC grade of austenitic steel (Ni,Cr,Mo,Cu) with an optimized
(Cr,Ni) stainless steel with improved combination of good corrosion resistance
machinability properties. and high mechanical strength. It can
(B) is a standard grade of the same withstand highly demanding environ-
type of austenitic steel (Cr,Ni). ments.

HV
YS 300
200
100
O
A/B E F G A/B E F G
C/D C/D
Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 15 M 35
820 T= 10min T= 10min
660
490
A
330
A
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)
Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 15 M 35
820 T=10min T= 10min
660
490
B
330
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)
Vc (ft/min)
980
GC
M 15
820
T= 10min
660
490
C
330
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC GC
M 15 M 35 M 35
820 T= 4min T= 4min T= 7min
660
490
D
330
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)
Vc (ft/min)
980
GC GC
M 15 M 35
820
T= 10min T= 10min
660
490
E
330
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)
Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 35 M 35
820 T= 10min T= 4min
660
490
F
330
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)
Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 35 M 35
820 T= 7min T= 4min
660
490
G
330
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Stainless steel parts and facing of tube

MACHINING STAINLESS STEEL
When machining austenitic and ferritic/ are especially useful for machining
martensitic stainless steels, there is stainless steel:
normally a low and a high-speed range - Select machine tools having a stable
for most material types. Between these construction. A stiff machine base and
(Vc: 130-295 and 590-1300 ft/min) lies quality of spindle is important.
the troublesome built-up edge range. Sufficient support should be provided
when turning long bars.
Generally, the higher the alloy content - Tool clamping and workpiece
of a stainless steel, the more fixturing should be as stable as
demanding and costly the machining. possible. Use minimum tool overhang.
Demands for material properties such Modular tools with high strength,
as corrosion resistance limit the stable coupling recommended.
amount of free-machining additives - Select the nose radius for the applica-
for some applications. The following tion. An excessively large radius causes
characteristics (and consequences) are vibrations. A smaller, but sufficiently
typical for stainless steel machining: strong one often gives better chip
- marked tendency for deformation control and lower cutting forces.
hardening (notching problems) - Use a cutting geometry that combines
- tough and strong (high cutting high edge sharpness with sufficient
forces and demanding chipbreaking) edge strength. Select grade and
- smearing tendency (built-up edge geometry together to suit the
formation) operation in question.
- To counter plastic deformation of
There are some general points and the cutting edge, use a larger nose
recommendations for machining that radius.

- Employ a sufficiently large positive leaves the finishing tool with poor
rake angle and plenty of clearance. machining conditions.
Smaller edge rounding may be useful - Cermets should be considered a
for increased sharpness. useful option for turning and milling
- For roughing operations, cutting stainless steel.
edges should have smallest possible - Climb milling is recommended since
reinforcement land on edge. conventional milling has a longer
- The right cutting fluid can be used contact time in the deformation-
in large volume for turning to facilitate hardened layer and gives rise to
heat removal from the cutting zone. higher cutting forces.
- Select an insert geometry that gives - Avoid interruptions in feed move-
minimum friction/contact between chip ment during machining, as this may
and chip face. lead to extra local deformation
- For roughing, employ larger cutting hardening. If unavoidable, exit and
depths and feed rates in combination enter with reduced table feed.
with lower cutting speed, rather than - The milling cutter position in relation
lower depths and feeds with higher to the workpiece and the cutter
speeds. diameter relationship to the radial
- Roughing or semi-finishing should cutting depth are especially important
leave sufficient working allowance factors to get right for successful milling
for finishing – to allow the tool to go of stainless steel.
beyond the deformation-hardening - Cutting fluid in milling should only
zone. be used for low cutting speeds and for
- Do not allow flank wear to develop form-milling.
excessively. A dull cutting edge cuts - A larger lead angle is beneficial. A
heavily and gives rise to more rapid thick, hard burr may form with a large
hardening – hardness up to HB 500 is entering angle which can then lead to
not uncommon in such cases, and rapid, mechanical notch wear.
Turning with ideal chipbreaking

Cast-iron
Cast-iron is an iron-carbon alloy
which usually has a carbon content of
2-4% mixed with other elements like
silicon, manganese, phosphorous and
sulphur. Corrosion and heat resistance
may be improved with additions of
nickel, chromium, molybdenum and
copper. Good rigidity, compressive
strength and fluidity for casting are
typical properties. Ductility and strength
can be improved with various treatments
which affect the microstructure. Cast-
iron is specified not by chemical analysis
but by the respective mechanical pro- Cast-iron housings for pumps
perties. This is partly because the cool-
ing rate affects the cast-iron properties. will chill into white iron (hence the term
‘chilled cast-iron’. Modern casting
Carbon is present as carbide – both techniques control analysis, cooling rates,
cementite and free carbon – graphite. etc., to provide the cast-iron components
The amount of these carbide forms with the right graphite structure. This
depends partly on the amount of other also provides chilled parts where needed,
elements in the alloy. For instance, a such as a wear face on a component.
high-silicon cast-iron will be made up Manganese strengthens and toughens
of graphite with hardly any cementite. cast-iron and is usually present in
This is the type known as grey iron. amounts of 0.5-1%.
The silicon content usually varies
between 1-3%. A low amount of silicon For this reason, a thin or tapered
will stabilize carbides, so the cast-iron section will tend to be primarily white
will consist predominantly of cementite iron because of the cooling effect in
with little graphite. This is a hard but the mold. Also the surface skin of the
weak and brittle type called white iron. casting is often harder white iron with
grey iron underneath.
Although the silicon content has a
decisive influence on the structure, the The basic structural constituents of the
cooling rate of cast-iron in castings is different types of cast-iron are ferritic,
also influential. Rapid cooling may pearlitic or a mixture of these.
not leave enough time for grey iron to
form as the silicon has not had time to Varieties of cast-iron with a ferritic
decompose the cementite into graphite. matrix and little or no pearlite are easy
Varying sectional thicknesses in castings to machine. They have low strength
affect the cooling rate, which affects the and normally a hardness of less than
state of carbon. Thick sections will 150 Brinell. Because of the softness
solidify into grey iron while thin ones and high ductility of ferrite these

types of cast-iron can be “sticky” and contain alloying material. As with

result in built-up edge forming at low pearlite, cementite can be machined in
cutting data – but this can be thin plates. But in larger particles,
counteracted by increasing the cutting which separate the constituents, they
speed, if the operation permits. drastically reduce the machinability.
Carbides often occur in thin sections,
Types of cast-iron with ferritic/pearlitic projecting parts or corners of castings
or pearlitic matrices range from about due to the rapid solidification of these
150 Brinell with relatively low strength, parts. This gives a finer structure.
to high-strength, hard cast-irons of 280-
300 Brinell where the pearlitic matrix The hardness of cast-iron is often
dominates. measured in Brinell. It is an indication
of machinability, which deteriorates
Pearlite has a stronger, harder and with increasing Brinell hardness. But
less ductile structure than ferrite, its the hardness value is an unreliable
strength and hardness depending on measurement of machinability when
whether it has rough or fine lamellar two factors which the value does not
structure. The more fine-grained and show are present.
more fine lamelli the pearlite is, the
higher its strength and hardness. This - In most machining operations it is the
means it has smaller carbides with less hard parts at the edges and corners of
abrasive wear but is more toughness- components which cause problems
demanding due to smearing and built when machining. The Brinell test can-
up edge formation. not be carried out on edges and corners
and therefore the high hardness in
Carbides are extremely hard elements these parts is not discovered before
whether they are pure cementite or machining is undertaken.
Facemilling two very different cast-iron components in machine and automotive industry,
respectively.

- A Brinell test says nothing about the fine lamellar structure with high
cast-iron’s abrasive hardness, which is strength properties is obtained.
the difference between the hardness on
the basic structure and the hardness of The main types of cast-iron are:
the hardest constituent e.g. a particle
of carbide. - grey cast-iron, of various strengths
Abrasive hardness due to sand - nodular cast-iron (ductile and

inclusions and free carbides is very spheroidal-graphite – SG)
negative for machinability. A cast-
iron of 200 Brinell and with a number - compacted-graphite cast-iron – CG
of free carbides is more difficult to
machine than a cast-iron of 200 - malleable cast-iron
Brinell and a 100% pearlitic structure
with no free carbides. - alloy cast-iron
Alloy additives in cast-iron affect The main difference in these types is

machinability because they can form or the form in which carbon, mainly
prevent the forming of carbides, and graphite, occurs.
can affect strength and/or hardness.
The structure within the cast-iron is The general relative machinability (M)
affected by the alloying material which, of the four main kinds of cast-iron is
depending on its individual character, indicated in a diagram where (A) is
can be divided into two groups. grey cast-iron, (B) malleable, (C) S.G.
iron and (D) chilled, white cast-iron.
1. Carbide forming:
chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), manga-
nese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), vana-
dium (V).
100
2. Graphititizing elements: M
silicon (Si), nickel (Ni), aluminum
(Al), copper (Cu), titanium (Ti).
A practical example of the use of

alloying materials is manufacturing of 50
cast-iron for engine blocks. To meet
the demands for increased power out-
put and reduced weight of the engine
block, which requires thinner walls,
grey cast-iron is often alloyed with
chromium and nickel and possibly
some other materials such as copper. 0
A B C D
In this way, an even, close-grained,

Automotive and marine engine components
Grey cast-iron Malleable cast-iron

There is a large range of grey cast-irons When white iron is heat treated in a
with varying tensile strengths. The sili- particular way, ferritic, pearlitic or mar-
con content/sectional area combination tensitic malleable cast-iron is formed.
forms various structures, of which the The heat treatments may turn the
low-silicon, fine graphite and pearlite cementite into spherical carbon
make the strongest and toughest particles or remove the carbides. The
material. Tensile strength varies con- cast-iron product is malleable, ductile
siderably throughout the range. A and very strong. The silicon content is
coarse graphite structure makes a low. Three categories occur: ferritic,
weaker type of material. Where metal pearlitic and martensitic which may
cutting is involved, a typical cast-iron also be categorized as Blackheart,
often has a silicon content of around Whiteheart and pearlitic.
2%. Most common are the low to high
tensile types and the austenitic type. Alloy cast-iron
These cast-irons contain larger amounts
Nodular cast-iron (SG) of alloying elements and generally have
Here, the graphite is contained as similar effects on properties of cast-
round nodules. Magnesium especially iron as they do on steel. Alloying
is used to deposit the globules and is elements are used to improve properties
added to create a magnesium-nickel by affecting structures. Nickel,
alloy. Tensile strength, toughness and chromium, molybdenum, vanadium
ductility is considerably improved. and copper are common alloying
Ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic with elements. Graphite-free white cast-
various tensile strengths occur. iron is extremely wear resistant. Cast-
iron that contains graphite is heat
CG cast-iron is also a graphite resistant and ductile. Corrosion
structure with properties between that resistance, toughness, hardness and
of grey and nodular cast-iron. The heat resistance are also typically
graphite flakes are compacted into improved by the use of alloying
short ones with round ends, through elements in the cast-iron.
the addition of titanium and other
treatments.

MACHINABILITY OF CAST-IRON
When establishing the machinability “pulling” out or pushing into the soft
characteristics of cast-iron grades, it is ferrite found in a ferritic matrix.
often useful to note the analysis and - the top of the casting can have a
structure: somewhat lower machinability due to
impurities such as slag, casting sand
- reduced carbon content results in etc. which float up and concentrate in
lower machinability since less fracture- this surface area.
inducing graphite can be formed
- ferritic cast-iron with an increased Generally it can be said that: the higher
silicon content is stronger and less the hardness and strength a type of cast-
ductile and tends to create less built- iron has, the lower the machinability
up edge and the shorter the tool-life that can
- increased pearlitic content in the be expected from inserts and tools.
matrix results in higher strength and
hardness and decreased machinability Machinability of most types of cast-
- the more fine lamellar and fine- iron involved in metal cutting pro-
grained the pearlite is, the lower the duction is generally good. The rating
machinability is highly related to the structure. The
- the presence of approximately 5% harder pearlitic cast-irons are some-
free carbides in the matrix decreases what more demanding to machine
machinability substantially than other types. Grey cast-iron is
- the effect of free carbides on short chipping while malleable and
machinability is more negative in cast- nodular cast-iron are, in principle,
iron with a pearlitic matrix because the long chipping. Graphite flake cast-
pearlite “anchors” the carbide particles iron and malleable cast-iron have
in the matrix. This means that it is excellent machining properties,
necessary for the insert edge to cut while the properties of SG cast-iron
through the hardest particles instead of are not quite as good.
Milling of cast-iron housings

F
F
T T
Compared to unalloyed steel (1), but depending upon the operation,
cutting force fluctuations vary more workpieces and machining conditions,
but the average value is lower for grey toughness, thermal shock resistance
cast-iron (3). and strength are also needed from the
cutting edge. Ceramic grades are used
The main wear types encountered widely to machine cast-iron along with
when machining cast-iron are abra- cemented carbide.
sion, adhesion and diffusion wear.
The abrasion is produced mainly by Obtaining satisfactory results when
the carbides, sand inclusions and machining cast-iron is dependent on
harder chilled skins. Adhesion wear how the cutting edge wear develops.
with built-up edge formation takes Rapid blunting will cause premature
place at lower machining temperatures edge breakdown from thermal cracks
and cutting speeds. It is the ferrite part and chipping and will produce poor
of cast-iron which is most easily results due to workpiece frittering,
welded onto the tool but this can be poor surface texture, excessive
counteracted by increasing speed and waviness, etc. Well developed flank
temperature. On the other hand, wear, maintaining a balanced, sharp
diffusion wear is temperature related edge, is generally to be strived for.
and occurs at high cutting speeds,
especially with the higher strength Machining chilled white cast-iron is
cast-iron grades. These grades have a very different due to the presence of
greater deformation resistance, leading cementite and requires very particular
to higher temperatures. This type of cutting edges and conditions to
wear is related to the reaction between achieve satisfactory results. Rolls and
cast-iron and tool and has led to some other similar components in this
cast-iron machining being carried out material are machined with cubic
at high speeds with ceramic tools, boron nitride or ceramics at very low
achieving good surface texture. cutting data. Grinding had always
been the primary machining method
Typical tool properties generally but efficiency has been increased
needed to machine cast-iron are high drastically with the use of modern
hot-hardness and chemical stability, turning tools in stable conditions.

High Temperature The heat resistant alloys maintain

Super Alloys strength at high temperatures and
This category includes several different exert high pressure on the cutting
types of metals: high strength alloy edge even at high machining tempera-
steel, hot-working die steel, some tures. There is also the risk of the
stainless steels, superalloys, refractory highest temperature being generated
metals with alloys and titanium with too close to the tip of the tool. The
alloys. The types discussed here will cutting geometries must distribute the
be limited as some of the mentioned pressure well so that the hottest zones
metals are treated separately. Included are adequatly positioned on the chip
here are: face and the edges remain sharp while
machining these often abrasive metals.
- iron based, high temperature alloys Castings and forgings have hard,
- nickel based, high temperature alloys abrasive particles which add to the
- cobalt based, high temperature alloys machining demands and keep cutting
speeds down. Cutting force fluctuations
Generally, high temperature alloys in value are very high for high
are the result of metallurgical develop- temperature alloys (4) compared to
ment of established metals to achieve unalloyed steel (1), with a much higher
better strength to weight ratios and average force value.
higher resistance to heat and corrosion
effects. Superalloys and space-age Iron based alloys are usually the least
metals are terms often associated with demanding to machine and their
these alloys. Since these materials were strength is not retained at elevated
developed to meet the requirements of temperatures to the same extent as
demanding environments, machinability other types of alloys. Aside from the
is often more problematic. Some of the iron base, there are larger amounts of
alloys have low thermal conductivity, chromium and nickel – substantially
which leads to high cutting edge more than in stainless steel. Quite a
temperatures. Many also tend to weld few are austenitic and strengthened by
to certain tool materials, giving rise to work hardening. Regarding machining,
built-up edge. Their high shear strength however, comparisons can be made to
means higher cutting forces and their the austenitic stainless steels. Work
tendency to work harden creates higher hardenable alloys are usually machined
stress, wear and cutting forces. advantageously after annealing, cold-
F
F
T T

of reduction, is considerable for

HV A various materials: (A) Inconel type
alloy, (B) austenitic stainless steel, (C)
400 Monel type alloy, (D) unalloyed steel
B
and (E) aluminum.
C
300 Cobalt based alloys are similar to the
nickel based alloys in structure and
D machinability. With high proportions
200 of chromium, nickel and tungsten,
along with the main cobalt constituent,
very high strengths at high tempera-
100 tures are achieved. Machinability is the
E poorest in this group of alloys with
severe work-hardening tendencies,
0 high cutting temperatures and shear
0 50% CW strength. Only moderate improvements,
in regards to machining, are achieved
with aging and solution treatment.
drawing and stress-relieving. This type
of material is better to machine than Many of the alloying elements used in
the fully annealed or solution-treated, this group of alloys make for poorer
which may be too soft and become
work-hardened.
Nickel based alloys are demanding and

unforgiving to machine, causing most
of the previously discussed negative
tendencies of these materials. The
basic constituent is nickel and the
amount of nickel affects machinability
considerably. Chromium is also present
in considerable proportions, with other
elements added for strength and
resistance to corrosion. Strength is
high, even at high temperatures. The
solution, heat-treated types, are most
advantageous for machining. Not all
can be heat-treated, however, and
machining is then again comparable to
austenitic stainless steel after cold
working. Hardness variation (HV) as a
function of the amount of cold
working (CW), in this case the amount Drilling nickel clad heat exchanger

machinability: tungsten, tantalum, mo- - down-milling is recommended to

lybdenum, niobium, boron, hafnium, achieve the smallest chip thickness
titanium, aluminum, etc. These can at exit to reduce chip sticking
increase hot hardness, strength at high
temperature and resistance to corrosion. - allow for large chip pockets to house
The cast components have greater the long chips generated
strength than forged ones and may be
more demanding in regards to generating - ensure good tool accuracy to achieve
a good surface texture. constant and balanced load
Casting skin and forging scale contain

hard, abrasive particles which may
cause notch wear along the cutting Refractory Metals
edge, at the depth of cut. These effects Refractory metals and alloys are those
limit cutting speeds. that are heat resistant, retaining high
strength and melting at very high
General points to successfully machine temperatures (2200 degrees C):
these materials are:
- columbium (Cb) (also niobium)
- sharp, positive, but strong, cutting - tantalum (Ta)
geometries - molybdenum (Mo)
- tungsten (W)
- use sufficient feed rates and cutting
depths Machining is generally difficult.
Hardness varies, as does thermal
- avoid excessive wear development conductivity, resulting in high local
machining temperatures. Some, like Cb
- use the right, specially developed and Ta, are ductile, causing built-up
fine-grained, uncoated carbide edge and making it difficult to achieve
grade or appropriate whisker or satisfactory cutting data ranges. Mo and
mixed type, ceramic grade W are brittle and unyielding. Low
coefficients of expansion for Mo and W
- apply generous amounts of coolant can lead to drilling and hole machining
and ensure unobstructed chip flow problems where tools may expand
more than the component. The worked
- ensure optimum machining direction of the workpiece metal should
conditions in machine and fixture, also be considered, since strength is
especially rigidity and stability, developed in the direction of metal flow.
to avoid any vibration tendencies The cutting load generated by a certain
feed and cutting depth in one direction
- tools should be well supported, have may be excessive when changing to a
sufficient clearance angles and edge different, weaker plane.
strengthening for roughing,
especially interrupted cuts

Hard, clad component and ceramic machining
Columbium and alloys usually have density may cause variations in load
alloying elements to increase strength and chip formation. Alloying elements
and are generally intermediate in ductility usually improve machinability, which
and brittleness during machining. They can be carried out at low temperatures,
are comparable in some respects to the similar in characteristic to grey cast-iron.
machining characteristics of austenitic
steels. Titanium
Titanium alloys are generally divided
Like columbium, tantalum and its into three groups: alpha, alpha-beta
alloys can cause problematic built-up and beta alloys, depending upon how
edge due to ductility. This is reduced much of a particular type of titanium
through alloying, but combined with structure is present. Alloying elements
strain hardening, abrasiveness increases. stabilize the alloys and modify
Machining becomes comparable to pure properties. Thermal conductivity is
copper, where it is difficult to generate relatively low with chips tending to stick
good surface texture. to cutting edges. The rapid oxidation
process of the machined surface results
Molybdenum and its alloys are often in a high tendency to react with the tool
powder metallurgical products and material. Chips are thin, with high edge
generally quite brittle. Abrasiveness, temperatures, making the correct use of
cracks or chipping in the machined coolant important.
surface are typical problems in cutting
these materials, especially since they Alloys are wrought or forged and
generate discontinuous chips. machined in an annealed or solution-
treated/aged condition, where strength
Tungsten and its alloys are the most is increased and the component stress-
refractory of this group. Strength varies, relieved. A low module of elasticity
and the structure is generally created (Young’s Modulus) means there is
from wrought or powder metallurgical deflection tendency during machining
manufacturing processes. Brittleness from the load of the tool.
makes machining difficult and varying

Machinability is best with alpha-type It is useful to strive towards reducing

alloys and pure titanium, and becomes both the temperature at the cutting edge
progressively poorer with each of the point and the higher coefficient of
various types progressing from alpha friction in titanium using the mentioned
to beta. Tool demands are good abrasive methods. The machining of titanium
wear resistance, plastic deformation and its alloys should not be difficult if
resistance, diffusion wear resistance, the right conditions and stability prevail.
toughness and the right combination General machining points:
of cutting edge strength and sharpness. - use sharp, positive cutting edges
Specially developed, fine-grained, un- with ample clearance
coated carbide grades are the most - machine under stable conditions,
suitable tools when used at the correct with well-clamped workpieces
cutting data and with plenty of the - optimize the feed rate
right coolant. The right geometry for - apply copious amounts of coolant
a clear cut and good chip formation is correctly for the operation and
important for success. cutting data in question
- limit wear development to prevent
Titanium work-hardens, although less heat generation
than austenitic stainless steel. Chips can - minimize vibration tendencies,
become extremely hot, hot enough to espcially during boring and milling
burn. Segmented chips are produced - use down-milling and correct cutter
by the intermittent, digging, cutting positioning
action which can lead to cutting edge
chipping. There may also be tendencies Aluminum
for smearing, leading to built-up edge, Most aluminum that is subjected to
especially on a worn edge with alloys. metal cutting is in the form of an
alloy. Pure aluminum has limited uses
since it is a relatively weak, ductile
metal. The properties of aluminum
and its alloys depend to a large extent
upon how it has been pre-worked.
Aluminum alloys are usually divided
into wrought and cast alloys. There
are also groups of heat and non-heat
treatable and strain-hardenable.
The main alloying elements are copper,

manganese, silicon, magnesium, zinc
and iron. These have various effects
on the alloy: copper increases strength
and improves machinability, manga-
nese improves ductility and castability,
silicon improves corrosion resistance
Slot milling of titanium and castability, magnesium improves

strength and corrosion resistance, zinc is usually carried out with tools specially
improves strength and castability and designed for aluminum. However, many
iron increases strength and hardness. modern, general purpose tools will also
machine several aluminum alloys
Cast alloys may be heat treatable or satisfactorily. A large rake angle is
non-heat treatable, as well as die cast or generally required to ensure the
sand cast. Depending upon the casting correct shearing action and to reduce
processes and desired properties, the any built-up edge tendency.
alloy has various elements. Silicon is a
key element for affecting fluidity, Consistently good machinability is based
where the eutectic for the alloy is on tool-life, surface texture and chip
achieved at an 11.6% silicon content. formation. Cutting forces are kept low.
Alloys at or close to this composition Wrought and cast alloys machine better
solidify with little or no temperature in tempered heat-treated conditions
changes. This makes the eutectic or than in annealed. The solution heat-
over-eutectic alloys very suitable for treated and aged alloys can often
high production rate casting. The machine exceptionally well. For some
structure of these alloys is further alloys, built-up edge formation can occur
improved with the addition of other even at relatively high cutting speeds,
elements and the eutectic composition causing poor surface texture, especially
can change to have a higher silicon with cutting edges not specifically
content. These are usually ‘as-cast’ designed to cut aluminum. Chip control
aluminum alloys, with no heat treat- is one main concern when machining
ment. The addition of copper means aluminum. Some chips do not break
that the cast alloy can be heat treated, or easily and at high speeds, steps must be
subjected to other treatments, i.e. stress- taken to maintain good chip evacuation.
relieving, precipitation, solution, etc.
Wrought aluminum alloys are mainly

heat and non-heat treated. Age and
strain hardening with solution and pre-
cipitation treatments are methods used
widely to improve properties and create
stronger, harder materials. Aluminum/
copper alloys are widely-used, non-heat
treated types.
Aluminum alloys have good machina-

bility properties. Machining tempera-
tures are generally low and high cutting
speeds can be used. Chip control may
require special measures in some
machining operations. The cutting action Aluminum turning is rated as relatively
needs a sharp, positive cutting edge and undemanding

Excessive flank wear is a matter of

concern for some silicon-content alloys
with eutectic and over-eutectic compo-
sitions. Large, hard particles of silicon
create high tool wear rates. The use of
diamond tipped and diamond coated
cutting edges has been developed
for machining these alloys. Very high
cutting speeds are effective in this area,
and high metal removal rates can be
obtained in machine tools with capacities
for high spindle speeds. Cutting speeds
are usually limited by the machine.
Sharp, uncoated cemented carbide grades
have been specially developed for this
material, giving excellent performance
for machining most aluminum alloys. Trepanning of extruded nickel alloy billets
Chip thickness is also important in milling alloys and are high temperature alloys
aluminum. When high cutting speeds are for aerospace and other demanding
used, the feed rate often tends to be low, environments. There are cast and
causing excessive rubbing, instead of wrought alloys. Annealing, solution
cutting. Poor tool life due to over-heating treatment, precipitation and stress-
and discoloration is the result. relieving occurs in these groups.
Nickel Generally, nickel alloys are demanding

Nickel is used extensively as an to machine. High cutting temperatures
alloying element but is also the basis are generated and the combination of
for several nickel alloys with high heat and load causes deformation wear.
strength, corrosion and temperature Cutting speeds are relatively low. Some
resistance. In its pure form, it is strong, of the nickel alloys are among the most
can be hot and cold worked and has demanding to machine, requiring the
moderate, good machining properties. right carbide or ceramic tools and
A common application is cladding on conditions for satisfactory results.
steel. There are also annealed and
cold-drawn types of nickel. Nickel alloys have an austenitic matrix
and like austenitic stainless steels, work-
There are three main groups of nickel harden rapidly. The high pressure
alloys: nickel/copper, nickel/chromium/ developed between tool and workpiece
iron and nickel/titanium. Most nickel during cutting produces a stressed layer
alloys are identified by trade names: of deformed metal on the surface of the
Inco, Monel, Inconel, Incoloy, Nimonic, workpiece. The deformation causes a
Nimocast, Hastelloy, Nilo, Waspoloy, hardening effect that retards further
Astraloy, René, etc. Several are complex machining.

Boring of light-alloy part in a machining center
One method of reducing work- magnesium/zirconium/etc. for cast and

hardening during machining is to work- wrought forms. Solution and precipi-
harden the material prior to machining tation treatments are carried out.
by cold working. The best finish is
produced on age-hardenable alloys by Magnesium is very easy to machine. Its
machining them in the aged condition. alloys are probably the best from a
However, rough machining is often done machinability point of view. Low
before age-hardening. Also, solution hardness, low cutting forces, low shear
annealing usually improves machina- strength, etc. all mean that machining
bility. The degree of work-hardening on is successful over a wide application
some metals can be indicated by the area and high speeds. Chip formation
effect of cold reduction on hardness. is advantageous. There is, however, a
fire risk involved when machining
In addition, carefully choosing tools that magnesium, as chips can easily ignite.
machine with minimum pushing is
essential. Cutting data and a sharp edge
must be correctly adapted to prevent Copper
burnishing on the workpiece and Copper alloys such as brass and bronze
rubbing on the surface or in the cut itself. are often shaped through metal cutting.
Machinability ranges from easy to
demanding. Pure copper is very
Magnesium ductile and malleable with high
Magnesium alloys have an advantageous thermal conductivity.
strength-to-weight ratio and good
machinability properties. There are Brass is a copper based alloy with large
wrought and cast types and three main amounts of zinc and small amounts of
groups of alloys: magnesium/manga- other elements. There are cast and
nese for wrought forms, magnesium/ wrought forms, and hot or cold worked
aluminum/zinc for cast forms and forms. Properties vary from brittle to

high-tensile types. Lead is added to pure as well as for alloying. The pure
considerably improve machinability, metal is ductile and malleable and is
making free-cutting brass. usually wrought and cold-worked. It is
chemically a very reactive metal but also
Bronzes are also available as wrought very resistant to corrosion. Machin-
or cast. There are several bronzes: tin ability is comparable to that of
bronze, aluminum bronzes, silicon titanium. There are several zirconium
bronzes, phosphor bronzes, beryllium alloys. Machining zirconium involves
bronzes, etc. Machinability varies but the risk of chips igniting.
most are quite good, especially the
leaded bronzes. Aluminum, silicon,
beryllium and phosphor bronzes can Composites
be more demanding to machine. The development and use of composite
metal-matrix materials is relatively
Copper/nickel alloys (cupro-nickels) new. These constructional materials
can also require some effort to achieve have very high strength-to-weight
optimum machining performance. This ratios and are used widely in strength
is the same for some nickel-silvers, demanding applications. In a broad
where zinc is also included in the alloy sense, composites can be segmented
of copper and nickel. into three types: fiber-reinforced,
particle-reinforced and dispersion
strengthened. Added to these are
Zinc various laminated materials. The
Of the zinc alloys, it is normally the materials in this group used for metal
cast forms that are machined. Alloyed cutting are fiber-reinforced plastics, a
with aluminum, copper, magnesium, heterogeneous structure of fibers
etc., zinc makes very light metal alloys embedded in a continuous matrix. The
with reasonable strength. Precipitation fibers are designed so as to take up
hardening can be carried out to further load and provide stiffness. The matrix
strengthen the alloys. Machinability is has to form a protective body and
not demanding. surface. It also must disperse fibers
suitably so that the matrix joins with
Uranium the fibers, allowing the load to be
Uranium is a heavy, but relatively transmitted to the fibers when applied.
ductile and malleable, cast or wrought
metal. Chemically it is similar to tung- Composites for machining applications
sten with the formation of hard, stable usually contain fibers of carbon, glass
carbides. (Attempts have even been or aramid, matrixed in an organic
made to use it as cutting tool material.) polymer, epoxy or phenolic resin.
Monolithic structures are woven or
uni-directional. Sandwich structures
Zirconium are monolithics, bridged by a honey-
Zirconium plays an important role as comb filament, made of aramid or
an alloying element but is also used aluminum.

Carbon and graphite fibers hold In the case of graphite the stiffness in
together in long, polymer structures, one plane can be almost 30 times more
similar to the way strong bonds in than it is in another, because the
diamond and graphite are formed. atomic bonds in one plane are very
They are thermally stable, strong at strong and relatively weak in the other.
high temperatures and retain stiffness. In a normal sample of graphite, the
crystals will be oriented randomly
The structure of the thin fibers used in whereas in fiber form, the stronger
these materials makes them far bonds will be aligned so as to fiber the
stronger than the same materials in weaker, largely transverse plane.
solid form. They are also relatively stiff.
By combining the fibers with an elastic Composites are demanding to machine,
matrix, one obtains an artificial requiring a selective approach to choose
material that has properties of the two suitable cutting tools. Most machining
materials. When a composite material operations performed are drilling,
is exposed to a stretching force, the endmilling and related operations.
matrix material will elongate more
than the fibrous material, etc. The Carbon fiber composites are highly
stiffness of a given material may also abrasive while woven, aramid fiber
vary considerably according to how it is composites are soft and ductile, and
measured in relation to the atomic and give way to tool pressure. Like metals,
crystalline structure. composites have different machining
Composite machining characteristics and a typical sandwich structured part

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A
B
C
D
Application of tools for composites
characteristics. The type of fiber and flexible in other directions. The honey-
matrix and the fiber content ratio to comb is normally produced in aramid
the matrix are important factors in or aluminum materials. For example,
machinability. Laminated materials often the carbon fiber/honeycomb sandwich
de-laminate and break away at the need only be 25% thicker than the
cutting edges – especially the dryer, pure carbon fiber material to obtain the
abrasive types. Dust and coolants can same stiffness with one-third the weight,
also create problems during machining. a reduction that brings the weight to less
than ten percent of the weight of steel.
In the manufacture of composites, the
various fiber materials are in the form Examples of various tool types and
of large rolls with a protecting film their suitability for composites are
between layers. The fibers can be in indicated in the adjoining table:
directionless or woven form, pre-coated (A) is carbon fiber, (B) glass fiber, (C)
with hardener. The fiber direction can aramid fiber and (D) aramid, sandwich
be varied to give the best mechanical section. The tool range includes: (1)
properties in the final product. The fiber phi-drill, (2) gamma-drill, (3) special
materials, a metal net and absorption twist drill, (4) Delta-drill, (5) serrated
material are placed under the vacuum in router, (6) straight router, (7) PCO
an autoclave where the excess epoxy router, (8) indexable insert trespanning
material runs down and is absorbed. tool and (9) drill and counter sink.
A typical structure involves the use of Composites should be cut cleanly, with
carbon fiber for the outer surfaces and a sharp cutting edge. Excessive edge
a honeycomb material in the middle. wear will mean that fibers will be
The honeycomb material is strong and broken away, rather than cut, leading to
relatively stiff in the direction of the de-lamination. Very fine grained cemented
cells but considerably weaker and more carbide and PCD are used for cutting

preventing excessive cutting that can

1 cause de-lamination or fiber breakout.
When machining carbon fiber com-
2 posites, tool-life is directly propor-
tional to cutting speed – high
speed/short tool-life, low speed/long
tool-life. When machining aramid fiber
composites, high cutting speeds can be
3 used to advantage, but feed rates must
be set accurately. Glass fiber composites
compare to carbon fiber composites in
regards to machinability. A higher
content of fibers will mean more
demanding machining. It is important
to consider not only the type of
Example of drill for composites
composite but also fiber/matrix ratio.
composites. The right geometry with a Conventional twist-drill-type tools are
sharp edge in these tool materials suitable for cutting some composite
reduces tool pressure, leading to cleaner, materials (carbon fiber and glass fiber)
more accurate cuts. For aramid fiber while for others (aramids), specially
composites, tools are designed to first designed drills are needed to cut cleanly
lightly pre-load tye fibers, then cut them without damage to hole walls. An
cleanly, and finally hook them out from example of a specially designed cutting
the machining area to minimize chip tool for composite machining is the phi
jamming. drill, especially suitable for thicker,
demanding materials. Made of cemented
The right cutting data is essential when carbide, it has three cutting edges: longer
machining composites. The feed per edges (1) and (2) that pre-tension the
tooth is important to establish correctly fibers and cut them while radial cutting
so as to avoid tool rubbing while edge (3), below (1), cleans up the cut.
Some conventional tools can be used for composite machining

Chip analysis often indicates the state of the machining
MACHINABILITY EVALUATION
- TWO EXAMPLES
As mentioned in the introduction, the different types of materials are
machinability is not a universally defined included. The tests also provide
property. Knowledge of the workpiece separate values for different machining
material, operational parameters and operations: turning, milling and drilling
machining conditions for various as machinability assessments vary, even
applications is essential for establishing if the material is the same.
informative machinability values. The
following describes examples of estab- Instead of longitudinal turning, the
lishing machinability ratings, one from Sandvik Steel tool-life test is based on a
a material supplier and one from a face turning operation. With face turning,
manufacturing company. the effect of factors such as hardness
profile are lessened. Besides machining
The steel research center of Sandvik parameters and work material, the
Steel has developed testing technology cutting time also affects the tool-life. If
for evaluating machinability properties. facing is carried out in one operation,
The principle behind these tests and from surface to core, the cutting time
the resulting data charts for the stain- will depend on the diameter. Conse-
less steel supplied by the company, is quently, tool-life will depend on
that the assessments should be similar diameter, even if the material is homo-
to, and thus useful to, the machine geneous. To make the test independent
shops using the material from the of the diameter, the bar is face turned in
company. several face operations. The cutting time
and removed material are the same for
The machining tests take into each operation since both of these
consideration that the material is not factors depend on the cutting speed and
homogeneous and that the latest cutting feed. The effect of the idle time
tools are used. The establishment of compared with the cutting time is less
starting values, information on changes and in these tool-life tests the idle time
if problems arise and descriptions about is fixed.

To make the tool-life test more precise, consideration the fact that the work
the face turning operation is combined material is not homogeneous. It is not
with a copying operation. In operation necessary to calculate an average tool-
1, the cutting depth is decreased from life and in fact, it is normally enough to
.12 in. down to .04 in. In operation 2, choose only two cutting speeds for the
the cutting depth is increased from .04 evaluation of the tool-life value. To
in. to .12 in. The work material is fixed verify the tool-life value, the test is
between a chuck and a center. A core, always done a third time using the
not less than 1.18 in. is used to avoid evaluated tool-life value.
vibrations.
In the international standard, certain
The machining test is based on a items are standardized, such as the
turning operation. The results should tool geometries and cutting conditions.
therefore be used mainly for turning. With such a test one can compare
Compared with the international ISO results from different sources. But even
standard test, the Sandvik Steel test is if the tool is specified it is important to
more production oriented, taking into note that the ISO grade-coding system
V1 = V2 = V3 1 2
V1 1
80°
5°
V2 ID3
ID2 ID1
OD1 2
OD3 OD2 1
OD1
V3 ID1 4
1
Details of machinability test

Vc
T= 7min
T= 10min
ƒ
Application area limited by various tool-lives
is not actually a system to identify the flank wear is seldom a reason to stop
grade. Instead it identifies the applica- machining. Machining charts map areas
tion. The ISO code for a specific grade that give at least 10 minutes tool-life.
is the manufacturer’s recommendation For some difficult materials, where it is
as to which application area the grade impossible to achieve 10 minutes tool-
is suited. It does not standardize the life, tool-life is stated separately on the
carbide and coating grade. machining chart.
It is desirable for the material to have Machining charts are excellent for
high and consistent machinability comparing machinability of different
properties from one batch to the next steel material grades. Through a study
so as to ensure a reliable production of the area with acceptable cutting
without interruptions caused by poor data, the way in which the machinability
machinability. Consistent machinability varies, and to what extent, becomes
properties are especially important apparent. Some duplex steels have a
when the production batches are long, very small area where the cutting data
because in reality, cutting data must be is acceptable.
based on the lowest level of machin-
ability. Normally, the term machin- The example involving manufacturing
ability only refers to the tool-life. From company machinability-tests views
the machine shop point of view, chip- machinability criteria as links in a chain.
breaking and surface finish are of equal Each link is defined according to specific
importance. Therefore, in addition to properties and expressed in objectively
the tool-life test, the Sandvik Steel measured units, which can be set in
machining test also includes a chip- relation to each other. The aim is to
breaking and a surface finish test. always express the highest possible
cutting data for a given application.
In laboratory tests, the most common Effort is then made to strengthen
tool-life criterion is flank wear. In the weak links in the chain under
machine shops, tool-life is often various circumstances. Systemization
measured in terms of the number of and quantifying properties are import-
components produced per edge and ant aspects of the strengthening work.

Machinability in this example is seen The wear resistance is measured and

as being made up of five criteria: expressed as a so-called ‘B index’. This is
A. wear resistance a defined unit, used as a standard. One
B. specific cutting force specific cutting edge is used to cut
C. chipbreaking material during which all factors except
D. built-up edge formation the cutting speed are kept constant. A
E. tool coating character predetermined flank wear is reached
The time taken to reach the flank wear
establishes the B index, used to classify
E
B
Machinability test factors

the cutting edge. Values on the B index rating and is inversely related to the
are given to materials for specific cutting way the material generates tool wear.
speeds. These are selected to represent This rating is then used, by way of a
good to poor cutting conditions by factor, to establish the best cutting
numerical values. The closer the value speeds for production. Since the B
is to 100, the better the machinability. index is directly related to machining
The figure shows this principle for costs, the cost of machining can also be
various materials or material condi- analyzed, using a given factor, as can
tions, e.g.: B1:40 and B2:50; for a the choice of workpiece materials.
certain flank wear; etc. The various
material conditions can be compared This is visualized in the machining cost/
along the B index line. The removed B index graph where the vertical axis
volume of material (V) is measured at represents the percentage of machining
various speeds. cost savings (C-) or cost increases (C+).
The horizontal axis is the percentage
The specific cutting force of the work- change in B index. For a certain machine
piece material is vital for establishing (Ma), the change in B index from a
the power requirements of the machine material rated at 55 to one at 40 means a
tools. There is little connection between change of 37.5%. This then leads to a
wear resistance and specific cutting savings of 36% in machining costs.
force. Consider, for example, a plastic
material which can give rise to consider- In addition, chipbreaking is systemized
able tool wear with low cutting resist- according to conventional diagrams of
ance and small ks values. feed and cutting depth in relation to
each other. The total machinability
The metal cutting tests lead to pre- assessment aims toward a wider scope
determined tool wear criteria once the that includes the tool wear test as well
way in which the material causes tool as communications regarding machine
wear is assessed with that of a standard tools, economic consequences and a
material. The B index is the material dialogue with material suppliers.
C-
V3 Ma
in
36%
3.67
3.06
B = 55 0 B%
2.45 2 - 30 20 0 20 40 +
1.84
B1 = 40
1.22 B = 37%
.61
B1 = 55
= 37%
vc ft/min C+ B2 = 40

Tool and die making involves a lot of metal cutting which can be performed very
efficiently with modern tools
MACHINABILITY OF TOOL, CMC/Tool, die and mold materials

DIE AND MOLD MATERIALS 03/ Die steel
Metalworking accounts for a large 02/ Alloy tool steel
portion of the cost of components in 01.2/ Medium carbon steel
this field. The demands made on tools, 02.1/ Cr-Mo steel
dies and molds are often so severe that 06.1/ Carbon steel casting
the material properties relative to the 01.4/ Carbon tool steel
function of the tool, die or mold have to 03/ High speed steel
be a strict priority. Machinability has 05.1/ Stainless steel
been improved, however, along with 08/ Grey cast-iron
material production technology and the
capability of cutting tools. Efficient Tools for forming by way of cold and
machining is increasingly being seen as hot working and casting are generally
a competitive advantage and quality made specifically with well-defined
enhancer. The following examples of values of property, shape, accuracy,
tool, die and mold demands are shown finish, costs and working life. There are
with typical requirements for material many different grades, divided into
properties and the consequences of groups by application, where hardness,
these in regards to machinability: strength and alloying elements mean
considerable variation in machinability.
- High impact strength/High material
purity – poor chipbreaking By determining machinability, criteria is
- High wear resistance/Lots of hard given and a choice can be made to use
inclusions – short tool-life alternative grades of materials. Because
- No subsequent hardening/High of the extensive machining involved on
hardness level – short tool-life tools, dies and molds, this has a

considerable influence on production - hardness

costs. The type of machining and tools - surface hardness
also influence the machinability rating. - amount and type of inclusions
However, machinability is not a straight- - toughness
forward description so some of the more - hot hardness
significant properties have to be - work hardening
established: - strength
- structure homogenity
The same material type can vary from - type and amount of alloying
supplier to supplier and may have very elements
different machinability. This necessitates - heat treatment
more precise information and tests. - material structure
- chemical analysis
Hardness of materials directly affects - residual tension in material
machinability, as is illustrated in the two
diagrams supplied by a major material Diagrams (1) and (2) on the following
supplier within this field. (A) represents page indicate the difference in machin-
the carbon content influence and (B) is ability using cemented carbide tools
the amount of hard and abrasive chosen from a broad range of frequently
inclusions present in materials that are used tool, die and mold steel grades
classified as having relatively low (from Uddeholm Tooling). The diagrams
proportions of inclusions. (C) denotes show typical cutting speeds for turning
groups of materials classified as (1) and milling (2) to achieve a certain
having high proportions of inclusions. tool-life with the same type of cutting
tool. The diagrams show the consider-
Typical properties of tool, die and mold able variations that can occur even in a
materials which affect machinability single aspect of machinability. Examples
and which should be analyzed for the of die and mold materials and typically
metal cutting application are: suitable cutting speeds follow.
Vc Vc
ft/min ft/min
985 985
A
660 660
B
330 330 C
0.2 0.6 1.0 %C 200 300 400 HB

Carbon and hardness influence on machinability

ELMAX HB 250 52
VANADIS 4 HB 225 71
SVERKER 3 HB 240 75
ASP 23 HB 260 82
ALEX HB 350 98
SVERKER 21 HB 210 103
TOUGHTEM HB 350 107
UHB 20 HB 170 125
RIGOR HB 215 129
RAMAX S HB 350 129
IMPAX SUP HB 300 140
CARMO HB 280 167
HOLDAX HB 290 180
GRANE HB 230 192
FERMO HB 250 195
GRANAX HB 190 196
ARNE HB 190 202
CHIPPER HB 200 205
ALVAR 14 HB 200 207
STAVAX ESR HB 215 208
QRO 90 SUP HB 180 250
ORVAR SUP HB 180 260
UHB 11 HB 200 289
FORMAX HB 150 332
0 165 330 490 660 820 980 1150

Vc ft/min
2
ELMAX HB 250 110

ALEX HB 350 110
ASP 23 HB 260 143
IMPAX SUP HB 300 155
TOUGHTEM HB 350 190
HOLDAX HB 290 200
RAMAX S HB 340 220
RIGOR HB 240 240
CHIPPER HB 200 250
CARMO HB 280 250
ARNE HB 190 290
ORVAR SUP HB 190 310
UHB 11 HB 200 320
STAVAX ESR HB 215 320
QRO 90 SUP HB 180 340
FORMAX HB 150 440
0 165 330 490 660 820 980 1150 1300 1476 1640
Vc ft/min
Machinability of tool and die materials

Large con-rods in alloyed

Properties of steel machined extensively
main alloying elements:
Aluminum can give rise to demanding added to increase strength, it also
chip control in machining of nitriding promotes hardening and increases
steels. It forms hard nitrides on contact wear resistance.
with nitrogen at high temperatures,
producing a very hard surface. Cobalt is used in a variety of different
alloys such as high-strength steels and
Beryllium is toxic, hence the metal and heat-resistant superalloys as well as in
its alloys are hazardous to machine. It magnets to increase residual magne-
is used to harden copper alloys and tism. It maintains hard carbides at high
improve their springiness. temperatures and thus preserves the
hardness of the alloy during machining.
Boron used in very small quantities
increases hardness, which can make Copper is used primarily in production
machining difficult. of brass and bronzes. The machining
properties vary widely, depending on
Carbon facilitates hardening and forms what element is used as the second
hard carbides with iron, chromium and major constituent and the ratio in which
vanadium, thus increasing strength the two are present.
and wear resistance.
Lead in small quantities produces free
Chromium’s presence in a material machining characteristics, especially at
reduces the machinability. Generally low cutting speeds, below 200 ft/min.

Magnesium is used to produce a wide Niobium provides strength and excellent

range of extremely light-weight alloys corrosion resistance. Machinability is
when great strength, toughness, or satisfactory at slow operating speeds.
thermal conductivity and good shock
resistance are required. Machinability Silicon shortens tool-life considerably
is generally excellent, but machining when present in large amounts, but it
is hazardous on account of the risk of can produce effective chip control.
spontaneous ignition or explosion.
Sulphur is used to improved free
Manganese with high Mn-content cutting properties, but it reduces
is non-magnetic and readily work- corrosion resistance.
hardened. Edge reinforcement is usually
necessary to prevent damage to the The uses and properties of tantalum
cutting edge of the tool. Chip welding are similar to those of niobium.
occurs as wear patterns develop.
Tin has a primary use as an alloying
Molybdenum increases hardness of element in the production of bronze
steels and improves resistance to and bearing metals where its self-
corrosion and creep. lubricating properties are utilized.
While the machinability of copper-tin
Nickel increases hardness and strength bronzes is generally excellent, the
and at the same time reduces machin- other tin alloys present problems on
ability. It generally has high corrosion account of their softness.
resistance; some alloys with chromium
are very heat-resistant. Nickel alloys Titanium when alloyed with aluminum,
are sticky and cause edge build up manganese, tin or vanadium, makes
and notch wear, which become worse light-weight alloys with great strength
as the nickel content rises. and excellent corrosion resistance. It
is often used in pure form. Machinability
is fairly poor due to edge build-up and
tool-life is short. (Spontaneous ignition
of dust may occur.)
Tungsten is primarily used as an

alloying element for steel to improve
hardness, and in the production of
refractory metal components.
Vanadium is used together with

chromium to give a good edge to
steel and is generally used to increase
strength and toughness.
Zinc is widely used for low-strength,

low-cost alloys that are cast or wrought.
Cast engine block for compressor Easily machined with cutting tools.

04 Extra hard steel 55 HRC/681
05 Stainless steel
.1 Ferritic, Martensitic 13-25% Cr
200/333
.2 Austenitic 18-25% Cr, +8% Ni
180/355
.3 Quen./temp. Martensitic +0.12%
C 330/406
Workpiece .4 Precip. hard. steel 330/508
Materials – Classification .51 Aust. – Ferrit. (Duplex) 230/377
This is a listing of the more frequently .52 Aust. – Ferrit., low S (Duplex)
occurring workpiece materials divided 260/435
into machining groups by CMC code,
(Coromant Material Classification). Each 06 Steel castings
main group is sub-divided into more 06.1 Unalloyed 180/290
precise descriptions of materials with .2 Low-alloyed (less than 5% all.
typical hardness/strength values. elem.) 200/305
.3 High-alloyed (more than 5% all.
CMC code, Material, typical Hardness elem.) 225/392
(HB) /Strength values, (lbs/in2 x 1000): .31 Stainless, Ferr., Mart., 200/305
.32 Stainless, Aust. 200/333
01 Unalloyed steel .33 Manganese steel 12-14% Mn
01.0 Non-hardened, 0.05-0.10% C 250/522
125/290 .34 Hardened and tempered
.1 0.10-0.25 125/290 380/580
.2 0.25-0.55 150/304
.3 0.55-0.80 200/300 07 Malleable cast-iron
.4 High-carbon, annealed 210/336 07.1 Ferritic (short-chipping)130/1400
.5 Hardened and tempered .2 Pearlitic (long-chipping) 230/1600
300/368 .3 Martensitic 250/203
02 Low alloy steel 08 Grey cast-iron

(less than 5% all. elem.) 08.1 Low-tensile strength 180/137
02.1 Non-hardened 175/304 .2 High-tensile strength 260/203
.2 Hardened and tempered Austenitic 175/254
275/377
09 Nodular cast-iron (Ductile)
03 High alloy steel 09.1 Ferritic 160/150
(more than 5% all. elem.) .2 Pearlitic 250/250
03.11 Annealed 200/360 .3 Martensitic 330/305
.13 Annealed HSS 200/400
.21 Hardened tool steel 325/570 10 Chilled cast-iron (White)
.22 Hardened steel, others 325/540 10.1 Cast or cast/aged 400/400

11 Sintered materials 22 Refractory metals and alloys

11.1 Iron based 22.1 Niobium (Columbium)
.2 Copper based, Nickel based .2 Molybdenum
.3 Refractory metal base .3 Tantalum
.4 Aluminum based alloys .4 Tungsten
.5 Fe-Ni-Co alloys .5 Tungsten, alloyed
20 Heat resistant alloys (Iron based) 23 Titanium

20.11 Annealed or solution treat. 23.1 Comm. pure
200/435 .21 Alpha and Beta alloys, annealed
.12 Aged or solution treat./aged .22 Alpha plus Beta alloys, aged and
(Nickel based) 280/442 Beta alloys, annealed or aged
20.21 Annealed or sol.treat. 250/482
.22 Aged or sol. treat./aged 24 Nickel-Titanium alloys
350/522 24.1 Forged, wrought
.23 Cold drawn 275/500 .2 Annealed
.24 Cast or cast/aged (Cobalt .3 Quenched
based) 320/536
20.31 Annealed or sol. treat. 250/507 30 Aluminum
.32 Sol. treat./aged 350/580 30.11 Wrought/cold-worked alloy
.33 Cast or cast/aged 320/551 60/72
.12 Wrought/wrought and aged
21 Nickel (Comm. pure) alloy 100/116
21.11 Annealed or cold drawn .21 Cast, non-aging alloy 75/108
(Copper alloyed Nickel) .22 Cast/cast and aged alloy 90/130
21.21 Annealed, cold drawn or cast .30 Comm. pure 30/58
.22 Sol. treat. .41 Cast, with -15% Si alloy 130/137
.23 Aged .42 Cast -22% Si alloy 130/137
Deephole drilling in aerospace industry

Coronite endmilling in die steel
31 Magnesium and alloys 41 Carbon fiber composite

31.1 Wrought or cast 41.1 Carbon with fiber content -60%
.2 Carbon with fiber content +60%
33 Copper
33.1 Free-cutting alloys 110/101 43 Aramid composite
.2 Brass and lead-bronze 90/101
.3 Bronze and non-lead copper 44 Hybrids, various composites
100/250
45 Rubber
34 Zinc
34.1 Cast 65 Carbons and Graphites
35 Uranium 70 Flame and plasma sprayed

35.1 Annealed materials
70.1 Heat and wear resistant
36. Zirconium .2 Steels
36.1 Rolled, extruded and forged .3 Steels and ferr. stainless steel
.4 Aust. stainless steel
40 Plastics, Glass fiber .5 Irons
40.1 Thermo plastic .6 Al, Cu, Ni alloys
.2 Curable plastic, thermo-setting .7 Zn, Pb, Sn, Ag, Pf alloys
.3 Curable and reinforced
.4 Carbon fiber reinforced

Turning of forged steel railway axles
Endmilling of machine turrets
Drilling of ship propellor axles

Material cross reference list



Machining of hard materials

Hard materials are generally those with a hardness of above 42 up to 65
HRc. In the past, the only way to shape these was through grinding or
extremely slow machining. Today, new tool material development has
meant that these components can be formed through metal cutting. The
machining of chilled cast-iron in steel mill rolls has traditionally been
done with metal cutting while hardened steel components have been
ground. Both areas have been improved with new productivity and
security levels.
The choice of cutting tool for machining hard materials is influenced by

the severe demands made by the workpieces. The problems ex-
perienced include very rapid tool wear, cracks or chipping in the
cutting edge leading to generally poor results. Although cemented
carbides can cope with some of the operations and materials involved,
more specialized tool materials are needed to do a really qualified job;
certain types of ceramics and cubic boron nitride are the main types.
Difficulties in machining hard materials can be from:

- high temperatures in the cutting zone
- higher and variable cutting force magnitudes
- high pressure on a small chip cross-section, near the edge
- rapid cutting edge wear or breakdown
- stresses in workpiece released during machining

- poor homogenity in workpiece material

- insufficient stability
The extreme thermal and mechanical demands on tools in these

operations should primarily determine the choice of insert type, shape,
grade, geometry, machining method and cutting data.
The properties demanded of the cutting tool are mainly:

- abrasive wear resistance
- chemical stability
- hot hardness
- compression and bending strength
- resistance to diffusion wear
- cutting edge strength/toughness
- chemical stability
Cutting hard steels requires that the first three properties especially are
met by the tool. Cast-iron is very abrasive but machining temperatures
are lower and less emphasis is placed on chemical stability. Interrupted
cuts require more strength and toughness from the tool.
The two principle ways of achieving hardness in these materials are

through transformation to martensite (Mar.) in the structure of steel
and formation of carbides (Car.) in HRc
the structure as in white cast-iron.
Most steels contain a mixture of 70
the two.
65
In the adjoining diagram, a range of
hard materials is shown with typical 60
hardness ranges and the main
cause of hardness in the structure. 55
(A): White/chilled cast-iron

(B): High speed steel 50
A B C D E F
(C): Tool steel
Car.
(D): Ball-bearing steel
(E): Heat-treatable steel Mar.
(F): Case-hardened steel

Many axles, wheels, shafts, gears

and rings are hardened carbon
and alloy steel (CMC 02.1-2.4).
Surface hardening to depths up to
.08 in. leaves a tough core with
a wear resistant layer. Finishing
operations are then employed to
achieve high accuracy and surface
texture. These are performed at
high productivity rates in turning
where hardness and homogenity
are normally high and consistent.
High alloy steel journals, which
Hard part turning is an economic have been through-hardened (CMC
alternative to grinding 04.1) are often just finish turned.
When it comes to white/chilled cast-iron (CMC 10) most components

such as rolls or bars, do not require the same finish. Accuracy normally
has to be in the region of .004 in. and surface texture Ra 1.2. These
workpieces are often large and their condition varies considerably from
pre-machined workpieces to those having abrasive skins and cracks.
Hardness is somewhat lower but homogenity is poorer with roughing
and finishing being performed.
Hard materials make special demands on the cutting edges

Workpieces that have been hardened through hard facing, welding or

spraying are very demanding to machine, especially components which
have been repaired. Worn or new surfaces are applied with hard, wear
resistant layers, often having large and intricate profiles. Layers or strings
of stellite give rise to some of the most demanding operations in exis-
tence and were not possible to perform satisfactorily until recent years.
Some high temperature alloys are originally relatively soft, but during
machining they are work-hardened. Higher cutting speeds raise the cut-
ting temperature, reducing the deformation resistance. This means that
similar cutting tool materials, such as those used for hard materials,
with good toughness/strength, can also be suitable for these workpieces.
When hard materials are machined, the workpiece surface tends to

become burnished, leaving a clean surface with less likelihood for crack
formation and better wear life for the component. The surface texture
and accuracy are usually better than in corresponding grinding opera-
tions and turning is also considerably more productive than grinding.
The main cutting tool materials for machining hard materials (over 45-
50 HRc) are:
- CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride)

- Ceramics
CBN is ideal for machining

hardened, iron-based materials
such as steel forgings, hardened
steel, cast-iron, surface hardened
components, cobalt and iron based
powder metals, forming rolls, pear-
litic cast-iron, high temperature
alloys and martensitic stainless
steels. CBN performs best in
abrasive, hard materials, as softer
materials lead to poorer tool-life -
an important factor for machining
components that are not through- Excellent surface texture is achieved with
hardened. Excellent surface finish hard part turning

can be obtained in good, stable

machining conditions and the .004
harder the workpiece is, the more
advantageous the use of CBN.
Low content CBN, in combination 20°

with a ceramic binder, has better r
wear resistance and chemical sta-
bility, and is more suited to hard
steel components, and also to CBN-S
cast-iron. Higher content CBN,
which has more toughness, is more suitable for hard cast-iron and
steel as well as high temperature alloys.
Rigidity is essential in machinery and tooling. A large enough tool radius

and suitable edge reinforcement are also important. Interrupted cuts
should be carefully assessed to ensure that tool and set-up are the most
suitable. Edge chamfering directs cutting forces towards the stronger
part of the insert. Honing of the edge reduces risks of micro-chipping.
A typical “S” edge treatment is shown above with a .004" x 20"
chamfer plus a radius (r) on the cutting edge.
Moderate cutting speeds and relatively low feed rates and small cutting
depths are best. Cutting speeds should not be too low because of the
added risk of micro-chipping. If cutting fluid is used it should be an
emulsion and supply should be continuous. The workpiece usually
remains cool in machining with CBN as the heat is transported away
with the chips. Dry machining should be first choice.
Ceramic inserts are used widely for machining hard materials. They
have excellent characteristics for the job in that they are very wear
resistant, have high hot hardness and good chemical stability. Long
tool-life and high removal rates are typical when applied correctly. The
success of ceramics relies on the right machining conditions in the
right operation and workpiece material. Machine tool condition and
performance, methods and the insert type, as well as edge pre-
paration, are also important. The workpiece materials in this area are
considerable and include most types and conditions: hard steels,
chilled cast-iron and surface hardened components.

The toolholding is a critical factor when it comes to machining with ceramics

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ra
A2
A3
B
CB 20
CB 50
A2 = mixed al. oxide ceramic 1 = Steel, finishing
A3 = re-inforced mixed ceramic 2 = Steel, interrupted cuts
B = silicon nitride ceramic 3 = Cast iron, with skin
CB 20 = medium-content CBN 4 = Cast iron, with grooves.
CB 50 = high-content CBN 5 = Cast iron, refabricated
6 = Sprayed/Welded, roughing
Recommended Alternative 7 = Sprayed/Welded, finishing (Ra)
The ceramic types suitable for machining hard materials are the alumi-
num-oxide based, mixed and re-inforced grades, and the silicon nitride
grade based. The mixed-type grade ceramic is used to the broadest
extent in steels and cast-iron. The re-inforced type specializes in
difficult conditions in steel and cast-iron. The silicon-nitride type is used
only in cast-iron with difficult machining conditions.
.008
.004 .008 .005
20° 15° 15°

25°
T1 T2 K

Edge reinforcement is also important for ceramic inserts, to direct the

higher cutting forces of hard materials to stronger cross-sections of the
inserts. The (T1) type of reinforcement lends itself best to hard steel
and the (T2 and K), are best for chilled cast-iron. Ceramic inserts are
generally the best choice for machining hard material components.
The advent of very capable, tough and hard ceramic grades have made
the turning of hard material components a more attractive alternative
to the conventional grinding operations. The versatility of turning in
lathes provides the capability to turn complex shapes, perform
different operations, have quick change-over, higher productivity, etc.
Costs have proved to be considerably lower for machinery, tools,
space, time, etc. while the quality of machined components is higher.
Aluminum oxide ceramics are suitable for finishing hardened steel components

An example that shows the advantages of hard part turning is that of

the machining of hardened machine axles and rings, as shown in the
photo below. These are made of alloy steel, hardened to 62 HRc and
previously ground. Turning with mixed ceramic inserts, based on
aluminum oxide, has led to a production time reduction of eighty
percent compared with grinding, as well as cost reductions.
A CNC lathe with Coromant Capto modular tools machines the parts
with a cutting speed of 490 ft/min, feed .004 in/rev and cutting depth
of .004 inch. Using a square ceramic insert, with a nose radius of .031
in., three hundred components are completed per edge.
In the automotive industry a crown wheel (A) in low alloy steel, case-
hardened to 63 HRc is finish-turned with cubic boron nitride, square
inserts, with medium content CBN. The cutting speed used is 500
ft/min, feed .004 in/rev and cutting depth .008 inch. A tool-life of 45
minutes is achieved during which two hundred components are
machined per edge.
ø4.448 .001
0
ƒ
.35

B Ra63
.13
16.50
.315
ø10 ø8.07
ƒ
2.08 C
A steel mill roll (B) in chilled cast-iron, through-hardened to 57 HRc and

with a heavy cast-skin is machined with a reinforced, aluminum oxide
based ceramic grade, A square insert having a .094 in. nose radius is
used. The roll takes 23 minutes to machine and just over one roll can be
machined per edge. The cutting speed is 78 ft/min, feed .024 in/rev
and cutting depth .20 inch. No coolant is used in this very tough operation.
A steel roll (C) is turned with a mixed ceramic grade. With a through
hardness of 54 HRc, the high-alloy steel has grooves that have to be
formed by the tool. A round insert is used to profile the groove
radii. Tool-life is nearly three minutes per edge, which produces five
completed rolls. Cutting speed is 430 ft/min, feed is .005 in/rev and
cutting depth is .004 inch. The surface is pre-machined and an emul-
sion coolant is used.
A rotor component (D) in a cobalt based alloy with stellite cladding is

finish-turned by a reinforced ceramic round insert. Strings of stellite
grade 12 have been welded onto
the cylinder for machining to final
ƒ
shape and size. No coolant is used
for the insert turning at a cutting
ø6.929
speed of 1150 ft/min, feed .004
in/rev and cutting depth .04 inch.
A tool-life of around five minutes
per edge is achieved.
26.77
D

Heat treatment of metals

Heat treatment of metals is used to modify properties by controlling the
heating and cooling of the process. The temperatures involved depend
upon which changes are to take place in the metal, along with the
mechanical processing that has taken place prior to heat treatment.
Which of the various heat treatment processes is used depends upon
the type of material and the properties required.
The following describes the main methods of heat treatment for steel
to help in the assessing of components for machinability. This is not
intended as a direct practical guide in heat treatment of metal.
Processes covered are:
- annealing
- hardening
- tempering
- case-hardening
- surface-hardening

Annealing
Metal which has been subjected to hot or cold working normally
requires annealing before further operations are performed. The
treatment adopted varies according to the condition required, the
common ones being: normalizing, spheroidizing (and full-annealing),
stress relieving and recrystallization (or softening).
Normalizing serves chiefly to refine and make uniform a grain structure

that has been coarsened by hot working. For this purpose, the steel, if
hypoeutectoid, is heated to a temperature slightly above the completion
of transformation or, for hypereutectoid steels, to above transformation.
A heating time just long enough to ensure uniform temperature through
the steel, is required. Recrystallization takes place, changing the coarse,
heterogeneous structure into a fine-grained, uniform one. This improves
the toughness and strength of the material and facilitates subsequent
heat treatment. Normalized parts are allowed to cool freely in air.
Rolling and forging which have been continued down to low tempera-
tures of about 700° C, produce a fine-grained structure. Normalizing is
then unnecessary and may even be undesirable, because the structure
is liable to coarsen.
Milling annealed steel

The limit curves in the below diagram apply to components having small
cross-sections. For large-section components, temperatures are about
25° C higher.
A: upper limit of forging D: water quenching/annealing

temperature E: spheroidizing
B: normalizing F: recrystallization
C: oil hardening G: stress relieving
Normalizing is mainly required for steels with a maximum of about 1%

carbon. For higher carbon contents, hot working can be continued to
temperatures low enough to render normalizing unneccessary.
Spheroidizing takes place in heating steel so as to convert the cemen-

tite to its spheroidal form, making the steel softer and more malleable.
The advantages gained from this treatment are several: the steel is more
easily worked, machinability is improved, a microstructure suitable for
hardening is given and residual hot-working stresses are removed.
t°c
1100
A
1000
900
B
C
800
C
D
700
D
E
600 F G
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 C%

Limits and areas of various heat-treatment methods

Spheroidizing generally means improved machinability

Carbon hypoeutectoid and eutectoid steels are annealed for
spheroidizing at temperatures just at the transformation or immediately
below, usually at 700 to 720° C. The temperature is maintained for 3 to
4 hours and the rate of cooling is generally unimportant. This treatment
is sometimes referred to as sub-critical annealing. Complete
spheroidizing of the cementite is not always possible, due to the
narrow temperature limits which the process imposes. However, it is
not always necessary and may even be detrimental in low carbon
steels, since with all the cementite in nodular form, the steel may be
too soft for satisfactory machining. Unalloyed steels with less than
0.40-0.50% carbon are rarely spheroidized. Rolled or forged material
is usually satisfactory in the normalized condition.
Hypereutectoid steels are spheroidized at temperatures slightly above

transformation, at 740 to 780° C. Annealing temperature is held for 2 to
4 hours according to the amount of excess cementite: the denser the
cementite network, the longer the time required. The rate of cooling
should be slow at first - some 20° C per hour, until the temperature has
fallen to about 650° C, after which the steel can be safely cooled down
in air. This heat treatment process often is referred to as full-annealing.

Spheroidizing of hypereutectoid steels can also be carried out below

the transformation level, provided that the cementite network is thin,
though longer annealing times will then be required. Most of the alloy
steels demand higher temperature than straight carbon steels and
should be cooled at not more than 10° C per hour, until the
temperature has fallen to about 600° C.
Stress relieving can be carried out on heavy forged or cast products or

pieces with varying section areas which may cool unevenly after hot
working, causing internal stresses. It is intended to remove such
stresses and does not, as a rule, produce structural changes or
softening in the steel. To eliminate stresses, the steel is heated for
several hours at 500 to 625° C, the period being dependent on the
sizes of the piece and the steel composition. Slow cooling is required.
Softening or recrystallization is done with cold worked steel, such as an

after-rolling heat treatment operation. The steel is first raised to the
normalizing temperature, cooled in air to 700-600° C and finally
changed to a 500 to 600° C hot furnace, which is then allowed to cool.
Stress relieving can be carried out on heavy forged products

Recrystallization of cold worked steel, such as rolled or pressed

sheet, strip and wire or tubes, has the effect of stiffening the structure.
Thus, resistance to further working increases and a softening treatment
is necessary before the process is completed. Recrystallization
annealing of straight carbon and low-alloy steels is usually carried out
at a temperature of about 600 to 720° C. The process takes place in a
very short time so the annealing time only needs to be long enough to
ensure uniform through-heating of the component. Cooling may be
either in open air or in a furnace.
If a soft steel structure is required, the process is sometimes used as

the final heat treatment once cold working has been completed. Hot-
worked products do not usually need this treatment since the working
temperature is high enough to promote recrystallization when the steel
cools down.
Hardening
This treatment is used to give steel a high degree of hardness by
quenching it from the austenitic region to that of martensite at a
cooling rate that is higher than the critical value. After the process of
hardening to tempering - an intermediate operation between
annealing and hardening - there are also toughening, martempering
and austempering plus the two methods of surface-hardening, case-
hardening (or carburizing) and nitriding, to consider. A third method of
selectively hardening the surface of a piece of steel, induction
hardening, requires special equipment which is usually designed for a
particular range of work. It should also be noted that according to the
quenching medium used, the terms water quenching and oil
quenching and similarly, air hardening, are employed.
The ability to harden steel is primarily determined by the carbon

content in the austenitic solution and the amount of martensite formed.
Hardenability is principally the steel’s ability to form martensite. This
also determines the hardening depth under the component surface
with more than fifty percent martensite. The next diagram shows the
amount of martensite in relation to the hardness and carbon content.

When hardening steel, the whole

component should be heated uni- HRC
formly. This is particularly impor- 99%

90%
60
tant with parts of irregular form, 50%
otherwise severe distortion, internal 50
stresses or cracking may occur 40
during or after the hardening 30

operation. It is also important to
use correct hardening tempera- 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 C%
ture since this largely governs the
Hardenability of carbon steel
result of the process: too low a
temperature will prevent the achievment of the desired hardness, too
high will cause excessive grain growth and make the steel brittle.
Steel suppliers usually supply specific information on the appropriate

range of hardening temperatures for each type of steel. In selecting a
temperature within this range, the size of the component to be
hardened and the characteristics of the quenching medium will be
determining factors in each case. The thicker the component, the
higher the temperature and vice versa. On the other hand, for plain
carbon steels, a higher temperature will be needed for oil quenching
as compared to water quenching.
For small components, it may be
advantageous to use molten metal
or salt bath furnaces to provide
rapid and uniform heating. For
large parts, a muffle furnace often
gives the best result. This must
operate with a suitable protective
atmosphere if sealing and decar-
burization of the steel is to be
avoided.
When the component has attained

hardening temperature, the actual
hardening process takes place by
cooling it in water, oil or air. The
Hardened axles that are turned with speed of cooling should not, as a
mixed ceramics

rule, exceed the critical cooling rate. When quenching in water, the
bath should generally be at a temperature between 20 and 40° C. Its
cooling capacity can be increased by the addition of common salt.
The cooling capacity of oil varies with temperature and reaches a
maximum, for most quenching oils, at 50 to 75° C. To achieve uniform
cooling, the component should be immersed with its longer section at
right angles to the cooling surface. If the component has a varying
section, the thickest parts should be submerged first. The component
should be moved back and forth, or the bath should be stirred during
cooling.
If the surface of the component is not hard, after heating and quenching,
the problem may lie in one or more of the following factors:
- loss of carbon through decarburization in preceding heating operation

- temperature too low or not uniform
- time too short to ensure uniformity throughout
- cooling too slowly, possibly due to using an inadequate quenching
medium.
t°C
A1
The cooling curves shown on the tempera-
ture/time diagram refer to normally hardened
B1
pieces which either harden right through (left A2 B2
curves), or surface only (right curves).
A1: surface, small component

B1: core, small component
A2: surface, large component log
B2: core, large component

Tempering
The purpose of tempering is to increase the toughness of the steel
and to relieve the internal stresses caused by hardening. However, the
increase in toughness is accompanied by a decrease in hardness,
so the tempering operation must aim at achieving the optimum
combination of the two characteristics.
Tempering is normally carried out by one of the following methods:
- Normally hardened steel is reheated to the temperature required for

tempering and kept there for the appropriate time, then left to cool in
air. Close control of the temperature is essential, therefore, special
tempering furnaces are used.
- In the hardening operation, the steel is not allowed to cool completely,

but is removed from the quench tank while the center is still hot.
The retained heat is then sufficient to temper the outer hardened
surface. As soon as the surface - specially cleaned for this purpose
- shows the appropriate temper color, the operation is terminated
by quenching the steel in water.
Plastic-forming die in tempered tool steel

HRC Heating hardened steel to a

temperature not exceeding 150°C
60 causes no serious decrease in
hardness. Therefore, for relieving
internal stresses to a moderate
CMC
03.13
extent, without impairing hardness,
40
03.11 hardened steel is treated at 100 to
02.1 150° C. When a more marked
increase in toughness is desired,
20
a certain degree of hardness
reduction has to be accepted.
The temperature may be decided
01.4
with reference to the tempering
0
diagram established for the grade
0 100 300 500 700
°C of steel in question. The tempera-
ture should be checked and the
CMC C Mn Cr Mo W Co V
03.13 0.83 - 4 5 6.5 5 1.9
furnace be arranged for easy,
01.4 1.0 0.3 - - - - - accurate temperature control.
The tempering temperature mainly for
various alloyed steels.
HRC
Of these two methods, the former CMC

60 03.11
is the more commonly employed
02.1(A)
because it permits better control
of both hardening and tempering. 02.1(B)
Tempering should be carried out 40
soon after hardening. The time 01.4

allowed should be sufficient to
keep the core of the component 20
0 .4 1.2 2.0
at temperature for the proper HRC in.
period. This may be from half an
hour to two hours, according to
CMC C Mn Cr Ni Mo W V
the size of the component; the 01.4 1.0 0.3 - - - - -
lower the temperature used, the 02.1(B) 0.9 1.2 0.5 - - 0.5 0.1
03.11 2.1 0.75 13 - - 1.3 -
longer the time required for the 02.1(A) 0.6 0.4 1.0 3.0 0.3 - -
operation.
Extent of hardness mainly for some alloyed
steels

Tempering temperatures may be

estimated from the colors which Color Temperature
appear on the surface of a heated °C
component of steel when it is left
to cool in air. The approximate pale yellow 200
relation between temper color light yellow 220
and temperature is as according dark yellow 240
to the adjoining table.
purple 260
violet 280
Toughening is a special heat
dark blue 290
treatment involving hardening
followed by high temperature bright blue 300
tempering - at 450 to 650° C. The grey blue 350
treatment is applicable only to grey 400
components which are susceptible
to through-hardening and is there-
fore unsuitable for straight carbon Hv
steels, which only harden on the
surface. Toughening is particularly 800
useful for parts made from

alloy steel; for instance, large Cr-
Ni-steel components may gain 600
considerable impact strength by

such high temperature tempering
followed by quenching in oil or 400
water. %C
1.00
0.70
0.50
Ordinary hardening is performed 200
0.30
by cooling the steel rapidly from

the austenitising temperature to
0 200 400 600
t oC
room temperature in order to The influence of tempering temperature on
the hardness of various carbon steel.
transform the austenite into mar-
tensite (A). Transformation starts
when the temperature reaches the upper limit of martensite formation
and occurs first in the outer layer of the steel. Thus, if the component
is thick, the structure at the surface may be fully transformed before
the core has had time to cool to the limit. This condition sets up
severe internal stresses and is a cause of distortion and cracking.

t°C t°C
log log
A B
If the structural changes at the surface can be delayed until the whole
component has attained the same temperature (B), these undesirable
effects may be avoided. A special hardening procedure, designed to
produce a fully martensitic structure with a minimum of residual
stresses, distortion and cracking is called martempering.
In martempering the steel is quenched from the hardening temperature

in a bath of molten salt or metal, the temperature of which slightly
exceeds the martensite formation limit of the steel. After the steel has
attained complete temperature equilibrium, throughout the section in
the bath, it is removed for cooling in air. The austenite-to-martensite
transformation then takes place at approximately the same time
throughout the component. Because quenching in the hot bath is
relatively slow, martempering is suitable only for steels having a fairly
low critical cooling rate. The process is followed by tempering in the
normal way.
Steels with a high degree of toughness are often required, particularly

for highly stressed parts. For such applications, the austempering
procedure may be adopted, producing a bainite structure in the steel.
Bainite is tougher than martensite, at the same hardness, and is
formed by the isothermal transformation of austenite at temperature
levels between 200 and 450° C. For austempering the steel is cooled

from the austenite temperature in a bath of molten salt or metal kept

at a temperature exceeding the martensite transformation limit of the
steel. When the entire component has been transformed to bainite, it
may be cooled to room temperature in any medium. The cooling rate,
as in the case of ordinary hardening, must be quick enough to avoid
the formation of pearlite. The final hardness of the component is
controlled by setting the temperature of the quenching bath, which
normally ranges between 200 and 400° C. No subsequent tempering
process is required. Straight carbon steel can be austempered only if the
components have light enough sections to cool at the necessary high
rate. Large parts requiring austempering must be made of alloy steel.
Machining of steel with a high degree of toughness

Case-hardening
For various design purposes,

steel components must possess
a highly wear-resistant surface
and a tough, but softer, core. For
such applications, a low carbon
steel - usually of 0.10 to 0.20% C
- is used. The carbon is added to
its surface to make the latter
susceptible to hardening.
In carburizing, one of the main methods used, the addition of carbon

to the surface of the steel - usually up to about 1% - followed by
hardening, results in an extremely hard surface while the core, of low
carbon content, remains unaffected by the hardening operation and
retains its toughness. The process is also valuable in application to
parts which, because of their shape, would be susceptible to cracking
and distortion during heating and would also be lacking in toughness
if made of high-carbon steel.
Traditionally, components are finish-machined before case-hardening,

but not ground. They should also be thoroughly cleaned and, if it is
required that certain parts of the surface not be hardened, the areas
involved can be protected from carburizing by copper plating or by
covering. Protective covering must be thoroughly dried before the parts
are subjected to the treatment. Alternatively, a sufficient machining
allowance may be left on the parts to permit the removal of the
carburized layer by machining before the hardening operation. Today,
hard part turning with ceramics or cubic boron nitride is changing the
methods. Many grinding operations of hardened components can be
replaced by turning.
For pack-carburizing the components are embedded in carburizing

compound - usually a mixture of 60% charcoal and 40% barium car-
bonate, or sometimes calcined bones and leather - contained in a
heat-resisting box with a lid sealed by fireclay. Another method, which
is distinct from pack-carburizing but which is rapidly superceding the
latter in large production plants, is known as gas-carburizing. In this

process, a gas of suitable hydro-carbon content is circulated over the

heated work, thus avoiding packing in compound. Immersion in a
heated bath of cyanide salt is a further case-hardening method often
used and referred to as molten cyanide-carburizing. Cyanide salt baths
also liberate nitrogen and treatment by this method gives the effect of
combined carburizing and nitriding.
In all these methods, carbon from the carburizing agent is dissolved in

the low-carbon steel at a temperature above the transformation limits,
usually in the range 850 to 950° C. The carbon permeates slowly into
the austenite and the carbon content of the carburized case therefore
decreases towards the center of the piece. The higher the temperature
employed, the greater the solubility of carbon in austenite; thus the
carbon content of the case and the speed with which a given depth of
case is developed are higher. Carburizing times vary from 2 to 8 hours
or more, according to the depth of case required. The latter should
normally not exceed what is necessary to obtain a hard and wear-
resisting surface after hardening. It may also be necessary to limit the
depth of case on thin articles in order not to impair their toughness.
After carburizing, the charge is cooled and is then subjected to a double

quenching, though the parts should be cleaned first if the pack-car-
burizing method has been used.
The first hardening should start at C°
the carburizing temperature. It
serves to refine the grain structure 900
in the core of the steel and to
dissolve any cementite network
800
which may have formed in the
surface layer. This first hardening +C
operation is often replaced by a 700 A+B B+C
normalizing treatment. The second
stage comprises hardening from
600
760 to 800° C and gives a fine
structure to the carburized case.
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
If a mild carburizing agent has %C
been used, a single quenching 60 HRc
operation may suffice. For this

purpose, the carburized components are heated to the normal

hardening temperature of, say, 780 to 820° C and quenched. For parts
which are not required to stand high stresses, quenching right from the
carburizing furnace may be practiced, with consequent economy, and
with adequate core toughness. This method is most easily used with
gas-carburizing or cyanide hardening and constitutes one of the
important advantages of the former process. After final hardening,
tempering at about 175° C will increase the toughness of the case-
hardened components without any serious loss of surface hardness.
Nitriding is a case-hardening process in which the added element is

nitrogen instead of carbon. For steel to absorb nitrogen in sufficient
quantities it must contain alloying elements which form nitrides, such
as aluminum, chromium and vanadium. Before nitriding, the parts are
usually hardened and tempered at a high temperature. They are
generally finish-machined and may even be ground before treatment,
since nitriding causes very little distortion.
The process involves exposing the parts, at a temperature of about

500 to 550° C, to an atmosphere of ammonia gas for a period of 25 to
100 hours. The ammonia dissociates at the surface of the steel, its nitro-
gen content combining with the alloying elements as finely distributed

nitrides which give the surface a very high degree of hardness. Nitriding
may also be done in salt baths which can free nitrogen. The principal
advantages of nitriding lie in the avoidance of any subsequent heat
treatment and the absence of distortion and scaling. Its chief dis-
advantage is its slowness and shallow penetration, the depth of which
is not easily controlled with accuracy and cannot even be made to
exceed .04 inch.
The described processes have been included to provide an insight

into the relationship between mechanical properties and heat treatment,
so as to provide a better basis of analysis for machining.
Surface hardening methods
Surface hardness is a broader concept than case hardness and is a

key factor when it comes to affecting wear resistance of mechanical
components. There is a range of methods to produce this property
which has a hard, wear resistant surface, but with a tough core to
withstand breakage.
Surface hardening processes mainly fall into three groups. The

processes are capable of producing wear resistant surfaces, each
with its own particular characteristics.
- Coating: a hard layer of material is deposited on the the workpiece.

- Surface quenching: the workpiece is heated rapidly to a controlled
depth and is then quenched.
- Thermo-chemical change: the composition of the workpiece
surface material is changed to produce a hard surface directly or to
produce one that can be hardened by subsequent heat treatment.
(A) Hard facing

(B) Electroplating
(C) Metal spraying
(D) Flame hardening
(E) Induction hardening
(F) Carburizing
(G) Nitriding

A
B
N
N N N N N
N N N N
F N N G N N
N N N N N
N
The hard facing process involves depositing a selected alloy on areas

of the workpiece. Electric arc welding is used frequently. The choice of
alloy includes a manganese steel which will work-harden and stellite
containing chromium and tungsten.
Hard facing is generally unsuitable for gears, spindles and most

precision components in engineering. Pre- and post-heating are
required for best results in order to prevent stress cracking at the
work interface, except when the work material is mild steel.
Considerable machining or grinding may be required to finish to size.
Applications include earth moving plant and contractor equipment, quarry

plant and oilfield tools. This includes carbon and alloy steel components.
Hard coating can also be deposited on the workpiece through electro-

plating. The workpiece acts as the cathode during application and the
deposit material is the anode. Very hard deposits are possible and
constant depth of deposit and good surface finish are among the
advantages. However, only relatively thin coatings can be deposited
through this method.

Typical components include parts

for tooling, shafts and hydraulic
rams, with suitable steels being
the most conductive metals. The
deposited metal is usually chro-
mium.
In metal spraying, a continuous

ribbon of the material is fed
through a gas flame with a spray
gun. Molten particles are blasted
by means of compressed air onto
the surface of the workpiece,
producing a very uniform surface
that is easily finished with a Machined stellite clad component
minimum of machining. Special equipment is necessary and thick
deposits are not easily built up.
A typical application is reclaiming worn components by rebuilding

damaged surfaces. Any type of steel can be treated, with the deposit
material usually being of a proprietary composition.
In flame hardening, a gas-oxygen flame is used to raise the tempera-

ture of the surface of the workpiece. This is followed by rapid cooling.
The hardening depth depends on the size of the workpiece flame
intensity and heating time. In its simplest form, a welding torch is used
and applied manually but for production applications, the workpiece
can be moved in front of a torch and quenched by either spray or
immersion. Progressive hardening can be carried out along the length
of a flat surface or spirally over the surface of the shaft.
The method gives a good depth of hardness and is easy to localize. It

can generally be used without special equipment and is an economical
process. Hardness depth can vary leading to loss of ductility in the
core material. With gears, this effect can result in tooth weakness and,
consequently, breaking. Distortion can result from stresses produced
during heating and quenching, and soft spots can be produced as the
flame heats an area adjacent to a zone that is already hardened, thus
tempering the zone. There is also tendency for stress cracking.

Typical applications are generally shafts, cams, slideways, gears and

plates in plain carbon steels that give hardness values between 50
and 60 Rc. Higher carbon content steels may be used, but may be
prone to stress cracking. Alloy steels are commonly used and these
present an opportunity of obtaining higher core strength.
In induction hardening, heating of the surface is carried out by means

of a high-frequency coil. The depth of hardening can be controlled
readily, since it is dependent on power input and frequency. Suitably
shaped coils are employed for each type of workpiece. Short heating
times give minimal decarburization and oxidation. Surfaces are easy to
localize and it is more controllable than flame hardening. The process
is somewhat restricted to workpiece shapes. Distortion may be
produced but generally to a lesser extent than with flame hardening.
Incorrect hardening depth is not easy to detect and can lead to failures.
The process is often applied to rotating components, which lend them-

selves to being moved within the heating coil to obtain temperature
uniformity. The process is suitable for spindles, gears, pins, etc. Since
it is similar to flame hardening, there is the same choice of materials.
Induction hardening is suitable for components that can be moved within a heating coil.

Case hardening is a two-stage process where the workpiece is first

carburized by heating in a carburizing material. Subsequent heat
treatment then provides a combination of core strength and surface
hardness. Low grades of steel may be employed and irregular shapes
can be treated. Deep case thicknesses are possible. Distortion may
be considerable due to high temperatures and long carburizing cycles.
Surface cracking can be produced during the quenching operation and
a tendency for soft spots may be produced as the result of unclean
surfaces, decarburization or faults in the micro-structure of the steel.
Gears, cams, slides, cylinders and worms are typical components in

low-carbon steel. With alloy steels, the choice generally falls between
various nickel-chromium steels. The choice depends very much on
the core properties and case hardness required.
In nitriding, components are subjected to ammonia at a high tempera-

ture for many hours, depending on the depth of hardness required. A
hard surface and wear resistance are produced directly by this single
process. There is good dimensional stability and low amounts of
distortion, whereby assymetrical shapes of intricate forms can be
treated. No stress cracking and a good level of hardness is retained at
elevated working temperatures.
Treated components are clean, free from scale and frequently suitable
for service without machining. A nitrided surface is extremely resistant to
corrosive attack. Fatigue resistance is excellent. However, the process is
suitabile for special alloy steels only and it involves long treating times.
Gears, shafts, molds, dies, pins and general precision components are
typically nitrided. A nitriding steel is frequently selected for its properties
of minimum distortion and predictable behavior during processing.
Hence, slender shafts can be surface hardened without difficulty and
gears which would require finish machining if other surface hardening
techniques were used, may be put into service immediately after
nitriding. There are two main types of steels for nitriding: chromium-
molybdenum steels giving good core strengths, and chromium-
aluminum steels giving similar core strengths but an extremely hard
surface. Both materials are generally supplied in the hardened and
tempered condition, in which they can be machined readily.

Steel: the equilibrium and structures

Carbon, or unalloyed, steels are malleable alloys of iron and carbon,
with carbon contents ranging from a fraction of one to nearly two per-
cent. The carbon content determines the most important characteristics:
hardness, toughness, wear resistance, malleability and hardenability.
Carbon steels always contain small quantities of silicon, manganese,
phosphorus and sulphur. The latter two are kept to very small amounts.
Alloy steels are those containing larger proportions of one or more of

the above elements, and for those to which other elements, such as
chromium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium have been
added in various amounts.
The dominant effect of carbon on the characteristics of steel is shown in

the microstructure. In unhardened steel, at room temperature, practically
all the carbon is combined with iron, forming iron-carbide called
cementite. Steel has three main constituents:
- Ferrite, which is nearly pure iron with practically no carbon. It is

magnetic and, in the pure state, soft and ductile.
- Cementite is iron carbide containing about 6.6 percent carbon.
- Lamellar pearlite is composed of alternately placed plates of
ferrite and cementite. The mean carbon content of the mixture is
about 0.85 percent.

The minor quantities of silicon,

phosphorus and manganese do
not show since these are first to
be dissolved in ferrite and the last
in cementite. Sulphur is present
chiefly as sulphides, which are
included among the impurities in
the steel. Since the sulphur content
is usually very low in high quality
steels - about 0.20 percent or less
- iron sulphide inclusions are
insignificant. Almost all industrial
steels have carbon contents in
the range indicated in the following part of the iron-carbon phase
diagram. This illustrates the states of equilibrium between the
constituents of steel at different carbon contents and temperatures.
Various equilibrium constituents, known as phases, correspond to

different crystallographic structures. This represents the effect of
graduated carbon contents in slowly cooled steel. At the left is low
carbon iron with a structure of bright grains, ferrite (A), with the lines
marking grain boundaries. With increasing carbon content, a new
constituent, pearlite (B), appears in greater proportions. At 0.85
percent carbon, the entire structure is made up of pearlite. Further
increase in carbon content introduces a new constituent of bright
appearance, cementite (C). It precipitates at the boundaries of the
original austenite () grains, making a continuous network around them
and is therefore sometimes called intergranular cementite. The
thickness of the cementite network increases as the carbon content
rises to about 1.7 percent. Cementite is iron carbide, and it should be
noted that alloy steels also contain other forms of carbides.
A steel is said to be eutectoid when it is wholly pearlitic in structure.

Similarly, steels are described as hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid
depending on whether they contain less or more than 0.85 percent carbon,
as these will contain an excess of free ferrite or cementite in addition to
pearlite. Heating eutectoid steel - a steel composed, at room temperature,
exclusively of pearlite - causes a transformation in its structure as the
temperature passes through the level (E) at about 725° C in the diagram.

This transformation consists of a separation of the pearlite, its con-

stituent lamella of cementite, as well as ferrite, going into solution to
form a new, stable phase of austenite. The formation of austenite
requires a certain length of time and takes place, in the case of
straight carbon steels, within a temperature range of 5 to 10° C.
The pearlite of hypo- and hypereutectoid steels is also transformed into

austenite when the temperature passes the horizontal line through the
transformation temperature, (E) in the equilibrium diagram. If the
temperature rises beyond this point, the excess ferrite or cementite,
as the case may be, dissolves in the austenite. Lines from 900° to (E)
and upwards in the diagram mark the completion of transformation,
according to the carbon content of the steel. Beyond these critical
temperatures, ferrite and cementite are completely in solution and the
steel has a purely austenitic structure. It should be noted that, whereas
practical requirements for steel generally call for a fine-grained structure,
the grain size of austenite increases with temperature and with time at
temperature.
°C
900

800
A+ +C
700 E
A+B B+C
600
- Ferrite (A)
- Pearlite (B) 0.8
- Cementite (C) 0
- Austenite () 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
- Eutectoid point (E) %C

When carbon steel is heated above its critical temperature and then
slowly cooled, the transformation is reversed and the steel gradually
resumes its initial phase. Thus, in hypoeutectoid steels, ferrite preci-
pitates in the temperature range indicated by the transformation lines.
Meanwhile, the carbon content of the residual austenite rises until,
when the temperature falls, it reaches a value of about 0.85 percent.
When the temperature passes the line, the austenite is transformed
almost instantaneously into pearlite and further cooling, down to room
temperature, produces no further structual changes.
The transformation of hypereutectoid steels is similar: cementite preci-

pitates in its range, carbon content decreases progressively to about
0.85 percent in the remaining austenite, which then transforms finally
to pearlite on passing the critical temperature. In eutectoid steels, the
austenite is transformed entirely to pearlite on passing the level (E).
Physical bodies tend to assume the shape which has the minimum
surface - the sphere - as evidenced by a drop of water on a flat surface.
Under the same natural forces, cementite tends to spheroidize, that is,
to form globular particles. Heating steel accelerates the process, but
the transformation temperature cannot be exceeded without
decomposing the cementite.
The heat treatment procedure

known as soft annealing, or sphe-
roidize annealing, involves main-
taining straight carbon steel at a
temperature between 700 and
720° C and spheroidizing the
cementite, making the steel softer
and easier to machine. Since the
required temperature is below the
transformation, the treatment is
also referred to as sub-critical
annealing.
Spheroidizing of cementite neces-

sitates long heat treatment times,

particularly for high-carbon steels

with large amounts of excess ce-
mentite. For hypereutectoid steels
the process may be speeded up
by heating to a temperature just
above transformation. As the
equilibrium diagram shows, the
steel matrix will then be composed
of austenite and cementite. The
latter appears in small quantities
only and in the form of tiny
particles, which represent the
remains of the lamellae and inter-
granular network. On subsequent
slow cooling, the cementite preci-
pitates in globular form around
these particles, instead of in lam-
ellae. This kind of soft annealing
offers a more rapid means of
spheroidizing the cementite in
hypereutectoid steels than sub-
critical annealing.
In the phase diagram, as the rate of cooling is increased, the

transformation line is displaced downward in the diagram. In other
words, rapid cooling of austenite, as by quenching in water, may
prevent the formation of any ferrite plus cementite mixture at all.The
cooling curve passes to the left of the pearlite nose without touching
the line marking the start of transformation. It might be supposed that
austenite thus cooled would remain stable at room temperature. In
spite of rapid cooling, however, austenite undergoes a transformation
- quite different from those mentioned - at low temperature, forming a
new structural phase of steel, called martensite. Martensite has
needle-shaped grains and is extremely hard. Several heat treatment
operations are designed to give a steel a martensitic structure. Bainite
is the structure formed by the precipitation of small particles of
cementite. It is softer and tougher than martensite and formed at a
slower rate.

The slowest cooling rate which will give a homogeneous martensitic

structure - without any precipitation of a ferrite and cementite mixture,
such as pearlite or bainite - is called the critical cooling rate. There is
an upper limit of the temperature range in which martensite is formed
and is lowered as carbon content rises. On the other hand, the amount
of martensite precipitated in a given steel depends on the temperature
to which the steel has been cooled. The progress of martensite pre-
cipitation with falling temperature is determined largely by the com-
position of the austenite and probably by its grain size. Steels which
can be hardened from a wide range of temperatures without developing
a coarse structure are said to be inherently fine-grained types.
The amount of martensite formed rises as the temperature is reduced,

but in practice it is not possible to transform all the austenite into
martensite, and hardened steels, therefore, always contain small
quantities of residual or retained austenite. The hardness which can be
imparted to steels increases with carbon content. In practice, no sub-
stantial increase in hardness can be attained by increasing carbon
content beyond about 1 percent and, as a rule, steels with less than
0.3 percent carbon are not hardened.

Hypoeutectoid steels should be

heated above the transformation
line, before hardening, in order to 100
dissolve the ferrite completely,

since inclusions of soft ferrite in 80
the martensite would prevent it
from reaching maximum hardness.
Austenite is relatively soft while
50
cementite is hard, even harder HRC in.
than martensite, and may thus
help to increase the hardness of 30
the steel. It is important that, in

eutectoid and hypereutectoid
steels, the cementite is spheroi- 0
dized completely. 0 .04 .12 .20
In hardening processes, the rate of cooling in various parts of the

component falls as the distance inwards from the surface increases.
Therefore, in large-dimensioned parts of carbon steel only a surface
layer between about .08 and .20 inches thick becomes wholly
martensitic, as shown in the diagram. Inside this surface zone is a
region with an increasing amount of fine lamellar pearlite and bainite
in the martensite, until the martensite finally disappears entirely. The
core structure is usually lamellar pearlite.
Because it is literally forced into existence, martensite is not in a state

of equilibrium and tends to decompose into ferrite and cementite.
This process, so slow at room temperature as to be ignored, can be
accelerated by heating and has the effect of reducing the hardness of
the steel while increasing its toughness. The heat treatment applied to
hardened steel with this object is tempering.
At relatively low temperatures, 100 to 200° C, decomposition does not

proceed to the point of precipitating ferrite and cementite. For this to
occur, the temperature must exceed 400° C in which case cementite
forms as extremely small particles.

Alloy Steels
Alloy steels contain, in addition to iron and carbon, one or more of such
alloying elements as chromium, nickel or tungsten. Steel containing
substantial amounts of silicon, manganese or phosphorus are also
included in this category.
The inertia of steel to transformation increases with the amount of

alloying elements dissolved in the austenite. These elements thus have
the effect of reducing the critical cooling rate. This enables oil
quenching or air cooling to be practiced and the high internal stresses
caused by water quenching to be avoided.
The lower critical cooling rate of alloy steels provides greater depth of
hardness penetration than with straight carbon steels, and alloy steels
are, therefore, often chosen for parts requiring hardening to a
considerable depth. In addition to the low-alloy steels, a range of
more specialized types, termed high-alloy steels, is produced.
(Stainless steels are included in this group and are known in
austenitic, ferritic, ferritic-austenitic and martensitic varieties.)
Almost any alloying element displaces the point at which the

formation of martensite begins to lower temperature levels. In

austenitic steels, characterized by particularly high chromium and

nickel contents, the martensite formation occurs at levels substantially
below room temperature. Thus, at room temperature, these steels
have an austenitic structure and are not hardenable in the proper
sense of the word. Such steels are non-magnetic. They usually have a
chromium content of 17 to 19% and 7 to 11% of nickel.
Austenitic stainless steel sometimes contains carbides, particularly

chromium carbides, which are incompatible with the needed resistance
to corrosion. These carbides may be dissolved, however, by heating to
a comparatively high temperature, followed by rapid cooling. This treat-
ment, though, may be impractical with large, welded fabrications. To
avoid the precipitation of carbides in and near the welds during slow
cooling from welding heat, steels of low carbon content - 0.06% C or
less - are used, since in these steels, carbides form in insignificant
amounts only. Alternatively, one of the so-called stabilized steels may
be used. These contain one of the strong carbide-formers, titanium or
niobium and tantalum, which form carbides insoluble in austenite. Thus
carbon is not freed to form chromium carbides, which would precipitate
at the grain boundaries in the weld zones. Stabilized steels are suitable
for use at high service temperatures in the range of 500 to 800° C.
Low-carbon, high-chrome steels (from 13 to 30% Cr) are in the alpha

condition at all temperatures below the melting point and are thus
referred to as ferritic steels. As the structure of such steels can never
become austenitic, they cannot be hardened. For a steel to be ferritic,
its carbon content must be less than 0.06% if the chromium content
is 13%, or less than 0.25% if the chromium content is 30%.
Ferritic-austenitic steel contains about 26% Cr and 4 to 5% Ni. Their

carbon content is low and seldom exceeds 0.10%. The structure is
composed of a mixture of ferrite and austenite and cannot be hardened.
Finally, martensitic stainless steel has carbon contents so related to

chromium contents that, when heated above the critical temperature
range, the structure becomes almost entirely austenitic. On cooling, a
martensitic structure is developed and hardening takes place. The
chromium content is usually 13 to 20%, the carbon content ranging
from 0.1 up to 1.0%.

19158 03_ToolMateri 07-04-12 09.30 Sida 1
TOOL MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION 2 CERMETS -
CEMENTED CARBIDE 33
CEMENTED CARBIDE 9
CERAMICS 36
THE MANUFACTURE
OF CEMENTED CARBIDES 14 CORONITE 41
CLASSIFICATION OF CUBIC BORON NITRIDE 45
CEMENTED CARBIDES 21
CBN 46
COATED
CEMENTED CARBIDES 25 POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND 47
MANUFACTURE OF COATED
CEMENTED CARBIDES 30
19158 03_ToolMateri 07-04-12 09.30 Sida III-2
TOOL MATERIALS
Tool materials are the subject of that the pace is accelerating - although
intense development. They are the the quantum jumps in performance
products of an evolution that has for high speed steel, cemented carbide
taken place almost entirely during the and coated carbides have not yet taken
twentieth century, especially since the place. The improvements that take
thirties. Machining that took one place today, however, still have in
hundred minutes in 1900 takes less many cases, a dramatic influence
than one minute today. It is not an on productivity improvements. The
exaggeration to say that the evolution vertical axis represents a time index for
of tool materials is one of the major how long it takes, relatively, to machine
contributing factors that has helped to a certain amount of metal. The main
create the modern, efficient industrial goal here is to put developments into a
world in which we live. machining cost perspective.
Today, there is a tool material to Take, for instance, Coronite, the small
optimize every metal cutting operation particle tool material laminated on a
- one that will cut a certain workpiece, tough steel core. The effect this
under certain conditions in the best material is having on the machining
way. Not only have completely new performance of endmills is surely of
materials appeared, but high speed the same magnitude as the major
steel, which was a major break- materials used earlier in this century.
through at the beginning of the century, Moreover, the improvements in tool
has been developed to machine several performance that occur continuously
times faster. Mainly, the introduction today have considerable affect on
and continuous improvement of hard- machining economics. Being able to
materials has improved metal cutting improve a milling operation with
during the recent decades. coated grades so that the removal rate
is increased by 50% and the tool-life
The adjoining graph lists most of the is extended by 50%, and also being
cutting tool materials for metal cutting. able to use one grade that can take
Looking at the graph, it can be seen the place of an assortment of several
III-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

1. Carbon steel 13. Coated carbides (GC)

2. High speed steel (HSS) 14. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
3. Cast alloys 15. Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
4. Improved high speed steel 16. Multi-coated carbides
5. Cemented carbide for cast-iron (C) 17. Coated carbides for drilling
6. Cemented carbide for steel 18. Coated carbides for milling
7. Cem. carb. index. inserts 19. Coated carbides for stainless
8. Ceramics (CC) 20. Coronite (N)
9. Synthetic diamonds 21. Improved cermets
100 1 10. Improved cemented carbide 22. Coated carbides for threading
11. Cermets (CT) 23. New generation coated carbides
12. Premium cemented carbides
26 2
4 10 12
9 11 13 14 16 18
5 6 15 17 19 21 23
6 78 20 22
1
1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1900 1990
Main developments of cutting tool material performance, machine shop and industrial
activities.
MODERN METAL CUTTING III-3

grades, does have a profound effect and tool material, selected and applied
on efficiency. on the basis of several factors such as:
The second graph shows some of the 1. Operation

major industrial developments along 2. Workpiece shape and material
one side of a line representing general 3. Machine tool
improvement. Below the line is a list 4. Cutting data
of some machine shop events that 5. Required finish
have spurred on and been affected by 6. General stability
machining developments. There are, 7. Machining costs
of course, many more factors that
have helped to form the efficient Operation factors include roughing or
machine shops of today, including finishing demands, working allowances
toolholders and systems, measuring and whether the cut is continuous
techniques and computerization. or interrupted. The workpiece is
characterized mainly by material type,
Basically, a cutting tool cuts metal structure, hardness, strength, material
because it is sharp and harder than affinity and surface skin composition
the workpiece. But the high produc- or various inclusions. For the machine
tivity demands of today are more tool, the condition, power, rigidity,
complex. The tool for an operation, mechanism, speed and feed capability
therefore, is a combination of geometry and workpiece fixturing should be
2
1 3
GC PCD
C 7 C Vc
CT ƒ
CBN
a 4
Vc CC N
Ra
6 5
Factors affecting tool choice

WR PCD T
CBN HH CBN
CC
CC CT/GC/C ( oc ) CT/GC/C
N N
HSS HSS
considered. The cutting data influences A comparison is made between the

cutting temperature and stresses on main cutting tool materials used today
the cutting edge and consequently, the so as to illustrate the difference in
tool material. The demanded surface characteristics. Obviously, these are
texture and accuracy may influence general trends as there is considerable
the type of tool material as some tool difference between various grades of
materials are capable of maintaining a the same material.
better finish than others. The general
stability of the machining system Wear resistance (WR) is not one,
created by the tool, workpiece and straight-forward property although
machine, will help to determine how abrasive flank wear is most often
strong the cutting edge has to be to considered the primary measure.
stand up to cutting forces. Some brittle Wear resistance is really the ability of
tool materials will be excluded in the material to stand up to various
many cases. Machining costs need to types of wear so that the cutting edge
be reviewed with economical tool-life, retains its ability to perform in the
inventory considerations and tool planned way. (Various wear types are
changing frequency in mind. discussed separately.)
There are three main properties that Toughness (T) can be expressed in
are required of cutting tool materials various terms, such as bending strength
in order to cover the higher speed and and transverse rupture strength.
feed ranges that make up much of These are usually measured at room
today’s machining: the ability to stand temperature and do not, therefore,
up to wear (wear resistance), the give fully relevant information as to
strength to resist breakage (toughness) material behavior during machining.
and the ability to retain hardness and The affect of edge rounding is also
chemical stability at high temperatures not taken into account. High speed
(hot hardness). In the lower speed steel (HSS) has a great deal of
ranges, other properties will also toughness. Diamond (PCD) is a tough
become relevant. but relatively brittle material.

Hot hardness (HH) is the other properties. In addition, the ability of the
very important property, crucial for material to stand up to thermal shock
machining at the temperatures that effects in milling and other intermittent
arise when machining at high cutting cuts, for example, is important.
speeds. The difference between the Chemical affinity between tool and
cutting tool materials is considerable. workpiece material should be avoided
PCD is not included because of its as this leads to unwanted reactions
unique but limited position. between the edge and workpiece
during machining, causing rapid wear.
The photo below shows an enlarged For instance, polycrystalline diamond
view of a coated cemented carbide cut-ting edges are not suitable for
grade (GC), the most important cut- machining ferrous workpieces and
ting tool material in use today. Its some cemented carbides easily develop
combination of materials and processes built up edge with ductile steel at slow
encompasses several important tool cutting speeds. Resistance to oxidation
Coated cemented carbide

is another cutting tool property that High speed steel is roughly twice as
plays an important role in resisting the tough as cemented carbide which in
development of certain wear types. turn is about three times tougher than
ceramic. Polycrystalline diamond is
Correct selection of a tool material is, very brittle, but very hard. Ceramic is
of course, a key issue for economic somewhat harder than cemented
machining. Machine tool down-time carbide and has better thermal and
due to broken and worn tools is one chemical stability than carbide. The
of the main limitations to productivity. mix of tool material properties is
The selection of tool material and, considerable. To optimize operations
subsequently, the right grade, is with the right choice requires a basic
critical. Not one tool material can meet knowledge of the materials and analysis
all demands of machining although of the previously mentioned factors
some grades have broad application before the right direction can be taken.
ranges that cover many operations. The ideal tool material should:
The extent of use of each material is
reflected by the consumption of cutting - be hard, to resist flank wear and
tools, shown by type in the chart below. deformation
Cemented carbide and high speed steel
- have high toughness, to resist
totally dominate the scene.
fracture
- be chemically inert to a workpiece
- be chemically stable, to resist
GC/C/CT oxidation and dissolution
PCD
CBN - have good resistance to thermal
shocks
CC
HSS + (N) Several sources are available as guides
to making the correct selection of tool
materials. (Combine them for best
results.) Standards and classifications
are excellent for providing direction and
Approx. consumption of tool comparing various materials and grades.
materials for all metal cutting: Tool supplier data indicates what is
GC = coated cemented carbide available and for what application and
C = uncoated cemented carbide cutting data. The qualified support of a
CT = cermet trained, experienced specialist can go a
PCD = polycrystalline diamond long way when optimizing an operation.
CBN = cubic boron nitride Combined with your own experience
CC = ceramics with operations and tests previously
HSS = high speed steel performed, these will provide the basis
N = Coronite for continued high performance.

TOOL MATERIALS
Polycrystalline Coated
diamond cemented carbide
Cubic boron Coated

nitride cemented carbide
Uncoated
Pure-ceramic cemented carbide
Mixed ceramic Coronite
Silicon nitride
base ceramic Cermet

Cemented carbide is a powdered metallurgical product
CEMENTED CARBIDE
As the name implies, cemented car- this material that has so influenced
bide is a tool-material made up of hard metal cutting, is useful.
carbide particles, cemented together
by a binder. It has an advantageous Cemented carbide is a powdered
combination of properties for metal metallurgical product, made primarily
cutting and along with high speed from a number of different carbides in
steel, has dominated metal cutting a binder. These carbides are very hard.
performed at higher cutting speeds. The main carbides used are tungsten
Development during the past sixty carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC),
years has been intense with consider- tantalum carbide (TaC) and niobium
able improvements in the productivity carbide (NbC). The binder is mostly
achieved from a cutting edge. Coated cobalt (Co). However, the carbides
cemented carbides (discussed sepa- are also soluable in each other and
rately) have taken over to the extent can form a cemented carbide without
that uncoated grades are no longer a separate metal binder. The hard
among the first recommendations. particles vary in size, between 1-10
Uncoated cemented carbides are now microns and usually make up between
primarily used for aluminum and 60 to 95% by volume of the material.
special purposes. A basic overview of

workpiece on the rake face. The

affinity of carbon and austenite leads
HV (20°c) to the flow of carbon from tool to the
WC 2000 chip as it passes the rake face,
creating a crater. Titanium and

TiC 3000 tantalum carbides are more stable
TaC 1700 than tungsten carbide and help to
NbC 2000 resist the breaking down effects of
steel at high machining temperatures.
Titanium carbide is extremely hard,
HV but like the others, experiences a drop
in hardness as temperatures rise to
NbC
TaC
WC
TiC
0 1200 °C
Cemented carbides vary considerably

as far as properties are concerned.
Some are much harder than others
and some are tougher. The various
grades that are established for inserts
are mainly determined by:
- type and size of hard particles
- type and proportion of binder ( TiC, TaC, NbC )
- manufacturing techniques
- quality
The WC- Co cemented carbides were

the first to be developed and are
mainly suited to cast-iron machining.
This is a two-phase cemented carbide
where the hard tungsten carbide phase
is called alpha-phase () and the
cobalt binder is called beta-phase ().
These plain cemented carbides cannot
stand up to the crater-wear effect of
steel and react chemically with the

HV CS Be
+WC% +Co% +WC% +Co% +WC% +Co%
Trs Imp E
+WC% +Co% +WC% +Co% +WC% +Co%
the levels of those at high cutting resist fracture, is inversely proportional

speeds. Through the addition of other to the hardness and is higher for ce-
carbides, such as TiC and TaC, a mented carbides with a large binder
cemented carbide more suitable for content. The hard particle (grain) size
steel machining has been developed. can also be varied to achieve a different
These are three-phase cemented car- balance of hardness and toughness.
bides, which have an additional gamma- Large particles of cobalt lead to a tough
phase (), represented by the TiC, grade while small grains make a hard
TaC and NbC carbides. In this way, grade. Also shown above are transverse
cemented carbides have evolved into rupture strength (Trs), impact strength
cast-iron and non-ferrous grades as (Imp) and Young’s Modulus (E).
well as grades for steel machining.
The grain size (GS) influences the ce-
As shown in the diagrams above, a high mented carbide property because at a
proportion of hard particles makes the certain binder content, the metal
cemented carbide more wear resistant between the particles increases in
in that the hardness (Hv) and compres- thickness in line with the increase in
sive strength (Cs) are greater. A higher grain size. This affects the hardness
proportion of binding metal makes and wear resistance as well as strength
the cemented carbide tougher. The and toughness. Small grains create
bending strength (Be), representing higher hardness, coarse grains give
the material’s toughness and ability to more toughness. Practically, this means

HV CS
°C °C
that cemented carbide is not brittle Affinity with workpiece materials at

and has a relatively broad range of the higher temperature ranges, is not
possibilities in machining. at a level that limits the application of
cemented carbide grades. Thermal
If this material description is compared conductivity is high and resistance to
to the list of properties of the ideal tool oxidation is low but this is generally
material, it can be seen why cemented not a problem thanks to grade
carbide has been and still is such a for- development and the effects of high
midable tool material. Although hard- temperatures in the machining cutting
ness and compressive strength (Hv, Cs) zone.
values fall with a rising temperature,
cemented carbides stand up well, with Compared to metals such as steel,
excellent wear resistance, to the cemented carbide is much harder and
demands of high speeds. The relatively has much higher compressive strength
high values and variable ranges of but is lower in tensile strength. It has a
bending strength, energy to fracture, density nearly twice that of steel -
transverse rupture strength, stiffness and although this does not apply to tita-
impact strength mean that conditions, nium-carbide based grades (cermets),
cuts and workpiece material can vary which are lighter. It is much stiffer than
considerably without threatening the steel, in that the modulus of elasticity
cutting edge. is two to three times higher. (For this
Be Be Be
95% WC 85% WC 75% WC
GS GS GS

reason, cemented carbide is used for

Various boring bars with long overhangs, as
cemented carbide structures deflection is minimal). Also the co-
efficient of thermal expansion is about
A and content coarse grain, half that of steel (which in the past has
ISO=K20. made the brazing of tips quite difficult).
B and content fine grain,
ISO=K10. Cemented carbide has a very broad
C , and content large application range and can be used
amount of binder ISO=P40. with success to machine the majority
of workpiece materials both as an un-
D , and content small coated grade and as the insert sub-
amount of binder ISO=P10. strate for coated cemented carbides.
A B
C D

THE MANUFACTURE
OF CEMENTED CARBIDES
Being a powder metallurgical product, The manufacture of cemented carbide
cemented carbide is manufactured takes place in the following main
through a carefully controlled process. stages:
The structure and composition are
important to the general quality of the 1 powder production
product and consequently, the per- 2 pressing of compacts
formance that can be achieved during 3 sintering
machining. The presence of unwanted 4 insert treatment
particles, voids and phases must be 5 coating
kept at very rigorous levels, as this
greatly affects the quality. The
cemented carbides and manufacturing
processes of today have, of course,
benefited from a lot of development
and many improvements compared to
those of yesterday.
2
1
5 4
Main stages of cemented carbide manufacturing

1. Powder production
The main raw material for the manu- hydrochloric acid (HCl) in large ball
facture of cemented carbide is tungsten mills or dry ground to a fine grain size
ore concentrate. Scheelite (CaWo4) as and digested with hot hydrochloric
well as wolframite ((Fe, Mn) Wo4) acid. The calcium tungstate reacts with
can be used. The typical concentrate the hydrochloric acid to form tungstic
supplied contains about 70% by weight acid (H2Wo4) and calcium chloride
of tungstic oxide (Wo3). Before a (CaCl2). The tungstic acid and the
batch of concentrate can be accepted extraneous gangue minerals in the
for use in production, it is put concentrate, which unlike calcium
through raw-material checking. The chloride are insoluble in hydrochloric
raw-material check covers not only acid, are washed after grinding. The
complete analysis with regard to the washed residue is then treated in large
constituents present but also determines receivers with ammonia (NH4OH).
physical data of decisive importance. The tungstic acid reacts with the
ammonia to form soluble ammonium
The first main stage in manufacturing tungstate. In a subsequent operation
is the preparation of an ammonium- the ammonium tungstate solution is
tungstate solution from the concen- filtered to remove the undissolved
trate. Scheelite is either digested with gangue minerals.

Wolframite is digested with hot sodium

hydroxide (NaOH) where soluble
sodium tungstate is formed. The solu-
tion is filtered to remove undissolved
gangue material and iron and man-
ganese hydroxides. Calcium tungstate
(CaWo4) is precipiated by the addition
of calcium chloride (CaCl2). The
formed calcium tungstate is treated in
the same way as scheelite to form
ammonium tungstate solution. APT
(ammonium paratungstate) is then
crystallized from the ammonium
tungstate by evaporation and APT is grained tungsten powder is obtained.
calcined to tungstic oxide (Wo3). The opposite conditions give a coarse
powder. In this way a grain size of
Some cemented carbide grades also tungsten powder can be controlled.
have additives of the metals molybden All tungsten powder is carefully
(Mo) and chromium (Cr). checked for proper grain size and
composition. In particular, the oxygen
Tungstic oxide has an extremely high content in the composition is checked.
purity, comparable to that of pharma-
ceuticals, and contains only minute These batches of tungsten powder are
traces of impurities, the contents of then used in the manufacture of
which are determined in the check tungsten carbide. The first step
that is carried out before the oxide is involves weighing out and thoroughly
approved. Tungsten powder is then mixing carefully calculated quantities
produced from the tungstic oxide by of tungsten powder and carbon black.
reduction with hydrogen. The hydrogen The mixture is then charged into
used for this purpose is produced furnaces using high-frequency heating.
through electrolytic decomposition of In these furnaces, under a protective
water. In the reduction of the tungstic atmosphere of hydrogen, the tungsten
oxide the hydrogen reacts with the (W) and the carbon (C) are combined
oxygen in the oxide and forms water. to form tungsten carbide (WC). The
This is done in pusher-type furnaces carburizing temperature is about
with electrically heated resistance 1700° C. To be fully acceptable as a
elements. raw material for cemented carbide,
the tungsten carbide must have a
By varying the conditions of reduction, composition extremely close to the
tungsten powder of various grain sizes theoretical values. Before a batch of
can be manufactured. When reduction tungsten carbide is passed, it is tested
is carried out with a large excess of to determine its content of fixed and
hydrogen, a low temperature and a free carbon, its crystal structure and
small input of tungstic oxide, a fine- its grain size.

By using different types of tungsten only finely divided but also homo-
powder from the reduction process, genized. During the milling, contact
it is possible to produce a series develops between the grains of the
of highly uniform tungsten/carbide binding metal and the grains of carbide
grades with properties adapted to which is a necessary prerequisite if
various applications. Titanium, tanta- the cemented carbide mixture is to
lum and niobium carbides are also be sufficiently reactive during the
made. The oxides of these materials subsequent sintering. After milling,
cannot be reduced with hydrogen. the milling liquid is removed through
Instead the reduction and carburiza- spray drying.
tion is accomplished by using carbon.
Titanium carbide is not manufactured Before a milled batch is approved for
separately but is combined with further processing a mixture test is
tungsten carbide. At a temperature of carried out. This means that a fixed
over 2000°C the titanium carbide number of test bars is made from each
dissolves the tungsten carbide and batch according to the normal manu-
forms the desired carbide ((Ti, W) C). facturing procedure for cemented carbide.
Cobalt powder is obtained by reducing This is accompanied by continuous
cobalt oxide with hydrogen where the checks on properties that are con-
reduction temperature ranges up to a ditioned by the manufacturing process.
maximum of 800°C. The carbides and
cobalt are then the raw materials for The completely finished test bars are
the manufacture of cemented carbide. put through thorough physical metallo-
graphic and technological tests. Among
After being weighed out, the powder other things, they are checked for
mixtures are milled. To achieve a high structure, porosity, specific gravity,
milling efficiency and to keep down hardness and bending strength. If
the introduction of impurities, the the mixture samples satisfy all the
milling balls are made of cemented requirements applying to the grade in
carbide. All milling is done wet and in question, the milled batch is released
the milling process, the mixture is not to the next manufacturing stage.
Powder production

Pressing powder compacts
2. Pressing Sintering must lead to the desired

reaction between hard particles and
The pressing of cemented carbide binder, eliminate the pores and the
powder to compacts is usually carried compact-pressing medium as well as
out in single-acting and double- finally cooling the sintered insert in
acting presses using briquetting dies. the correct way. Controlling the
The use of this technique calls for carbon content is a key issue not only
compacts of a good, tight shape. For during sintering but also in the
ease of pressing, a lubricant is added preparation processes and subsequent
to the powder. In pressing, the insert coating processes. The presence
compact assumes the shape but not of carbon, as graphite or in the form
the dimensions that it will have in the of the brittle eta-phase, has a direct
sintered condition. This is because influence on the wear resistance and
the compact is approximately 50% toughness properties of the cemented
porous. The porosity disappears carbide insert.
during sintering, corresponding to a
linear shrinkage of 17-20%. There are various types of sintering
methods to suit the different insert
3. Sintering substrate compositions. Development
has made these processes sophisticated
The pressed compact is full of pores and well-controlled. Above all,
(up to 30%). Sintering is a heat- sintering needs precise temperature,
treatment which closes the pores and process time and environment to
builds up the bond between the hard achieve the dramatic change from a
particles to increase strength, actually porous powder compact to the best
cementing the carbides together. cutting tool material.

The reaction that occurs in this by these carbides will also occur.
sintering process is known as fusion During sintering these carbides dissolve
sintering. This means that by the time each other, pick up some tungsten
the highest temperature of 1400-1600° carbide and form a carbide with a
C has been reached the binding metal grain shape differing from that of the
will have melted and dissolved a tungsten carbide. Concurrent with
considerable amount of carbides. At the structure-changing reactions, the
this point a total of about 10-50% by cemented carbide shrinks and becomes
volume of the material will be in a non-porous. During solidification the
molten state. Of the carbides not bulk of the dissolved carbides will be
dissolved in the melt, some are precipitated out of the binding metal.
inclined to accumulate and will grow Most cemented carbides will assume
at the expense of the rest. As they the solid state at about 1300° C.
grow, they also change their external
shape. The final tests are carried out on
samples taken from charges. The
If a cemented carbide mixture contains samples are assessed with respect to
any of the carbides of titanium, dimensions, porosity, structure, grain
tantalum or niobium in addition to size, coercive force, density, hardness
tungsten carbide, reactions conditioned and cutting performance.
;;;;;;;;
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;;;;;;;
;;;
Sintering to cemented carbide

4. Insert treatment
Some inserts are ground to achieve Surface grinding is performed either

very close accuracy and thickness. The with grinding media or diamond
inscribed circle, m-dimension, radius, grinding discs. Inserts are inspected in
chamfers and clearance may be among conjunction with the grinding operation
those ground on some inserts. for thickness, flatness, plane parallelity,
The majority of inserts, however, and roughness. Visual inspections are
are finished through direct pressing. made for cracks, chips, scratches etc.
;;;;;;;;
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ER
Various finishing treatments of inserts

The majority of inserts are also

provided with various amounts of edge-
rounding (ER treatment). This can be
carried out in various ways and the
result is crucial to the performance of
the insert in machining. The form, size
and surface texture of the edge-radius
is critical for the insert type in question.
The size of the radius varies between
0.0008-0.0031 inch. Most cemented
carbide inserts of today are coated
with a thin surface layer of pure, fine
granulated carbides.
CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTED are indicated by a grade symbol - a

CARBIDES / ISO 513-1991E rectangle with a pointed optimum - to
With both coated and uncoated show the grade’s most suitable
cemented carbides being responsible for application area.
most of the metal removed in machine
shops, and with the broad ranges of The ISO classification of cemented
applications and workpiece materials, a carbides aims to provide a code and
lot of different grades have been chart from which users can begin to
developed. Although these all have select grades. Although several grades
manufacturers’ descriptions, a classi- are found under the same code, there
fication system for users to relate them is nothing said about any individual
to operations, conditions and materials grade. For instance, a P10 cemented
is needed. Grades are developed to carbide grade may be an uncoated basic
cover application areas of operations tungsten carbide grade with higher or
and workpieces. Graphically, these areas lower contents of other carbides, fine
ISO
P 01
CB
10
20 CC
GC
30 C CD
CT
40 N

is a different tool material. Not only is

there is no indication as to the product,
ISO CMC there are also no values given relating
to performance. To call a P10 grade
01 ‘cemented carbide’, without any other
P 02 concrete grade references, can lead to
03 a vast number of possibilities and
1 06 usually problems. The difference in
performance is broad and might mean
05 variances of hundreds of a percent in
M 02 machining costs. The main workpiece
material types are listed with their
2 corresponding CMC (Coromant Material
Classification) codes in the chart:
07
K 08 1 long chipping, such as most steels
09 2 stainless steels
3 3 short chipping, such as cast-iron
20 4 heat resistant materials, such as
nickel based alloys
M 08 5 soft materials, such as aluminum
09 alloys
4 6 hard materials, such as chilled cast-
30 iron
K 33 7 titanium
The ISO classification is merely a

5
starting point when choosing tooling for
04 an application. An analysis is done to
K 10 investigate all possible grades using the
cutting tool material descriptions from
6 the suppliers. The operation is then
defined and matched to a grade descrip-
tion. Testing and application can then
M 23 commence. Analysis should above all be
aimed at pin-pointing performance to
7 achieve the most economic machining
costs.
or coarse grained and varying in quality.
Another P10 grade might be a coated The ISO classification refers only to
grade, either single or multiple, with cemented carbide and does not include
various coating materials and different ceramics, Coronite, CBN, PCD or some
substrates. The P10 coding might also workpiece materials. (Note that the ISO
be given to a cermet grade, which again classification is now being modified.)

The ISO classification is divided into

three areas:
01 WR
Blue P
- representing machining of long
chipping materials such as
steel, cast steel, stainless steel
and malleable iron. P
Yellow M
- representing machining of more
demanding materials such as
austenitic stainless steel, heat
resistant materials, manganese 50 T
steel, alloyed cast-iron, etc.
Red K 01 WR
- representing machining of short
chipping materials such as cast
iron, hardened steel and non-
ferrous materials such as alu-
minum, bronze, plastics, etc.
M
Within each main area there are 40 T
numbers which indicate the varying
demands of machining, from roughing
to finishing. It starts at group 01, which 01 WR
represents finish-turning and finish-
boring with no shocks and with high
cutting speed, low feed and small
cutting depth. It then moves through a
semi-finishing area on to medium-duty,
K
general purpose at 25 and then down to
group 50 for roughing at low cutting 40 T
speeds and very heavy chiploads. De-
mands for wear resistance (WR) and
toughness (T) vary with the type of
operation and increase upwards and
downwards, respectively.

ISO
Operations and working conditions:
P M
P01: Finish turning and finish boring, M10: Turning, medium to high cutting
high cutting speed, small chip cross- speed, small to medium chip cross-
section, high quality surface finish, section.
close tolerance, freedom from
vibration. M20: Turning, milling, medium cutting
speed, medium chip cross-section.
P10: Turning, copying, threading,
milling, high cutting speed, small to M30: Turning, milling, planing medium
medium chip cross-section. cutting speed, medium to large chip
cross-section.
P20: Turning, copying, milling, medium
cutting speed, medium chip cross- M40: Turning, profile turning, parting-
section, facing with small chip cross- off, especially in automatic machines.
section. Mildly unfavorable condi-
tions.
P30: Turning, milling, planing medium- K

to-low cutting speed, medium-to-large K01: Turning, finish turning and finish
chip cross-section, including operations boring, finish milling, scraping.
under unfavorable conditions.
K10: Turning, milling, drilling, counter-
boring, etc.
P40: Turning, planing, milling, slotting,
parting-off, low cutting speed, large K20: Turning, milling, planing, counter-
chip cross-section, high top rake boring, broaching, operations requiring
possible, very unfavorable working a very tough tool.
conditions.
K30: Turning, milling, planing, parting-
P50: Where very great toughness is off, slotting, unfavorable conditions
required from the tool in turning, and possibilities of high top rakes.
planing, slotting, parting-off, low
cutting speed, large chip cross-section, K40: Turning, milling, planing, parting-
high top rake possible, extremely off, very unfavorable conditions and
unfavorable operating conditions. very high top-rake possibilities.

COATED CEMENTED CARBIDES

One of the big steps in the development dramatically increased. The effect of
of cutting tool materials was taken the coating continued long after it had
towards the end of the 1960’s: the partly worn off, resulting in the reduc-
introduction of cemented carbides with tion of crater wear when machining
a very thin coating of other carbides. A steel. Higher temperatures were tole-
layer of titanium carbides only a few rated and thus higher speeds and feeds.
microns thick was used but it changed
the performance of carbide tools Coated carbides (GC) succeeded in
overnight. By switching to a coated eliminating the main weakness of
(GC) insert from an uncoated insert, cemented carbide and of other cutting
the cutting speed and tool-life were tool materials; that wear resistance
WR
WR
C C
P 10 GC P 30
C
P 20
C GC
P 30
C P 40
T T

decreases as toughness increases, The main coating materials used are

keeping the ideal combination out of titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride
reach and forcing users to move along a (TiN), aluminum oxide - ceramic
line of compromise grades. With coated (A12O3) and titanium carbonitride
inserts, a cutting tool material much (TiCN). Titanium carbide and alumi-
closer to the ideal became available, num oxide are very hard materials
forming a new line of combinations. which provide wear resistance. They
Since then, the line has been moved are also chemically inert, providing a
and extended continually with new chemical and heat barrier between tool
generations of coated carbide grades. and chip. TiN is not such a hard
More than 75% of turning operations material but gives a lower co-efficient
and over 40% of milling are today of friction to the faces of the insert
performed with coated carbides. and better cratering resistance. TiN
also has an attractive golden color and
Now, nearly all first choice cemented can be applied to cutting tools at a
carbide grades for turning are coated. lower temperature, as can TiCN and
These dominate in turning operations TiAlN, which does not affect the
everywhere, representing three-quarters insert substrate as much. However,
of indexable insert consumption. The modern coating technology has evolved
modern coated carbide grade has
come a long way in performance and
Main carbide properties, compared in
reliability since the first one was
table: (Hv: hardness; Br: barrier effect
introduced. Coated grades developed
as regards detrimental chemical reac-
in recent years have also found wide
tions and heat to prevent heat affecting
acceptance in drilling and milling
the insert during machining; Bo: bond-
tools, in cast-iron and steel machining.
ing ability to insert substrate; CoF: co-
efficient of friction; VB: flank wear
resistance; KT: crater wear resistance;
T: toughness.
Hv Br Bo CoF VB KT T
TiC 3000
Al 2 03 2300
TiN 2200
TiCN

vc
1970 1980 1990
984
GC....
656
GC...
GC..
328
GC.
ft/min
Development of coated cemented carbides (GC)
in order to handle the higher tempera- Coating combinations have been estab-
tures needed for all types of coatings, lished to provide grades with broad
thus giving the insert the desired application ranges due to their high
properties. Various combinations of wear resistance, ability to maintain
multiple coatings have been developed, hot-hardness and resistance to affinity
and must also combine the best with workpiece materials. Hot hardness
properties from the coating materials. as a material property does not change

insert substrate with another layer, or

even two, on top to add a barrier and
additional wear resistance properties.
Thin as they might seem, the insert
coatings are rarely made thicker than
2-12 microns in total as negative effects
begin to appear with excessive thick-
ness. The wear resistance generally
increases with a thicker coating but
brittleness appears and flaking can
become a problem. A thinner coating
provides good toughness performance
and the art of coating has a lot to do
with achieving the desired balances of
properties.
Multiple-coating technology is also very

dependent on process for good results.
Sintering and coating processes are
now sophisticated enough to allow
precise control and variation possi-
bilities. This has led to the development
of a process called gradient sintering,
where the binder distribution in the sub-
strate is controlled, especially towards
the surface. This is important, since
increased cobalt content means more
toughness but also poorer resistance to
Quality inspection of inserts
deformation because it is soft. Gradient
sintering neutralizes these two problems
because of the coating. The lower and, combined with other comple-
thermal conductivity of the coating mentary processes, ensures that the
layer means that less heat is actual edge of the insert has the right
transferred into the substrate. Friction balance of properties. (The process is
and appearance also come into the called gradient sintering because the
picture. Some coated inserts are amount of cobalt drops proportionally
golden while some are grey or black in relation to the distance from the
in color, depending upon the outer insert surface, along a curve that
coating. Titanium nitride is gold, initially forms a gradient.)
titanium carbide is grey and alumi-
num oxide is black. Titanium Modern chemical vapor deposition
carbon nitride has excellent bonding (CVD) technology has also led to better
properties, as well as wear resistance, substrate development. Edge toughness
and can therefore be used next to the is retained along with the superior wear

resistance and bonding of the CVD

coating. Deposition parameters are
optimized to minimize effects such as
substrate decarburization which forms
the brittle eta-phase. The resulting
positive effects of advanced multiple-
coating technology have also influenced
considerable developments in insert
geometry. A
Insert substrate and manufacturing
process developments have gone hand-
in-hand with coating development.
The first coated grade (GC125) was a
cemented carbide grade (possessing
sufficient toughness) with a layer
of titanium carbide metallurgically
bonded to it. Today’s coated grades
have substrates and processes that are B
finely adapted to meet the intended
properties of the coated grade and
to eliminate possible hazards. For
instance, the presence of free carbon
in the substrate and especially the
surface part, next to the coating, has a
negative effect on the properties of
the cutting edge. Also, the existance
of a brittle composition of cobalt- C
tungsten-carbon, called an eta-phase, intermediate coating, form outer layers
which means there is not enough with different, but excellent properties
carbon content, will have a negative to suit various applications, i.e. wear
affect on the tool-life of the insert. resistance, chemical and thermal barrier,
low friction and resistance to built-up
Titanium carbonitride, although a good edge formation, where applicable.
bonding layer, contains carbon and
needs a heat barrier. For this reason, Coated cemented carbides are first
it makes a good combination with a choice grades for a majority of turning,
stable heat barrier, such as aluminum milling and drilling operations and in
oxide, on the outside. The substrate most materials. The grades have very
has to have the right amount of duc- broad applications, covering such areas
tility and be complemented by the as P05 to P40, M10 to M25 and K01 to
coating for hardness and protection. K25. The above structure illustrations
Both aluminum oxide and titanium show single-layer (A), double-layer (B)
nitride, combined with the right and multi-layer (C) GC grades.

Sintering
MANUFACTURE OF
COATED CEMENTED CARBIDES
The improvements in the bonding Inserts are heated to about 1000
between different coating layers and the degrees C. Like sintering this is a
insert substrates have led to new gene- carefully controlled process where the
rations of coated cemented carbides. carbon content, either free or as eta-
These have single, double, triple and phase, has to be monitored through
even more layers to combine the various an extra carburization stage before
properties that each type of coating coating. Aluminum oxide coating is
material has to offer. Thicknesses of performed using a similar process as
coatings on indexable inserts vary titanium nitride coating, using other
between 2 to 12 microns (the average gasses, i.e. aluminum-chloride or
human hair has a diameter of 75 nitrogen gas. The CVD process is well
microns). Coated cemented carbides adapted to applying multi-layered
are manufactured by applying layers coatings as the process is relatively
onto inserts, mainly through the easy to regulate in regards to various
modern chemical vapor deposition gasses. Different types of coating can
(CVD) technique. The combination of be performed in the same equipment.
optimized substrate composition and
the developed CVD process combine Today, the CVD process is a mature,
to manufacture today’s generation of automated process that is widely used,
coated cemented carbides for turning, since almost any insert substrate can
milling and drilling. be coated, the coating is uniform
and homogeneous and the adhesion
Basically, CVD coating is done through between coating and substrate is
the chemical reactions of different excellent. Aluminum oxide can be
gasses. In the case of coating with coated onto a tough substrate,
titanium carbide, hydrogen, titanium providing coated inserts with very
chloride and methane gasses are used. high performance and reliability.

A complimentary coating process, used and very sharp tools, such as endmills,
to a lesser extent for cemented car- drills and, to some extent, threading
bide, is the physical vapor deposition inserts.
(PVD) method. Used widely for high
speed steel coating, it can to some The process involves moving the
extent also be used for coating coating material from a material
cemented carbide, although the process source to the substrate through either
needs to be carefully tailored to the in- vaporization or sputtering. There are
sert material. Temperatures of about several variants of these processes as
half those used in the CVD process they are used widely by high speed
are used (500 degrees C). The PVD steel suppliers. The PVD process takes
process is good for coating contoured place in temperatures around 500
TiCl4 1000 C°
Ar H2 CH4 N2
H2 HCl CO4
GC
Al2 O3
Al TiC
H2 HCl TiCN
CVD
Chemical vapor deposition

500 C°
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
N
; Ti
Ar
PVD
TiN
Physical vapor deposition
degrees C. For instance, titanium is
ionized with a focused electric beam
as the energy source, to form a plasma
stream. Along with nitrogen, this is
then coated on the insert. Normally,
a PVD coating is thinner than a
comparable CVD coating. With the
CVD process, a thicker coating means
improved wear resistance, especially
with aluminum oxide, up to a thickness
of twelve microns.
PVD coated endmills

Cermets are not new, in spite of their

growing use in recent years. This is
due to the improvement of the cermet
grades, improved stability, speeds and
conditions, and a trend towards near-
to-finish workpiece blanks. Titanium
based grades were made in 1929
and have undergone considerable
development. First they were difficult
to make and were very brittle. With
molybdenum (Mo) added to form
molybdenum carbide (Mo2C) and
improved manufacturing techniques,
reasonable ISO P01 grades were
introduced. Larger amounts of tita-
nium nitride and binder also led to
better toughness.
From being a relatively brittle tool

material, cermets have developed
better toughness to cope with quite
demanding operations. It is not only a
CERMETS - CEMENTED CARBIDE light steel finishing material. Today,
Cermet is the collective name for there are grades for milling and
cemented carbides that have hard stainless turning, etc. Cermets have:
particles based on titanium carbide - high flank and crater wear
(TiC), titanium caronitride (TiCN) resistance
and/or titanium nitride (TiN) rather - high chemical stability and hot
than tungsten carbide (WC). The hardness
name comes from CERamic/METal, - low tendency for built-up edge to
i.e. ceramic particles in a metal binder. form
It can be argued that cermets, as a - low tendency for oxidation wear
powdered metallurgical product, are
cemented carbides and that all
hardmetals are cermets. In practice,
however, the term ‘cermet’ has come
to denote cemented carbides based on
titanium rather than tungsten carbide.
In the micro structure photo of a

cermet grade, the light-blue phase is
nickel-cobalt binder, dark-blue is un-
reacted titanium based materials and
yellow is the carbon-nitride phase. Cermet milling insert

Cermets are often advantageous for

high cutting speeds, combined with
lower feeds and cutting depth and
when accuracy and finish are criteria
for the operation. Machining condi-
tions should ideally be stable and with-
out severe interrupted cuts. A sharp
long-lasting cutting edge is often ad-
vantageous for high-volume machining
of components when the machining
allowance is kept within limits.
Compared to tungsten based cemented
carbides and coated carbides, cermets
have the following properties:
- about the same edge strength at
smaller constant loads
- better, longer-lasting ability to
produce high finishes
- better capacity for high cutting
speeds
- higher notch wear resistance from
oxidation on trailing edge
- better ability to produce good
finish in ductile and smearing
Cermet milling of die steel
materials with lower built-up edge
(BUE) formation
Cermet grades today span application These are primarily finishing and, to
ranges from P01 to P20, M05 to M15 some extent, semi-finishing oriented
and K01 to K10 in turning, and P01 properties that explain the suitability
to P30 and M01 to M25 for milling. of cermets in a selective number of
This includes application ranges like applications. For the more demanding
general-purpose milling operations, semi-finishing and roughing properties
even in tough materials. Improvements of a cutting tool, cermets have:
in thermal shock resistance mean that - inferior strength at lower and
cermets can be suitable for certain higher feed rates
milling operations. With their slow rate - inferior toughness at varying,
of wear development, they have long medium to heavy loads
tool-lives during which they provide - inferior abrasive wear (AW)
high accuracy and surface texture. resistance
Cermets are undergoing more intense - inferior notch wear resistance on
development leading to even better leading edge due to mechanical
grades for the application areas for wear
which they are most suited. - inferior strength for shock loads

AW
GC/C
CT
BUE
T Vc
Cermet finishing insert
The complete comparison illustrates range of materials. High cutting speeds

why tungsten cemented carbide and with moderate feeds and large, even
coated carbides have dominated the cutting depths can be used. However,
application area and will continue to abrasive wear from casting skin should
do so. Cermets are finding applications be avoided. The higher toughness of
within their property parameters cermet grades for milling means that
and in line with the continued stainless steel machining, including
development of near-to-finish blanks austenitic, as well as rather hard steels,
for metal cutting. The adjoining graph are also suitable operations.
illustrates three typical tool-life (T)
curves, plotted for cutting speed and
feed, and shows how for a suitable
application, a breaking point occurs
between coated carbide and cermets,
Vc CT T (min)
while the uncoated tungsten based P 10
carbide maintains a position under
the two. GC
Demanding profiling operations are
not suitable applications for cermets.
Cermets are advantageous for lighter
copying of smaller, well-established
working allowances with moderate to
C
high speeds, medium range feeds and
where tool-life/finish are the criteria
in favorable conditions.
For milling, cermets play a finishing
to general-purpose role for a wide ƒ

Compared to the wide application

possibilities of coated, tungsten-based ap
cemented carbides, cermets cover a
very small area. They remain a good
choice for certain finishing operations,
especially with smearing materials and GC/c
close-limit tool-life criterion where the
higher hardness at elevated tempera-
tures and lower tendency for diffusion
are best utilized. Cermets can, however,
be an interesting problem-solver and CT
should be viewed as an alternative
source that can improve productivity
in selective operations. ƒ
CERAMICS
Today, ceramics is the collective term leading to grossly inconsistent tool-life
for a range of different cutting tool due to a mixture of poor manufacturing
materials. Originally ‘ceramics’ meant quality and wrong application.
aluminum oxide (Al2O3), which dates
back to the very first tools made. More Ceramics have undergone considerable
recently, ceramic cutting tools came development and the inserts of today
into use at the beginning of the century, are not comparable to early ones. Also
along with high speed steel. These first machinery and methods of application
cemented oxide tools were very brittle, have changed to better accommodate
Ceramics

the excellent productivity that can be adjoining structure photo shows pure
offered by ceramics. Still, this more aluminum-oxide ceramic.
versatile material only represents a
very small percentage of the cutting There are two basic types of ceramics:
tool materials used, being applied A - aluminum-oxide based (Al2O3)
mostly to machining cast-iron, hard B - silicon-nitride based (Si3N4)
steels and heat resistant alloys.
Aluminum-oxide (alumina) based
Ceramic cutting tools are hard, with ceramics are divided into:
high hot-hardness, and do not react A1 - pure
with the workpiece materials. They A2 - mixed
have long tool-lives and can machine A3 - reinforced
at high cutting speeds. Very high metal
removal rates are achieved in the A1. The pure oxide based ceramic has
right application. relatively low strength and toughness
values as well as low thermal conducti-
Some of the main property differences vity. These are obviously not the best
between non-metallic ceramics and values to have in metal cutting and are
steel are: a density equal to around the reasons why cutting edge fracture
one third the density of steel; very occurs if conditions are not right.
high compressive strength in relation
to its tensile strength, whereas steel is The addition of small amounts of
more balanced; no plastic elongation zirconium oxide to the composition
as there is with steel and very significantly improves the properties
brittle in comparison; the modulus of of pure ceramic. The mechanisms
elasticity for pure ceramic is almost that the zirconia grades offer give
twice that of steel; ceramics have very improved toughness. Durability, density
low thermal conductivity while steel and uniformity of grain sizes are
has high thermal conductivity. The important factors as are the various
amounts of added zirconia to suit the
application area. Any porosity will
deteriorate tool performance. The pure
ceramic is white if it is manufactured
through cold pressing and grey if hot-
pressed.
A2. The mixed, aluminum-oxide based

ceramic material has better thermal
shock resistance from the addition of a
metal phase. This type is less sensitive
to cracking due to improved thermal
conductivity. The improvement is
relative; toughness achieved cannot be
Al2O3 compared to that of cemented carbides.

The metal phase consists of titanium crack propagation, in the material are
carbide and titanium nitride amounting developed and put to use. The whiskers
to 20-40% in content. Other additives make up some 30% of the contents.
do occur, but these are produced
through hot pressing, leaving inserts Manufactured through hot pressing
black in color and with a much wider distributes the whiskers advantageously.
application range to include most of The inserts are green in color. The
the operations and materials for which balanced hardness, toughness and
ceramics are suited. thermal shock resistance mean that
these ceramic grades can take on
A3. The reinforced ceramic, based on more strength demanding applications
aluminum-oxide is a relatively new involving heat resistant alloys,
development. This type is also called hardened steel and cast-iron, as well
whisker-reinforced ceramics because as interrupted cuts.
of the presence of a single crystal fiber
called a whisker. These whiskers are B. The silicon-nitride based ceramic is
only about one micron in diameter a completely different material. It is
with a length of more than twenty better than aluminum-oxide based
microns. They are very strong and ceramics in standing up to thermal
made of silicon carbide. shocks and has more toughness. It is
the number one choice for machining
The effect of this reinforcement is grey cast-iron with very high removal
dramatic. The toughness, strength and rates. Grey cast-iron is relatively easy
thermal shock resistance are increased to machine, but does make demands
considerably and the grades have high on the tool material when being
hot-hardness and wear resistance. This machined at high removal rates and
new tool material is undergoing a speeds. It requires high hot-hardness,
great deal of development, as the strength, toughness, resistance to
mechanisms, such as the hindering of thermal shock and chemical stability.
Ceramic cutting tools for disc brake machining

The silicon-nitride based ceramic is (*) Silicon nitride based ceramics, how-
excellent at maintaining hot hardness ever, work exceptionally well when
at temperatures higher than those suit- paired with grey cast-iron.)
able for cemented carbide, and is
tougher than aluminum-oxide based The main application areas for cera-
ceramics. Although is does not have mics are: grey cast-iron, heat resistant
the chemical stability of the aluminum- alloys, hardened steels, nodular cast-
oxide based ceramics when machining iron and to some extent, steel.
steel, it is excellent for machining grey
cast-iron in dry and wet conditions For roughing and finish machining of
and at cutting speeds over 1450 ft/min. grey cast-iron, pure aluminum-oxide
ceramics offer good performance,
The silicon-nitride ceramic material especially when there are no casting
is a two-phase material. The longer inclusions or skin. The silicon-nitride
silicon-nitride crystals lie in a binder ceramics stand up well to intermittent
The material properties are determined cuts and when depths of cut vary. The
by composition. Production is through mixed, aluminum-oxide grades are
cold pressing and sintering or, more good for finishing when surface
advantageously, through hot-pressing texture is the tool-life criterion. This is
and grinding into shape. This is also a because of the better notch wear
relatively new material, in development resistance, which directly affects the
since 1970. It is now often used finish.
as construction material for high-
performance components in engines For heat resistant alloys, the develop-
etc. ment of ceramics has meant consider-
ably improved performance. Ceramics
Compared to each other, ceramic cut- cope with these materials by machining
ting tool materials vary in regards to at much higher cutting speeds and
(T) toughness, (Hv) hardness, (TSR) lasting several times longer than the
thermal shock resistance and (CS) previously used cemented carbides.
chemical stability when it comes to Heat resistant alloys, such as the
ferrous and nickel based materials. nickel-based alloys, have high strength
at high temperatures and are great
notch wear generators. They are ad-
A1 A2 A3 B vantageously machined by the mixed
(Al 2 03 +Zr03 ) (Al2 03 +TiC) (Al 2 03 +STC) (ST3 Nu)
and reinforced aluminum-oxide based
ceramics. The correct application
T
method is vital because the depth-of-
Hv cut, localized notch-wear tendency
needs to be distributed over the edge.
TSR
CSFe * Hardened steel and chilled cast-iron
CS are areas of hard part turning being
NT improved by ceramic machining. The

Ceramic inserts
mixed and reinforced aluminum-oxide and generally, the other grades lack
based grades, as well as the silicon- sufficient toughness to have broad
nitride based, are good for these application possibilities. The reinforced
applications, as they are able to stand up ceramics are also too low in chemical
to the demands for thermal shock stability for steel machining.
resistance and hot hardness. Operations
vary considerably with the workpieces, The successful application of ceramics
depending on whether they are in the depends a lot on matching up the
form of hard rolls, with various surface operation types, machining conditions,
conditions, chilled cast-iron, or welded workpiece material, machine tool
or sprayed steel components. performance, general stability, the
method by which machining is
Turning hardened steel parts has been performed and the cutting edge
very successful in replacing grinding preparation, especially in regards
operations. The wear resistance and to strengthening the chamfers and
chemical stability of modern ceramic presentation to the cut.
grades have provided improved pro-
CI: cast-iron
ductivity in this area. For chilled cast-
High temp: high temperature super
iron, the ability to stand up to abrasive
alloys
wear resistance is vital because of the
HS/CI: hardened steel/cast-iron
hard carbides.
S: steel
General steel machining is dominated
A1 A2 A3 B
by coated cemented carbides because (Al 2 03 +Zr03 ) (Al2 03 +TiC) (Al2 03 +SiC) (Si 3 Nu)
toughness is an important property,
especially at the lower speeds generally CI
encountered. The toughest of the
ceramic grades, the silicon-nitride Hi-Temp
based ceramic, is unfortunately not HS/CI

chemically stable in ferrous machining
(with the exception of grey cast-iron) S

CORONITE
Coronite is a new cutting material small titanium nitride grains (TiN), as
combining the toughness of high small as 0.1 micron. (This can be com-
speed steel with the wear resistance of pared with cemented carbide or high
cemented carbide. These properties speed steel where the grain size varies
allow Coronite endmills to machine between 1 and 10 microns.) Using spe-
faster than other similar tools in this cial technology, the small TiN grains
area, with further improvements in can be evenly dispersed in a heat treat-
tool-life, reliability and surface finish. able steel matrix to form between
It is a cutting tool material mainly 35% and 60% of the material’s volume.
developed for steel machining, but it As a result the proportion of hard
also performs well in titanium and grains is higher than is possible to pro-
various light alloys. duce in high speed steel, but less than
the lowest limit for cemented carbide.
Coronite fills an application gap which
has existed between cemented carbide This new group of materials, with its
and high speed steel, as well as having extremely small grained, hard consti-
the ability to lift the productivity of tuents, is a hard material. It has pro-
tools that are typically made in high perties which are more closely related
speed steel. to traditional cemented carbide than
to high speed steel, even if the actual
Today’s cutting tools, mostly limited production method can be said to be a
to endmills, are suited for operations form of particle metal technology.
involving rough to finish machining This is the first material of its kind,
and for cutting grooves, pockets and containing 50% hard materials.
for profiling. They form a new high-
performance alternative to high speed The properties of Coronite fall within
steel tools and are suitable for most a wide range between that of cemented
workpiece materials. carbide and high speed steel. The
properties can be varied by changing
The keys to the new material the content of alloyed material, espe-
properties of Coronite are the grain cially the carbon content, and/or by
size and an advanced technique for means of heat treatment. However, the
producing and handling extremely phase transformation diagrams which

than twice the volume share of hard

materials as high speed steel.
TiN, the dominating hard material in

Coronite, is chemically very stable.
This means that the crater wear
resistance is high and the tendency to
smear is low. It also means that a
Coronite edge machining the right
workpiece produces good surface
texture.
Endmilling with Coronite

The manufacturing process uses
advanced compound and coating
should apply to the steel matrix are not techniques. That is to say the endmills,
to be found because of the high content with the exception of the ballnose end-
of fine grained TiN, which gives a very mills, are not made of solid Coronite.
large phase boundary area and short, Instead they consist of three parts:
mean free path length in the binder.
1. a steel core
Coronite’s advantageous properties
2. a layer of Coronite representing
are achieved because the hard materials
about 15% of the diameter
are extremely fine grained. But why are
the small grain sizes so much better? 3. an outer PVD coating of TiCN or
Some of the reasons are that it is TiN, approximately 2 microns thick
easier to grind a sharp edge, the edge
is more wear resistant while it wears, The core of steel, which in the drilling
and it keeps its sharpness even while endmill consists of high speed steel
being worn. Unlike high speed steel and of spring steel in the non-drilling
and cemented carbide, Coronite is self- endmills, means that the endmill is
sharpening. Also, the finer grain size relatively tough.
means that the machined surface
integrity is much finer.
The combination of small grains and

a large volume share also means
that the grains, and therefore the
wear resistance, exist throughout the
material with no weak points. There is
no cemented carbide which contains as
many hard particles as Coronite. One
grain in high speed steel corresponds
to more than 1000 grains in Coronite
and in addition, Coronite has more Coronite blank and endmill

To apply a PVD coating of TiCN or

TiN to a cutting tool is today a rela-
tively conventional method in itself,
but Coronite has been developed,
with the intention of being coated.
Since Coronite contains as much as
50% TiN, an unusually strong bond is
achieved between the titanium nitride
in the substrate and in the coating,
which reduces the risk of flaking. Con-
tributing to this is the fact that titanium
nitride consists of grains which are
evenly distributed. Furthermore, the
thermal coefficients of expansion for
the coating and substrate are approxi-
mately the same.
The layer of TiCN gives increased Coronite endmills

wear resistance on the clearance side
of the cutting edge (high flank wear raw material for Coronite cutting
resistance). Coronite, from the material tools. After manufacture, it is coated
point of view, has a high resistance to with titanium carbonitride or titanium
crater wear. For this reason, re-grinding nitride.
the Coronite rake surfaces produces
a new tool, without needing to be The properties of Coronite in relation
coated again. to high speed steel and even cemented
carbide for its application area are
The manufacture of Coronite is carried advantageous. Coronite’s toughness and
out through a unique process: The bending strength values are similar to
basic powder is produced through the that of high speed steel and better than
addition of nitrogen in a double- cemented carbide. Its stiffness is derived
chambered furnace. Carried out at from the modulus of elasticity, which is
relatively low temperatures, the powder lower than the high value found in
does not melt. cemented carbide but higher than
high speed steel. Hot hardness and
The core of high speed steel or spring crater and flank wear are considerably
steel, depending upon the type of tool, better than high speed steel. Smearing
is covered with Coronite powder of workpiece material on the cutting
whereupon it is pressed to a brittle but edge is relatively low compared to
unified body. This is compacted to the both cemented carbide and high speed
desired density through hot extrusion steel. Also, the ability to produce
at a temperature well above one improved surface texture, maintain
thousand degrees to maintain material balanced wear and keep edge sharpness
stability. The bar thus produced is the are better than both.

A = HSS + TiCn
Vc = 328 ft/min
Vƒ = 16 in/min
B = C (K10 + TiCn)
Vc = 413 ft/min
Vƒ = 20 in/min
VB A = HSS+Ti CN
inch
A
B = C (KIO+Ti CN)
C = N (Coronite)
C = N (Coronite)
.006
Vc = 410 ft/min
C Vƒ = 20 in/min
.003
B
ap = .04 a e = .02
34 Cr Ni Mo 6 CMC 02.2
1.2 6
Th HB 300
Typical of the improvements of this new cutting tool material are the results from finish
milling a typical contour in die steel. When compared to coated high speed steel (A)
and coated carbide (B), the Coronite endmill showed superior results in tool-life and
reliability. The results illustrate the advantage of the new combination of wear re-
sistance and toughness, which is required in endmills. A sharp cutting edge and long
tool-overhang are typical. The HSS endmill lasted only 20% of the time achieved with
the Coronite and carbide endmills. Moreover, the carbide endmill had micro chipping
at the cutting edge while the Coronite showed even flank wear (VB). The cutting data
was lower for HSS and the wear development took considerably longer.
Coronite can be used for machining in most workpiece materials and for a large
range of varying operations. Its combination of wear resistance and toughness
will improve high speed steel dominated operations dramatically. Excellent
surface finish is characteristic and tools can be reground.

Turning with CBN tools

CUBIC BORON NITRIDE
CBN - cubic boron nitride is one of Applications in this area should always
the really hard cutting tool materials, be analyzed to determine whether a
second only to diamond. It is an ceramic or CBN grade is the most
excellent cutting tool material in that suitable for obtaining optimum results
it combines extreme hardness, high and economics, especially since the
hot hardness up to very high tempera- application areas for these two cutting
tures (2000 degrees C), excellent abra- tool materials are interlinked.
sive wear resistance and generally good
chemical stability during machining. CBN is manufactured through high
It is a relatively brittle cutting tool temperature and pressure to bond the
material but is tougher than ceramics. cubic boron crystals together with a
ceramic or metal binder. The randomly
Compared to ceramics generally, it is oriented particles form a very dense
harder but does not have as good polycrystalline structure. The actual
thermal and chemical resistance. It is CBN crystal is similar to that of
also a relatively young material, intro- synthetic diamond. The properties of
duced during the fifties and more the CBN cutting tool material can be
widely during the seventies. In spite of varied by altering the crystal size,
its high cost, it is used extensively in content and the type of binder to make
turning hard components that were various grades. Low content CBN, in
previously ground. combination with a ceramic binder, has
better wear resistance and chemical
Steel forgings, hardened steel and cast- stability, and is more suited to hard
iron, surface-hardened components, steel components, though it can also
cobalt and iron based powder metals, be used in cast-iron. Higher content
forming rolls, pearlitic cast-iron and CBN, which has more toughness, is
heat-resistant alloys are among the more suitable for hard cast-iron and
main types of applications for CBN. steel as well as heat resistant alloys.

Cubic boron nitride

CBN
When the CBN cutting tool material is used with many CBN tools and partly
made with a ceramic binder, better because of the demanding workpiece
chemical stability and wear resistance, materials and high friction during
but somewhat poorer toughness, is machining. General high stability and
achieved. By bonding the CBN material machine power are crucial elements.
onto a cemented carbide substrate, a
tough, shock resistant support is Tool and machine rigidity are essential
created for the relatively brittle cutting and a large enough tool radius is also
edge. Titanium nitride is also added to important. Interrupted cuts should be
the composition. carefully assessed to ensure that tool
and set-up are the most suitable.
CBN should be applied to hard work-
piece materials, over 48 HRC. If com-
ponents are too soft, excessive tool T
wear is generated - the harder the
material, the less the tool wears! Ex-
cellent surface textures can be achieved
with CBN edges, making turning a
very attractive alternative to grinding.
WR
Cutting forces tend to be high, partly
because of the negative cutting geometry CBN%

Edge preparations with strengthening

chamfers and correct tool application CBN
are essential. The grains in CBN are
very small and hard and to avoid micro-
chipping, the edge must have suitable
chamfers and honing for the type of
operation and material it is to machine.
Correctly applied, CBN inserts will
provide extremely good wear resis-
tance for a hard, sharp cutting edge.
Cubic boron nitride insert
CBN inserts are excellent for finishing
to close tolerances in operations with POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND
hard steel. Surface texture with Ra 0.3 The hardest material known is the
and tolerances of +/- 0.0004 in. are natural monocrystalline diamond.
turned with CBN. Much longer Almost as hard is the synthetic poly-
tool-life than cemented carbide and crystalline diamond (PCD). Its consider-
ceramics is achieved. When correctly able hardness enables it to stand up to
applied the component being machined very abrasive wear. For instance, it is
remains relatively cool as the heat is often used to dress grinding wheels.
taken up mainly by the chip. Fine diamond crystals are bonded
during sintering, under high tempera-
Moderately high cutting speeds and ture and pressure. The crystals are
relatively low feed rates are randomly oriented to eliminate any
recommended for CBN machining. direction for crack propagation. This
Coolant must be used copiously around results in hardness and wear resistance
the cutting edges. Otherwise, dry uniformly high in all directions.
machining is always recommended to
avoid thermal cracking. The small PCD cutting edges are
bonded to cemented carbide inserts,
adding strength and shock resistance.
PCD Tool-life can be many times longer
than cemented carbide - in fact, up to
one hundred times longer.
The draw-backs to this seemingly

perfect cutting tool material are:
- cutting zone temperatures must

not exceed 600 degrees C
- cannot be used for ferrous applica-
tions due to affinity
- cannot be used for tough, high-
Polycrystalline diamond tensile workpiece materials

But there are other abrasive non-

T metallic materials, such as composites,
resins, rubber plastics, carbon, pre-
C PC D
sintered ceramics and carbide and
500 sintered carbide, as well as metals like
copper, Babbit metal, bronze, brass,
magnesium alloys, zinc alloys and
lead, that can be machined with PCD.
Smearing of the workpiece material is

usually not a problem for PCD
cutting edges thanks to the high
chemical stability. Burr generation on
workpieces is often eliminated with
PCD and tool-life is normally extended
10 many, many times.
Because of the very brittle nature of

PCD, very stable conditions, rigid
tools and machines and high speeds
are necessary for machining with
Vc PCD. Cutting fluids can be used,
generally for cooling. Finishing and
semi-finishing in turning and boring
In practice this excludes PCD for the are typical operations. For facemilling,
majority of metalworking operations. PCD-tipped inserts can be used as
Although limited in range, PCD is an ordinary or wiper inserts in special
excellent tool material in the right seats. Lighter feeds, lower depth of
machining application, as long as it cut and avoidance of interrupted cuts
does not include the above limitations, and shocks are important.
especially if it is used in abrasive non-
ferrous and non-metallic materials For turning, the largest possible tool
requiring accuracy and high finish. shank should be used with minimum
overhang. For milling, axial and radial
PCD is also a relatively new material run-out should be kept to a minimum.
introduced at the beginning of the Each insert is adjusted individually
seventies. Today it is used for turning for height.
and milling, especially in the abrasive
silicon-aluminum alloys when surface
finish and accuracy are criteria. In fact,
uncoated fine-grain cemented carbide
and PCD are the two main cutting tool
materials for aluminum. Sharp cutting
edges and positive rakes are essential.

1 2 3
WR
P 01 C8
10
C7
20
C6
30
40
C5
50
T
WR
M 10
20
30
40
T
WR
K 01 C4
10 C3
20 C2
30 C1
T
Typical range of cemented carbide grades set to cover the various operations that
occur throughout the ISO P, M and K areas.
05-25
WR
P
K M
P
T 25-40
1 2
A way of visualizing the choice of grades, starting with the central first choice (1),
moving on (2) to secondary choices according to wear resistance/toughness demands
throughout the ISO P, M and K areas.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida 1
TOOL WEAR
INTRODUCTION 2
CLASSIFICATION OF
TOOL WEAR TYPES 11
19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-2
TOOL WEAR
Tool-life: from a new to worn cutting edge

All cutting tools wear during machining be tolerated as there are less stringent
and continue to do so until they come surface texture limitations and close
to the end of their tool-life. The life of accuracy is not required. The tool-life
a cutting edge is counted in minutes. may be limited when the edge loses its
Today tool-lives vary. They can range chip control ability or when the wear
from less than the old established mark pattern has developed to a stage where
of fifteen minutes to significantly more. the risk for rapid edge breakdown is
Tool-life is the productive time avail- imminent.
able during which the edge will
machine components to be acceptable The selection of the right cutting tool
within the limiting parameters. In the is critical for achieving maximum
early days of man and tools, the tool- productivity during machining. The
life parameter was simply when the choice of tool-material and cutting
tool could not cut any more. Today, geometry are especially important.
the usual parameters are surface tex- But no matter how right the tooling is,
ture, accuracy, tool-wear pattern, chip if the machining conditions are not up
formation and predicted reliable tool- to standard, especially in regards to
life. The one applied depends upon cutting data and general stability,
the type of operation, i.e. finishing or optimum tool-life will not be reached.
roughing, and often the amount of Vibrations and lack of rigidity
manual control and supervision involved. in toolholders and clamping will
prematurely dull many cutting edges.
The cutting edge of an insert used in a
finishing operation is considered worn When all the conditions are good for
out when it can no longer generate a the operation, a considerable amount
certain surface texture. Just a little wear of productivity can be gained by fine-
along a very small part of the insert tuning the grade and geometry with
nose means the edge of the insert needs cutting data. Tool-life and cutting time
changing. In a roughing operation wear can vary enormously, making cutting
develops along a much longer part of tool application a fine art crucial to the
the edge. Considerably more wear can economics of production. It means you
IV-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-3
premature breakdown or tool fracture

Vc = 800 ft/min takes place that negativism takes over.
ap = .12 in. With modern cutting tool materials,
2 applied correctly, machining is not
120ft only more productive and economical
than ever, but also very reliable and
increasingly predictable.
Tool wear is the product of a com-

bination of load factors on the cutting
edge. The life of the cutting edge is
15 min decided by several loads, which strive to
change the geometry of the edge. Wear
is the result of interaction between tool,
workpiece material and machining
Amount of metal passing the edge conditions. The main load factors are:
have to get things right in a very hot, A - mechanical

chemically active environment under B - thermal
extreme pressures and speeds. C - chemical
D - abrasive
A modern cemented carbide cutting
edge penetrates a large amount of Apart from the static components of
metal during its tool-life. For instance, mechanical load, there are various
at a cutting speed of 800 ft/min and dynamic components from the chip
with a cutting depth of .12 in., the ma- forming process itself, as well as more
terial area that passes the edge every emphasized ones from varying cutting
second is 19 square inches. This is depth, and interrupted cuts in milling.
more than 8 square feet of material
past the edge every minute. During a
tool-life of 15 minutes, the small .12 A B C D
in. length of cutting edge will have
had 120 square feet of material pass-
ing the face and flank under the ex-
treme conditions of machining.
Tool wear is inevitable, and as such, is

not a negative process. It is not if, but
when, how much and what type of tool
wear there will be. When a cutting
edge has performed a considerable
amount of metal cutting within an
acceptable time, it is, of course, a
very positive process. It is only when Typical wear zones
MODERN METAL CUTTING IV-3

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-4
Metal is continually forced at very high pressure and temperatures along the tool material
Metal cutting generates a lot of heat tool-material itself. These are then
on the chip face and flank of the insert. bound to achieve more of a grinding,
Thermal load is considerable on the abrasive effect on the tool. Even
tool material and in some operations, if these inclusions or skin particles
such as milling, it is also a dynamic are not taking up a large amount of
factor when edges leave and re-enter the material, with all the workpiece
the workpiece. material passing the workpiece edge
during machining, abrasion almost
The chip forming process means that always occurs to a varying extent. The
a fresh metal interface is continually previous example shows an operation
produced and forced at very high where 120 square feet of material is
pressure and temperature along the passing the edge, at 800 ft/min and a
tool-material. The zones produced cutting depth of .12 in. If the material
make it an attractive environment for contains hard inclusions, well spaced
diffusion and chemical reactions of at one hundred microns apart, some
metals. sixty million hard particles will be
forced past the edge, over the chip
Various types of very hard particles face and down the flank face every
occur in most workpiece materials, minute, leading to abrasion.
often comparable in hardness to the

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-5
;
As a result of the load factors exerted Abrasion wear is very common and
on the cutting edge during machining, caused mainly, but not entirely, by
; ;
a few basic wear mechanisms dominate the hard particles of the workpiece
metal cutting: material. This is similar to a grinding
;
1 - abrasion wear operation where the hard particles
; ;
2 - diffusion wear come between the surface of the
;
3 - oxidation wear workpiece and tool. It is the affect of
;
4 - fatigue wear (static or dynamic) the mechanical load on the insert that
;
5 - adhesion wear leads to the wearing of a flat face on
; ;
the cutting edge flank.
; ;
The tool-material’s ability to resist the
;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
loads will determine how it will be The ability of the cutting edge to resist
affected by the wear mechanisms of abrasive wear is, to a large extent,
metal cutting. connected to its hardness. A tool
; ; ;
;; ;; ;
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
C Co O
N
Fe Fe
; ;
;;
;;
; ;Basic wear mechanisms in metal cutting

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-6
Even flank wear from mainly abrasive wear on a finishing insert for turning
material that is densely packed with of the insert. The mechanism is very
the hardest of particles will stand up temperature-dependent, so it will be
well to abrasive wear but may not be greatest at high cutting speeds.
equipped to cope with other load Atomic interchange takes place with a
factors during machining. two-way transfer of ferrite from the
steel into the tool. Carbon, being
Diffusion wear is more affected by small and ready to move in iron, also
the chemical load during the cutting diffuses into the chip.
process. The chemical properties of
the tool-material and the affinity of the High temperatures and the presence
tool-material to the workpiece material of air causes oxidation in most metals
will determine the development of the although the oxides are quite different.
diffusion wear mechanism. Hardness Tungsten and cobalt form porous oxide
of the tool-material will not much films which are more easily rubbed off
affect the process. The metallurgical by the chip. However, some oxides,
relationship between the materials will like aluminum oxide, are much
determine the amount of the wear stronger and harder. Some cutting tool
mechanism. Some cutting tool materials materials are therefore more prone to
are inert against almost all workpiece wear due to oxidation than others. Air
materials, while others have a high especially gains access to the cutting
affinity to most workpiece materials. process at the interface part of the
edge where the chip width finishes (at
Tungsten carbide and steel have an the depth of cut). Oxidation there leads
affinity to each other, thus leading to typical notches being formed in the
to the development of the diffusion edge but this is a relatively uncommon
wear mechanism. This results in the phenomenon in today’s machining.
formation of a crater on the chip face

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-7
Fatigue wear is often a thermo- A certain temperature range, affinity

mechanical combination. Tempera- between tool and workpiece materials
ture fluctuations and the loading and and the load from cutting forces
unloading of cutting forces can lead to combine to create the adhesion
cracking and breaking of cutting edges. wear mechanism. When machining
Intermittent cutting action leads to work-hardening materials, such as
continual generation of heat and austenitic stainless steel, this wear me-
cooling as well as shocks from cutting chanism leads to rapid local wear at
edge engagement. Some tool materials the maximum limit of depth of cut.
are more sensitive than others to the This is the most common type of notch
fatigue mechanism. Pure mechanical wear and also connected to the affinity
fatigue can also occur because the of tool material to workpiece material.
cutting forces are too high for the
mechanical strength of the cutting These basic mechanisms, then, often
edge. This can be caused by hard or combine to attack the original material
strong workpiece materials, very high and shape of the cutting edge along the
feed rates or when the tool material is small portion in cut. Depending mainly
not hard enough. However, plastic upon the properties of the tool-
deformation dominates in such cases. material, these mechanisms will affect
the cutting edge so as to develop certain
Adhesion wear (also known as attrition wear types. A basic understanding of
wear) occurs mainly at low machining these mechanisms always helps in
temperatures on the chip face of the analyzing tool wear-types and also
tool. It can take place with long- in establishing the right tool and
chipping and short-chipping workpiece conditions for an operation.
materials - steel, aluminum and cast-
iron. This mechanism often leads to the The tool-material properties listed
formation of a built-up edge between below can be said to be some of the
the chip and edge. It is a dynamic most important factors in determining
structure, with successive layers from how well the tool stands up to the
the chip being welded and hardened, loads of machining and consequently,
becoming part of the edge. The BUE how the various wear mechanisms will
can be sheared off but build-up will be prevented from adversely affecting
start again or cause the edge to break the cutting edge.
away in small pieces or fracture. Some
cutting materials and certain workpiece - hardness
materials, such as very ductile steel, - strength/toughness
are more prone to this pressure- - chemical stability
welding than others. When higher - thermal diffusion conductivity
cutting temperatures are reached, the - thermal expansion
conditions for this phenomenon are, - surface inertness
to a large extent, removed. - coating adhesion

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-8
K Hd
K Hd
Hd Hƒ
Hƒ
Ee
(1%)
Metal cutting involves conversion of energy
The conditions for promoting diffusion energy. The rest of the energy, normally
wear are present in the high cutting only around one percent, is retained as
speeds of modern tools. However, not elastic energy (Ee).
all tool-materials diffuse so readily and
a lot can be done to counteract this Most of the heat energy is taken away
wear mechanism. Adding the gamma from the cutting zone by the chipflow
phase to basic tungsten carbide, for (C). Temperature is usually highest
instance, improved cemented carbide close to the chipface, in the tool (T),
grades for machining steel by protecting where the temperatures can reach up
the tungsten carbide-cobalt mix. Coated to 1600° C. Some heat remains in the
grades can, to a large extent, hold tool and some in the workpiece (W).
diffusion wear back because of the The temperature (t) is lower in the chip
layers of aluminum oxide, titanium and workpiece, although the flank
carbide, etc. Aluminum oxide is temperatures can get very high. It is
extremely inert to workpiece materials the cutting speed that has the greatest
and provides pure ceramic material influence on the heat generated and
with high diffusion wear resistance - thus the wear development according
but it lacks properties to stand up to to the particular wear mechanism. The
other demands in machining. cutting speed and heat will mostly
influence the type of wear and tool-
The heat (H) generated during metal life depending on the interplay between
cutting directly influences the wear tool material, workpiece material and
development in various ways. The machining conditions.
process involves the conversion of
kinetic energy (K) to other forms For tungsten carbide, typical curves of
during the process of parting the chip wear might occur as shown in the
form from the workpiece. This plastic adjoining diagrams. In fig. A, (W) is
strain condition involves deformation wear development, 1a is the built-up-
(Hd) and friction (Hf), the absolute edge formation, and 1b is the range
majority of which is turned into heat where the BUE is not given an

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-9
In diagram C, where cutting speed and

°c T feed are related, the limits for excessive
t wear are BUE on the low end (1),
C C crater wear and plastic deformation on
the high end (3 and 4). This forms a
T
W suitable machining area for the tool
W material.
Vc
With turning (finishing, medium and
Heat removed from cutting zone heavy duty rough machining), in
diagram D, the cutting tool material
opportunity to develop because of failure criteria are different.
higher temperatures at higher speeds.
The 2 denotes abrasive wear, 3 shows
diffusion wear and 4 is oxidation wear.
In a more direct approach, tool-life

(T) limitations are a function of the 1 = Built up Edge (BUE)
cutting speed, as diagram B shows. 2 = Abrasive wear (Flank + Crater)
The predominant wear may occur 3 = Diffusion wear (Crater)
as shown. For example, as speed 4 = Oxidation wear
decreases, the tendency towards edge 5 = Plastic deformation
build-up (1) increases. 6 = Fracture
2
W A T 5 B
3
4 4
1a 1 3
2
1b
Vc Vc
;
Vc 3 4 ap D 2
C R 5
;;
1 (6)
M 2
1
2 F 5
;
4
ƒ ƒ

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-19 09.25 Sida IV-10
A
C B
D
Places of wear on insert

The main regions of tool wear on a of machining, i.e. economics accuracy,
cutting edge are the chip face (A), removal rate, surface texture and chip
flank of the leading clearance face (B) control, depend on the development
and flank of the trailing clearance face of tool wear. By inspecting the
(C), as well as the actual nose radius magnified cutting edge and acting
or parallel land area (D). The wear upon what the wear pattern indicates,
pattern of each type of tool wear will the useful tool-life of the cutting edge
provide the clues as to how successful can be controlled, extended and relied
the machining operation is. upon. There is always an ideal wear
development for an operation. The
The classification of tool wear types right tool, good starting values for
has been developed to form an cutting data, expert support, your own
important baseline for assessing the experience, good quality of workpiece
machining operation and to optimize materials and machine conditions are
productivity by getting the tool grade important ingredients for success in
and machining conditions right for the obtaining ideal wear development.
type of cut and material. The criteria
Well developed flank and crater wear at the nose radius on a cermet insert for turning.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-11
CLASSIFICATION OF TOOL WEAR TYPES
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
1. Flank wear
2. Crater wear
3. Plastic deformation
4. Notch wear
5. Thermal cracking
6. Mechanical fatigue cracking
7. Chipping
9 8. Fracture
9. BUE

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-12
1. Flank wear, as the name indicates, and after chip formation. This is
appears on the flanks of the cutting usually the most normal type of wear.
edge, mainly from the abrasive wear Maintaining safe, progressive flank wear
mechanism. The clearance sides, i.e. is often the ideal. In the end, excessive
leading, trailing and nose radius or flank wear will lead to poor surface
parallel land, come into contact with texture, inaccuracy and increasing
the workpiece as it moves past during friction as the edge changes shape.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-13
2. Crater wear on the chip face can of the chip face. Hardness, hot
occur due to abrasive and diffusion hardness and minimal affinity between
wear mechanisms. The crater is formed materials minimizes the tendency for
when tool material is removed from crater wear. Excessive crater wear
the chip face either by the hard changes the geometry of the edge
particle grinding action or through and can deteriorate chip formation,
the diffusive action between the chip change cutting force directions and
and tool material at the hottest part also weaken the edge.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 14.29 Sida IV-14
3. Plastic deformation takes place as a Edge bulging is typical, and will

result of combined high temperatures lead to even higher temperatures,
and high pressure on the cutting edge. geometry deformation, chip flow
High speeds and feeds and hard work- changes and so on until a critical
piece materials create compression stage is reached. The size of the edge
and heat. For the tool material to rounding and cutting geometry also
stand up to this without plastically play a role in combating this wear type.
deforming, high hot hardness is critical.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-15
4. Notch wear on the trailing edge is a leading edge is mechanical, common

typical adhesion wear but can also be, with harder materials. Excessive notch
to some extent, the oxidation wear wear affects the surface texture in
mechanism. The notch will be formed finishing and eventually weakens the
where the cutting edge and material cutting edge.
part. The wear is thus very localized
at the end of cut where air can get to
the cutting zone. Notch wear on the

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-16
5. Thermal cracking is primarily from the edge and lead to rapid

fatigue wear due to thermal cycling. breakdown and edge failure. Varying
The temperature changes in milling chip thickness also affect temperatures
especially can lead to this type of throughout the cut. The application of
wear. The cracks form perpendicularly cutting fluid can often be detrimental
to the cutting edge and pieces of tool to metal cutting, since the fluid will
material between the cracks can be amplify the temperature variations
pulled out of the edge. Tool material between in-cut and out-of-cut.
particles can then release themselves

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-17
6. Mechanical fatigue cracking can take insert. These cracks are mainly
place when the cutting force shocks parallel to the cutting edge.
are excessive. It is fracture due to
continual variations in load where the
load in itself is not large enough to
cause fracture. Start of cut and
variations in cutting force magnitude
and direction may be too much for
the strength and toughness of the

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-18
7. Chipping of the cutting edge occurs Careful assessment of the edge will
when the edge line breaks rather than indicate whether chipping or flank
wears. This fatigue, usually arising wear is taking place. Spalling and
from cycles of loading and unloading, nicking are variations of this type of
causes particles of tool material edge breakdown.
to leave the tool material surface.
Intermittent cutting is a frequent
cause of this wear type.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-19
8. Fracture can bring a catastrophic will eventually lead to major failure

end to the cutting edge. This bulk of the edge. Brittle fracture, causing
breakage is the most harmful and sudden failure at heavy cutting data
should be avoided as much as possible. or from demanding workpiece material,
Edge fracture is also often a fatal wear may be the result of various stress
type for the cutting edge. The change factors on a tool material unable to
of geometry, weakening of the edge cope with the operational demands.
and rise in temperatures and forces

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-20
9. Built-up edge formation is largely a on the chip face of the tool. Fortunately
temperature, and therefore a cutting the temperature and cutting speed
speed, related phenomenon but it can areas of built-up edge formation are
also be the result of edge flagging and relatively well-defined and can be
other wear. BUE is negative for the avoided. Much of modern machining
cutting edge as the geometry changes takes place at speeds above the BUE
and particles from the tool material area and many modern grades are not
can break away with the welded mate- so prone to the formation if used
rial that forms the built-up edge. The correctly. Surface texture is often the
affinity of tool material to workpiece first to suffer as the BUE grows but if
material plays an important role as this type of wear is allowed to continue,
well. The lower temperatures and high there is a risk of rapid edge break-
pressures lead to the pressure-welding down and even fracture.
of workpiece material from the chip

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-21
The following charts list wear types,

the most frequent causes and possible
remedies. Machine shops and/or tool-
preparation areas should arrange to
inspect cutting edges under well-lit
magnification, thus creating a systematic
approach to optimizing tool-life and
performance. Understanding the wear
mechanisms and analyzing tool-wear
types leads to the best choice of tool
material, geometry and machining
conditions and allows for the evaluation
of workpiece material quality.
Coated ceramic insert machining grey cast-
iron at high cutting speed The tool-life of the cutting edge is
decided by the ability of the edge to
These are the main tool wear types. maintain values within the operational
Some of those listed are actually rapid criteria. Reliability and predictability
breakdown rather than wear, but in any are also becoming increasingly impor-
case, they should all be completely tant factors in deciding at which point
avoided. Balanced wear, usually the insert should be indexed. The tool-
produced by flank wear, leading to an life is one of the most important values
optimum tool-life is the ideal, since the for determining the productivity level
cutting edge can be indexed at a safe, of an operation. Measuring the amount
predictable point. There are additional of tool wear generated, making an
wear types classified but these are more analysis and acting upon it with a
specialized, being indicators for tool systematic approach is important for
material and geometry improvement. optimization of tool-life.
Advanced development of flank wear on a coated P35 cemented carbide grade

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-22
;; ƒ
Cutting tool wear should always be

magnified for analysis
Tool wear is determined by inspec- The flank wear is measured from

ting and measuring the wear as it the original edge. If the flank wear
develops in relation to the cutting is relatively uniformly spread over
time which elapses before a certain the three zones, the mean flank
degree of wear is reached. A suit- wear is recorded VBa-c over the
;
able magnifying glass or microscope cutting part of the edge.
is a worthwile investment.
;
;
;
;
a b c
VBa-c
VB
1/4 1/2 1/4
;
;
a b c
VB VBa-b
VB max c
Tool wear zones for flank wear

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-23
ƒ
;
;
;
;
KT
KB
Crater wear
In the cases where excessive wear Crater wear (KT) is specified as

develops in any one part of the the maximum depth of the crater
cutting edge, it is recommended from the original chip face. In some
that the zone be disregarded in the cases the KB dimension should be
determination of the mean value recorded as well.
and that the maximum flank wear
VBmax be recorded instead, with
the zone being stated separately.
Flank and crater wear (VB/KT)

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-24
Analyzing tool wear is important for optimizing metal cutting. A suitable magnifier
will help to show what is going on at the cutting edge
There is a considerable difference in what is visible when magnifying the cutting edge

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-25
Tool Wear Possible cause Remedy
Flank and notch wear (a). Cutting speed too Reduce cutting speed.
high or insufficient wear
(a). Rapid flank wear resistance. Select a more wear
causing poor surface resistant grade.
texture or inconsistency (b/c). Oxidation.
in tolerance. Select an aluminum oxide
(b/c). Attrition. coated grade for steel
(b, c). Notch wear causing machining.
poor surface texture and (c). Oxidation.
risk of edge breakage. For work-hardening
materials, select a larger
lead angle or a more wear
resistant grade.
Reduce the cutting speed

but when machining heat
resistant material with
ceramics, increase cutting
speed.
Crater wear Diffusion wear due to too Select an aluminum oxide

high cutting temperatures coated grade.
Excessive crater wear on the rake face.
causing a weakened edge. Select positive insert
Cutting edge break- geometry.
through on the trailing
edge causes poor First, reduce the speed to
surface texture. obtain a lower temperature
and secondly, the feed.
Plastic deformation Cutting temperature too Select a harder grade with

high combined with a high better resistance to plastic
Plastic deformation (edge pressure. deformation.
depression (a) or flank
impression (b)) leading to (a) Reduce cutting speed
poor chip control and poor
surface texture. Risk of (b) Reduce feed
excessive flank wear
leading to insert breakage.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-26
Built-up edge Smearing workpiece Increase cutting speed or

material is welded to the change to coated, tougher
Built-up edge causing insert due to: P35 grade.
poor surface texture and
cutting edge frittering when Low cutting speed. Select a positive geometry.
the BUE is torn away.
Negative cutting geometry. Increase cutting speed
considerably.
Very sticky material, such
as certain stainless steels If tool-life turns out to be
and pure aluminum. short, apply coolant in
large quantities.
Mechanical Excessive load variations Select a tougher grade.

fatigue cracking on edge.
Reduce feed rate.
Cracks running mainly Heavy shock or vibrations
parallel to cutting edge. at start of cut. Change tool approach.
Improve stability.
Chipping Grade too brittle. Select tougher grade.
Small cutting edge Insert geometry too weak. Select an insert with a
chipping causing poor stronger geometry (bigger
surface texture and Built-up edge. chamfer for ceramic inserts).
excessive flank wear.
Increase cutting speed or
select a positive geometry.
Reduce feed at beginning

of cut.
Improve stability.

19158 04_ToolWear 07-04-12 09.38 Sida IV-27
Thermal cracks Thermal cracks from Select a tougher grade

excessive temperature with better resistance to
Small cracks perpendi- variations caused by: thermal shocks.
cular to the cutting edge
causing chipping and Intermittent machining. Coolant should be applied
poor surface texture copiously or not at all.
Varying coolant supply.
Select a tougher grade.
Fracture Grade too brittle. Reduce feed and/or depth

of cut.
Insert fracture that Excessive load on the
damages not only the insert. Select a stronger
insert but also the shim geometry, preferably a
and workpiece. Insert geometry too weak. single sided insert.
Insert too small. Select a thicker/larger insert.
Improve stability.
Horizontal fracture Grade too brittle. Reduce feed.

on ceramic inserts
Insert geometry too weak. Select a tougher grade.
Use an insert with stronger

corner angle.
Select an insert with

smaller chamfer.
Improve stability.
Chipping from The chips are of an Change the feed slightly.

chip hammering excessive length and
directed in the wrong Select an alternative
Cutting edge, not in cut, direction against the geometry.
is damaged through chip cutting edge.
hammering. Both the top Select a tougher grade.
side and the support for the
insert can be damaged. Change the lead angle.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida 1
METAL CUTTING
ECONOMICS
INTRODUCTION 2 PRINCIPAL MILLING
TEST ANALYSIS 34
TOOL-LIFE 4
PRINCIPAL DRILLING
CUTTING DATA 8
TEST ANALYSIS 35
COSTS 12
MACHINE HOURLY
USE OF AVAILABLE TIME 14 RATE CALCULATION 36
STANDARDIZATION ANALYSIS OF
AND INVENTORY 19 SAVINGS - INDEXABLE
INSERT INVENTORY 37
IMPROVED MACHINING
ECONOMICS 26 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION
MODULAR TOOLING 38
PRINCIPAL PAY-OFF
TIME CALCULATION KEY TO THE ECONOMIC
FOR INVESTMENTS 32 JUSTIFICATION FORM
- MODULAR TOOLS 39
PRINCIPAL TURNING
TEST ANALYSIS 33 TOOLING LIST 40
19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-2
METAL CUTTING
ECONOMICS
INTRODUCTION
The right tool and toolholder make a big difference in the production economics of this
component
The economic side of manufacturing when planning an investment or setting
is made up of many factors but basic up an existing production line for new
metal cutting economics are fairly components. It is sometimes far from
straight forward. There are several obvious that a machine tool manufac-
variables in the machine shop and turer should first discuss the project
also large variations between machine with the tool supplier. This consultation
tools, workpiece materials, component may point to a method of metal cutting
sizes, designs and criteria, batch types, that changes the machine, reduces the
automation, control, etc. These are amount of investment and in the end
the subject of extensive apprasials leads to more efficient manufacturing.
that go beyond the scope of this guide.
However, experience has shown that Metal cutting economics involves, to a
the best results are achieved when great extent, making the best use of
manufacturing is planned in a way that production resources. Business econo-
the basic metal cutting methods and mics is based on the return that can be
performance are part of the planning achieved on an investment. This starts
procedure right from the start, and with the return on money invested in
then go hand in hand with other items shares or directly into a business. The
of the project. financial world thrives on the competi-
tiveness of money made from money
Getting a total overview, with the invested. If the returns are poor,
optimization possibilities at hand along then investments are not attractive. A
with the objectives of production, leads company invests in a factory if they
to the highest efficiency. This means see satisfactory returns. Management
involving the cutting edge performance also invests in production resources if
V-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-3
they see satisfactory returns, i.e., modern cutting tools, when applied
output-relative resources. A production correctly, normally lead to production
manager invests in a machine tool cost improvements (-Cp) of impres-
that will give him or her the number of sive amounts. The absolute tool cost
components required at satisfactory in question might remain the same,
costs. And this reasoning should carry increase or decrease, but the effect on
on all the way to the cutting edge. production costs overshadows the varia-
tions of tool costs. This can be calculated
The total cost-picture is important in for most operations, as indicated in the
metal cutting because of the important examples that follow. Improving one
influence of the cutting tool. Metal of the variables in the metal cutting
cutting production costs are generally process has a very noticeable effect on
made up of the sum of: cutting tools the productivity, and thus the return
(1); holding, fixturing and measuring on the total investment.
equipment (2); machine tools (3); work-
piece materials (4); labor costs (5) and Raise the feed rate or cutting speed in
overhead (6). Although cutting tools an operation and the machining time
(CT) only represent an average of per component can be cut by several
three percent of manufacturing costs, percent. In this way, the machining
their influence on the other production resources - costing large amounts per
cost items is considerable. The right hour - are used at a lower rate per
12 3 4 5 6
CT -CP
3%
Cutting tools represent only some three percent of production costs but have a huge
influence on the total economy
MODERN METAL CUTTING V-3

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-4
component. More components are At the basic end of metal cutting

machined per day, leading to an economics, then, is the crucial cutting
improved return on investment. time of the tool. When the production
process has been decided, calculated,
Change to a cutting edge with longer, optimized and investments made, the
more predictable tool-life to allow the performance of the tool will, to a
machine to run with fewer stops. Also, large extent, determine the efficiency,
the operator can rely on the insert to utilization and, decisively, the return
machine a specific number of compo- on investment.
nents. Fewer machine stops mean the
machine is cutting metal longer, thus The economic performance of the tool
improving the return on investment. is mainly dependent on the following:
Change to a more versatile cutting tool - tool-life

with higher capability for machining. - cutting data
Instead of two or three tools, only one - chip control
is needed to do the same machining, - reliability
faster. The result is less tool-changing, - tool changing
less machining time per component, - inventory
fewer tools in inventory and simpli-
fied handling, again leading to an Even with everything else in place
improved return on investment. and working, if the cutting tool does
not perform well in these areas,
Change to quick-change and modular unnecessary costs will be encountered
tooling. The time that the machine and the production capacity will not
stands idle will be lowered, in some be fully used.
cases dramatically. Also, tool manage-
ment can be properly introduced for
improved return on investment.
TOOL-LIFE
The tool-life of a cutting edge is limited
by the breakdown of the edge to the
extent that it cannot perform the task
for which it was chosen. This can be any
required task, such as surface texture,
dimensional accuracy or satisfactory
chip control, that is no longer being
met, or also if the edge cannot be relied
upon any longer due to extensive tool
wear. Ultimately, tool-life ends with
breakdown or fracture of the edge. But
metal cutting, correctly applied with
Quick tool changing means large economic modern tooling, need not reach such a
savings in production drastic stage. Tool-life predictability is

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-5
Cutting edge reliability and long tool-life mean good economy
an important factor, especially as most an edge cannot generate the required

machining today is behind the closed finish or keep within a tolerance, it
doors of a machine or even un-manned. cannot be used for that particular
operation any longer. The risk of the
The criteria usually vary by operation, edge breaking down increases with
i.e., finishing or roughing. When the the amount of wear.
end of the tool-life is reached, the
cutting edge is changed before any Metal cutting is, as mentioned, far from
unacceptable parts are made or a fully analyzed science, made up of
damaging breakdown occurs. It is many variables within the common
important in this context that a theme. Even now, some of what goes
cutting edge is worn out, not broken on between the chip and cutting edge
down. Today’s development goes even is still unknown. Therefore experience,
further in that the initiation and the best possible starting conditions
direction of wear is better controlled. and knowledgeable support are still
Edge-line life and behavior is an issue the best way to approach machining.
that has become important in tool
material and geometry development Tool wear varies and there are several
for improving tool-life. different types and effects. A norm
needs to be established, for instance:
Clear definitions need to be established the height of flank wear below the
as to when cutting edges are to be cutting edge line or the depth of a
classified as worn out. With different crater on the tool face. As flank wear
operations, criteria and tools, this will is a common wear pattern and one
require attention when decisions are which is often aimed for, this will be
made at the machine or when used used to develop the tool wear/time
tools are inspected. Obviously, when relationship. Procedures and tests for

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-19 09.50 Sida V-6
KT
VB VB
KB
T
VB
Vc1 Vc2 Vc3 Vc4 Vc5
TC1 TC2 TC3 TC4 TC5 TC

Development of tool wear/time

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-19 11.44 Sida V-7
tool-life are internationally standard-

ized.
Tool wear does not necessarily follow

a straight line in a wear(VB) / time(T)
diagram. The curve often has a typical
development for flank wear - first a
moderate growth and then rapid escala-
tion. The form varies, especially with
the cutting speed and for each speed a
specific wear development curve is
plotted. A limit for maximum wear is
set. The slower speed to the right has a
slower growth while the higher is more
of a linear relatioship. Higher speed
generally gives faster wear.
The cutting time (T), is the tool-life of Correct wear analysis

a cutting edge before a specific amount
of wear is established. This formula includes two constants
(, C) where both can be established
The next step is to establish a direct graphically in the diagram from the
relationship between the time and slope of the line - the relationship
cutting speed. This can be plotted on between the opposite (x) and adjacent
a logarithmic diagram for time (T) and (y) lengths; =x/y and where the ex-
speed (vc). This relationship is well- tended line intersects the x-axis. The
established and expressed through the longer the part of the line used graphi-
following formula (Taylor). cally, the more reliable the value.
Time/Cutting speed diagram

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-8
cutting speed and feed rate can be

log T ƒ1 ƒ3 achieved to give the same tool-life.
ƒ 2 ƒ4 Again there are aspects to be taken
into account for various feed levels,
such as surface texture in finishing and
cutting edge strength in roughing. For
this reason, there should be cutting
speed/tool-life curves for various feed
rates. It should also be kept in mind
that the curves are related to the tool-
life criterion set in the wear/time
diagram and that diagrams can be
drawn up for the different wear types.
log Vc Cutting depth, nose radius, entering
Influence of feed angle, etc. are of secondary importance
due to their often negligible influence.
CUTTING DATA
The position and slope of the lines in the To begin to establish economical para-
diagram are affected by the workpiece meters for rough machining and to
material, tool material and feed rate. remove metal as efficiently as possible,
A higher feed rate may move the line feed rates can be raised until workpiece
to the left on the chart. A cutting limits are reached, chip control is lost,
speed/tool-life (vc/T) diagram can be tool breakdown is reached or until the
made up for various materials and can machine is stalled. Tool-life diagrams
also be supplied as part of the material can then be established by using suitable
data for some material suppliers. tests at various cutting speeds and
recording the number of components
When tool-life criterion and time have machined during the tool-life. Com-
been established, the speed/tool-life parisons can then be made with the
diagram will indicate a suitable cutting cutting speed/tool-life formula and
speed. The indicated speed should curved as to which edge and data will
be regarded as a starting value for be the most efficient. Good machine
machining, to be more precisely set tool utilization and chip control should
according to other factors in metal always be the goal in metal cutting.
cutting.
The described procedure is based on

tool and data values, including a specific
feed rate. Altering the feed will change
the position of the curves. A higher
feed rate basically leads to shorter tool-
life at a given cutting speed, but also
leads to faster machining and higher
removal rates. Several combinations of

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-9
P 10, CMC 01.2

ap = .040 in. ap = .100 in.
Tmin ƒ= .006 in. Tmin ƒ= .016 in.
60 60
50 50 KTm
100
40 40
200
30 30
VB in.
20 VB in. 20 .024
.024 .012
.012
10 10
8 8
6 6
328 656 984 1312 1640 328 656 984 1312 1640
ft/minVc ft/minVc
P 30, CMC 05.2

ap = .040 in. ap = .100 in.
Tmin ƒ= .006 in. Tmin ƒ= .016 in.
60 60
50 50 KTm
50
40 VB in.
40 100
30 .012 30 VB in.
.010
.024
.008
20 20 .010
10 10
8 8
6 6
262 328 656 984 1312 195 262 328 656 984
ft/minVc ft/minVc
Typical vc /T diagrams for various cutting grades, cutting data and workpiece materials

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-10
V 3
vc
in / min ft / min
Vc 3x e 1 ƒ2
= a =V
Vc 4x =eƒ1 2a =V Te
Vc 2 =eƒ3
x
3a =V
Vc 1 =eƒ4
x
4a =V
ƒ4 ƒ3 ƒ2 ƒ1 ƒ ƒ
in/rev in/rev
Feed rate influence on metal removal rate and tool-life

Several combinations of speed/feed Graphic representation can also be
might give economic tool-lives but the made for cutting speed/feed rate where
combinations vary in regards to metal a curve representing the economical
removal rate. A graphic representation tool-life (Te) is plotted. The tangent
can also be established for feed/removal point of this curve, with a straight line
rate (V) to be used in combination with at 45 degrees, represents the economic
the speed/tool-life curves, especially for values for speed and feed.
rough machining.
The correct cutting data is important for economical machining

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-11
Quick change modular tooling dramatically affects the productivity and utilization of
most machine tools as well as improving tool management and inventory

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-12
COSTS
The economic tool-life (Te) can be
calculated from the adjoining formula
for Te. The variables are:
Te: economic tool-life in minutes

: the factor in the speed/time equa-
tion (i.e. the slope of the curve
tool life against cutting speed)
CT: tool cost per cutting edge
Cm: machine, labor and related over-
head costs per minute Careful analysis of machining factors leads
to good economy
tc: tool changing time for the opera-
tion in question but these can be justified if a higher
production rate is required. If the
Various combinations of cutting data number of components per hour (Pr)
can give the same economic tool-life. is plotted in relation to the cutting
For instance, a cutting speed of 328 speed a typical curve is obtained. The
ft/min with a feed of .030 might give top point on this curve represents the
the same value as a speed of 490 with highest production rate. The cutting
a feed of .008. It is useful to seek out speed (vq) is larger than the economical
the cutting data combinations that give speed (ve). The values between these
the lowest machining cost or maximum two speeds represent the high efficiency
production rate for the economic tool- range for the operation in question. The
life. number of components per hour can
be calculated by using the adjoining
The tool cost and machine cost are formula where the variables are:
variable factors that make up the
machining cost (C). In addition, other Pr: pieces per hour
general overhead costs are included in T: tool life
the total production cost per piece. tp: total time per piece (including
machining and downtime related
The tool-life at maximum production to each piece)
rate (Tq) is calculated by using a
variation of the formula for economic The described relationships are highly
tool-life (Te). The variables are the theoretical and should be treated as
same but speed is higher and tool-life such. They are merely an indication of
shorter. starting values and trends in metal
cutting as variables change. There are
Although the lowest machining cost additional machining and production
per workpiece can be calculated by factors and other criteria that influence
using the economic cutting speed, it is the total scope of an operation. As
sometimes necessary to machine faster. variables are changed, the values in the
This always involves additional costs relationships also change.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-19 09.50 Sida V-13
TCE = ( 1 -1) ( CC +tc)

T
m
TC
TCQ = ( 1 -1) x tc
TCE
TCQ
Vc
CT
CM Vc tc
Pr = 60 (1-
tp
T )
C Pr
CT x Cm Pr
max
Pr Vc
CT
C
min
Cm
Vc Ve Vq Vc
Relationship between cost factors, machining costs and productivity

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-14
been discussed. The high efficiency

range definition for an operation pin-
S x Mc
ROI =
points the cutting data for us so we
can make machining as efficient as
possible. However, the actual metal
cutting time represents only part of
USE OF AVAILABLE TIME the available production time. Several
The optimization of metal cutting to other time factors are also involved.
achieve performance located in the
high efficiency range, between the The full production time is, of course,
minimum machining cost data and the all the available hours of the calender
maximum production data, leads to year (A). But many plants run shifts
saved production time. Time is money which use only part of this time, and
in production. This means that better are often not running production at
utilization is made of the production all for one-half to two-thirds of the
resources, thus leading to improved full time. This means utilization of the
return on investment. remaining one-half to one-third of the
time (production time, P) is crucial.
The improved return on investment
(ROI) is savings per year (S) times The utilization of actual production time
the machine charge rate (Mc) divided - the time when machines are running -
by the initial investment (I) made in varies with the type of production.
the production resource. Obviously there is a large gap between
running mass-production on a transfer-
The cost analysis of a metal cutting line to machining a one-of-a-kind,
operation is the basis for appraisal of complicated component on a CNC
improvements achieved. The machine machine. Recorded variances in actual
charge rate is an important factor to machining (5) fall between ten to forty
establish realistically. Once the other percent of the available machine time.
cost items and machining- and down-
times have been established, standard The rest of the production time is taken
formulas for calculating improvements up by machine stoppages due to a
are easily performed. And, as examples number of major activities: workpiece
show, even though cutting tools only loading/unloading (1), breakdown for
represent a small proportion of the various reasons (2), measuring in the
production costs, they have a substantial machine for different operations (3)
influence on the performance and and tool changing because of worn or
economics of the production resources. broken tools (4). It is apparent, then,
that there is always the potential for
Actual metal cutting time in relation improved utilization and consequently
to the available production time is improved return on investment. Not
therefore one of the most interesting only can the metal cutting time be
ratios to monitor. So far only the improved but also other activities that
utilization of actual cutting time has make up the available machine time.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-15
1
P
4
Actual machining does not, as a rule, represent a large enough portion of the available
machine time

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-16
Down-time for tool change and set-up can be reduced drastically
Stoppages due to breakdowns can be basic holder with known, accurate

shortened by the correct application positions, can be pre-set so that the
of modern tools. Good utilization of machine can be set up for different
power capacity is important and can operations in a very short time.
be achieved with cutting tools that have Alternatively, in-machine gauging can
reliable requirements during tool-life quickly establish the cutting edge
and predictable cutting edges that do position and give the coordinates to
not break down prematurely, leading the control-unit for inclusion in the
to overloading and damage. new program.
Setting up the machine for a new The same principle applies to tool
production run, batch or operation can changes. In this area, quick-change
be dramatically improved through modular tooling creates an entirely
efficient tool application. The use of new scenario. Changing a worn tool is
modular tools, where only part of the no longer a major stoppage problem -
tool is changed through a quick-change, a new cutting tool is available, in the
accurate coupling, reduces set-up times. right position, to take over the
Tools that fit onto a machine-adapted machining in seconds or minutes.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-17
This obviously affects the planning of tools affect detail activities, as well as
cutting data for the metal cutting. the total use of production time.
When tools required a long time for
changes, a more careful balance had The proportions of time for each
to be kept between tool-life and tool production activity, indicated in the
changing time. Tools were run at illustration on the previous page, are
lower cutting data to make them last representative of a very broad cross-
longer for less frequent tool changes. section of machine shops. For many this
This was poor utilization of the metal is still a realistic picture of how time is
cutting time. Modular tooling breaks spent, while for some, machinery has to
this cycle, which affects both setting- stand still even longer for various
up and tool changing times. Stoppages production reasons. On the other hand,
are reduced dramatically to the extent there are many machine shops that have
that cutting data is optimized, and achieved higher levels of efficiency.
with much less time required to Production time is well-used, change-
change tools. overs are fast, breakdowns few and tool
changing very fast.
Now more than ever, it is important in
metal cutting to optimize the ‘detail’ These factors are even more important
machining activities while monitoring in today’s competitive environment.
the total production-time picture that Machine shops must choose methods
includes other peripheral activities. It carefully to get good results. The goals
becomes apparent that planning an are shorter lead times and higher flexi-
investment in machining resources bility between different components and
should include metal cutting as a batches to achieve the right mix of costs
central activity right from the start. and quality with a just-in-time approach.
The choice and application of cutting
Quick-change tooling means that stoppages are reduced to a fraction of the time

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-18
Tool management and inventories are important factors to keep organized as part of the
total economic picture

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-19
STANDARDIZATION AND INVENTORY - to draw up handling, ordering and

Optimization of individual machining preparation routines
operations and the move towards
improved utilization of time and - to simplify descriptions of tools and
resources are vital, on-going activities operations
for every machine shop. Method and
cost analyses provide the best tool - to make programming data more
and cutting methods. The end goal easily available
of the optimization process is to
standardize a program and decide - to ensure the best use of modern
what inventory is needed to cope with tooling
the production.
- to optimize tool-room routines
It is easy for a tooling situation to get
out of hand, especially as time passes. - to reduce tool servicing
Operations are added, components are
changed or a better tool is introduced, - to create economic benefits when
leading to more and more variations in ordering and purchasing
toolholders, insert types, geometries
and tool material grades. The tool - to make tool selection easier
inventory grows, stock control and tool
selection become increasingly difficult, - to establish an internal tool catalog
ordering becomes time consuming and
tooling and handling costs rise. - to establish optimum tooling for the
various operations and get the best
Careful planning and selection of utilization out of tools (for an
cutting tools can reduce tool costs and improved return on the investment
the handling and changing costs, in cutting tools)
as well as improve the operational
performance. The choice and inclusion The list can go on. There are more
of cutting tools in the inventory should detailed objectives but these are a
come as a result of qualified analysis. cross-selection of the more common
The cutting tool has a major influence objectives set up with the production
on economics, as much as that of the engineers. Tool rationalization should
other items in an investment. be a regular plant activity. With all of
today’s pre-set tooling formats and
Tool rationalization leads to a number selection guides, it is not a difficult
of benefits and should have certain task. Tool rationalization should be
basic objectives: carried out at the investment planning
- to implement a standardized range stage and be done continuously after
of tooling that, while production is running.
- to establish a minimum tool Even small changes can mean a lot, as

inventory seen in a review of turning tools used

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-20
Modern cutting tools include holders

and inserts that offer versatility in
feed direction and in regards to use in
roughing and finishing cuts. A more
careful analysis by the machining
company reveals that just three insert
shapes are sufficient. It is probable
that two insert sizes will be sufficient
and that while two nose radii should be
maintained, only one insert thickness is
needed. Two modern geometries can
cope with the absolute majority of
machining in most plants, possibly with
the complement of an additional type
for a more specialized operation.
The same applies to modern carbide

grades. At this smaller scale of opera-
tion, one tool system should suffice.
A tooling survey indicates the state of the
The tool inventory, then, may be
inventory reduced to around 100 items as a result
of tool rationalization. Obviously, there
in a small to medium sized general are some exceptions for workpiece
machining company with CNC and material variations, but the principle
conventional lathes. applies to a general extent. In regards
to tool systems, one system, such as the
The adjoining figure shows the stock P-type or S-type, covers most turning
requirements in this company. Initial requirements, but may be supplemented
analysis determined that five insert by items from another system for an
shapes were needed. It was also decided operation that falls outside the usual
that three different insert sizes, two nose range of operations.
radii, two insert thicknesses and five
insert geometries were required. Most The result of an analysis is a much
of these inserts were thought to be more manageable range of tools,
needed in four carbide grades each. smaller inventory, less capital tied up
Also, it was found that two turning tool in stock and better performance.
systems were very widely used. This
added up to more than 2000 different
items for the tool inventory. Obviously,
even a modest tool requirement can add
up to a noticeably large stock requiring
administration and selection guide-lines.
This is the reason continuous, active tool
rationalization is so important.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-21
5 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 5 x 4 x 2 = 2400
3 x 2 x 2 x 1 x 3 x 3 x 1 = 108
A reduced number of items makes a considerable difference to the size of the inventory

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-22
1. 45°
90° 45°
90°
75°
75°
2. 75 125
D 150 200 100 200
34% 250 300
41%
25%
3.
RH RH LH
80% 60% 40%
4.
Z
25% 75% 85% 15%

5. l l
.750 in. .500 in.

6. bs
r
7.
8. 16 4
60 14
167 84
9. Vc Vc
ƒn +20% ƒn
Analysis of milling operations leads to corrective measures that improve machining
economics and reduce inventory

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-23
3. A more suitable, alternative mix of

An example on a larger scale could be
machines and operations with right-
a medium to large company performing
and left-hand cutters was recommended
very extensive milling on fabricated
(60% RH, 40% LH).
steel components machined in various
types of milling machines. A survey of
4. It was established that the types
facemilling and square shoulder face-
of machinery and operations, power
milling, done prior to the survey in the
availability, fixturing and workpiece
diagram, showed the following:
materials would best be serviced by
other pitch types. This would eliminate
1. 56% - 90° entering angle
vibrations, provide a better finish
30% - 75° -
through improved chip evacuation,
14% - 45° -
increase tool-life through more correct
2. 34% - 75-125 mm diameter
average chip thickness and reduce
41% - 150-200 -
insert consumption. The majority
25% - 250-300 -
(85%) of milling cutters should have a
3. 80% - RH
differential coarse pitch.
4. 75% - close pitch
5. Excessively large inserts used (3/4
5. It was found that cutting depths,
in. IC)
machinery, stability and general require-
6. Radius-inserts used
ments did not justify inserts with an
7. Tool preparation equipment not
edge length of more than .500 in. If
satisfactory
facemills do not use any larger inserts,
8. Out-dated tool technology and ten
more effective utilization of inserts and
different tool brands in stock.
lower costs will be the result.
The analysis resulted in the following 6. Standard, modern milling inserts,

recommendations, indicated in the with parallel lands and a choice of
right column of the diagram: wiper lands replaced expensive radius
1. 30% - 90° entering angle for square inserts in incorrect carbide grades,
shoulder operations only thus improving surface texture, tool-
40% - 75° - for general purpose milling life and costs.
30% - 45° - for unstable operations
7. A few accurate checking fixtures
2. A re-allocation of diameter sizes was were placed at strategic locations
drawn up based on sound milling throughout the machine shop to be
principles. Consideration was taken to used for the limited maintenance of
cutter entry, teeth in cut, cutter posi- modern milling cutters and training in
tioning, general stability and CNC tool management techniques. Fixtures
availability. Modern, small-diameter were also used for quick checking of
facemills were only to be used on CNC insert indexing, when necessary, as
milling machines and the larger cutters modern facemills do not require
were checked for actual diameter cutting edge setting.
requirements and mounting stability.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-24
8. The inventory was rationalized Parallel land inserts, wiper inserts, less
considerably to include only a limited vibration tendencies, improved stability
number of items. Out-dated tooling and better operating practice led to
was phased out. The number of cutter improved quality. Consistent tool
types was reduced from 167 to 84, performance and predictable tool-life
insert types from 60 to 14 and grades became important corner-stones for
from 16 to just 4. Tool management, quality.
training and application charts with
cutting data guides were implemented. The spare parts inventory was reduced
Rationalization benefits were realized by 85% with obvious cost reductions
when the new methods and inventory along with the insert inventory cut of
were established and recommendations 75%. Because of the high value of the
implemented in the machine shop. stock required for multiple tooth milling
cutters, the resulting reduction in the
Three main improvement areas were number of inserts was in thousands of
assessed: cost savings, quality improve- pieces.
ment and reduced inventory costs.
The performance and flexibility of the
9. A general increase of 20% in cutting modern facemills, and the benefit of a
data was achieved. Use of a modular rationalized program of cutters incor-
milling cutter concept minimized setting porated into one basic design, meant
and maintenance. A common program that the need for a large number of
of tools meant flexibility between dedicated cutters was eliminated.
machinery, better operator know-how
and standardized items. Cemented carbide grades were reduced
to just two coated grades for steel, a
Surface texture was improved through coated grade for cast-iron and one
correct application of the right face- grade for special alloys.
mills and improvements reduced the
need for re-working of components.
Most inventories can be stream-lined regularily

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-25
Another tooling survey, conducted to

improve economics at a smaller sub-
contracting machine shop with mixed
production, batches and materials,
illustrates further advantages. Turning
is the dominant machining method
here, followed by milling and drilling.
The shop has several modern CNC
lathes, a couple of machining centers
and also a number of conventional
Modular tools have a positive effect on
machines. Bar and chuck components
inventories
with relatively complex shapes and
some with thin walls are machined to More than twenty machining tests were
close tolerances and high finishes. performed while the inventory was
being charted for assessment. These
Workpiece materials include: ranged from roughing to extreme
- various carbon and low-alloyed steels finishing. A major goal was to replace
- stainless steel, free-machining out-dated tools with modern ones.
- -- , austenitic If certain special tools could not
- -- , austenitic/ferritic be replaced by standard/Tailor Made
- aluminum, bronze and brass tools, they were kept in the inventory.
- high temp. super alloys and titanium The insert grade assortment was
- non-metallic materials primarily converted to coated cemented
carbides, complemented by a few
The aim of the tooling survey was to: cermet grades, for turning, milling
- reduce the capital tied up in tool and drilling in steel and stainless steel.
inventory
- increase productivity Uncoated cemented carbide and some
- simplify handling and administra- speciality grades were recommended
tion of tools for aluminum, bronze, brass, high temp-
erature super alloys and titanium as
This was to be carried out by: well as for non-metallic materials. All
- listing and assessing existing tool threading could be covered with one
inventory coated cemented carbide grade. Two
- converting to fewer, newer high ceramic grades were also recommended
performance tools to optimize turning in high temp. super
- establishing possibilities through alloys. Modern insert geometries were
in-production tests systematically included in the conversion.
- making use of standard and Tailor
Made products The inventory consisted of:
- utilizing quick-delivery system from - 290 different insert variants
suppliers (including grades)
- establishing routines for continuous Turning: 264
update of tooling Milling, drilling, etc: 26

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-26
Turning inserts: IMPROVED MACHINING ECONOMICS

Quick-change modular tooling has a
Negative type shape: considerable influence on machining
80 degree diamond - 7 variants economics. It reduces the length of
55 degree diamond - 4 variants down-time needed for machine setting
Square - 9 variants up and tool change and makes tool
Triangle - 8 variants management a much easier task. A
Round - 4 variants reduction in the tool changing time
affects the economic tool-life (Te).
Positive type shape: With modular tooling, it pays to
80 degree diamond - 11 variants machine at higher cutting data and
55 degree diamond - 16 variants change tools more frequently, thus
Square - 2 variants improving the utilization of available
Triangle - 17 variants production time.
35 degree diamond - 8 variants
Copying type - 11 variants For instance, consider a CNC lathe
Older top-clamp type - 26 variants machining various shaft components
Special inserts for boring small diam. - in relatively small batches. Two-shift
8 variants production was used and the machine
Special for parting, grooving, etc. - 83 needed re-setting twice every shift.
variants Five tools in the lathe turret were
Threading - 50 variants involved per re-set, which was a heavy
Drilling - 12 variants and time consuming task with large
Broaching - 2 variants tool blocks. It took five minutes per
tool to do the tool change with all the
After assessment, the inventory was unbolting and bolting (total 25 min.).
reduced by 35%.
A quick-change modular lathe tooling
Even after the new inventory base system reduced machine stoppages to
was developed to cover the machining 1 min. per tool (total 5 min.).
requirements more efficiently, there
was still room for further optimization This meant that 40 additional minutes
of operations. For the new inventory were added to the available machining
to be successfully introduced, a certain time per shift. Components could be
amount of method and cutting data produced during an extra one hour
adjustment was necessary. and twenty minutes per day on two
shifts. With two hundred working
The new tool inventory and ordering days per year, the extra machining time
routines lead to considerable economic amounted to 16,000 hours per year. The
and administrative advantages. Further investment in new tooling and clamping
benefits can be reaped through the equipment for the turret was paid for
introduction of tool management. in less than four months and the
machine provided an even better
return on investment.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-27
Modular tools are easy to introduce on existing machines

Changing to a modern tool material inches deep, will take a machining
can provide impressive productivity time of 2.83 minutes per component.
improvements. This is especially the
case in milling with small diameter A modern carbide tipped short hole
endmills. A lot of applications still use drill machines the component in only
the same high speed steel endmill that 0.74 min, with a cutting speed of 295
has been around for many years. A ft/min, feed of 24 in/min and a longer
typical cutting speed is 82 ft/min. tool-life. The machining cost works
out to be one third less with the
In one instance, changing to an end- modern carbide drill, with improved
mill in the new extra small particle tool hole quality.
material (Coronite) meant that, among
other things, the cutting speed could Simple measures can mean a lot when
be increased to 230 ft/min. In general, trying to optimize metal cutting opera-
machining, as well as the quality of tions. Methods should always be
the surface texture and tool-life, was questioned and assessed for possible
improved and the metal removal rate improvements. In finish turning, for
increased 460 percent. instance, the use of the right nose
radius is vital for not only surface
Drilling, one of the most frequently texture, but also productivity.
performed operations on many types
of machine tools, is an area that has For example, in one operation, a .031
been dominated by inexpensive high in. hole radius on a negative style
speed twist drills. Because of these insert was used in combination with a
drills, machining rates are still often feed rate of .005 in/rev. The cutting
extremely below modern standards. depth varied between .012 - .020 in.
Modern drills, such as solid carbide, and the surface texture achieved was
tipped, and indexable insert short hole Ra 125.
drills, can make a hole much faster,
dramatically increasing productivity. Changing to a .047 in. nose radius on
the same type of insert meant that a
For example, a .433 in. diameter high higher feed rate of .007 in. could be
speed twist drill machining with a used, while achieving an Ra value of
cutting speed of 130 ft/min. and a feed 100. This reduced the machining time
of 6.4 in/min., making six holes, each 3 from 3.9 to 3.2 minutes per component.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-28
2
1
4 2
5
3
2 min 1.5 min

In mass-production, seconds mean a lot to machining economics

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-29
Changing to better machining methods The machining of the workpieces was

in large-volume batch production and analyzed in detail, with the latest
mass-production can mean substantial cutting tools in mind. With an annual
production improvements. Lead times production of several hundred thousand
and through-put times can be shortened pieces, any improvement gained from
to affect other parts of manufacturing. more rational machining would mean
One example is that of turning a a lot.
spherical bearing roller. The component
is profiled, with several radii joining up The new procedure worked out as
to make the slightly rounded surface. follows:
Previously six operations were needed Operation 1: profiling the spherical sur-
taking 2 minutes and 8 seconds: face, facing the end and the adjoining
end radius on the bar with a modern
Operation 1: turning the spherical round insert (RCMT) using a cutting
outer face with a square insert with a speed of 656-984 ft/min and a feed of
cutting speed of 656 ft/min and a feed .014-.040 in/rev.
of .003 in/rev.
Operation 2: initial grooving to diameter
Operation 2: facing the end and turning 1.65 in. and then turning end radius
the end radius using a triangular with a grooving/parting tool (Q-Cut
insert with a cutting speed of 590 geometry 4E) using a cutting speed of
ft/min and a feed of .012 in/rev. 557-624 ft/min and a feed of .005-.007
in/rev.
Operation 3: initial parting down to
diameter 1.65 in. with a .24 in. wide Operation 3: parting-off with same
parting tool with a cutting speed of grooving/parting tool using a cutting
492 ft/min and a feed of .009 in/rev. speed of 426-656 ft/min and a feed of
.003-.007 in/rev.
Operation 4: turning the other end
radius with a .16 in. wide parting tool Just over thirty seconds was trimmed off
using a cutting speed of 590 ft/min the machining time on each component.
and a feed of .005 in/rev. Less tools were needed, inventory was
cut and tool changing was reduced.
Operation 5: grooving to a diameter Some one hundred different workpieces
of .63 in. using a .20 in. wide parting within the same component family are
tool with a cutting speed of 557 ft/min machined annually. Multiplying 30
and a feed of .006 in/rev. seconds times the annual production of
hundreds of thousands and the machine
Operation 6: parting-off with a cutting charge rate indicates impressive gains.
speed of 426 ft/min and a feed of .002 Along with the extra production
in/rev. capacity, the changeover to new tooling
reduced machining costs substantially.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-30
Endmilling varies considerably but tools such as this one in Coronite contribute to good
machining economics through reliability and performance superior to HSS.
The production in the lathes was By switching to a modern indexable
also changed from conventional shank insert endmill, the grooves could be
tools to modular quick-change tooling. machined in four passes instead of
This was done to gain more flexibility six. The feed rate could be doubled
and faster changeover times between and the cutting speed raised from 318
production of different component to 490 ft/min. The machining time
types. Tool changing time was cut by was cut to a fourth of what it was
2 minutes and machine set-up time previously. Longer tool-life and greater
per tool was cut by 15 minutes. This reliability were other bonuses that
made an extra 375 hours per year came with the switch.
available for machining, improving
the utilization of resources. The The machine cost per component was
modular equipment and tooling was reduced by 75%, the tool cost per com-
paid for in less than three months and ponent was reduced by 19% and the
provided a more attractive working tool changing cost was reduced by
environment for operators and tool- 67%. The total machining cost per
room staff. component was reduced by 73%. Also
a lot of machine time was made avail-
Making large grooves in strong steel able for other jobs, providing better
demands a good endmill for satisfactory utilization.
machining economy. For instance,
consider a machining center operation Short holes of larger diameters are
where six grooves, with a width of made in large quantities in a wide
2.50 in. and depth of 1.02 in., had to variation of components. Some work-
be rough machined. pieces have hundreds, even thousands
of holes, but even those having only

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-31
one or two holes in varying batches and performance of cutting tools has a
have improved machining economy profound effect on machining costs.
with modern indexable insert drills.
These examples illustrate the broad
For instance, stack drilling of steel plate range of measures that can be taken to
was improved with the change from a improve the economics of machining -
brazed-blade twist drill to an index- from changing the nose radius on an
able insert drill. The drilling depth per insert to analyzing all the machining of
set-up of four steel plates was 2.36 in. a machine shop or re-equipping with
and the drill diameter 1.575 inch. The modular tooling. No complicated
tool-life doubled, so that instead of 23 formulas or procedures are necessary
ft. per edge-set, 49 ft. could be drilled to calculate the apparent gains from
with the modern drill. The tool cost the correct application of the right,
per drilled foot fell to 13% of the pre- modern tool.
vious cost, in spite of the fact that the
new drill was twice the purchase price Following are a number of tables
of the twist drill. designed to facilitate the analysis and
calculation of sound machining invest-
This is another example of how mar- ments and inventories.
ginally the tool cost, representing just
2% of the production cost, affects the
machining cost, while the application
The economics of drilling depend greatly on the performance of the tool and method of
machining

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-32
PRINCIPAL PAY-OFF TIME CALCULATION FOR INVESTMENTS

Total net investment cost
Required rate of return %
Machine cost per hour
Number of shifts per day
Available production hours per year
Number of tool changes per shift
Savings per tool change (mins.)
Number of batches per shift
Number of new tools set up per batch
Time savings per tool set up (mins.)
Number of measuring cuts per batch
Time savings per eliminated measuring cuts (mins.)
Number of components produced per shift
Saving in cutting time per component (mins.)
Tool change savings per year (mins.)
Tool set up savings per year (mins.)
Measure cut savings per year (mins.)
Cutting time savings per year (mins.)
Total cost savings per year
Investment pay-off time
Total net investment cost

Total cost savings per year
Required rate of return %
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Opening balance
Interest
Net investment cost
Interest
Total costs
Cost savings
Interest
Total savings
Closing balance
Investment pay off time years

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-33
PRINCIPAL TURNING TEST ANALYSIS

Tool A Tool B
Component
Machine tool
Operation
Material
Hardness (HB)
CMC Code
Turning tool code

Manufacturer
Insert grade
Insert code
Cutting speed (ft/min)

RPM
Feed/rev (in.)
Depth of cut (in.)
Length of cut (in.)
Criterion for tool change
Machine cost/hour
Cutting time/component (mins)
Non cutting time/component (mins)
No. of components/edge
Tool changing time (mins)
Total time/component (mins)
Tool holder cost

Holder life, no. of cutting edges
Insert cost
No. of edges/insert
Machine cost/component
Tool cost/component
Tool change cost/component
Total machining cost/component
No. of components/Shift
Insert consumption/Shift
Tool consumption/Shift
Savings/Component
Savings/Shift
Savings/Year

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-34
PRINCIPAL MILLING TEST ANALYSIS

Tool A Tool B
Component
Machine tool
Operation
Material
Hardness (HB)
CMC Code
Milling cutter code
Manufacturer
Insert grade
Insert code
No. of inserts
Cutter diameter
RPM
Feed (in/min)
Axial depth of cut (in.)
Radial depth of cut (in.)
Machine cost/hour
No. of components/set of edges (/regrind)
Tool room cost/hour
Tool room time (regrind time) cutter
Cutter cost
Cutter life: No. of cutting edge sets (regrinds)
Cost/insert
No. of inserts
No. of edges/insert (= 1 if regrindable)
Tool cost/component
Savings/Component
Savings/Shift
Savings/Year

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-35
PRINCIPAL DRILLING TEST ANALYSIS

Tool A Tool B
Component
Machine tool
Operation
Material
Hardness (HB)
CMC Code
Drill code
Manufacturer
Insert grade
Insert code
No. of inserts
Drill diameter (in.)
RPM
Feed (in/min)
Depth of hole (in.)
Machine cost/hour
No. of components/set of edges (/regrind)
Tool room cost/hour
Tool room time (regrind time) drill
Drill cost
Drill life: No. of cutting edge sets (regrinds)
Cost/insert
No. of inserts
No. of edges/insert (= 1 if regrindable)
Tool cost/component
Tool consumption/Shift
Savings/Component
Savings/Shift
Savings/Year

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-36
MACHINE HOURLY RATE CALCULATION
Investment cost
Machine ..........................................................................................................................
Handling equipment......................................................................................................
Magazines .......................................................................................................................
Clamping related equipment........................................................................................
Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................
Total
Depreciation time................................................................................................ years
Internal interest ........................................................................................................ %
Utilization of investment
Hour per shift/year ........................................................................................................
No. of shifts.....................................................................................................................
% net time ......................................................................................................................
Net hours/year................................................................................................................
Annual cost
Depreciation...................................................................................................................
Capital costs ...................................................................................................................
Rent for premises ..........................................................................................................
Energy & maintenance cost .........................................................................................
Direct wages ...................................................................................................................
Social cost .......................................................................................................................
Administrative cost .......................................................................................................
Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................
Total annual costs

No. of operators .............................................................................................................
Machine hourly rate (MHR) = Annual cost

Net hour per year
MHR=........................................................................................................cost/hour

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-37
ANALYSIS OF SAVINGS - INDEXABLE INSERT INVENTORY
Analysis, stock volume

Consumption per Existing no. Proposed insert Average Reduction of
year, inserts of pcs in stock stock, pcs insert cost stock capital
(A) (B) * (C)
* To calculate (B), use purchasing quantity program. Input consumption per year and use order point for (B).
Savings, stock volume inserts

(A-B) x (C) x Interest rate (%): (D)
Analysis, assortment costs inserts

Average Reduction of
Existing Proposed Q% insert cost stock capital
F
(E) (F) (C1) (
(B) x 1-
E ) x (C )1
Q = Stock F
reduction % (
Q = 100 1-
E )
Savings, stock assortment inserts

F
(
(B) x 1-
E ) x (C) x Interest rate (%): (G)
Recommended insert stock PCS Insert stock reduction

(H)
(B) x 1- 100-Q :
( ) (A) x 100
100 (H) %
Total savings insert stock

(D+G)

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-38
ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION MODULAR TOOLING
Quick-change modular tools Conventional tools

AxBxC 1 AxBxD 2
Cutting edge
replacement time
per annum in min. .......... x .......... x .......... = .......... x .......... x .......... =
AxExF 3 AxGxH 4
* Measure cut time
per annum in min.
.......... x .......... x .......... = .......... x .......... x .......... =
A x I x J (E + C) 5 A x I x J (G + K) 6
Batch change-
over time per
annum in min. ..... x ..... x ..... (.....+.....) = ..... x ..... x ..... (.....+.....) =
1+3+5 7 2+4+6 8
Non productive
time in min.
.......... + .......... + .......... = .......... + .......... + .......... =
L+M 9 N 10
Capital
investment cost
.......... + .......... = N=
P 11 Q 12
Consumables
cost
P= Q=
* Only to be included if cutting units are premeasured.
Time saving per year (min) 13 Cost savings per year 14

8-7 13 x R
60
x
=
........... - ........... = 60
Additional capital investment cost 15 Pay-back period

9 + 11 - 10 -12 15
14
=
........... + ........... - ............ - ............ =

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-39
KEY TO THE ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FORM - MODULAR TOOLS
A Number of shifts per annum - H Number of the changed inserts or

number of working days per year edges specified under B requiring
multiplied by shifts worked per a measuring cut.
day. Number of shifts worked per
day could vary, e.g. there could be I Number of batches per shift. If a
two shifts per day Monday to batch lasts longer than one shift,
Friday with one on Saturday. indicate as a decimal quantity, the
part-batch produced in one shift,
B Total number of cutting edges i.e. batch lasts 1.7 shifts 0 0.588.
indexed or changed per shift.
J Average number of new tools
C Time required (in decimal minutes) required on batch change-over.
to change a cutting unit.
K Time required (in decimal minutes)
D Time required to index or change to change a conventional tool-
an insert in a conventional tool. holder or tool block.
E Average total time required (in L Cost of all clamping units per ma-
decimal minutes) using modular chine including modification costs
tooling to attain the stated dimen- and cost of any additional clamping
sion consistently, by performing units.
measuring cuts if required and
updating the CNC/NC control M Cost of the cutting tool setting
with new offset values for each fixture if required.
tool or just updating tool offset if
premeasured units are used. N Cost of toolholder blocks for
conventional tools. Consideration
F Number of the changed tools speci- should be given to the value of
fied under B requiring a measuring existing toolholding blocks when
cut. Normally all cutting units need doing a justification on an existing
to be premeasured and tool offsets machine.
updated. If not, relatively large
dimensional tolerances should be P Cost of cutting units per machine.
allowed.
R Machine hourly rate.
G Average total time required (in
decimal minutes) using conventional Q Total cost of conventional tool-
tools to attain the stated dimen- holders per machine.
sion consistently by performing
measuring cuts and updating the
CNC/NC control with new offset
values for each tool.

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-40
TOOLING LIST
Machine Component Material Operation

19158 05_Ekonomi 07-04-12 09.43 Sida V-41
Tool Insert Geometry Grade

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida 1
TURNING
INTRODUCTION 2 TURNING INSERTS
- GEOMETRIES 56
APPLICATION
OF TURNING TOOLS 36 THE CHOICE OF TURNING
INSERTS - GEOMETRIES 63
THE SELECTION PROCESS 38
COPY TURNING - PROFILING 66
TOOL MATERIAL 52
CUTTING DATA 55
Supplementary part:
Application of ceramic inserts 88
Turning stainless steel 98
Application of cermet inserts 102
Basic back-up:
Properties of materials 7 Turning tools 78
Material specification 9 Clamping through a hole 79
Creep strength 12 The wedge-clamp
Hardness 16 and wedge design 80
Impact resistance 18 Screw clamping 81
Ductility and toughness 22 Clamping on the insert 83
Tension 28 Build-in tools 85
Fatigue strength 35
19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-2
TURNING
INTRODUCTION
Turning is external, single-point metal cutting
Turning basically generates cylindrical shape and material, type of operation,

forms with a single point tool. In most conditions, requirements, costs, etc.,
cases, the tool remains stationary while determine a number of cutting tool
the workpiece rotates. Turning is, in factors. Today’s turning tool is carefully
many respects, the most straight- designed using decades of experience,
forward metal cutting method, with research and development.
relatively uncomplicated definitions.
However, because it is the most From the micro geometry and materials
widely used process, easily lending at its point of engagement to the basic
itself to development, turning has led shape and clamping of the indexable
the field and is now a highly optimized insert, through to the shank type or
process, requiring thorough apprasial modular toolholder, a turning tool
of the various factors in applications. handles the dynamics of modern metal
cutting in a way that was unthinkable
Although turning is generally a single- a couple of decades ago. Many of the
cutting-edge operation, the turning principles that apply to single-point
process is varied in that the workpiece machining also apply to other metal
VI-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-3
1 2 3 4
Four basic turning operations
cutting methods, including multi-point combination cuts, such as machining

rotating tool machining such as milling. shoulders, diameter transitions and
chamfers, but these are basically
Turning is an efficient, flexible method variations on the four basic operations.
of machining around workpieces of a
large variety of sizes and materials, Turning is the combination of two
with a single-point tool. There are movements: rotation of the workpiece
several basic types of operations, each and feed movement of the tool. In
requiring specific types of tools for some applications, the workpiece can
the operation to be performed in the be stationary, with the tool revolving
most efficient way. around it to make the cut, but basically
the principle is the same.
This section deals mainly with external
turning, leaving other, more specialized The feed movement of the tool can be
operations, such as threading, grooving, along the axis of the workpiece, which
cutting off and boring, to be discussed means the diameter of the part will be
in separate application chapters. Turning turned down to a smaller size. Alterna-
can be broken down into a number tively, the tool can be fed towards the
of basic cuts for selecting tool types, center, at the end of the part, which
cutting data and also programming means the length of the part will be
for a certain operation. shortened. Often feeds are combina-
tions of these two directions, resulting
To make tool application more straight- in tapered or curved surfaces. Today’s
forward, there can be said to be four lathe control-units will cope with many
basic turning operations: possibilities to turn parts straight and
round. CNC means very efficient con-
longitudinal turning (1), facing (2), trol of the cutting edge, replacing pre-
copying at angles (3) and round pro- vious concepts of copying according
filing (4). There are also numerous to templates and the use of form tools.
MODERN METAL CUTTING VI-3

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-4
Thus, turning is defined as the To arrive at the actual cutting speed,

removal of material from the surface the circumference (Dxπ) of the dia-
diameter of a rotating part using a meter being machined has to be multi-
single-point tool. A turning operation plied by the spindle speed. The rela-
can be well-controlled and performed tionship is expressed through a formula
accurately using the various factors where the spindle speed is directly rela-
which will be discussed throughout tive to the cutting speed at the circum-
this chapter. ference being cut. If the diameter is ex-
pressed in inches, the result must be
The workpiece rotates in the lathe with divided by 12 to express the cutting
a certain spindle speed (n) measured in speed in feet per minute.
number of revolutions per minute
(rpm). In relation to the diameter of It should be noted that the cutting
the workpiece at the point it is being speed is only constant for as long as the
machined, this will give rise to a cutting spindle speed and/or part diameter
speed, or surface speed (vc in ft/min). remains the same. In a facing opera-
tion, where the tool is fed in towards
This is the speed at which the cutting the center, the cutting speed (vc) will
edge machines the surface of the decrease progressively if the work-
workpiece. It is the speed at which the piece rotates at a fixed spindle speed.
periphery of the cut diameter passes
the cutting edge.
n
vc
Dxxn
vc = (ft/min)
12
D
D: (in)
n: (rpm)
: ≈ 3.14
Cutting speed is surface speed

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-5
n
vc n
D vc1 vc2
D2
D1
Three variables: cutting speed, diameter and spindle speed

On many modern lathes, the spindle speed range on machines is limited.
speed is increased as the tool moves Also, if a workpiece, has different dia-
in towards the center, making up for meters or is tapered or curved, as is
the decreasing diameter. However, often the case, the cutting speed
for very small diameters, this com- should be taken into account along
pensation will be impractical since the those variations.
Surface speed is higher for larger diameter at the same spindle speed

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-6
ap
vƒ
The correct cutting depth and feed are critical for chip control
The feed speed (vƒ - in in/min) is the The way in which the cutting edge
machine feed which moves the tool approaches the workpiece is expressed
along in various directions. by the lead angle (). This is the angle
between the cutting edge and the
The feed per rev (ƒ - in inches/rev) is direction of feed.
the movement of the tool in relation
to the revolving workpiece. This is a This angle is an important factor in
key value in determining the quality the basic selection of a turning tool for
of the surface being machined and for an operation. In addition to influencing
ensuring that the chip formation is the chip formation, it affects factors
within the scope of the tool geometry. such as the direction of forces involved,
This value influences not only how the length of cutting edge engaged in
thick the chip is, but also the quality
of the chip breaking.
ƒ ƒ
The cutting depth (ap - in inches) is
the difference between un-cut and cut
surface - half the difference in the un-
cut and cut diameter. The cutting
depth is always measured at right
angles to the feed direction of the
tool, not to the cutting edge.
The feed direction affects the lead angle

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-7
cut, the way in which the cutting edge

makes contact with the workpiece
and the variation of cuts that can be
taken with the tool in question. The
lead angle usually varies between -5 to
45 degrees. For copy turning or pro-
filing tools, an angle less than 0
degrees is often useful.
The lead angle can be selected so as

to enable the tool to machine in
several feed directions, giving versatility
and reducing the number of tools
needed. Alternatively it can be made to
provide the cutting edge with a larger Intermittent machining
corner and thus added strength. The
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The workpiece materials used in metal properties are the most interesting
cutting are chosen to suit the use of and relevant, whereas the physical,
the component being manufactured. thermal and electrical properties are
Materials have a number of properties, more relevant to the demands of the
some of which may be vital to their ap- application. Machinability, considered
plication, some irrelevant. From a metal a material property, is growing in
cutting point of view, the mechanical importance. Many metals have been
developed to improve efficiency in
machine shops - for example, cutting
free-machining steels and other
specially developed metals is less
demanding. Higher cutting data can
often be used and tool-life is longer.
Material-specification data gives values
established through standardized tests
and some of the mechanical properties
do influence the metal cutting process.
Therefore, taking the various material
properties into account when planning
a machining operation can lead to a
more successful machining application.
Some of the most frequently occurring,
relevant material properties, e.g. material
specification, creep strength, hardness,
impact resistance, ductility, etc. will be
Material properties affect machinability discussed throughout this chapter.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-8
main edge where it is stronger and

more able to cope with the initial
contact. The cut starts gradually, with-
out excessive impact. With a suitable
lead angle, the edge cuts abrasive
scale off rather than scraping it, thus
allowing it to enter cut advantageously.
Because of the destructive nature of
Lead angles affect start and exit of cuts scale and skin, selection of the correct
lead angle has a profound influence on
chip thickness can be reduced, distri- tool-life.
buting pressure along a greater length
of the cutting edge. It can give strength Also, when it comes to leaving the cut,
to the tool at entry and exit of cut, it the lead angle will affect the pressure
can direct forces to provide stability created by the feed on the last
during the cut and it will play a role in remaining material, as well as the
how chip flow is created. change of pressure on the edge itself.
The lead angle can permit the cutting When an edge with a small lead
edge to enter into cut some distance angle finishes a cut, the release of
from the point. It can enter on the feed pressure can cause a momentary
increase in feed and chip thickness.
This extra load can put the cutting
edge at risk due to fracturing.
A heavier cut often needs a larger lead angle than a light one

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-9
ƒ Material specification
There are several other tests which,
la when interpreted, provide a variety of
mechanical properties of materials, i.e.
ap tests such as torsion, shear, bending,
compression, flexure, and corrosion.
Machinability is more specific to
h metal cutting and therefore treated
separately.
To achieve a high value of one property

For a given cutting depth and feed per often involves compromising others. As
revolution there will be a certain chip indicated, strength may reduce ducti-
cross-section. The area and shape of lity and hardness may reduce impact
this, however, will be determined by strength. Properties relating to forge-
the lead angle. For this reason, two ability and heat treatability affect ma-
chinability. There are many speciality
variables are needed to define the
materials developed to reduce the
change of the resulting chip formation. compromise level in regards to
properties, such as free-machining
The chip width (la) is the same as the and high-strength steels. International
effective length of the main cutting and national standards provide con-
edge. siderable data on various material
specifications.
The chip thickness (h) is measured
across the cutting edge, perpendicular Becoming familiar with the mechanical
to the cut along the main cutting edge. properties involved from the material
specifications on design drawings
The chip width and thickness are the
provides invaluable help in optimizing
dimensions defining the theoretical cut a machining operation. Correct assess-
of the edge into the workpiece material. ment of the properties and quality of
the workpiece material are key factors
At a 0 degree lead angle, the cutting in achieving economical machining.
depth is the same as the effective
cutting edge or chip width, with the
chip thickness the same as the feed per
revolution.
At a 45 degree angle, with the same

feed rate and cutting depth, the
effective cutting edge length will
show a dramatic increase - growing to
nearly half as long again - as
compared to the 0 degree length. The
Accurate material specifications are
chip thickness will be considerably vital for tool application
smaller.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-10
Therefore, changing the lead angle

means that the feed - and consequently
the metal removal rate - can be
increased to achieve the same cutting
depth and chip thickness. This may
often be advantageous in spreading
pressure and making use of a larger
portion of the cutting edge.
The chip thickness will vary with the

size of the lead angle according to the
relationships shown involving the feed
ƒ1
la1= ap
h1
The lead angle affects the pressure

la2 distribution on the edge
ƒ1
rate, chip thickness and cutting depth
and the effective cutting edge length.
ap
The choice of lead angle can affect
the tool-life in that it determines the
h2 pressure per unit-area on the cutting
edge. The chip thickness is related to
the lead angle and the amount of
pressure bearing upon the cutting
la2 ƒ2 edge. A thinner chip distributes the
pressure along the edge and consumes
less power than a thicker chip.
ap
Less pressure is generally advantageous
in regards to the stresses imposed on
the edge and for this reason smaller
h1 lead angles are often applied to heavy
duty and intermittent cuts.
The effects of lead angle and feed rate

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-11
However, it is also a fact that in some

operations, a thicker chip will improve
the contact between chip and edge and
can thus be advantageous in regards lead angle
ƒ
to tool-life. Also some materials cut
better when a thicker chip is taken
off. In some cases, too large a lead la
angle may reduce tool-life if the chip ap
gets too thin. Compensation for this
must be made by increasing the feed
rate to produce a thicker chip.
h
The time taken to machine a compo-
nent can be reduced by increasing the h = ƒ x Cos ƒ
feed and using a lead angle larger
than 0 degrees. Feed increase boosts
productivity by reducing cutting time
and utilizing the cutting edge well,
giving good tool-life.
h
The adjoining table shows how varying The thickness of the chip is reduced
lead angles affects the feed for a fixed with an increasing lead angle in rela-
chip thickness (1), the chip thickness tion to a fixed feed, on approximately
for a fixed feed (2) and effective the same scale as the chip width is re-
cutting edge length for a fixed cutting duced at a fixed cutting depth with a
depth (3). For a fixed feed and cutting decreasing lead angle (according to
depth, a smaller lead angle will produce the previous table). The chip cross-
a thinner chip. section (h x la) remains approximately
the same throughout the variation of
the lead angle.
% 1 2 3 Generally, when applying a turning

tool, the depth of cut should be
° ƒ/h h/ƒ la
/ap
maximized and a suitable, productive
feed used. The cutting speed is used
to optimize the conditions of the
0 100 100 100 operation.
10 102 99 102
15 103 97 103
30 110 87 110
45 141 71 141

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-12
Creep tests usually involve constant

% X tensile force at an elevated tempera-
ture. The elongation is then recorded in
relation to the time. Stages are reached
2 A with transition points for various mate-
3
1 rials and temperatures. The adjoining
diagram shows a typical creep curve,
with yield on the vertical axis and time
(h) on the horizontal, at three stages:
(1) the primary stage with rapid yield
h but decreasing rate, (2) the secondary
with slow yield at a more constant rate,
usually the longest, and (3) the third
stage with a rapidly increasing rate
Creep strength leading to fracture. Curve (A) is a creep
Creep is continuing change in de- curve for a material at a temperature
formation in relation to the time that above 500°C going through the
the material is subjected to force. This various stages, leading to fracture at
is the time rate of deformation, leading (X). This is compared to the same
eventually to fracture. Measured in material at room temperature, which
force per time and temperature, creep does not fracture.
is especially relevant to high tempera-
ture applications where demands are Materials can be represented by a
high on the material and the working number of creep curves where various
time is long. The creep phenomenon forces and temperatures are evaluated
can then become a critical factor in in largely the same way as tensile
the application. The material under- strength is tested. In addition to creep
goes deformation, even at a relatively strength in force per area, other values
low constant force, which increases include creep speed, creep yield,
with time, thus leading to fracture. elongation and contraction in percent.

n
n

Insert nose angles

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-13
The shape of the insert determines the types of cuts possible with the tool
Selecting a larger lead angle can also The lead angle influences the direction
provide the insert with added strength of cutting forces in the horizontal
through the use of an edge with a plane. The feed pressure is directed
larger included angle (). This means onto the main cutting edge, and as
the cutting edge will have a larger such, can be seen as a force component
cross-section. A larger lead angle in both the axial and radial directions.
often must be used not only for added
strength but also for more advantage- A small lead angle gives a large axial
ous entry and exit, while a smaller force and a smaller radial force, while
lead angle may be the only solution a larger lead angle will give rise to a
up against shoulders or to achieve more balanced relationship.
access for profiles.
A dominant axial force is often prefer-
The tool back clearance (n) should be able when it comes to slender work-
adapted to suit the direction of feed. pieces that deflect easily, or for inter-
This is so that the secondary cutting nal machining, when a long boring bar
edge is only engaged where needed in may deflect because of higher radial
relation to the feed and nose radius of forces.
the edge.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-14
rake angles, the lead angle affects the

angular direction of chip flow relative
F to the surface of the workpiece.
F F F
As a rule, lead angles of 10 to 30
degrees should be selected for general
turning, unless workpiece or opera-
tional aspects demand otherwise.
Lead angles/Cutting forces This general guideline will normally

have the best influence on tool-life
A small lead angle, with its resulting and productivity. It will provide a
large axial force, will tend to deflect reasonable compromise in regards to
the tool in external turning opera- many of the previously mentioned
tions. A suitable compromise will give points, such as: stability from balanced
balanced forces and add stability to forces, feed rate for high productivity,
the operation. strong tool-nose on the cutting edge,
maintaining a suitable chip thickness
The lead angle, in combination with for a certain feed in regards to pressure
other parts of the cutting edge geometry on the edge and the way in which the
and material, affects the direction of entry and exit of cuts and abrasive scale
chip flow at the cutting edge. Although can be determined, so as to provide the
chip flow is largely determined by the most advantageous cut.
Smaller lead angles are selected for general turning and larger angles for heavy duty

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-15
35° R
90°

Generally, a sharp cutting edge point

is also a weak point. Therefore, the
weakest part of the cutting edge is
usually the point, or nose in cut. This
occurs when machining is concentrated
onto a small cross-sectional area. The
point penetrates the metal and bears
the thrust of the material deformation.
The included angle determines the area

available at the cutting edge, providing
varying amounts of strength. Usually
the angle varies between 35 and 90
degrees, but round inserts have an
even greater area at the cutting edge
and so provide a very strong cutting
edge for demanding operations.
At the very point of the edge, where

the two cutting edge sides meet, there
has to be some way of joining the
sides to provide not only sufficient
strength but also the correct function
of the cutting edge. This is usually
achieved by making a radius between
the two sides.
The insert shape determines strength and

operational flexibility

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-16
Hardness
Generally, the hardness of a material Brinell
is its ability to withstand deformation
when subjected to external forces. In
practice, it may be related to the F A
material’s use and measurement, such
as stiffness of wrought material, and
seen as a machinability characteristic.
More commonly, it is expressed as a HB = F
ø A
value of how the material can withstand
indentation. There are several ways of
measuring and expressing the hardness The hardness number is read on the
of materials. Most tests use a numerical instrument dial while the load is applied.
value related to the indentation achieved The Rockwell scale of application
under standard conditions. ranges in sequence from A to V, from
extremely hard materials and thin
The Rockwell hardness test takes into sheets to very soft plastics and rubbers.
account the considerable difference in In metal cutting the most common are
various materials by scaling the testing B and C applications, expressed as
applications. The test involves a hard HRB and HRC. B uses a ball and C a
penetrator in the form of a ball for soft cone.
materials and a cone for hard materials.
Differences in depth of penetration The Brinell hardness test is based on
between a small starting load and the the penetration of a ball pressed into
final testing load are established. The the material surface by a specific force
hardness number is given by the and during a specific time. The dia-
depth of indentation. The harder the meter of the indentation is measured
material, the smaller the indentation and the Brinell hardness number is
and the higher the Rockwell number. read from a table as the relationship
between the force applied and the area
of the indentation achieved. Different
forces and ball diameters are used,
relative to the type of material, to
Rockwell
Vickers
F
F F
HV = 1.84 F
HRB HRC D D

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-17
achieve the ideal indentation for These are the three most common
recording an accurate hardness value. hardness testing methods. The values
Surfaces have to be prepared so as to that each method achieves can be
provide accurate readings. Hardness approximately compared in a graph,
values are expressed as HB. which varies with materials. There are
additional hardness testing methods
The Vickers hardness test is based on which are specialized to provide micro
the penetration of a pyramid pressed hardness or to be portable.
into the material surface by a known
force during a specific time. It is similar
in principle to the Brinell test but due to HV HB HRB HRC
the shape of the diamond penetrator,
100 89 57
the hardness number is independent
120 108 68
of the force used in the test. The 140 127 77
diagonals of the square indentation 160 145 84
180 163 90
are easy to measure in various sizes. 200 193 94 14
Again, the number represents the 220 202 97 18
relationship between the force and area 240 228 100 22
260 247 102 25
of indentation and, after assessing the 280 265 104,5 28
diagonal length, can be read from 300 284 106,5 31
tables. By using small forces, tests can 320 303 33
340 322 35
be made on small surfaces and varia- 360 341 37
tions can be used to achieve a better 380 360 39
400 379 41
assessment of the surface. Hardness 420 397 42,6
values are expressed as HV. 440 415 44,2
460 433 45,7
480 452 47,1
500 471 48,5
520 487 49,8
540 503 51,1
Rockwell Vickers 560 519 52,3
580 535 53,5
600 550 54,6
620 564 55,6
HV 640 578 56,6
660 590 57,6
680 603 58,5
700 59,4
HRB 720 60,3
740 61,1
760 61,9
780 62,6
HRC 800 63,3
820 64,0
840 64,7
860 65,4
880 66,1
900 66,8
920 67,5
940 68,1
960 68,7
980 69,3
1000 69,9

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.52 Sida VI-18
The nose radius (r) is tangential to

the two cutting edges that meet at a P
theoretical point (P). From a functional
aspect, it removes the sharpness and
thus the weakness from the point. The
nose radius size varies considerably and
r
a range has been adapted for inserts to
fulfill a number of basic requirements.
The demands on the nose radius in
various types of operations can be The cutting depth is a major produc-
quite different. tivity factor in roughing operations.
Should tool-life be affected negatively
One requirement is strength, where a by maximized cutting depth, the use
larger cross-sectional area stands up to of a larger nose radius, as an alternative
greater forces during machining. A to moving on to a larger insert size,
larger radius also distributes the cut may often improve performance.
along a greater length, generally pro-
viding better tool-life. Heat dissipation The surface finish generated on the
is more advantageous with a large workpiece is influenced by the size of
radius, giving rise to less damage from the nose radius. The form of the
thermal fluctuations. turned surface will mainly be a result
piece placed in a test machine having

a pendulum. These machines are
usually of either the Charpy or Izod
type. By measuring the weight and
swing height of the pendulum, the
required energy is established.
The materials tested will break differ-

ently depending upon how ductile, or
brittle, they are. The ability to with-
stand cracking is also measured due
to the use of notched test pieces,
providing useful information about the
need to eliminate stress indications,
Impact resistance such as machining marks and sudden
The impact resistance is the measured form changes. Impact resistance of
energy needed to break a test piece. materials undergoes a marked deteri-
Energy is absorbed and toughness is oration at stress indications and sudden
established through a notched test transitions to another thickness.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-19
Rt
r
ƒ2
Rt =
ƒ 8xr
of a combination of feed per revolution

and the nose radius. This is, however,
the theoretical result. In practice, other
factors come into the picture, such as
the cutting speed and wear develop-
ment on the cutting edge. A theore-
tical relationship for the surface form
is the profile height (Rt). This is a
product of the square of the feed rate
divided by eight times the nose radius. Nose radii vary considerably, so it is
critical to apply them correctly
The nose radius affects surface texture and cutting edge strength

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-20
in combination with a lower feed per

F F revolution.
When it comes to the combined effect

of the nose radius on chip formation
r1 and pressure, there are distinct differ-
r2 ences in the effects of each size. A
large nose radius will give rise to a
more flowing chipbreaking than a small
radius. However, a smaller nose radius
ƒ ƒ (r1) will produce a chip with a thickness
Nose radii/Cutting forces that remains almost constant up to the
point on the insert radius that marks
A large nose radius has several advan- the finish of the cut. A large radius
tages for both roughing and finishing, (r2) produces a chip that tapers off
including less pressure and heat per gradually. For the same cutting depth,
length-unit at the critical nose and the the length of cut is longer for the large
ability to generate a better surface nose radius than with a smaller one.
finish for a certain feed rate. Pressure is concentrated, coming to an
abrupt end on the smaller nose radius
A .016 inch nose radius at a feed of while on the large radius, it is more
.010 in/rev will have a profile height of even and gradually reduced.
20 microns while a nose radius of .094,
at the same feed, will have a height of The combination of cutting depth and
3.3 microns. It then follows that an size of nose radius will have an effect
improved surface finish will be the similar to that of selecting the lead
result of selecting a larger nose radius angle. A small cutting depth and nose
ap1 r1
r2
ap2
At small depths of cut, the nose radius has the same effect as a lead angle

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-21
radius will be similar to an edge with a affect stability when turning slender
small lead angle, making a chip directed workpieces and when boring. The
out off the workpiece surface at a large radial force will cause deflection of
angle. Larger radii will be more like a the workpiece and tool, respectively.
large lead angle with a chip coming
off at a small angle to the workpiece. In some respects, the tapering chip is
This is also affected by the cutting not advantageous. If the chip thickness
geometry of the edge. It would seem, is too small, chip cutting does not take
then, that there are more advantages place. Instead the material is deformed
gained by using a larger nose radius, by the edge. The right cutting geometry
since it is stronger, gives rise to better for the cutting depth and feed rate
surface finish and, in some respects, combination is then vital to ensure
has an advantageous chip/pressure actual metal cutting.
relationship with the cutting edge.
An extremely thin chip can cause the
However, more power is needed for edge to cut intermittently, creating poor
machining with a large nose radius than surface texture, inaccuracy and reduced
with a sharp point. The chip is curled tool-life due to friction between the
off in one direction by the rake angle edge and workpiece.
of the edge and in another by the
radius, thus consuming more power. Also the workpiece can be negatively
affected, in that excessive work
The force distribution between the hardening of the surface takes place.
axial and radial directions will be some-
what different. The larger nose radius
has a greater radial force, which will
r r
The cutting edge and depth of cut need to be coordinated correctly for satisfactory cutting action

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-22
5 4
0 0.5 1.0 %C
Ductility and toughness

When determining whether a material resistance, (5) Reduction in area and
is ductile or brittle, impact testing is (6) Elongation. As can be seen, for
valuable. A material which has high some materials, it is typically the
tensile strength and may be hard can hardness and tensile strength which
break quite easily when impact tested, combine to give the material strength
indicating that it is, in fact, brittle. while impact resistance, reduction in
Ductility, as opposed to brittleness, area and elongation combine to create
can be determined by establishing the the material’s toughness.
strength, elongation and reduction in
area of the material. Toughness should not be confused with
strength. Toughness is characterized
In the adjoining diagram, where the by the ability of the material to stand
vertical axis is a combined rising up to impact, while tension is the
scale of property values, the various ability of the material to withstand
typical property curves are indicated tensile forces. Ductility is the ability of
for steel with low to high amounts of the material to have plastic and tensile
carbon: (1) Hardness, (2) Tensile properties and to retain the form into
strength, (3) Yeild strength, (4) Impact which it has been deformed.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-23
Depending upon the type of material, In general, within the necessary scope
the hardness value might be raised of stability and chip formation, the
considerably. One example where this larger nose radius should be selected
phenomenon is critical is in austenitic to provide strength for roughing and
stainless steel. Here it is imperative surface finish for finishing.
that actual cutting takes place at
sufficient surface speed. So far, we have only viewed the cutting
tool from above to see how the edge
Vibration tendencies increase with an approaches and enters the cut, defined
increasing nose radius. The longer by the lead angle and nose radius. To
length of cut will make demands on examine cutting geometries, there are
the stability of the machining set-up. two main levels - macro and micro.
Round insert cutting edges are extre- Examining the cutting edge from a
mely strong, but put the tool, clamp- larger point of view is a macro view,
ing, workpiece and machine to the relevant in roughing (A). A micro view
test in regards to stability. The size of is closer to the nose of the edge, more
the nose radius must be carefully relevant to finishing (B).
selected when there is a risk of
chatter. This is even more critical in A rough turning operation could take
boring operations, where it is important a cutting depth of .39 inch with a feed
to use the right lead angle, cutting geo- of .04 in/rev. A finishing operation
metry and nose radius. The conclusion, might only take a depth of .04 inch
then, is that the selection of nose radius combined with a feed of .004 in/rev.
is a question of compromise. The priority of a roughing operation
A
ƒ ƒ

ap
ap
B
The cutting tool seen from above with main cutting data and angle factors

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-24
A versatile diamond-shape insert performing in-copying with good chip control
is to remove a large volume of metal micro levels of geometry are present

as efficiently as possible. Cutting edge depending upon the type of operation
strength is a major requirement. In for which the tool is designed.
finishing, the volume of metal removal
is far less, with the main aim being to On the macro geometry level, the insert
achieve a specific surface finish and is inclined in relation to the horizontal
workpiece dimension. Tool-life is plane. A negative angle of inclination
important, especially the way in which () is shown in (A). This angle can also
the wear pattern develops on the cut- be positive as in (B). This is the angle
ting edge nose. Modern cutting edges of the insert seat in the toolholder.
are developed to provide macro and Viewed from the side of the tool, front
micro functions - the ability to take to back, it is the angle between the
large and small cuts, at various feeds plane of the toolholder and the angle
and speeds and in different materials. that the insert is inclined.
There are also a number of turning The inclination angle must be negative
operations which do not fit into the if the wedge angle () of the cutting
two extreme categories mentioned. edge is 90 degrees, as it most often is
This range of applications is actually on inserts, for strength reasons. If the
comprised of several combinations of 90 degree wedge angle insert were not
cutting data, such as light-roughing and inclined, there would be no clearance
semi-finishing. underneath the cutting point against
the workpiece. A clearance angle ()
By looking at the cutting tool from the allows the cutting edge to work freely
side or front, a different type of cutting without unnecessary rubbing. However,
geometry comes into focus. The cutting for some types of machining, such as
ability of the edge is defined by the boring and cutting aluminum, where
angles and radii that make up the form sharp cutting edges are required, the
of the edge. Again, the macro and wedge angle is smaller and the angle of

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-25
– +

A B
Negative and positive angle of inclination
inclination positive. The top face of the orthogonal - the main cutting edge
insert is then larger than the bottom being perpendicular to the axis of
face. rotation (E).
It is important to note that the turning

tool must be viewed in at least two
directions. A plane (except in the case
of D, overleaf) parallel to the main
cutting edge contains the angle of
inclination (), which explains the need
for a front to back approach.

Perpendicular to the main cutting edge
of the tool, in (C), the rake angle () is a
measure of the edge in relation to the
cut itself. These two angles only coincide
when the tool is fed along a line at 90
degrees to the axis of the workpiece
rotation, as in some facing, grooving or
cut-off with a 90 degree lead angle (D).
C
The planes in which these angles are
measured are at right angles to each
other when the cutting action is Rake and inclination angle

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-26

D E F
Lead angles of 0 and 30 degrees
Often though, the lead angle is neither introduce the cutting edge into the
0 nor 90 degrees and the cutting action workpiece in a way that influences
is oblique (F). This means that the chip flow, forces, power, etc.
plane measuring the angle of inclination
and that of the rake angle are less than Although the angle of inclination in the
90 degrees to each other. The rake holder is usually negative, the rake
angle is also known as the side rake angle of the cutting edge in relation to
angle, as the turning tool normally the cut is often positive. This is achieved
cuts with the side as it is fed along the through the insert geometry.
workpiece. These angles combine to
Toolholders with a typical range of lead angles

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-27
When it comes to insert geometry, the

modern indexable insert has carefully B
designed combinations of grooves, flats,
angles and curves to provide the actual
cutting ability of the edge. The cutting E
ability of an insert involves the forming
and breaking of the chip during the cut
in the workpiece. This technology is
applied to the insert in manufacturing,
when the insert is pressed or ground. A
Integrated into the edge is the rake angle.
The size of the rake angle depends to a
Effective rake
large extent upon the application area
of the insert, such as the material, The toolholder often has a negative
cutting depth and feed. The rake might rake angle (A), although a neutral or
function far back along the top face of positive angle is also possible. The insert
the insert, as for roughing inserts (B) usually has a positive rake angle (B).
while on finishing inserts (A), the rake Together they form an effective rake
is available at the nose itself. Some angle (E), adapted to function within
cutting geometries have combinations the application area of the cutting edge.
of the two (C), providing the insert with
a relatively wide application range in The basic cross-section of an insert
regards to cutting depth and feed rate. with a 90 degree wedge angle has a
decisive influence on the strength and
stability of the cutting edge, but does
not determine the cutting ability of
B the edge because the modern cutting
ap/ƒ geometry is pressed into the insert.

A ap/ƒ

C ap/ƒ
1 2
Extent of rake and chipbreaker on various

insert types

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-28
Tensile Strength
The characteristics of materials under out the plastic range of elongation
tension are important from a design and there will first be uniform (2) and then
machinability point of view. Ductility localized deformation, where the test
and strength are measured and stress- piece undergoes necking, a reduction
strain relationships are established. in area. Finally, there is fracture (3).
There are several ways of testing and
expressing the material strength and The force/extension, stress ( )/strain
the limits of the material when it resists () diagram, provides graphical repre-
stretching. Properties are obtained by sentation of materials under tension.
subjecting the material being studied The first part of the curve is linear with
to forces (P) applied perpendicularly the slope relationship being the Modu-
to a cross-sectional area while a test lus of Elasticity (E). The stress ( ) is
piece is pulled apart. force load per area (A) and the strain
() is the elongation per unit of original
length. The elastic limit coincides with
the proportional limit ( p), the stress at
which the curve leaves the straight line.
P P This point may be difficult to determine
and therefore one uses a certain yield
value to represent an elastic limit.
ε
σ
Generally, when a material test piece

is subjected to forces that create
tension, it will start to deform within its
limits of elasticity (1). Here the material
will return to its original shape when
the tension is relieved. If the elastic ε
limit is exceeded at the yield point, the
material will undergo plastic deforma- 3
tion - the deformation remains even 1 2
when the tension is relieved. Through-

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-29
σ
B E= σ
FA ε
σP σ = FA
0.2 A - usually 0.2%. It is the stress which
can be applied and then relieved to
provide strain of only that certain value:
the yield strength extension.
A
The following diagrams indicate the
0.2% variation of stress/strain diagrams for
some different materials. Diagram (1)
shows a typical curve for soft carbon
More interesting is the yield strength, or low-alloy steel, (2) again a soft steel
the stress required to produce a certain but with a different yield elongation, (3)
amount of permanent strain. The yield hardened and some stainless steels,
strength is at the intersection (B) of a (4) another type of stainless steel, (5)
line, parallel to the straight part of the another type of hardened steel, (6) the
curve. The curve has a strain value same steel after tempering and then
used in the definition of yield strength (7) annealed.
1 2 3
4 5 6 7

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-30
The percentage elongation (e) of the

F
FMAX T = MAX material is the relationship between the
AO total increase in length and the original
σU length.
σL The percentage reduction of area (Ao-

AF) is the reduction of the test piece
at the point of fracture and is often
AO quoted as a material constant.
LO LMAX
εE The tension test can also be interpreted
using the secant modulus value. This
is important for very ductile materials
that do not show a linear part of the
Materials vary somewhat in regards to stress/strain curve, making it difficult
the stress/strain curve representation. to establish the off-set yield stress.
Some steels have a definite yield
point, with upper yield point ( U), Generally, materials with increased
lower yield point ( L) and yield point strength will have lower ductility.
elongation (E). The upper point is the Strength can be represented by the
value before a drop in stress, up to elastic (0.2%) limit and the tensile
which behavior is almost elastic. This strength. Ductility is represented by
point, however, is not usually regarded elongation and the reduction area.
as a material constant as the curve is
easily affected in testing at this point.
The lower yield point is a more reliable

material constant and usually more
important for applications. The yield
point elongation will also be reached, LO
up to the point (T) where rising force
with increasing strain is resumed.
Uniform deformation continues until
necking begins. This is up to a point
on the curve where a critical value is
reached and the stress falls, although
the average stress at the point of LMAX
smallest area continues to increase.
AO AF
The maximum force (Fmax) that is
reached, divided by the initial area (Ao)
of the test piece is the tensile strength e = LO – LMAX . 100
of the material. LO

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-31
A B C
Radius, chamfer and land
Looking at the cutting geometry on the strength at the nose. Forces can be re-
smallest scale, and again from the side directed onto the stronger part of the
at the cross-section, additional features insert.
integrated on the insert can be seen. As
mentioned, a sharp edge is a weaker However, the excessive use of these
edge since it has a smaller cross-section measures can lead to higher cutting
and fractures more easily. On a macro forces, power consumption and stresses
scale, a square cross-section insert on edge. The micro designing of the
provides the best strength. On a very cutting edge is an area requiring
small, almost microscopic scale, in development, experience and advanced
regards to cutting geometry, there are manufacturing techniques.
edge preparations that can strengthen
the outermost corners of the cutting
edge as well as the transition from the
clearance side of the insert to where
the rake angle of the finer geometries
begins. These measures and the way
in which they are implemented have
an effect on the capability and
durability of the cutting edge.
There are three basic ways in which

the cutting edge is usually prepared: a
honed radius on the actual corner (A),
a chamfer which breaks the corner (B)
and a land stretching back negatively
from the clearance side to various
lengths on the insert face (C). More
often there are combinations of these
three types. The radius, also known as
the ER (edge rounding), is usually
applied to most corners, and negative
lands are often provided up to where
the rake angle commences, giving high

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-32
Providing a cutting edge with a land

before the actual rake angle takes F F
effect is a common method used to
strengthen cutting edges. The land is
applied in relation to the application
area of the cutting edge. A finishing
insert working with very small feeds
and cutting depths may have no land + –
at all and only some small edge
rounding. A heavy roughing insert Cutting force directions change with the
will have a large, negatively inclined application of a negative land
land to provide the best strength. The
land will redirect the cutting pressure top face of the edge, the direction of
into the cutting edge, where it is well these forces can be directed to either
supported, instead of directing it create tensional or compressive stresses
down and out into the more fragile on the edge. Compressive stresses
cross-section of the edge. which can be easily handled by modern
cutting materials are preferred.
The effects of a primary land are
similar to that of a rake angle. As the However, the negative rake achieved
cutting forces act at right angles to the by the land will give rise to higher
1 ƒ 2 ƒ
ap
ap
Varying cutting edge cross-sections along the insert for different applications

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-33
power demands and affect chip forma-

tion. It is an essential factor for the
cutting geometry of indexable inserts
to include lands correctly adapted to
the application area in question.
The sharp cutting edge point of a

finishing insert will work at small depths
of cut and feeds, generate smaller
cutting forces and consume relatively
less power. Along the cutting edge,
which becomes engaged in cut or
has to cope with chip hammering, an
increasing primary land will re-inforce
the edge. As the application range for
cutting edges becomes more demanding
in regards to feeds and depths, larger
primary land will be applied.
Tool-life (T) and security are dependent

upon the amount of edge radius (ER)
applied, as indicated in the adjoining
diagram. Insufficient rounding will not
provide enough general edge strength
(S), while too much will dull the edge,
reducing its ability to cut and creating
vibration tendency. ER1 is a small
radius, representing an edge which is
weak. This provides a long tool-life in Edge rounding (ER)
some light applications, but does not
provide enough security against edge large radius, but tool-life is reduced
chipping in others. ER3 represents a drastically for the application range.
T ER2 is a logical compromise in this

ER1 particular application, a combination of
ER2 long tool-life and good edge security.
ER values usually range from 30 to 75
ER3 microns (.0002"- .0030") on cemented
carbide inserts for the majority of
turning applications. Today’s accurate
S ER treatment gives the cutting edge
just the right amount of rounding to suit
the application area. It is the modern
ER related to tool-life/security answer to yesterday’s stoning of the edge.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-34
Ra1
Ra2
ER
ER1 ER2
Suitable amount of edge rounding
In the above diagram, the surface tex- edge in finishing applications can
ture has been plotted against various actually have the same effect as a
ER values. Ra1 to Ra2 represents the worn edge, affecting the subsequent
acceptable range which means that the wear development, formation of built-
correct edge rounding lies between up edge and cutting forces.
ER1 and ER2. A radius smaller than
ER1 makes the edge too sharp for the Once ER values are established to suit
application, and most likely too weak the application and geometry area of
as well. Values above ER2 produce the edge, the ER treatment must be as
unacceptable surface texture due to accurate and consistent as possible. A
vibrations. typical sharp, uncoated cutting edge can
retain its sharpness if it develops the
Correct edge rounding off values are correct wear pattern. Coated cutting
carefully established through charting edges require a certain amount of ER
the finishing performance in relation to ensure the satisfactory application of
to various radius sizes for different a layer. The coating is then very wear
applications. Some workpiece materials resistant, maintaining the correct edge
demand a very sharp edge with minimal radius and geometry longer.
edge rounding. An excessively rounded

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-35
Fatigue strength
The fatigue strength of a material is a of reduction in strength varies with
measure, in load per area, of its ability the finish, as indicated by the different
to stand up to repetitive forces. This curves. A is the top level, representing
is the strength in relation to repetitive a polished, ground texture, B is the
change of force. There are a number typical finishing surface, conventionally
of tests developed to indicate values achieved through grinding, C is a
describing fatigue, or endurance, of rough machined surface, D represents
some kind. Typically, a test piece will a surface having a typical groove or
be subjected to cycles of forces, notch and E is a raw forged surface.
reversing forces to create tension and
compression, with the number of cycles A so called S-N curve is often used to
before fracture indicating the value. show the fatigue behavior. S is the
force in relation to N, the number of
Rotational bending is a common test cycles. The adjoining diagram shows a
where the limit is defined as the largest typical steel S-N curve with (1) being
bending force that can be applied the fatigue limit or endurance strength.
a certain number of times without The endurance limit is the level of
fracture. Often, when fracture occurs stress below which the material will
as a result of fatigue, it is initiated at stand up to an indefinite number of
some indication in the surface. A force cycles without fracture.
crack develops and deepens until
fracture occurs, hence the importance A material may be characterized by
of surface texture for components several fatigue values. Many materials
subjected to repeated forces. do not have distinct endurance values
and can instead be described by the
Different surface textures will show a endurance ratio of fatigue strength
marked influence on the endurance divided by tensile strength. There is
strength (B) when compared. In the also the notch sensitivity ratio in
general trend diagram below, the fatigue where a polished test piece is
endurance strength and percentage compared to a notched piece.
% S
A
B (1)
C
D
E
δB N

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-36
APPLICATION OF TURNING TOOLS
The application of turning tools is a application process revolves around

series of logical steps developed in these variables. Today’s turning tool is,
response to the task of machining a in the majority of cases, a steel tool-
workpiece according to a manufacturing holder with a mechanism for holding an
drawing. It is basically a routine process insert. The insert is made from a harder
that utilizes a program of cutting tools cutting material and has several cutting
influenced by the parameters of the edges. Indexing takes place when an
operation in question. Rational creative edge reaches a certain amount of wear.
thinking is also required to achieve the This makes the edge incapable of
best result or to solve specific problems. maintaining the specified dimensional
tolerance or surface finish and can
There are three main variables in the even make it susceptible to rapid
application of modern turning tools: breakdown. Logically defining the tool
variables is done step-by-step, and
insert clamping method (A), indexable involves tool inventory, machine tool
insert type and geometry (B) and cut- specifications, manufacturing drawings
ting tool material (C). Essentially the and possibilities for new ideas.
A B C
Insert clamping, cutting geometry and tool material

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-37
1
R 2
3
4
5
6
P
7
8
9
Tool application factors in turning
The end-result (R) and performance economics. Performance is also related

(P) during the operation are the two to economics - the total cost of the
overriding criteria for any machining. operation, as well as how good other
The end-result must be a component factors are, such as chipbreaking,
which meets the specifications and limits reliability, cutting data, tool handling
and provides satisfactory machining and inventory.
The main factors that influence the application of tools for the turning
operation are:
1. Workpiece material - machinability, condition, properties, etc.

2. Workpiece design - shape, dimensions and working allowance.
3. Limitations - accuracy, surface texture, etc.
4. Machine - type, power, condition and specifications.
5. Stability - from cutting edge to foundation.
6. Set-up - accessibility, holding, changing.
7. Tool program - the right tool.
8. Performance - cutting data, tool-life and economics.
9. Quality - tool delivery and service.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-38
THE SELECTION PROCESS

The application of turning tools can be
carried out according to the following
step-by-step approach.
1. Edge clamping system

2. Toolholder size and type
3. Insert shape
4. Insert size
5. Nose radius
6. Insert type
7. Tool material P U
8. Cutting data The two main modern edge clamping
methods
1. Edge clamping system
The clamping system of the insert in The selection of clamping system can
the toolholder should be selected first. be done using the table below as a
Toolholders are designed to provide base. It is impossible to pinpoint every
optimum performance in different type of application, especially since the
applications, usually over a broad systems overlap at some stages. How-
area. The type of operation and, to ever, the general application area is
some extent, size of workpiece, de- indicated for each tooling system. The
termines the selection of toolholding general recommendation is to use the
system. Roughing operations on large more modern systems. (R=roughing,
workpieces make considerably diffe- F=finishing)
rent demands than finishing of small
components.
Negative Positive Positive

insert, insert, insert,
Lever clamp Screw clamp Top clamp
R
Main application areas of edge clamping methods

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-39
2. Toolholder size and type

When the edge clamping system is
established, the size and type of tool-
holder has to be resolved. The selection
is influenced by feed directions, size of
cuts, workpiece and toolholding in ma-
chines as well as accessibility required.
The shape of the workpiece is decisive
if contour turning is involved.
Composite operations should be divided Toolholder types are defined by the

into basic cuts to determine which tool- lead angle and the point angle of the
holder type is most suitable: longitudinal shape of the insert used. The selection
turning (1), facing (2), in-copying (3), process at this stage involves cutting
out-copying and (4) out-facing (5). forces, edge strength and accessibility
There is also contouring involving of the tool.
round shapes but this can be seen as
being similar to combinations of in- and The effective lead angle (1) should
out-copying. Combination possibilities also be considered for satisfactory
or alternatives to these types of cuts are machining when the operation involves
then considered in order to keep the copying or profiling. The maximum
number of tool types to a minimum in-copying angle () is recommended
while still providing the best possible for each tool type. This topic will be
performance. covered more thoroughly in the
discussion of copying.
2 This information should be combined

with general insert shape recommen-
4 3 dations and that of the influence of
1 cutting forces.
5
Tool paths

1 1 1
= 0 = 0 = 0
1 = 90- 1 = ( = 90°) 1 = 90° -
Effective lead angles

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-40
45°
1 45°
2 45°
3 30°
4 30°
5 =55° 30° 6
15° 7 15° 8 15° 9 10° 10 0° 11 -1° 12 =25°
-3° -3° -3° -3° -3° -5°

13 =22° 14 =27/30° 15 =27° 16 =22° 17=55/50° 18 =25°
-17.5° -27.5° -15° 90° 90° -5°
19 =35° 20 21 22 23 24
-5° 27.5° 27.5° 17.5° 17.5°
-5°
25 26 =60° 27 =70°

-3° -3°
28 29 30 31 =infeed angle
A comprehensive program of turning tools to meet

the requirements of various operations

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-41
The guiding rule is to select the largest

toolholder size (h) possible for the ma-
chine. This is done to reduce the tool
overhang ratio and to provide the most
rigid base for the edge. The toolholder
size should also be coordinated with
the subsequent selection of insert size
where the effective cutting edge length
is determined. Generally, the smallest this recommendation will provide the
lead angle that the operations will advantages discussed earlier in the
allow should be selected. Following section on the effect of the lead angle.
The effective lead angle varies in profile turning

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-42
R 90 80 80 60 55 35
+ +
S 1 A
V + 2 P
3. Insert shape cutting edge strength (S), the larger

Also at this stage, the insert shape the point angle to the left, the higher
should be selected relative to the lead the strength, while for versatility and
angle required and the accessibility or accessibility (A), the inserts to the
versatility required of the tool. The right are superior.
largest suitable point angle on the
insert should be selected for strength Scale 2 indicates that the vibration ten-
and economy. However, when varia- dency (V) rises to the left while power
tions in cut are involved in the opera- (P) requirement is lower to the right.
tions, strength versus versatility through
the use of smaller point angles should When turning profiles or tapers in
always be considered. copying, the maximum in-copy angle
should not be exceeded. A minimum
The adjoining figure shows the most clearance of 2 degrees between insert
common insert point angles, from the side and workpiece surface must be
round to the pointed 35 degree insert. provided. (See more in section on
Scale 1 indicates that in regards to Copying/Profiling).
Factors affecting R 90 80 80 60 55 35
choice of insert shape
Roughing (strength)
Light roughing/Semi-finishing (No. of edges)
Finishing (No. of edges)
Turning and Facing (feed directions)
Profiling (Accessibility)
Operational versatility
Limited machine power
Vibration tendencies (reduction)
Hard material
Intermittent Machining
Small lead angle
Large lead angle
Most suitable Suitable

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-43
4. Insert size
The indexable insert is directly related
to the toolholder selected for the
operation. Toolholder size, lead angle
la = 0°
and insert shape have already been ap
established. Because the holder is
designed with a seat to take a specific
insert shape and size, the insert size is, la
to some extent, pre-determined.
= 45°
However, the largest cutting depth
that has to be taken with the selected
tool also influences the toolholder ap
size selection, especially for roughing
operations.
The effective cutting edge length (la) Cutting edge length/depth

has to be established. With a lead
angle of 0 degrees, the effective There are two opposing factors to
cutting edge length is the same as the consider when selecting the insert
cutting depth. With a 45 degree lead size: reliability and cost. A larger,
angle the effective edge length is half as thicker insert will cost more but it will
long again as the cutting depth. The also provide edge security. This factor
adjoining table indicates the relation- is especially important for heavier
ship between lead angle, cutting depth roughing operations or when inter-
and effective cutting edge length. mittent machining is involved.
ap = Depth of Cut
.050 .100 .125 .156 .200 .250 .312 .375 .400 .500
la = Cutting Edge Length

0 .050 .100 .125 .156 .200 .250 .312 .375 .400 .500
15 .052 .104 .129 .162 .207 .259 .323 .388 .414 .518
30 .058 .115 .144 .180 .231 .289 .360 .433 .462 .577
45 .071 .141 .177 .221 .283 .354 .441 .530 .566 .707
60 .100 .200 .250 .312 .400 .500 .624 .750 .800 1.000
75 .193 .386 .483 .603 .773 .966 1.205 1.449 1.545 1.932
Lead angle, cutting depth and effective cutting edge length

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-44
CEMENTED CARBIDE TURNING INSERTS
CNMG CNMA CNMM CCGT, CCMT CCMW
DNMG DNMA DNMM DCGT, DCMT DCMW RCMT
RCMX RNMG
SNMG SNMA SNMM SCMT SCMW SPGR, SPMR
SNGN, SNUN SPGN, SPUN
TNMG TNMA TNMM TCGT, TCMT TCMW
TCGR TPGR, TPMR TNGN, TNUN TPGN, TPUN
VNMG VBGT, VBMT VBMW WNMG KNMX KNUX

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-45
CUBIC BORON NITRIDE (CBN) INSERTS
CNMA DCMW DNMA RNGN RNGA SNGN SNMA
TCMW TNGN
TNMA VBMW Threading Threading Grooving Profiling
POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND (PCD) INSERTS
CCMW DCMW SPUN TCMW TPUN VBMW, VCMW
ALUMINUM MACHINING INSERTS, CEMENTED CARBIDE
CCGX DCGX RCGX SEGN TCGX TEGN
VCGX Profiling

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-46
la
la l
l l
D
l a = 0,4d l a = 2/3 l l a = 2/3 l l a = 1/2 l
l
l l l
l a = 1/2 l l a = 1/2 l l a = 1/4 l l a = 1/4 l

Effective cutting edge length
As the insert shape/point angle has the depth of cut can experience drama-
considerable bearing upon the strength tic increases. This may call for a larger
of the insert, each shape will have a insert or an additional facing operation
maximum effective cutting edge length. so as not to impair security.
The recommended maximum values
in the table are intended to provide
machining reliability for continuous
roughing cuts. Deeper cuts can be
taken for a shorter period.
Another factor will be the insert type.

Inserts of the same shape but with
different cutting geometries, will vary
according to type, as some are designed
for roughing and some for finishing.
If the effective cutting edge length is

less than the depth of cut, a larger
insert should be selected or the depth
of cut reduced. For extra reliability in
more demanding operations, a larger,
thicker insert should be considered.
When machining against a shoulder,

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-47
r .016 .031 .047 .062 .094
ƒ .005-.010 .010-.020 .014-.028 .020-.040 .028-.062
When establishing the feed rate for

roughing operations, it is essential that
maximum feed levels are not exceeded
relative to the nose radius. The table
above indicates recommended feed
rate ranges for common nose radii.
Generally, it can be said that the feed
rate for roughing operations should
be targeted at around half the size of
the nose radius.
The higher feeds in a recommended

range apply to inserts that have
5. Nose radius stronger cutting edges, at least a 60°
The nose radius of the insert is a key point angle, are single sided, and are
factor in regards to: used with a positive lead angle in
- strength in roughing materials having good machinability
- surface texture in finishing. characteristics.
The size of the radius also affects vibra- In rough turning operations, power and
tion tendencies and at times, feed rates. stability of the machine and even chip
Because it is the transition between the forming ability can often be limiting
first and second cutting edges, is deter- factors. The maximum metal removal
mined by the point angle and is at the rate is obtained with a combination of
forefront of the cutting action, nose high feed and moderate cutting speed
radius is an especially important factor with limiting factors taken into con-
to get right. sideration. The power (P) available in
the machine is sometimes the limiting
For roughing, the largest possible nose factor and in such cases the cutting
radius is generally selected so as to speed should be lowered accordingly.
obtain the strongest point. A larger
radius permits higher feeds but must be
checked for any vibration tendencies.
Inserts are normally available in several
nose radius alternatives, which vary Horse Power
considerably. The larger alternatives P = vc x ap x ƒ x ks
are intended for roughing operations,
the most common being .047-.062 inch. 33,000

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-48
Ra inch
ƒ2
Ra = x 317500
8 r
In finishing operations the nose radius

combined with the feed rate affects
the surface texture and accuracy. The
combination of these factors generates
the machined surface. In fact, most of
the actual machining will be performed
with the point of the insert.
The theoretical maximum profile Round inserts mean a large nose radius
height (Ra) of the generated surface
can be calculated, providing an indica- using the diagram. The Ra value can
tion of the surface texture values. also be converted to or converted from
Often this can be improved upon by other surface texture values.
using higher cutting speeds and a
more positive cutting geometry. Generally, the coordination of nose
radius and feed in finishing indicates
The adjoining diagram gives a broader that the feed should be kept below a
perspective of theoretical Ra values certain level to achieve satisfactory
relative to feed rates and the nose surface texture. A guiding rule is to set
radius or insert diameter (d). A suitable the feed no higher than a third of the
starting combination can be selected nose radius.
ƒ = .012" ƒ = .050"
r= .016" Ra = 475 r= .062" Ra = 1650

ƒ = .008" ƒ = .028"
r= .016" Ra = 150 Ra = 475

r= .062"
Effect of nose radii and feed rate on surface texture

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-49
r
d
Ra
1250
r = .031
750 r = .047
500 r = .062
r = .016 r = .094, d = .20

312 r = .125, d = .25
d = .31
188 d = .39
r = .008
d = .47
125
d = .63
88 d = .79
63 d = .98
d = 1.26
38
25
12.5
7.5 ƒ
.004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 0.24 .026 .028
Surface texture, nose radius and feed are closely connected in turning
6. Insert type on the cutting edge - machining alumi-

A number of insert types have been num is quite different from machining
designed to give satisfactory cutting hardened steel, for instance.
conditions in the various applications
that arise in metalworking. The insert Once the insert shape is established in
type is largely determined by the insert connection with the lead angle and the
geometry. Various cutting conditions size of the nose radius, the type of
and materials make different demands geometry needs to be established.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-50
ap
inch
.79
F
.39
.31
.28
.24
Working areas for D E
.20
external turning
.16
A. Extreme finishing
ƒ = .002" - .006" .12
ap = .010" - .08" A C
.08
B. Finishing
ƒ = .004" - .012" .04 B
ap = .020" - .08"
ƒ
C. Light roughing
.004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .028 .040 in/rev
ƒ = .008" - .020"
ap = .08" - .16"
The selection of insert type is determined by the
D. Roughing
working area of the operation and the workpiece
ƒ = .015" - .040"
ap = .16" - .40" material. Additional factors that may influence
the choice are machine condition, power, the
E. Heavy roughing stability of the set-up, whether machining is con-
ƒ = > .040" tinuous or intermittent and vibration tendencies.
ap = .24" - .79"
F. Extremely Turning can be divided into a number of
heavy roughing working areas based on material removal,
ƒ = > .028" generation of accurate dimensions with specific
ap = .31" - .79" surface textures or a combination of the two.
The adjoining table and diagram show the six

main working areas with the most common feed
(ƒ) and cutting depth (ap) ranges for each. When
establishing an insert type, the feed and cutting
depth should be identified with one of these
working ranges as the various insert types relate
to these. However, the suitable working area for
an insert varies with the combination of factors
such as size, shape and size of nose radius.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-51
The other major factor in selecting the type

of insert geometry is the workpiece
material. There is a vast array of different CMC ISO
materials, according to several national 01
standards. Based on these, the Coromant 02 P
material classification system (CMC) was 03
developed, where numbers have been 1 06
assigned to families of materials. Insert 05
geometries have been developed to best M
machine various materials and are rated in
regards to suitability. 2
Most turning involves six basic workpiece 07
materials:
08 K
09
(1) long chipping, such as most steels 3
(2) stainless steels
20
(3) short chipping, such as cast-iron M
(4) heat resistant materials, such as nickel
based alloys 4
(5) soft materials, such as aluminum alloys
30
(6) hard materials, such as those harder than
400 HB.
33 K
5
This basic listing is usually sufficient for
04
rating the suitability of most standard insert
geometries. It can also be related to the ISO
10 K
application system. 6
Other factors that should affect the selection of insert are

7
factors related to the operation:
(7) intermittent machining
(8) vibration tendencies
(9) limited machine power
8
If the toolholder and insert shape chosen present a problem in
establishing a suitable insert geometry type, the selection process
can be reversed. Select the insert geometry first and then select
the insert type and toolholder.
9
Determine the machining criteria by establishing the operation,
its character and working area. Relate the workpiece material
to the CMC code number and establish the main material area.
P
From this, the most suitable insert geometry can then be selected.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-52
TOOL MATERIAL
Another decision to make is selection of a material,
GC, C or combination of materials, for the cutting edge of
CT, CC the tool. The variations available today, which are
1 continually improved, are considerable. Tool ma-
GC, C terial development and processes have been the
CT subject of intense activity resulting in optimum
2 cutting edges for various operations, as described
GC, C more fully in the chapter Tool Materials. The main
CT, CC range of tool materials for modern turning are:
3 CB
- coated cemented carbides (GC)
GC, C - cemented carbides (C)
CC, CB - cermets (CT)
4 - ceramics (CC)
C, CD - cubic boron nitrides (CB)
- polycrystalline diamonds (CD)
5
CB, CT
C, GC Workpiece material/
6 Tool material
Coated cemented carbide grades (GC) While coated grades cover the majority
dominate modern machining applica- of operations, uncoated cemented
tions and provide the best alternative carbide grades (C) are “specialists” at
for a very large number of operations performing operations that border the
in turning. They are suitable for a broader range of common applications.
wide variety of workpiece materials They have qualities that make them
throughout the working areas and are especially suitable for certain workpiece
organized according to the ISO classi- materials or working ranges.
fication system. Steel turning in general
is dominated by the various grades of Cermets (CT), being titanium based
coated carbides, but cast-iron and cemented carbides, are suitable for
stainless steels are also machined with certain light roughing to finishing
coated carbides. operations under favorable conditions
in regards to machine tool and
Coated carbides should be considered workpieces. Cermets are especially
first for most operations. These include good for finishing, producing high
basic grades, supplementary grades and quality surface textures.
grades for special applications through-
out the range of materials.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-53
Turning inserts in various tool materials, shapes, sizes and geometries

Ceramics (CC) represent a group of Cubic boron nitride (CB) is a very
grades that can cover a variety of dif- hard tool material suitable for turning
ferent operations. These range from hardened steel, chilled cast-iron and
some cast-iron and steel operations to nickel or cobalt based alloys. Demands
specialized machining of heat resistant on the machining conditions and the
materials and hardened steel. Grinding cutting edge are high. Productivity and
operations, for instance, can be elimi- tool-life are considerably better than
nated by ceramic turning. ceramics and carbide when used in
the right operations. Cubic boron
Although exceedingly good for high nitride is primarily intended for
productivity in the right application, finishing operations in hard materials.
ceramics do require the right machining
conditions in regards to stability, cut- Polycrystalline diamonds (CD) have a
ting data, cutting edge and type of cut. completely different application area.
Ceramics provide very high removal They are totally unsuited for carbon
rates where accuracy and surface tex- content materials. CD is extremely hard
ture have to be maintained throughout a and used to tip turning inserts, provid-
long tool-life. Some materials, however, ing a hard, wear resistant edge. It is a
are not suitable for ceramic turning. tool material to consider for finishing/
Coated ceramic inserts are a new means semi-finishing of non-ferrous metals
to optimize only certain operations. and non-metallic materials. One major

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-54
example is various aluminum alloys,

especially abrasive. CD provides very
long tool-life and excellent surface tex-
ture when applied in the right, stable
conditions.
3
Cemented carbide grades are generally 2
divided into three groups:
- Basic grade (1)
- Supplementary grade (2)
- Special application grade (3)
Basic grades cover a wide range of 1

applications and should be the first
choice considered for most operations.
Supplementary grades provide alter- suitability of some grades compared
natives that expand the width of the to others.
range. Special application grades may
be used for threading, parting, etc. The recommendations for individual
grades and cutting data ranges should
The selection of tool materials is made be followed to establish the right
mainly on the basis of the workpiece grade for an operation, with wear
material and working range. However, resistance and toughness being the
various demands, conditions and wear main variables.
pattern developments determine the
Basic tool material grades should be the first consideration for the turning application

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-55
ISO CMC kc HB ƒ.............................
........ ......... ..... ..... vc ..........................

........ ......... ..... ..... ...............................
........ ......... ..... ..... ...............................
........ ......... ..... ..... ...............................
CUTTING DATA
When all the physical factors are estab- Furthermore, a lead angle greater than
lished for the operation it is time to set 0 degrees will mean that a higher
or calculate the cutting data. On the cutting speed can be used. Cutting
basis of the selected cutting tool mate- speeds indicated in the nominal value
rial, working area and workpiece mate- tables are valid for a tool-life of 15
rial, cutting data can be established minutes. Should a different tool-life
from nominal values in, for instance, be required, the accompanying factors
catalog tables. can be used to adjust the cutting speed
to give a shorter or longer life.
Feed rate should already have been
selected for suitable removal rate in
roughing or to achieve the required sur- CMC HB
face texture. The nominal cutting speed -80 -60 -40 -20 0 +20 +40 +60 +80
tables are built around the workpiece 01 1.07 1.0 0.95 0.90
material classification since the hard- 02 1.26 1.18 1.12 1.05 1.0 0.94 0.91 0.86 0.83
03 1.21 1.10 1.0 0.91 0.84 0.79
ness also influences the choice of data. 05 1.21 1.10 1.0 0.91 0.85 0.79 0.75
06 1.31 1.13 1.0 0.87 0.80 0.73
Cutting speed can then be established 07 1.14 1.08 1.03 1.0 0.96 0.92
08 1.25 1.10 1.0 0.92 0.86 0.80
in relation to the feed rate. The values 09 1.07 1.03 1.0 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91
indicated in the tables are valid for a 20 1.26 1.11 1.0 0.90 0.82
specific hardness value and for a lead CMC HRC

angle of 0 degrees. If the material dif- -6 -3 0 +3 +6 +9
fers in hardness from these values the 04 1.10 1.02 1.0 0.96 0.93 0.90
recommended cutting speed should be
adjusted by a factor indicated in the T (min) 10 15 20 25 30 45 60
accompanying table which provides
x Vc 1.10 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.87 0.80 0.75
conversion factors.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-56
SANDVIK COROMANT’S TURNING

INSERT GEOMETRIES cutting edge to suit various applica-
The following is a selection of cutting tions. For instance, a coated carbide
geometries incorporated onto index- insert with a certain geometry would
able inserts for turning most materials be suitable for some applications in
in various types of operations. Each various steels, while the same geometry
has a nominal working area where on an uncoated, fine-grained carbide
chip breaking and strength are within would be suitable for turning high
acceptable limits, but where other temperature superalloys or titanium.
insert factors such as size, shape and The following overview of insert geo-
nose radius also affect the working metries shows the nose and main
area. The combination of cutting tool cutting edge angles with typical chip-
material/cutting geometry provides a breaker designs:
QF
A-A
B-B
8° This fine geometry is for finishing at

A-A very low feed rates and depths of cut.
It is a double-sided insert that pro-
.006 duces excellent surface texture at close
tolerances. Its working range in steel
18°
and cast-iron is ƒ: .004-.010 in/rev,
B-B
ap: .008-.060 inch.
MF
A-A
B-B For higher feed rates and small depths

of cut, this double-sided insert is suit-
15° able for high-productivity finishing or
A-A semi-finishing in most materials, in-
cluding ductile and work-hardening.
.004
It gives rise to low cutting forces and
can machine to close tolerances. Its
10°
main working range is ƒ: .006-.157
B-B in/rev, ap: .020-.100 inch.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-57
QM
A-A
This very widely used geometry

performs semi-finishing and light B-B
.005-
roughing. It is a double-sided insert for .012
a medium range of applications - a 13°
multi-purpose geometry that covers a A-A

lot of general operations. It is
alsosuitable for a very large range of .005-
.012
materials. Its main working range is 13°
wide, covering ƒ: .008-.020 in/rev,
B-B
ap: .040-.240 inch. 9°
MR
A-A
This is a double-sided insert for B-B

.012-
roughing operations that require a .018
strong cutting edge. It is a good choice 20°
for when intermittent cuts, tough A-A
material skin or inclusions are
encountered. It is suitable for steel .012-
.018
but especially for cast-iron with a
20°
main working range of ƒ: .004-.028
in/rev, ap: .080-.350 inch. B-B
QR
Larger working areas need a single- A-A
sided insert. It is designed for high pro-

ductivity roughing operations where a B-B .010-
wavy-shaped cutting edge and a flat .012
supporting face are essential. Feed 20°
capacity is high and cutting depths

A-A
large. But power requirements are
relatively low for an insert with a
.010-
strong cutting edge. Its main working .012
range is ƒ: .012-.048 in/rev, ap: .120- 20°
.470 inch. B-B

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-58
HR
A-A
.008 .008
B-B This is a heavy roughing geometry with
20°
an extremely strong cutting edge. It is
15°
the specialist to stand up to very high
A-A feeds and very large depths of cut -- an
important role in a not-so-common
.008 .008 but demanding area, suitable only for a
specially developed single-sided insert.
20°
Its main working range is ƒ: .024-.067
20°
61
A-A
B-B
.003
This is a newer generation of a well-
24° established geometry. It is a finishing
A-A
insert essentially for steel and stainless
steel. It is double-sided with positive
.006 cutting action and chip control leading
to a generation of good surface texture.
18° Its main working range is ƒ: .024-.067
SM
A-A
This is a double-sided insert with a

B-B strong cutting edge. It specializes in
.008
copying with demanding surfaces and
23° intermittent cuts in the medium ma-
A-A
chining range. The geometry has been
designed with chip control to cope well
with carbon and alloy steels, especially
.008
at smaller depths of cut. Its main
23° working range is ƒ: .012-.020 in/rev,
B-B
ap: .030-.120 inch.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-59
23
A-A
B-B
This is a specialist geometry for heat
resistant alloys. This double-sided in-
sert has a positive, sharp cutting edge 13°
and gives rise to low cutting forces A-A

and work hardening tendencies. It has
been designed for the medium machi-
ning range. Its main working range is 13°
ƒ: .005-.014 in/rev, ap: .028-.140 inch. B-B
RCMT
A round insert can often cope with a A-A
large variety of profiling operations

ranging from finishing to roughing. B-B
This geometry is on a single-sided in-
sert with a strong cutting edge. It has
18°
a wide capability in chip control and is
a general purpose insert that will A-A
15 °
generate good surface texture even at
high feed rates. Its main working
range is ƒ: .012-.160 in/rev, ap: .020- 26°
.470 inch. B-B

15°
This is a round complementary insert,

a geometry for demanding roughing RCMX
to semi-finishing operations. It is a
single-sided insert with a strong cutting A-A
edge. Because of the round shape,

these inserts have a very large nose
radius, and good surface texture is
generated at high feeds. The main
working range is ƒ: .020-.160 in/rev, 15°
ap: .040-.470 inch. 15° A-A

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-60
UF
A-A
B-B A geometry for the extreme finishing

area. This is a single-sided insert with
a sharp, positive cutting edge, having
the ability to perform cuts at extremely
6° low feeds and small cutting depths. It
A-A has an accurate edge for close tole-
rance turning and to generate good sur-
6°
face texture. Its main working range is
B-B ƒ: .003-.010 in/rev, ap: .008-.080 inch.
UM
A-A
This is a medium type finishing geo-

B-B metry for small depths of cut and
higher feeds. A highly positive cutting
.005
geometry gives rise to very low cutting
forces, especially for boring and
20°
turning of slender shafts. Chip control
A-A
8° has been designed to guide chips away
from the workpiece surface. Its main
6° working range is ƒ: .008-.016 in/rev,
B-B ap: .020-.100 inch.
UR
A-A
B-B
.005
Lighter semi-roughing to finishing
operations need a stronger, reinforced
8° cutting edge which can also cope
A-A
with interrupted cuts and operations
.005
involving cast-skins and forging scale.
This geometry has this ability with a
18° main working range of ƒ: .008-.020 in/
B-B rev, ap: .040-.160 inch.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-61
AL
A-A
B-B
25°
There are also inserts designed with

geometries especially suitable for A-A
turning aluminum alloys and similar
soft non-ferrous materials. These 20°
single-sided inserts have sharp, very B-B

positive cutting edges and are designed
to generate a well-controlled chip flow
and good surface texture. These AL RCGX-AL
insert are examples of such special-
purpose inserts. The working range A-A
for AL-geometry inserts is typically ƒ:
.006-.016 in/rev, ap: .040-.160 inch.
20°
A-A
The geometry of the insert will be

neutral and the insert itself will be
NMA
plain for application areas such as
those involving hard and short chipping
A-A
materials, for cubic boron nitride,
which is tipped on to a carbide insert,
and for ceramics. Basic NMA/NGA
inserts are used. These have very
strong cutting edges with a typical
0°
main working area of ƒ: .002-.010
in/rev, ap: .004-.020 inch. A-A

19158 06_Turning 07-04-19 08.06 Sida VI-62
STEEL TURNING - IMPROVED AND SIMPLI-

FIED WITH THREE INSERT GEOMETRIES
PF
PF for finish turning
A-A - double sided
- exceptional chip control
B-B
- light cutting with secure cutting edge
- wave-shaped, serrated edge for good
17° chip control, especially during out-
4°
copying and operations
A-A - with suitable cemented carbide and cer-
met grades, satisfies all requirements for
surface finish, accuracy and productivity
15°
3°
Main application area:
B-B fn: .004 - .014 in/rev.
ap: .012 - .060 inch
PM
A-A
PM for medium machining

B-B - double sided
- versatile, general purpose chipbreaker
22°
- performs well over a broad working
7°
A-A
area, finishing to light roughing
- with choice of grade, PM geometry en-
sures high productivity even for applica-
20° tions requiring toughness
5° Main application area:
B-B
fn: .006 - .020 in/rev.
ap: .020 - .200 inch
PR
A-A
PR for roughing operations
- single sided for best combination of
B-B security and low cutting forces
- universal chipbreaker for large applica-
22°
tion area. Can also be used for semi-
8°
A-A
finishing operations
- positive geometry gives excellent
roughing performance even on slender
22° components
B-B Main application area:
fn: .010 - .028 in/rev.
ap: .060 - .240 inch

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-63
ALL PURPOSE, MEDIUM MACHINING

The PM insert geometry is suitable for The cutting geometry is adapted for a
all types of turning operations in steel. large application area. Including finishing
With a large, central application area, to light roughing. A multi-function chip-
this insert provides an all-purpose choice. breaker and positive rake angle pro-
vides secure chipbreaking during varia-
tions in feed and cutting depth as well as
low cutting forces.
PM insert geometry Conventional insert geometry

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-64
h1 f
f
l1
r
l2 r
h
l1
h1 f
f
r
r
l1 l1
h b

s
r

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-65
THE CHOICE OF TURNING

INSERTS - GEOMETRIES
Throughout the metalworking industry Typically, a negative insert with a geo-
there are similarities in workpiece ma- metry for light roughing takes a central
terials, cutting data, machining opera- position. For very light applications or
tions and other factors which make it where boring dominates, a medium
possible to standardize and thus limit type positive geometry can take the
the number of cutting geometries that central position, complemented by
have to be kept in inventory to cover lighter or heavier application inserts.
all operations. There are variations in machining con-
ditions and other factors that influence
For example: the combination, but modern geomet-
In the automotive or associated indu- ries offer excellent opportunities for
stries, components are often forged or major improvements.
cold drawn in low alloy or carbon
steels and cast iron is widely used. When it comes to applying specific in-
Workpiece allowances are generally sert geometries for working areas,
around .040 inch and feeds can range selection criteria should also include
from .008-.020 in/rev. One cut opera- factors such as the insert shape,
tions are now very common and the cutting edge length and nose radius
tolerance and finish requirements for sizes. The suitable working area for an
many components make grinding- insert geometry varies, to some extent,
type finishing necessary. with the combination of these factors.
Variations may occur throughout but Following is an application table of

the principle is the same which also Sandvik Coromant geometries related
applies to other types of industry. to materials and working areas.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-66
COPY TURNING - PROFILING wide opportunities for automation,

Originally, the term copying (also since the tool is moved along the
known as tracing or duplicating) was desired path while being fed along
applied to a given technique for con- two axes. In this manner, intricate
trolling the movements of the cutting workpieces can be machined in a
tool by reproducing the shape of a single tool clamping.
template or prototype. Today, how-
ever, the concept has been broadened, The tools that are used for copy turning
and copy turning or profiling can be are subjected to large variations in
defined as a metal-removing machining stress and cutting data due to varying
operation where the direction of feed machining directions and diameter
changes during the machining pro- changes. One of the most important
cess. Besides general sub-operations features of a copying tool is accessibility
such as longitudinal (straight-line) with the cutting edge. Traditionally,
turning and facing, copy turning also inserts with point angles of maximum
includes in-copying, out-copying and 55 degrees have been designated as
undercutting. copying inserts. Due to the introduction
of new machines with different control
Copying techniques have permitted systems and with more tool slides etc.,
Variations in profiling

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-67
the choice of machining alternatives

has broadened the concept of the
“copying insert”. In addition to the
traditional copying inserts with 35 and
55 degrees point angles, copy turning
is done with triangular, rhombic and
round inserts.
The tool lead angle () is the angle

between the cutting edge and the
centerline of the workpiece. The
lead angle influences chip thickness,
direction of chip flow and cutting
forces. The free cutting angle (N)
(also known as the plane trail
clearance angle) is the angle between
the secondary cutting edge and the
centerline of the workpiece. Possibilities/limitations of various shapes
At large lead angles, the total cutting

force is distributed over a longer Smaller lead angles create lower forces
portion of the cutting edge. This means in the radial direction. In this case, the
that the tool is better able to withstand tool is pressed harder in the longitudi-
heavy and intermittent machining. The nal direction of the workpiece. One
tool is, however, pressed very hard disadvantage with a small lead angle
against the workpiece, which can give is the sudden loading of the cutting
rise to vibrations and deflections of edge at the start of machining and the
slender parts. sudden unloading at the end.
N
ap
ap N
N

ap
Free cutting angles

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-68
+ –

In-copying angle
6 degree side inclination. With this

The maximum in-copying angle () is position, the clearance around the
determined above all by the insert’s nose radius goes from plus 6 degrees
point angle and the tool’s lead angle. to a less positive angle.
The angle between the secondary
cutting edge and the surface of the The required free cutting angle is con-
workpiece is the free cutting angle. sequently greater when machining
Two degrees is usually given as the with negative inserts than with posi-
minimum value of the effective free tive inserts with the same lead angle
cutting angle. However, in order to and point angle. This does not, how-
obtain acceptable surface finish and ever, apply to insert types KNUX
tool life, it is recommended that at and KNMX, since these inserts are
least 7 degrees is used. designed with positive clearance on
the secondary cutting edge.
Positive inserts have clearance all
around the nose radius. The only factor A general recommendation is that a
to be considered as far as the maximum maximum in-copying angle is used
in-copying angle is concerned is the with respect to basic shape, and a 7
free cutting angle. degree effective free cutting angle
between the secondary cutting edge
Negative inserts must be inclined in and the surface of the workpiece, in
the holder in order to obtain sufficient order to obtain acceptable surface
clearance against the workpiece. The texture and tool life.
insert is inclined minus 6 degrees back-
wards in the holder and has a minus

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-69
The chipbreaking capacity of an indexable insert is

ap = 45°
often the decisive factor when determining its
suitability for a machining operation. In copy
turning, where the feed direction is changed during
the operation, a large chipbreaking area is necessary.
The actual chipbreaking area is dependent on
material, workpiece diameter and cutting speed. ƒ
ap = 20°
ap ap
= 20° = 15°
ƒ ƒ ƒ
ap ap ap
= 10° = 0° = 0°
ƒ ƒ ƒ
Chipbreaking changes with the variation in feed and cutting depth

In the diagrams, we see how chip-
breaking changes at different in- and
out-copying angles. The primary reason
for poorer chipbreaking at a higher
in- and out-copying angle is the
altered position of the chipbreaker rela-
tive to the surface of the workpiece.
A The cutting edge figure shows how the
position of the chipbreaker changes.
B In section A, such as in longitudinal
turning, the chip is deformed by geo-
metry A and in out-copying by geo-
metry B. In other words, chip deforma-
tion is less in section B owing to the fact
that the chip has a longer way to go.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-70
ap bination with feed, mainly controls

chipbreaking. Different inserts and
geometries have different chipbreaking
areas. In certain cases, chipbreaking
capacity can be lost entirely when
depth of cut increases.
a1
a2 A negative 3 degree lead angle is fre-
ƒ quently used in copy turning because
it provides a negative 3 degree
effective lead angle when machining
90 degree shoulders. A smaller lead
angle results in a deterioration of the
l1 already strained chipbreaking ability.
l2 a2 Using a larger lead angle facilitates
a1
machining of the shoulder but limits
the in-copying capacity. During in-
Loss of chipbreaking during out-copying copying, the effective free cutting
angle between the secondary edge and
In out-copying, the effective lead angle workpiece surface is reduced. The
is reduced and a larger part of the larger the lead angle, the smaller the
cutting edge length is brought into free cutting angle.
play. This means that the maximum
permissible depth of cut decreases, When small lead angles and large free
which may be more demanding on the cutting angles are used, the surface
chipbreaking capability of the inserts. texture obtained is inferior and tool-
In the above figures, if a1 is normal, I1 life deteriorates. For in-copying with
becomes too large during out-copying. negative inserts, the main reason for
With excessive adjustments, I2 becomes this is the clearance angle is reduced
acceptable, but a2 is not and may lie when the insert lies negatively in the
outside the chipbreaking range of the toolholder. When in-copying with
insert. A careful balance is required to
obtain optimum machining results. In
= -3°
= 3°
addition, feed is reduced if the feed L
rate relative to the centerline of the
E
workpiece is constant. This means
that chipbreaking is more difficult.
In machining against a shoulder, the

depth of cut increases. The maximum
N
depth of cut must be determined so
than an insert with a sufficient effec-
tive cutting edge length can be chosen

Copying against a shoulder requires
for reliability. Depth of cut, in com- a special technique

19158 06_Turning 07-04-19 08.06 Sida VI-71
positive inserts, the effective free In older copying lathes with a copying
cutting angle is the main factor. The slide, the machining alternatives are
resulting chip is thinner when using often limited to having the same insert
a larger in-copying angle and the perform longitudinal turning, in-
surface texture much rougher. copying and out-copying. Machining
of forged blanks, for instance, where
In machining of shoulders, it is usually the machining allowance can be critical
the large depth of cut at the point at (.24-.31 inch), is often done in ma-
which the cutting edge encounters the chines with at least two cross slides.
shoulder that causes chip problems. If The shoulder can then be machined
the facing length is less than the cutting quickly in two sub-operations:
edge length, chip tangling can usually - facing to reduce the machining
be avoided. At longer facing lengths, allowance next to the shoulder
various solutions are available, one of - subsequent longitudinal turning and
them being to increase the tool’s lead out-copying.
angle. A more common solution is to
include an extra operation in order to
reduce the machining allowance next
to the shoulder.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-72
ƒ ƒ
ƒ1 ƒ2
Feed changes in out and in copying
In in-copying, the tool feed (ƒ) will For longitudinal turning a feed rate
increase to ƒ2. In view of the un- may be established to give good chip
favorable lead angle, it is a good idea control. With the same longitudinal
to reduce the longitudinal feed rate feed ƒ, the rate will increase to ƒ1
considerably in order to reduce stress during in-copying. This can give rise
on the tool and machine. to chipbreaking problems if cutting
data from outside the recommended
In out-copying, the tool feed ƒ de- chipbreaking area is encountered.
creases to ƒ2 in a similar manner. In
the machining of a 90 degree shoulder, With the same longitudinal values, the
however, the feed rates will be similar feed will decrease to ƒ2 during out-
or even greater. Many lathes are copying. This can also give rise to
equipped with automatic feed re- chipbreaking problems if values lie
duction that can be activated during outside the recommended area.
machining.
ƒ
ƒ1
ap
ƒ2
ƒ2 ƒ ƒ1

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-73
Some components have to be provided The chipbreaker geometry, nose radius

with clearances for grinding wheels etc. of the insert and the cutting data used
If an 8 degree fillet next to a shoulder are of crucial importance for the ma-
is to be machined, a negative 8 chining results. In order to obtain low
degree effective lead angle against cutting forces, inserts with a positive
the shoulder is required in order to insert geometry, small point angle and
limit the effective cutting edge length. a small nose radius should be used.
Thus, the lead angle of the tool in
longitudinal turning is negative 8 de-
grees, which may reduce tool-life. In
addition, in-copying capacity will be 8°
affected. If the same tool is to be used
to machine the fillet and perform an
in-copying of 30 degrees, an insert with 2°
a smaller point angle must be chosen.
In the copying of slender shafts whose

lengths are 8-12 times the diameter,
problems can arise with vibration and
deflections. It is therefore important to
use tools that give low cutting forces.
Copying of fillet/recess

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-74
Negative Positive
ƒ
F
.040
F
0 .028
.31
.79
ap
P35/P45
P15
P25
GC
GC
GC
ƒ
E
E
.040
0
.31
.39
.24
ap
ƒ
D
0 .016 .024.031.040
P15 P10
.39
.24
.16
.31
ap
GC CT
P25
P35
GC
GC
ƒ
C
.020
C
0 .004
.16
.04
ap
ƒ
B
.012
B
0 .004
P05 P15
.12
CT GC
.08
ap
P15 P10
GC CT
P25
GC
ƒ
A
0 .004 .008
A
.08
ap
WR
ISO
P
Coated cemented carbide grades (GC) and cermets (CT) combine with insert geometries to be the best choice
of cutting edge for various operational demands: wear resistance (WR), toughness (T) and chip control, depen-
ding upon type of operation (A-F) for various workpiece material and application areas (in the above example
showing the typical coverage for ISO P). Achieving toughness, for instance, can be done by either selecting a
tougher grade and/or selecting a tougher geometry, while at the same time, ensuring that satisfactory chip con-
trol is maintained.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-75
EXAMPLES OF TOOL PATHS FOR

ADVANTAGEOUS CHIP CONTROL
There are a number of points that can cut in the opposite direction (I),
be considered when turning profiles thus avoiding unsatisfactory end-of-cut
and shoulders in CNC lathes or auto- effects and ring formation.
matics. The right approach to these
means improved performance especially Achieving chip control means staying
in the chipbreaking area. Tool paths within the recommended application
are shown on the following pages. area for the insert geometry in ques-
tion. As mentioned in the section on
Consider the turning flanges and profiling, this is often difficult when
shoulders that occur on many near- feeding out along a shoulder in a facing
net forgings. First, turning is done operation. In (J), the chip produced is
along the part in figure (A), and the of unsatisfactory proportion due to the
tool is withdrawn after (ƒ1). It then small lead angle. This produces a poor,
machines the remaining material by thin, wide chip which is difficult to
feeding radially (ƒ3) in (B). This can be control and break.
performed either as in steps (3) or (4)
in (C), before carrying on with the In (K), the tool has been moved out
feed (ƒ6) along the outer diameter. before arriving at the end of cut
Methods of removing excess material against the shoulder to be faced. It is
or chamfering can be done as indicated then fed in radially against the center
by steps (1) or (2). instead, producing a proportional, well-
broken chip within the application area
Machining to the next corner before of the insert geometry.
going down to a smaller diameter is
usually advantageous as in (D). Moving When profiling a large radius (L), the
the tool out before the end prevents a tool is withdrawn when it arrives into
ring from forming. Instead, this the start. It should then start from the
portion is turned down as in (E). The opposite end, machining part of the
facing is then performed by feeding radius, then moving out again. This
the tool in radially. can then be followed in (M) by direct
radial in-feed and then an axial cut.
Profiling radii with a V-shape tool is This method leaves some material for
often best performed by not having the tool to clean off in a final radius-
the tool complete the whole cavity profiling cut.
(F). Instead the tool moves out at a
smaller path and finishes the radius by Corners and chamfers can ideally be
feeding in again (G) with an aim to performed by first feeding in radially
achieve better chip control. (ƒ1), then feeding axially (ƒ2) and then
moving out after a short stretch. Any
When turning longitudinally, the tool chamfer can then be made (ƒ4) before
can be fed out at a suitable angle be- recommencing the axial feed (ƒ5).
fore the end (H). It is then set back into

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-76
ƒ2
ƒ1 ƒ1
ƒ3
ƒ1

ƒ1 ƒ3 ƒ2
A B
ƒ4 ƒ3 C

ƒ5 ƒ4
D E ƒ6

ƒ7 ƒ8
F G
ƒ2
ƒ1
H I
ƒ3
ƒ2
ƒ1

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-77
J ap ƒ2 ap K
ap ƒ1 ap ƒ2
ƒ(h) ƒ(h)
h h
ƒ(h) ƒ1
ap ƒ1
h ƒ2 ƒ(h)
ap
ƒ2
L M
ƒ1 ƒ5 ƒ4
ƒ3
ƒ6
ƒ2
N
ƒ3
ƒ5 ƒ2
ƒ4
ƒ1

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-78
Negative and positive type tools in CNC turning
TURNING TOOLS
A few basic tool systems make up the Generally the systems use shims,
program covering the majority of applica- support pieces made of carbide that
tions in turning. All make use of index- lie underneath the inserts in the
able inserts and more modern versions holder pocket fixed by means of a
have through-hole clamping. Indexable shim pin. The support provided by the
inserts offer advantages such as: shims is essential and adopted wher-
ever possible in cutting tools. They pro-
- no regrinding or brazing of tool vide clearance and maximum support
edges for the insert to absorb the cutting
- better tool materials and geometries forces. In the event of insert fracture,
can be used they protect the toolholder from
- uniform performance throughout damage and in this way provide the
machining toolholder with a life that will see
- simpler and safer handling of tools hundreds of indexable insert changes.
- single- or double-sided inserts used
which comply with ANSI and ISO
standards

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-79
Boring large diameters with negative type tools
Clamping through a hole flow through the clear top face. The lever
Sandvik Coromant’s T-Max P system is easy to operate for quick indexing.
is intended mainly for external turning
and boring of larger diameter holes. It
is a versatile, general purpose system
for light to heavy machining. It utilizes
a wide range of inserts, negative or
negative/positive, which covers most
applications. Inserts are clamped using
the center hole.
Three basic clamping systems are

available:
- lever-clamp
- wedge-clamp
- screw- and top-clamp
The T-Max P lever system is one of

the primary choices when selecting a
toolholder. It includes modular cutting
units, exchangeable cutting heads,
adjustable cutting heads and cartridges
for building into combination tools.
The lever clamping has a pivoted lever

which tilts with an adjustment of the
clamping screw. The lever forces the
insert backwards into a pocket, locating
the insert firmly against two sides.
Excellent stability and locating accuracy
are achieved for the insert in the holder.
The design ensures unobstructed chip

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-80
accessibility than provided with the

lever design. When the wedge is
forced down by the screw it makes
contact against the angular back of
the toolholder and the back of the
insert. The insert is held very securely
but released through just a slight turn
of the screw. The design also pro-
vides a clear top face.
Obviously, this design does not pro-

vide the same clamping stability as
the two-sided pocket design of the
lever type. But this aspect has to be
balanced against that of the accessi-
bility provided through this design
and the toolholder type should be
selected for operations accordingly.
The wedge-clamp design works on a

similar principle, the difference here
The wedge-clamp
and wedge design
With the wedge design, the insert is
clamped by a wedge pushing the
insert towards a fixed pin.
The wedge clamp improves rigidity by

wedging the insert against the fixed
pin and also clamping the insert
down. This should be a primary
choice for external turning, where for
copy turning, better accessibility than
the lever system can provide is
required. Typical features of the
wedge/wedge-clamp systems are:
- good accessibility
- rigid clamping
- unobstructed chipflow.
The wedge design is intended for

operations that require more tool

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-81
being that the wedge also has a top Screw clamping

clamp. In addition to the wedge forcing Sandvik Coromant’s T-Max U system
the insert against the pin and down, is a primary choice for the internal
the top clamp makes sure that the machining of small diameters and
insert is retained down against the for external light roughing to finishing
shim. This is especially suited for of smaller workpieces. The screw
clamping trigon (W) and triangular (T) clamping system offers advantages
inserts, where the inserts are not such as:
securely seated in a pocket in the tool - secure insert clamping
holder. The top clamp offers additional - excellent repeatability
clamping force. The clamp set and - unhampered chip flow
wedge-clamp set are interchangeable - small space requirement
in the toolholder. - few spare parts.
The screw- and top-clamp system for T-Max U tools are very suitable for
negative inserts is the most popular copy machining because the positive
style used on the American market. The insert is positioned neutrally in the
holders conform to ANSI specifications toolholder, giving constant clearance
and spare parts are interchangeable around the periphery of the insert.
between a number of tooling suppliers. This provides sufficient clearance for
The inserts are held in place with a shim all copy operations, ensuring a clean
pin and secured with a top clamp. cut with good surface finish and long
tool life.
The T-Max U system uses a screw to
secure inserts with a center hole. The
system is advantageous in that much
less space is needed to clamp the
insert when compared to lever-type
clamping and wedges. This can be
used in tools for boring operations
and for copy-turning. In some cases,
advantages can also be gained
because it is less complicated to
include the T-Max U insert location in
a tool than with other methods.
The T-Max U toolholder has a shim
screw which screws into a hole in the
insert pocket. The screw which holds
the insert is put into this shim screw.
The sleeve also retains the shim in
place. When a shim is not used, a
separate screw is used. Instead of the
insert being inclined 6° negatively as
in negative toolholders, the inserts are
held neutrally at 0°.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-82
Multi-spindle automatic tooling

The U-Lock screw, available as
an optional clamp, is an ingenious
clamping system which reduces insert
indexing times and eliminates loose
spare parts. Two versions are avail-
able. One version replaces both the
shim screw and the insert screw in
holders and boring bars with a shim.
The shim is held in position with a
retaining ring during insert changing.
The other version replaces the insert
screw for holders and boring bars
without a shim.
The eccentric screw head allows the

insert to be changed after being re-
leased only half a turn from the locked
position. In locked position it provides
U the same secure clamping and high
accuracy as the standard screw.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-83
copying operations and other opera-

tions requiring a negative or a positive
rake, or for inserts in other tool
materials, such as ceramics.
Top clamp toolholders with adjustable
loose chipbreakers are available in
both negative and positive rake de-
signs and designed for use with flat
negative and positive inserts.
The top clamp design for copy
turning is suitable for all copy turning
operations on conventional and NC
machines. They use inserts with basic
negative forms and are available in a
wide range of sintered chipbreaker
widths and nose radii combinations.
Clamping on the insert

The original top-clamp toolholder for
plain inserts is a tool with several
years of service behind it. The design
dates back to the early days of index-
able inserts during the 1950’s. It was
not then feasible to mass-produce
form-sintered inserts, so the tool was
equipped with a loose chipbreaker
positioned between the insert and
clamp. The steps of the chipbreaker
had to be adjusted manually through
the clamp. This system is considerably
out-dated in regards to performance
and handling as compared to modern
tool holders. It can be used for some

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-84
Another well-established, though now

outdated, system is intended for
boring and light external turning with
positive inserts. These tools do not
clamp inserts through a center hole
but by way of a top clamp. The clamp
is brought down onto the insert by a
screw through the clamp. The clamp
is designed and positioned so as not
to hamper chip flow. When a screw is
loosened, a circlip lifts the clamp and
a tenon at the back of the clamp
keeps it in position. The toolholders
also use shims in most of the holders.
In some, the shim pin hole reduces the
supporting face in the toolholder too
much.
The system design provides features
especially suitable for boring opera-
tions: positive rakes with fine chip-
breaking and extra side clearance.
The insert is securely fixed in the two-
S sided pocket by the positive, direct
screw clamp action.
External Internal
Rough Finish Rough Finish Chip Indexing Access
Flow Time
Lever
Wedge
Wedge/
Clamp
Screw/
Clamp

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-85
Build-in tools
Many boring operations and some Compared to tools with fixed insert
external and combination cuts require seats the use of build-in tools gives
a number of edges which perform the following advantages:
during the same in-feed of the tool. In
some operations it is wise to distribute - relatively small positional tolerances
the depth of cut on several cutting can be maintained
edges. For this purpose, special tools - if the tool has to be changed, due
are often designed based on standard to a minor modification of the work-
cutting units. There are several small piece, just the build-in units can be
units available for this. adjusted, rather than the entire tool
- an expensive tool is not damaged
Build-in tools are primarily intended should there be an accident.
for use in multi-cutting edge tools.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-86
Adj. accuracy (inch)

Radial Axial
± .002 ± .002
± .002
± .002
± .002
± .0004
1. Cartridges built to ISO standards 2. Cartridges utilizing top clamps to

for boring operations with multi- secure inserts are a proven solution
cutting edge tools in various insert when space for mounting is limited.
clamping styles. These are used For newer tool designs, Sandvik
when several different operations Coromant offers mini-cartridges with
are performed simultaneously and the T-Max U system built according
when it is necessary to distribute to ISO standards. The latter should
the total depth of cut over several be considered first choice.
cutting edges, both external and
internal. These are used for end
machining, such as facing and
chamfering of tubes and bars and
especially for aluminum.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-87
3. T-Max U copying cartridges for ex- 5. T-Max U fine boring units for ma-
ternal copying operations in CNC chining holes with close tolerances.
machines, turret and copying lathes They are precision tools for mounting
with swing tool posts, for either axial in boring bars and are capable of
or radial machining. They are also machining to extremely close toler-
suitable for internal profiling when ances. The units are self-locking
fitted into special boring bars. tools with a fast front adjustment
range.
4. T-Max U round shank boring tools
for boring individual workpieces or
production in series involving only
a few machining operations.
Special boring tools for brake caliper machining

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-88
Application of ceramic inserts

The particular properties of the growing range of cutting tool materials
called ceramics are very beneficial in many applications. But they also
have limiting properties that require some precautions to be taken in the
application of ceramic inserts. The development of materials have, in the
right operation, led to much improved performance, reliability and
consistency.
The main workpiece material areas for ceramics are: cast-iron, high
temperature superalloys, hardened steel and steel. The two basic
ceramic materials used for cutting tools are aluminum oxide (alumina)
and silicon nitride. With additives, the materials become:
- Pure ceramic inserts, based on alumina, with small additions of ele-

ments for toughness improvement. These are suitable for roughing
and semi-roughing, mainly for cast-iron and steel.
- Mixed ceramic inserts, based on alumina and with contents of tita-

nium carbide, giving improved thermal properties. General purpose
inserts for hard-part turning of steel and cast-iron.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-89
- Reinforced ceramic is also based on alumina and contains silicon

carbide whiskers, giving better thermal conductivity and toughness.
Tough and reliable for high temperature superalloys, hard-part
turning and interrupted cuts.
- Silicon nitride based ceramic has better thermal properties and

toughness than the alumina based ceramics for roughing of cast-iron.
Ceramic inserts generally have a negative basic shape to ensure the

best stability, reliability and strength. Chamfers are applied as standard
in various versions to suit roughing and finishing. Larger nose radii are
applied for added strength. As a rule, the largest nose radii should be
selected. Thicker inserts give more strength and should be used where
possible. In regards to shape, round inserts are strongest, with square
inserts second best (A). The depth of cut (ap) in relation to the insert
size (l) is more important when using ceramic inserts. The maximum and
minimum recommendations should be established for any operation.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.53 Sida VI-90
A larger lead angle and large nose radius are to be preferred when
machining with ceramic inserts because of the advantageous entry
into cut (A). Cutting forces act in directions which are taken up better
by the tool. A disadvantageous shock edge entry of the relatively brittle
ceramic edge is avoided. This can be further improved by pre-chamfering
the workpiece. It also minimizes the tendency of burr formation at the
exit of cut, reduces material roll-over and lessens the release of cutting
forces when gradually leaving the cut. When chamfering is carried out
with a ceramic insert, the feed direction is important, otherwise notch
wear can develop quickly; the best feed direction is at 90 degrees to
the chamfer itself.
If pre-chamfering is not suitable, the corner of the workpiece can be

rounded at the start of cut (B), another step towards ensuring longer
tool-life and improved reliability. The insert makes contact below the
depth of cut and moves up around the corner. This can be carried out
progressively without the surface coming into contact at one and the
same point. Ramping is yet another method by which to work towards
less notch wear development (C). This is more suitable for long cuts.
The gradual out-feed or in-feed continually moves the depth of cut
with improvement of tool-life as a result. This is a method especially suit-
able for work-hardening materials. Multiple passes are often a solution
which improves reliability. Passes should be of unequal depth of cut (D).
Turning often entails machining up against a shoulder which may be a

problem in any operation if some precautions are not taken. With cera-
mic inserts and the rapid chip production involved, precautions against
chip jamming should always be taken. The feed rate should be reduced
by half when the tool is close to the shoulder (1). Alternatively, the tool

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-91
can stop short of the shoulder and then square out the shoulder by
facing (2). Square and rhombic inserts can be used if a round insert
does not produce the required shoulder. The feed rate generally should
be selected to be larger than the width of the cutting edge chamfer
(3). This does not apply when using edge preparation for chip control or
for additional strength with hard materials.
Using a round ceramic insert is advantageous and to achieve the best

utilization from the available cutting edges, notch wear especially should
be monitored. In such cases, when only the notch wear develops to
its maximum permissable level and the flank wear is acceptable, the
insert should be turned during indexing so that the surface line of the
unmachined component is in the middle of the flank wear that has
developed (A). If both the notch and flank wear develop to the
maximum levels, the insert is indexed so that the notch wear is placed
just above the surface line of the unmachined workpiece, (B).

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-92
Generally, the round shaped insert should be used as widely as

possible in ceramic machining. It has the strongest edge and uses a
large lead angle. Here, the diameter/cutting depth relationship should
be carefully established to minimize notching effects. The ideal point
is the intersection of a line at 45 degrees from the center of the insert
and a line of half of this angle to the machined surface as indicated in
the figure above.
If the depth of cut is deeper than the ideal point, pressure will be
excessive and lead to increased notch wear. Smaller depth of cut will
not, on the other hand, affect tool-life. The recommended relation-
ship is for the cutting depth to be up to 1/7 of the insert diameter.
In clean material, this value can be raised up to 1/4.
The advantageous, stronger cutting edge of round ceramic inserts for

demanding operations in hard materials can be shown through the
following application involving the intermittent machining of hard nodu-
lar cast-iron (CMC 09.1). The machining was best performed with a
RCGX insert in a whisker reinforced ceramic. The insert was able to
turn two complete components, each having seventeen grooves, one
per edge, with the insert indexed around as recommended to minimize
notch wear (A). Held in a modular tool, used in a large, modern CNC
lathe, stability and power was satisfactory.
The cutting speed used was 1148 ft/min at cutting depths of .24 inch.
For finishing, cutting speed was 918 ft/min at depths of .12 inch. Feed
rates varied from .020 to .005 inch, depending on roughing or finishing.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-93
Intermittent machining with ceramics demands a good toolholding system
The round insert has a .500 inch diameter and a 20 degree edge cham-
fer. It machined the grooves in four passes to a total depth of 1.42
inch and widths of 1.12 inch.
Another operation using round in-

serts, and suited for whisker rein-
forced ceramics, is the machining
of stellite. This hard material can
be cladded on to components to
produce a wear surface, which
has to be machined to final
shape. With a hardness value of
450 HB, it is well suited for cera-
mic inserts.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-94
In this example, (B), the round component was cladded, turned and
lapped to have a smooth hard stellite surface. Coolant was excluded
from the operation due to the intermittent cuts from the irregular depth
of the stellite coating. The cutting speed used was 490 ft/min, feed .008
in/rev and cutting depth around .08 inch, again using a round insert.
Examples of applications with mixed type ceramic grades are the turning
of hardened shafts (C). This is becoming an alternative to grinding be-
cause of the high productivity improvement when turning. It is also less
costly to turn than grind.
Typical shafts might be, as in this application, in hardened alloyed

steel, 62 HRC. The cutting speed used is 490 ft/min, feed .004 in/rev
and cutting depth .004 inch. A triangular insert is used with a nose
radius of .031 inch and an edge chamfer of 20 degrees.
The turning of hardened metal-cutting discs (D), having a hardness of

56 HRC is another example using the mixed type ceramic. This pre-
B C

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-95
viously required a grinding operation to generate the cutting edge.

Turning results in a better surface and a higher quality component
edge. The mixed type ceramic, or alternatively, the whisker reinforced
for interrupted cuts, is the best choice when machining components
harder than 45 HRC.
A pure ceramic grade is typically used for turning cast-iron disc brakes
(E). Stability is essential and this is one of the reasons for using a
modular tool system with these grades. In the right set-up, high
productivity can be achieved. An even better choice of grade, however,
can be the silicon nitride based
ceramic with the mixed used for
finishing. Hardened and chilled
cast-iron is best machined with
the mixed type or whisker re-
inforced type. In this example,
changing to the silicon nitride
based ceramic means a cutting
speed of 2600 ft/min, feed of .020
in/rev and a cutting depth of .060
inch. Square inserts were used in
grey cast-iron.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-96
When turning high temp. super

alloys, the best basic choice is a
whisker reinforced ceramic due to
its high security against fracture
and ability to cope with higher speeds. In this example involving the
roughing of a component in Nimonic 75, the aerospace ring is turned
with a C-shaped insert having a 20 degree chamfer in a whisker
reinforced ceramic grade. The cutting speed is 984 ft/min, feed .005
inch and cutting depth .200 inch. The machining is performed in
several passes, in the direction shown. The finishing operation (F) is
in this case carried out with an uncoated cemented carbide grade.
The final table shows the amount of feed rate reduction that should be
carried out when ceramic insert shapes other than round are used (1).
Also shown is the effect that sizes of corner radii should have (2) and
different lead angles (3) and cutting depths (4). For each factor, the
amount of feed reduction is indicated in percent.
1 2 3 4
ap
r
(°) - (inch) - (°) - (inch) -
90 0% .125 0% 15 0% .024 0%
80 10 % .094 35 % 30 10 % .031 25 %
60 60 % .063 50 % 45 25 % .100 50 %
55 70 % .047 70 % 60 45 % .200 70 %
35 90 % .031 80 % 75 65 % .300 80 %
.016 90 % 0 to -5 90 % .400 90 %

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-97
Modular tool systems are ideal for machining with ceramics in that they keep the cutting
edge absolutely fixed in the same accurate position.
Primary guidelines for turning with ceramics

• Begin by applying a chamfer to the start of the cut by using a
cemented carbide tool.
• Use a round insert or large lead angle, especially for a roughing
operation.
• Use a square (S) shaped insert, especially for finishing. This is
often advantageous from an operations point of view. A 5
degree lead angle gives low radial forces and good stability.
• Plan tool path and program carefully to avoid shock loads.
• Use cemented carbide inserts for initial roughing when working
allowance is irregular, having the character of intermittent cut.
• Finishing and recessing can include 80º diamond (C) shape
inserts, especially for cast-iron machining. Grooving is also an
advantageous operation for ceramics.
• Use dry machining as first preference, especially if cuts are
intermittent. If wet, ensure cutting area is flooded.
• STABILITY is the essential factor throughout, from the cutting
edge to the toolholder to the machine tool. Use the right
modular tooling system.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-98
Turning stainless steel

The machinability of stainless steel is quite different to that of most
carbon and even alloy steels. The composition and structure have
been developed to provide corrosion and strength properties in line
with the field of application. Machinability varies considerably with the
alloy contents but some types have been developed with machinability
as one of the major properties as well, such as the Sanmac types and
free machining stainless steels. Sanmac steels are machinability
improved steels, for instance AISI 316. The improvement in
machinability is created by the modification of the existing non-
metallic inclusions, such as calcium. It is mostly workpiece forms,
casting skin and inclusions which have contributed to the reputation
of cast stainless as being much more difficult to machine than the
forged or bar components.
A B C
1 1 1 5
2 1 5 5
3 5 4 3
4 5 5 1
5 4 5 1

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-99
Notch wear and BUE are very common in stainless steel turning
There is a greater tendency for stainless steels to work harden which

requires some attention to insert type, grade, machining method and
cutting data. The various main types of stainless steels can be com-
pared in regards to work hardening tendency (A) cutting force magni-
tude (B) and chip formation ability (C). The various stainless steel
types are (1) ferritic, (2) martensitic, (3) austenitic, (4) austenitic high-
alloyed and (4) duplex. The high values in the table (5 and 4) indicate a
negative effect, low values a positive effect.
The main tool wear mechanisms when turning stainless steel are notch
wear, built-up edge and plastic deformation. The cutting edge photos
above show notch wear (1) and far-developed built-up edge (2), with
some main-edge fracture as a result of broken-away, welded-on
material. These photos show ISO M35 coated cemented carbide
grades after machining in cold-drawn, annealed austenitic stainless
steel. The components machined were completely different.
Operations included semi-finishing, with no coolant, continuous cut

and with 80º diamond (C) shaped inserts machining at a -5 degree
lead angle. Performance was subsequently improved through a change
to an M15 grade. Cutting speeds were 577 ft/min for the notch wear and

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-100
Long tool-life in austenitic stainless steel with the right grade and geometry 3
393 ft/min for the built-up edge wear pattern. Excessive notch wear
and plastic deformation may indicate that the wrong cutting speed is
being used in relation to the cemented carbide grade. A raising or
lowering of cutting speed values may reduce the wear rate as can the
change to a more wear resistant grade. A larger lead angle also has a
positive effect on the formation of notch wear.
In regards to the smearing of stainless steel onto the cutting edge to

form a built-up edge, the standard causes and remedies also fall in
here. The cutting speed is probably too low, as may be the feed rate.
A more positive geometry can lead to an improvement.
For flank and crater wear, the cutting speed may be excessively high
for the grade in question, while the feed rates may also need to be
adjusted. Again, a more positive geometry may be needed.
The correctly coated cemented carbide grade is an important factor

as is a strong enough insert geometry. The formation and tearing off
of cutting edge material when the built-up edge gives way, must be
countered by an insert with the right coating thickness and adhesion.
The degree of edge rounding also influences the tendency for built-up
edge to form. A blunt edge with a thick coating may encourage the
formation of built-up edge.
The strength and sharpness of edges, combined with grade type,

are important factors when it comes to the application of inserts

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-101
for finishing, medium and roughing operations. ISO M10-35 grades

play the major role along with various insert geometries.
A more detailed description of stainless steel, its machinability and

recommendations are discussed in the Machinability chapter.
The photo to the left (3) shows a ISO M15 coated cemented carbide
cutting edge having performed a considerable amount of machining in
austenitic stainless steel at a cutting speed of 390 ft/min at a lead
angle of -5 degrees using a roughing type geometry on a C-shaped
insert. The component had a cast skin and was first roughed and then
finish machined. Feed was .014 in/rev and cutting depths varied be-
tween .020 -.120 inches in two feed directions.
The photo indicates the smearing nature of the material, but shows
that the edge has resisted built-up edge. Flank wear has been allowed
to develop extensively, with the edge kept in good shape for machining,
until some chipping begins to develops along the cutting edges.
Coated grade with medium-duty geometry applied for stainless steel turning

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-102
Application of cermet inserts

Cermets deserve some individual attention as a tool material. Once a
very limited tool material, cermets have undergone considerable
development and now can provide enough toughness to cope with
rather demanding operations. Cermets have high resistance to flank,
oxidation and crater wear, high chemical stability and hot-hardness
and low tendency for built-up edge formation. Cermet inserts have the
ability to retain a sharp cutting edge during most of the tool-life.
The main application benefits from the cermet properties are:

- high (and to some extent low) cutting speed ability
- ability to maintain accuracy during long tool-life
- ability to generate good surface texture
The figure below shows a P10 area cermet cutting edge with a re-
tained, worn-in sharp cutting edge after having machined eight hundred
low-alloy steel axles in a finishing operation. Parts were machined and
kept well within close tolerances, with minimal compensation setting for
cutting edge flank wear. In many high-volume turning applications,
cermets give a superior finishing result and have the ability to maintain
close tolerances within the increasingly tighter limits imposed by
statistical process control. This means cermets can fulfill the higher
quality demands of production today.
P10 Cermet turning insert with a well developed wear pattern

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-103
Cermet inserts generate good surface texture and maintain accuracy throughout a long
tool-life
Cermet inserts are an excellent means for obtaining good results in

finishing and semi-finishing operations in turning and to a growing extent
in milling, grooving and threading. Correctly applied, they will give high
quality results and productivity especially in steel and stainless steel.
Compared to tungsten-based cemented carbide, cermets should be
considered for lighter machining conditions and more stable thermal
conditions. The coated cemented carbide is the dominant, general
purpose tool material, with plenty of bulk toughness to cope with most
extremes. However, cermets are evolving with the ability to optimize an
increasing number of operations where the suitable conditions and
requirements for their use prevail.
In order to provide an indication as to operational suitability, it should

be noted that for carbon steels, with hardness up to around 350 HB,
and for low-alloy steel, extreme finishing, finishing and semi-finishing
are priority operations which can often be optimized with cermets. For
stainless steels, extreme finishing and finishing should be considered.
The forging skin of today’s near-to-net forged blanks should as a rule
not be any threat to that of a correctly applied, good cermet insert.
Cermets have the ability to machine at high cutting speeds of up to

2000 ft/min. High productivity is achieved in semi-finishing to finishing
operations. But the cutting speed area for cermets today is considerably
larger. Tougher grades can be used for the low speeds/temperatures,

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-104
even in the range that normally causes smearing on cutting edges such as
in small-diameter boring. With the nitrides’ lower tendency to react with
workpiece materials, cermets can also be used advantageously in
operations/materials that have tendencies for built-up edges to form.
Cermets have limited thermal conductivity which can make inserts

susceptible to thermal cracking due to fluctuating temperatures. Dry
machining works well and if cutting fluid is to be used, it should be
applied correctly and in sufficient amounts so as not to give rise to
variations in temperatures.
Probably one of the more important aspects of using cermet inserts is

that of ensuring well-controlled machining conditions. Cutting data,
stability and limited cutting force fluctuations are important aspects of
successful results. This creates a sound basis for the various unmanned
types of metal cutting.
The chip area, (A) composed of feed and cutting depth, should be main-
tained within the specified limits for the grade. Compared to coated
cemented carbide grades, cermets have a more restricted feed/depth
area. Ideally, to achieve the best productivity, a combination of high
feed rate and low cutting depths is preferred. Actual cutting data
values depend upon the cermet grade, but feed rates of around .014
in/rev should generally be regarded as a limit. This should be com-
bined with a small cutting depth to maintain a limited chip cross-
section and load on the cutting edge.
ap inch
.08 A1 = .04 x .004 = .00016 in2

A2 = .012 x .014 = .00016 in2
.04
0 .008 .016 f in/rev

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-105
Profiling operations require special attention to maintain security.

Reduced feed rates are needed for demanding sections, especially
when in-copying takes place. Fifty percent reductions are to be
recommended in such instances where load increases are drastic.
Also, machining hard up against shoulders should always be avoided
as this is extremely demanding on the cutting edge. Light intermittent
machining can be performed with the tougher cermet grades,
preferably without cutting fluid supply.
Consideration should also be made to the insert geometry, shape

and nose radius which in many cases can compensate for the lack
of toughness in cermets. The switch to a tougher geometry can
lead to better utilization of the cermet properties.
Further developments within the field of cermets include coated grades,

providing considerably larger application areas. PVD coating can further
optimize cermet grades, giving better wear resistance to tougher in-
serts and improving crater and flank wear resistance. Also the develop-
ment of notch wear is slowed down.
Cermets have the ability to stay sharp and undeformed for a long
tool-life. They will provide broad finishing performance if spared from
adverse cutting force fluctuations, such as shock cutting data changes,
thick forging skin, material inclusions, particularly abrasive materials
and machine instability, which are encountered in some operations.
As such, cermets can optimize lighter turning operations involving small

cutting depths, light feed rates and stable thermal conditions in suit-
able workpiece materials and shapes.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-106
A typical example of a successful application with a P10 cermet is a

spindle in normalized steel (CMC 01.2) with a hardness of 180 HB (A).
With good stability in a front-loading CNC lathe, the semi-finishing
operation is performed without cutting fluid, achieving a tool-life of
more than sixty minutes per edge. A cutting speed range of 590-850
ft/min, feed range of .010-.012 mm/rev and cutting depths of .020-
.040 inch machines over six-hundred components with a C-shaped
insert in a medium machining geometry.
An alloyed steel shaft (CMC 02.1), hardness 180 HB (B), is semi-

finished with a P10 cermet with a cutting speed of 1380 ft/min, feed
.012 in/rev and cutting depth which at one point reaches .060 inch. A
triangular insert in a semi-finishing geometry gives a tool-life of 14.5
minutes.
For a P05 cermet finishing insert machining a die-cast stainless steel

component (C) (CMC 05.2), the boring operation shown is performed
with a C-shaped insert. The operation also includes an interrupted cut
and has to achieve a Ra 20 finish. The cutting speed used is 440
ft/min, feed .004 in/rev and cutting depth .008 inch. Fifty components
are machined per cutting edge.
The design of cutting edges is a sophisticated process that incorporates a lot of experience,
new developments and extensive testing. New advances are built into the insert using a
combination of angles, flats, ridges, radii, etc. to achieve an optimized combination of
factors such as metal cutting ability, chip control, strength and versatility.

19158 06_Turning 07-04-12 09.54 Sida VI-107

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida 1
BORING
INTRODUCTION 2 CHIPBREAKING
AND EVACUATION 24
THE BORING OPERATION 2
CHOICE OF TOOL 26
EFFECT OF CUTTING FORCES 4
BORING OF ASYMME-
DEFLECTION OF THE TOOL 13
TRICAL COMPONENTS 34
CLAMPING OF THE TOOL 16
COMPENSATING FOR
DEFLECTION OF THE TOOL 20
Supplementary part:
Countering vibrations with tuned tools 36
Basic back-up:
Periodic oscillatory motion 8 The function of tuned bars 27
Interacting oscillation 11 Tools for internal turning 28
Dynamic stiffness 12 Coupled tool
Forced oscillation 14 systems for boring 30
The machine tool as a Coupling for
source of forced vibration 19 radial adjustment 35
Types of boring bar 23
19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-2
BORING
INTRODUCTION
taken into account in order to reach a
high stock removal rate combined
with satisfactory accuracy, surface
texture and tool-life. Therefore, in this
chapter the limitations which distin-
guish internal turning from external
turning will be discussed in greater
detail.
THE BORING OPERATION

Boring is carried out in pre-drilled
holes or holes in cast, forged or ex-
truded components. The method is
primarily used in applications where
there is a need for close dimensional
tolerances and a good finish.
Most of the turning operations which

occur with external turning are also to
be found in boring. With external
turning, the tool overhang is not
affected by the length of the work-
piece and the size of the tool holder
can be chosen so that it withstands the
forces and stresses which arise during
The basic theory which is described in the operation. However, with internal
the chapter “Turning” also applies to turning the choice of tool is very
boring. However, with boring there are much restricted by the component’s
a number of limitations which must be hole diameter and length.
Boring operations are limited by hole diameter and length
VII-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-3
A diameter (D) is used, but even then

the possibilities are limited since the
L space allowed by the diameter of the
hole in the component must be taken
D into consideration for chip evacuation
and radial movements. The stability is
L described using the relationship L (tool
overhang) to D (diameter): the smaller
D the L/D relationship, the better the
stability (A) obtained during the opera-
L tion, as shown in the adjoining diagram.
D The limitations in regards to stability
L/D
in boring mean that extra care must
be taken with production planning
and preparation. By understanding how
A general rule, which applies to all ma- cutting forces are affected by the tool
chining, is to always minimize the tool geometry and the cutting data chosen,
overhang (L) in order to obtain the and also understanding how various
best possible stability and thereby types of boring bars and tool clampings
accuracy. With boring the depth of the will affect the stability, deflection and
hole determines the overhang. The sta- vibration can be kept to a minimum.
bility is increased when a larger tool
Boring with adjustable twin-edge head
MODERN METAL CUTTING VII-3

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-4
R
FCN
T
FC
EFFECT OF CUTTING FORCES

On engagement, the tangential force center line. Due to the curving of the
FC and the radial cutting force FCN internal hole diameter the clearance
will attempt to push the tool away angle will also be reduced. Therefore,
from the workpiece, which results in with small diameter holes it is parti-
the deflections T and R. cularly important that the clearance
angle of the insert be sufficient in
The tangential force FC will try to force order to avoid contact between the
the tool downwards and away from the tool and the wall of the hole.
FC T

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-5
ap ap
ƒ ƒ
ƒ ƒ
ø øD-2 R
The radial deflection will reduce the from the cutting edge to the tool holder.
cutting depth on ap. In addition to the The stability of the tool and clamping
diametrical accuracy being affected, will be the factor that determines the
the chip thickness will change with the magnitude of the vibration and whether
varying size of the cutting forces. This it is amplified or dampened.
causes vibration, which is transferred

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-6
1 2 3

Before looking at ways of reducing Flank wear means that the geometry
the effects of vibration, which inevi- of the insert is changed, resulting in a
tably arises during boring, the most reduction in the clearance angle.
advantageous distribution of cutting Therefore, with finish machining it is
forces should be studied in order to the required surface finish of the com-
minimize the occurance of vibrations. ponent which determines when the
insert must be changed. Generally,
The geometry of the insert has a de- the flank wear, VB, should be between
cisive influence on the cutting process. .004-.012 in. for finishing and between
A positive insert has a positive rake .012-.040 in. for rough machining.
angle (). The insert’s edge angle ()
and clearance angle () together will The lead angle, , affects the axial and
equal less than 90° (1). A positive rake radial directions of the cutting forces.
angle means a lower tangential cutting A small lead angle produces a large
force. However, a positive rake angle axial cutting force component while a
is obtained at the cost of the clearance large lead angle results in a larger
angle or the edge angle. If the cutting force in the radial direction.
clearance angle is small (2) there is a The axial cutting force has a minimal
risk of abrasion between the tool and
workpiece and the friction can give
rise to vibration. In those cases where
the rake angle is large and the edge
angle is small (3) a sharper cutting
edge is obtained. The sharp cutting
edge penetrates the material more
easily but it is also more easily VB
changed or damaged by flank or other
uneven wear.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-7
The main disadvantage of a small lead

angle is that the cutting forces are
distributed over a shorter section of
the cutting edge than with a large lead
angle. Furthermore, the cutting edge
FCN FCN is exposed to abrupt loading and un-
FP FP
loading when the edge enters and
leaves the workpiece. Since boring is
negative effect on the operation since done, in most cases, in a pre-
the force is directed along the boring machined hole and is designated as
bar. To avoid vibrations, it is light machining, small lead angles
consequently advantageous to choose generally do not cause a problem.
a smal lead angle but, since the lead Lead angles of 15° or less are normally
angle also affects other factors such as recommended. However, at a lead
the chip thickness and the direction of angle of 15° the radial cutting force
the chip flow, a compromise often has will be virtually double that of the
to be made. cutting force with a 0° lead angle.
Boring tools to suit specifications in machining center operations

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-8
THE NATURE OF VIBRATIONS

Periodic oscillatory motion mathematically where the distance
Vibration or oscillatory motion occurs from the state of equilibrium varies in
when the state of equilibrium of a body accordance with a sine function. This
is disturbed by an external force. In is called harmonic oscillation and the
order for oscillation to occur there must movement arises when the force,
also be a counteracting force which which is trying to return the oscillating
attempts to restore the state of equili- system to its state of equilibrium, is
brium. directly proportional to the distance
from the state of equilibrium.
When a loaded spring is exposed to
an external force which disturbs its In practice, the oscillatory motion will
state of equilibrium (O), the force of the diminish due to the energy losses
spring will work to restore the system to which occur. This is described as
equilibrium. At the same time, the force damped oscillation. How quickly an
of the spring is counteracted by the oscillatory motion diminishes depends
mass of the weight which has been on the size of the energy losses. For
added. The oscillatory motion which example, without additional energy
arises follows a regular pattern which from the mechanism of the clock the
varies with the time, t, between two wall clock’s pendulum would stop. Ad-
extreme values. An oscillatory motion ditional energy to maintain the same
which returns after a certain period of amplitude, i.e. in order to have an un-
time (T, 2T, 3T etc.), is called periodic. damped oscillatory motion, must equal
The amplitude (A) of the oscillation is the energy losses with oscillation.
the maximum deviation from the state
of equilibrium. The frequency indicates
how the oscillation varies in time, i.e.
the number of oscillatory cycles, T, or
periods there are per second.
The pendulum in an old-fashioned me-

chanical wall clock demonstrates the
simplest form of periodic oscillatory
motion. The time a stroke of a pendu-
lum takes is totally independent of the
size of the deflection and is affected
only by the length of the pendulum.
With a constant pendulum length and
an increased pendulum stroke, the
velocity will increase at the same time
and the time it takes to carry out the
oscillatory motion is not affected. This
oscillatory motion can be described

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-9
A
0
t
A
x x
t t

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-10
radial cutting forces will increase with

FCN FCN increased cutting depth. If the cutting
depth is equal to or greater than the
size of the nose radius, the radial
deflection will be determined by the
lead angle. Therefore, it’s a good idea
to choose a nose radius which is
somewhat smaller than the cutting
ƒ FP ƒ FP depth. In this way the radial cutting
forces can be kept to a minimum
while utilizing the advantages of the
largest possible nose radius, leading to
The distribution of cutting forces is a stronger cutting edge, better surface
also affected by the nose radius of the texture and more even pressure on
insert. The greater the nose radius, the the cutting edge.
greater the radial and tangential cutting
forces, which affects the emergence of Edge rounding (ER) of the insert is
vibration. However, this is not the case also a significant influence on the size
with radial cutting forces. The deflection of the cutting forces. In general,
of the tool in a radial direction is instead uncoated inserts have smaller edge
affected by the relationship between rounding than coated ones and should
the cutting depth and the size of the therefore be the first choice with large
nose radius. If the cutting depth is overhangs to keep the size of the
smaller than the nose radius, the cutting forces to a minimum.
R ap<r ap=r ap>r

FCN FCN FCN
ap
ap r r ap r
ap
Deflection, nose radius and cutting depth

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-11
Interacting oscillation
All periodic oscillation can be described same way the sum of two harmonic
as a sum of harmonic oscillation. (A) oscillatory motions with different fre-
When two interacting harmonic oscilla- quencies can form a periodic oscilla-
tory motions are somewhat displaced tion which has a different appearance
in time, the resulting oscillation will be depending on the time displacement
periodic but have a different form to between the composite oscillation.
the harmonic oscillation. (B) In the

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-12
x
F
T
F
Dynamic stiffness
Dynamic stiffness is the capacity of a same. This applies regardless of the
body to resist interactive forces, i.e. size of the deflection. With a large
vibration. It can also be defined as deflection the amplitude will certainly
the time it takes for a system to increase but at the same time the
dampen vibrations. velocity and frequency increase also,
so the number of oscillations per
In order to explain the dynamic stiffness second remains constant. The higher
of a boring bar, return to the example a system’s natural frequency, the
of the oscillating pendulum. Assume greater its dynamic stiffness will be.
that no energy losses exist but that
the oscillatory motion is undamped. It The connection between frequency and
has been previously stated that the dynamic stiffness can be demonstrated
pendulum will oscillate with an by holding a ruler firmly against a
unchanged frequency regardless of table top with one hand. With the
the size of the pendulum stroke, i.e. other hand, press the projecting part
regardless of the amplitude, provided of the ruler so that it begins to
that the length of the pendulum is oscillate. If the experiment is then re-
constant. This constant natural fre- peated, but with a considerably
quency is often used as a measure of shorter length of the ruler projecting
a system’s dynamic stiffness. over the edge of the table, then the
increased resistance will be felt.
In the same way, the natural frequency Greater force is needed in order to
of the boring bar is affected only by achieve the same deflection and it is
the size of the overhang, provided not difficult to see with the naked eye
that the diameter and material are the that the frequency increases.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-13
I= D
FxL3 x 4
F
=
3xExI 64

L D
DEFLECTION OF THE TOOL

The size of the boring bar’s deflection overhang. This deflection can be
is dependent on the bar material, the counteracted by increasing the diameter
diameter, the overhang and size of the of the tool to create an increased
radial and tangential cutting forces. moment of inertia Deflection can also
In order to understand how these be counteracted by choosing a boring
factors influence the amount of bar made of a material which has a
deflection, a study can be made of the higher coefficient of elasticity. Since
deformation of a rigidly clamped beam steel (E = 29 x 106 lbs/in2) has a lower
with a force acting on the free end. In coefficient of elasticity than cemented
accordance with the elementary case carbide (E = 87 x 106 lbs/in2), cemented
of the mechanics of materials, the de- carbide boring bars are better for large
flection, , can be calculated using the overhangs.
following formula: In reality, deflection will be greater
F x L3 than that calculated with the above
= (inch) formula. This formula is based on a
3xExI
bar that is absolutely rigidly clamped,
where F is the cutting force in pounds, which in practice is impossible.
L is the overhang in inches and E is
the material’s coefficient of elasticity
in lbs/in2. The moment of inertia, I, is
dependent on the shape of the cross
section and is calculated for a circular
cross section as follows:
I=
x D4 (inch4)
64
Simply by studying the formula it can
be seen that deflection increases greatly
(to the third power) with increased

19158 07_Boring 07-04-18 14.35 Sida VII-14
Forced oscillation
Since the ideal oscillation system is not equals the energy losses is required.
common, there is a practical solution. This is called compelled or forced
Due to energy losses, an oscillating oscillation. The amplitude which is ob-
body will be dampened and return to tained with forced vibration depends
its state of equilibrium. For a vibration upon the static stiffness, the size and
to continue the oscillatory motion with- frequency of the influencing force plus
out damping, additional energy which the natural frequency of the system.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-15
the degree of damping of the system

T plus the size of the influencing force.
When the external forces act with a

frequency which exceeds the natural
frequency, what is known as a negative
increase in the amplitude is obtained.
In simple terms, this means that a
t further increase in the frequency
reduces the amplitude. Since the
frequency is so high, the influencing
force manages to act for increased
movement in one direction and then
counteract this movement in one and
the same oscillation. As a result, the
oscillation is not affected on the
whole. This can be seen as an
increase in the dynamic stiffness.
The size of a boring bar’s maximum
deflection will be equal to that of the When vibration is present, the oscillating
starting value of the amplitude. Since body makes a wave-shaped movement.
the size of the deflection increases The points which do not vibrate are
when force is increased in the direction called nodes. At very high frequencies
of the deflection, it follows that the harmonics are obtained, which means
amplitude also increases when force that the oscillatory motion is changed
is increased. to a wave-shape with several nodes
(N). There is a natural frequency for
The amplitude reaches its maximum harmonics. When the frequency of the
value at the natural frequency of the influencing force approaches this, the
system. With forced oscillation, where amplitude will increase to the maxi-
the influencing forces vary with a mum resonance and then decrease
frequency equal to the natural one, again. The resonance amplitude with
resonance occurs. With resonance, the harmonics is, as a rule, less than the
amplitude is theoretically unlimited. resonance amplitude which is ob-
Under these conditions, the forces tained at the natural frequency. This is
affect the oscillation when the ampli- because of the increase in the dyna-
tude is already at its maximum position mic stiffness which is obtained at high
and a somewhat increased amplitude frequencies.
is obtained with each oscillating cycle.
In practice this means that either the
deflections become so large that a
breakage occurs or that the damping
effect increases and counteracts the
N N
influencing force. In the latter case
the amplitude stops at a top level.
The size of this top level depends on

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-16
counteracting force F3 will act at the

F1 outer end of the clamping. The surface
of the holder is thereby exposed to a
load which can deform the material.
Therefore it is important that the
F3 internal surfaces of the tool clamping
L
have a high level of surface finish and
hardness. Otherwise, the overhang
may increase due to the deformation.
The recommended values for the
internal surfaces of the tool clamping
are Ra = 32 inch with a hardness of
at least 45 HRC.
L
The best stability is obtained with a
holder which completely encases the
CLAMPING OF THE TOOL bar. This type of holder is available in
The slightest amount of mobility in two styles: a rigid or flange mounted
the fixed end of the boring bar will bar (A) or a divided block that clamps
lead to deflection of the tool. When when tightened (B). With a rigidly
the force F1 acts on the insert tip, a mounted bar, the bar is either pre-
The best ways of holding boring bars

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-17
Methods of holding to be avoided
shrunk into the holder and/or welded designs with a V-block (C) and some
in. With flange mounting, a flange with cylindrical holders (D). Previously,
a through hole is normally used. The tool holders with screw clamping were
flange is usually glued onto the shank often supplied with the machine tool.
of the bar at a distance which gives Despite their inferior performance,
the required overhang. The bar is then they are unfortunately still often used
fed into the holder and clamped by with modern tools, resulting in quality
means of a screw connection or by problems and breakdowns.
being held in the turret.
Due to the lever effect, the clamping
Less efficient are those tool clampings length is of great significance to the
where the screw in the clamping goes stability. The length should be at least
onto the bar. This form always results 3-4 x the tool diameter. The lever rule
in vibration and is not recommended. means that increased clamping length
Above all, it must not be used for the reduces the force which acts on the
clamping of cemented carbide bars. rear end of the boring bar. This, in
Cemented carbide is more brittle than turn, means that the stress at the point
steel and cracks will occur as a result of clamping is reduced, which results
of vibration, which in turn will lead to in higher stability.
breakage after operating for a while.
Screw clamping is to be found in

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-18
F2
(79 lbs)
F1
(34 lbs)
(112 lbs)
F3
L2 L1
A.
F2 (47 lbs) (34 lbs)
F1
(81 lbs)
F3
L2 L1
B.
Example: The following example illu- F2 = F1 x L1 = 34 x 7 = 79 lbs.
strates how the clamping length, L2, L2 3
affects the force, F3, which acts on the
point of clamping as a result of the For equilibrium: F1 + F2 = F3
cutting force, F1, which works to bend This means that the force which acts
the bar. at the point of clamping is:
F3 = 34 + 79 = 113 lbs.
A. F1 = 34 lbs. B. F1 = 34 lbs.
L1 = 7 x D L1 = 7 x D
L2 = 3 x D L2 = 5 x D
The lever rule is: The lever rule is:
F1 x L1 = F2 x L2. This means that the F2 = 34 x 7 = 47 lbs.
force which acts on the back end of 5
the boring bar is: F3 = 34 + 47 = 81 lbs.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-19
A
1
A
2
3
B B
5
4
The machine tool as a 1) Imbalance, i.e. when the center of

source of forced vibration gravity (A) of a rotating body does not
Forced oscillation in metal cutting has coincide with the rotation center (B).
its origins partly in the cutting forces 2) Bent or poorly positioned shafts.
which arise during the operation and 3) When using frictionless bearings as
partly in interference forces within the well as ball and cylinder bearings, de-
machine equipment. All moveable viations between the center of gravity
machine parts transform energy to (A) and the rotation center (B) can
useful work. Since no machine part occur.
functions perfectly, a certain amount
of the energy will be converted to 4) Damaged or worn out transmission
heat and, in certain cases, to belts are other machine parts which
interacting forces as well. In unstable can cause vibration.
machines with poor damping proper- 5) Loose parts in moving systems will
ties, the forces can be transferred to always cause vibration and, in time,
the cutting edge and give rise to for- can cause damage. Therefore, regular
ced oscillation. Although the contri- maintenance and replacement of worn
bution of the cutting forces when components are of the utmost import-
machining in modern machines is ance. Vibration can arise not only due
normally greater than any vibration to insufficiently tightened screws, but
which arises in the different machine also when there is a play between
parts, some sources of energy can be interacting parts, e.g. due to wear.
mentioned: 6) Hydraulic systems.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-20
FC
T
FCN
R
COMPENSATING FOR
DEFLECTION OF THE TOOL
Even with the very best tool clamping,
some vibration tendency will occur in
boring. Radial deflection (R) affects
the machined diameter. Tangential
deflection (T) means that the insert
tip is moved in a downward direction machining (2). In the same way, the
away from the center line. In both radial deflection is compensated for by
cases the size and direction of the setting the machine at a cutting depth
cutting forces are affected by changes which is R greater than the desired
in the relationships between the chip cutting depth (3). When cutting begins,
thickness and insert geometry. the radial cutting force reduces the
cutting depth (4).
If the exact size of the deflection of the
insert tip is known in advance, then Even if the approximate deflection can
the problem can be avoided. By posi- be calculated, the practical outcome
tioning the insert tip at distance T will be somewhat different because the
above the center line (1) the insert, clamping is never absolutely rigid and
under the effect of the tangential force, because it is impossible to calculate
will take up the correct position during the cutting force exactly.
1 2 3 4 FCN
R
ap
T
ap+R
Compensation for deflection

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-21
T
R
ap
ap<r ap>r
Radial deflection as a function of cutting depth
In order to obtain more exact values diagram shows the deflection, , as a

for the deflection of the insert tip, test function of the cutting depth ap. Since
machining performed under the same the tangential deflection increases
conditions as the actual operation is linearly with increased cutting depth, it
recommended. The radial deflection, is recommended that the machining be
which can easily be measured, will be divided into several cuts when close
equal to the difference between the set tolerances, down to IT7, are required.
diameter and the actual one. In order The size of the radial deflection as a
to determine the tangential deflection function of the cutting depth is also
exactly, measurement equipment with affected by the relationship between
a sensor positioned near the tip of the nose radius and the cutting depth
the insert must be used. The adjoining plus the size of the lead angle.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-22
ap
n
ƒ
Chip cross-section should be checked
The chip area affects the load on the In manual machines with low stability,
cutting edge but it does not necessarily high spindle speeds can generate vibra-
result in vibration problems. However, tion which aggravates the situation with
the cutting forces will increase greatly internal turning. The quantity of chips
with a very large chip area, thereby increases at higher stock removal rates
increasing the demand on stability in and the centrifugal force will press
order to prevent vibration from arising chips against the workpiece. Therefore
and being intensified. A small chip the maximum cutting speed will be
area can also cause vibration since it limited by the efficiency of the chip
can have a tendency to rub between evacuation.
the tool and the workpiece rather
than cutting the workpiece. Since vibration in the machine, work-
piece, tool and clamping device can
In most cases the cutting speed can be interact and be intensified at certain
chosen in accordance using the same spindle speeds, there may be a spindle
criteria as for external turning. Low speed interval which should be avoided.
cutting speeds increase the risk of edge This type of vibration can obviously
build-up. Edge build-up affects the be eliminated by reducing or increasing
cutting geometry which means that the the spindle speed.
direction and size of the cutting forces
can be changed.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-18 14.36 Sida VII-23
3.
1. 2.
4.
5.
2xD 4xD 6xD 8xD 10xD 12xD

3, 4 5
1
2
Types of boring bar

Boring bars are available in steel, solid The diagram above shows the stock
carbide and carbide-reinforced steel removal capacity (V) when different
bars. The capacity to resist deflection types of boring bars are used. The
increases as the coefficient of elasticity solid steel bar (1) is obviously the best
increases. Since the elasticity coefficient solution for overhangs of up to 4 x D.
of carbide is three times larger than that For large overhangs, exceeding 4 x D,
of steel, carbide bars are preferred for there are boring bars with built-in
large overhangs. The disadvantage of tuning. For small diameters a carbide
carbide is its poor ability to withstand bar (2) is quite sufficient for overhangs
tensile stresses. For carbide reinforced of up to 6 x D, but for larger diameters,
bars, the carbide sleeves are pre- a tuned bar (3) is recommended. With
stressed to prevent tensile stresses. overhangs which are larger than 7 x
D, long versions of tuned bars (4) are
Boring bars can be equipped with
the only solution in order to obtain
ducts for internal cooling, which is
satisfactory quality combined with
preferred for internal turning. An inter-
an acceptable stock removal speed.
nal coolant supply provides efficient
Carbide reinforced tuned bars (5) can
cooling of the cutting edge plus better
provide satisfactory results with over-
chipbreaking and chip evacuation. In
hangs of up to and over 12 x D.
this way a longer tool-life is obtained
and quality problems, which often arise
due to chip jamming, are avoided.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-24
on the relationship between overhang

and diameter - factors which we
cannot influence but are determined
by the appearance of the component.
However, it is possible to minimize
the effects of the factors that intensify
vibration.
Obtaining relatively short, spiral shaped

chips is the goal in internal turning.
These are easy to evacuate and do not
place such large stresses on the cutting
edge when chipbreaking occurs. Hard
breaking of the chips, i.e. when short
chips are obtained, demands power
and can increase vibration in the
boring bar. However, this is preferred
over having long chips which can
make chip evacuation more difficult.
Chipbreaking is affected by a number
of factors, such as the insert geometry,
nose radius, lead angle, cutting depth,
feed and cutting speed. Generally,
reduced feed and/or increased cutting
speed results in longer chips. The
CHIPBREAKING AND EVACUATION radius of the chip is affected by the
Internal turning operations are more shape of the chipbreaker, where any
or less sensitive to vibration depending built-up edge or crater wear can also
Chipbreaking is a vital function in boring

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-25
Coolant may be critical for chip evacuation

act as a chipbreaker. The direction in When internal turning is undertaken,
which the chips flow and the way that the chip flow can be critical, parti-
they turn in the spiral are affected by cularly when deep holes are being ma-
the lead angle or the combination of chined. The centrifugal force presses
cutting depth and nose radius, as the chips outwards. With internal
described in the chapter on “Turning”. turning, this means that the chips re-
main in the workpiece. The remaining
The parameters which affect chip con- chips could get pressed into the ma-
trol also affect the direction and size chined surface or get jammed and
of the cutting forces. Therefore, it is damage the tool. Therefore, with
necessary to choose a grade and insert internal turning, tools with an internal
geometry which, together with the cutting fluid supply are recommended.
selected machining parameters, fulfill The chips will then be flushed out of
the requirements for good chip control. the hole effectively. Compressed air
At the same time, the machine, boring can be used instead of cutting fluid
bar and tool clamping must provide and, with through holes, the chips can
sufficient stability in order to resist be blown through the spindle and
the cutting forces which arise. collected in a container.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-26
f f
d
r
r
I3 d I3
R
D
D
f f f f
r r r r
I4 I3 I3
I3 I3 r
IG
D G
I2 dg7
I1
CHOICE OF TOOL
When planning production, it is very there is enough room for chip evacua-
important to minimize cutting forces tion.
and to create conditions where the
greatest possible stability is achieved - When the relationship L/D < 4, solid
so that the tool can withstand the steel boring bars can be used. For a
stresses which always arise. The length relationship where L/D = 4-7 x D or
and diameter of the boring bar will be where close tolerances are required,
of great significance to the stability of short tuned bars or cemented carbide
the tool. Since the appearance of the bars are recommended. Tuned bars
component is the decisive factor when are the only acceptable option for the
selecting the minimum overhang and relationship L/D > 7 x D. For L/D =
maximum tool diameter that can be 7-10 x D, long tuned bars are re-
used, it is important to choose the commended and for L/D > 10, tuned
tool, tool clamping and cutting data carbide-reinforced bars are used.
which minimize, as much as possible,
the cutting forces which arise during
the operation. The following recom-
mendations should be followed in order D
to obtain the best possible stability:
- Choose the largest possible bar dia- >3-4 x D

meter, but at the same time ensure that

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-27
The function of tuned bars

Factors such as workpiece material, below shows a tuned body (1) in the
cutting data, insert geometry, lead hole, suspended in a special fluid (2).
angle and nose radius are significant The vibration which is transferred from
to the size and direction of the cutting the cutting edge to the body via the
forces. The size of the deflection and cutting head’s coupling (3) is damped
the amplitude of the vibration which by the surrounding fluid. Since the
arises depend to a large extent on the body’s movements are not harmo-
overhang and the tool material of the nized with the oscillatory motion that
boring bar. The material of the boring the machining creates, the vibratory
bar also affects its ability to dampen motion at the cutting edge is counter-
vibration. With long overhangs, bars acted rather than being intensified.
made of steel or carbide do not
provide satisfactory damping. This is
why modern tools for internal turning
are now provided with built-in tuning
to enable good machining quality to
be achieved, even with overhangs of
over 7 x D.
The tuned boring bar is longer than a

conventional boring bar. The diagram
3 1 2

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-28
r > ap
<15° Tools for internal turning
r Modern boring bars are designed to
take into account the demands which
must apply because the operation is
undertaken internally and the dimen-
ap sions of the tool are determined by
the hole depth and hole diameter.
With a positive insert geometry, less
material deformation and low cutting
forces are obtained. The tool should
offer good stability to resist the cutting
forces which arise and also to reduce
deflection and vibration as much as
possible. Due to space requirements,
satisfactory chip control and good ac-
cessibility are also properties of greater
importance than with external turning.
Internal turning is normally performed

- Choose the smallest possible over- with a single edge tool, although there
hang but, at the same time, ensure are specially manufactured multiple-
edge boring bars which allow several
that the length of the bar allows the
diameters to be machined in a single
recommended clamping lengths to be operation. Boring bars are available in
achieved. The clamping length should solid versions (1) and with replaceable
not be less than 3-4 x D. cutting heads (2). Boring bars with
- A 0° lead angle should be used. The replaceable cutting heads are versatile
as the same bar can be used together
lead angle should, under no circum-
stances, be more than 15°.
- The indexable inserts should have a
positive basic shape which gives low 1.
cutting forces.
- The grade should be tougher than for
external turning in order to withstand
the stresses which the insert is exposed
to when chip jamming and vibration
occur.
- Choose a nose radius which is smaller
than the cutting depth.
- As a rule, uncoated inserts give lower
cutting forces than coated ones and
should, be used, where possible, when
the relationship between L/D is large.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-29
2. 3.
cutting head to be changed more

quickly since only a single screw (C)
needs to be released. This also allows
B radial adjustment so this style can be
used as a rotating tool. Boring bars
with various types of cutting heads with a dovetail coupling can also be
intended for different operations. The provided with a special cutting head
insert is rigidly clamped at one end of (D) which takes a shank holder.
the solid boring bar or in the replace-
able cutting head. The modular tool A universal system (3) is used for large
systems available for external turning diameters of 3-12 inches, where the
can also be used for internal turning. boring bar can, with the aid of various
adapters, be adapted to take a cutting
Boring bars for interchangeable cut- head with different couplings or to take
ting heads are available with different a shank holder and modular tools.
types of couplings between the cutting
head and bar. The style in which the
cutting head is held in place with
screws and a locking groove (A) pro-
vides a stable coupling and is recom-
mended as the first choice. This style
covers not only solid boring bars but
also modular tools. With a dovetail
coupling (B) the cutting head is
secured by means of a locking arm.
The dovetail coupling allows the

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-30
B
Coupled tool
systems for boring
Modular tool systems for modern metal
cutting in machining centers simplify
the changing from the machining of
one component to another. It is not
necessary to change the whole tool.
The same basic holder (A) is used
but simply equipped with other tool
adapters (B) and tools (C). The wide
tool range also includes tools for
rough and finish boring.
For rough machining there are both
single and twin edge boring tools.
C
Adapters with built-in tuning are avail-
able for hole depths which exceed 2.5
x the diameter. Twin edge boring tools
are available with or without a duct for
internal cutting fluid supply. Twin edge
tools are used for boring to a
shoulder and for through holes.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-31
1. 2. .008
.28 .28
.28 .28 .28 .28
Twin edge tools consist either of a of the other. At the same time the
cylindrical shank with slides mounted cartridges are adjusted radially so that
at the front, or of a U-shaped bar with the front insert cuts a smaller diameter
cartridges. Slides and cartridges can than the rear one. When step boring
be adjusted radially, which means with twin edge tools, a maximum cut-
that the same tools can be used for ting depth of .55 inch is recommended
various diameters within a limited dia- with a feed of .008 in/rev. Single edge
meter range. The recommended maxi- tools should be used for blind holes. To
mum cutting depth when both cutting use single edge boring tools for rough
edges are in cut at the same time (1) machining, a maximum radial cutting
is .28 inch. Twin edge boring tools depth of .125 inch is recommended.
with cartridges can also be used for
Only single edge tools are used for
step boring (2). Using special shims,
finish machining. These are available
TITinsert
one B 12sits axially, slightly in front in styles with internal or external cutting
fluid supply. For small diameters of
up to 1.18 inch, steel bars (for hole
depths of up to 3 x the diameter) or
carbide bars (for hole depths of up
to 6 x the diameter) can be chosen.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-32
is possible because the fine boring

unit sits on a slide which is mounted
on the bar and which can be moved
radially. These boring tools are also
available with built-in tuning for hole
depths of up to 7 x the diameter.
With a universal fine boring tool both
internal and external machining can
be performed. The fine boring unit (1)
is mounted on a radially moveable
slide (2) which in turn is mounted on a
bar (3). With external machining, the
slide is mounted in the opposite direc-
tion, which means that the diameter
which can be machined externally is
For larger diameters there are boring smaller than with internal machining.
tools in solid or segmented styles. The The length which can be turned
segmented version gives somewhat externally is naturally limited by the
poorer accuracy but since the diameter distance from the insert tip to the bar.
can be adjusted, a larger diameter With external finishing the spindle must
range is covered by just one tool. This rotate in a counter clockwise direction.
10°15°20° 25°
30° 35°
40°
45°
50
55°
60°
65°
70°
75°
80°

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-33
3
2
1

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-34
Drilling is sometimes used as a generic

term for methods of improving or
machining internal cylindrical or
conical surfaces with chip cutting
tools. This means that internal turning
is similar in some ways to drilling. Most
people would consider an operation
where the workpiece rotates and the
tool carries out the linear feed move-
ment to be a turning operation, even if
it is performed internally. In applica-
tions where the tool carries out both
the rotating and the feeding move-
ments, as in many machining center
BORING OF operations, a confusion of concepts
ASYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS can arise. Despite the fact that standard
The components typically machined turning tools are used in these applica-
in the metal removing industry are tions, they are actually boring opera-
symmetrical for rotation purposes. tions.
Therefore, internal turning is usually
performed with a rotating workpiece With twin edged tools, the total cutting
and a non-rotating feeding tool. When depth is distributed over more than one
machining asymmetrical components, edge and the feed can be increased.
rotating tools must be used. Modern Depending on how much material is
machining of components with complex removed in the form of chips, the
shapes, where quality and good produc- machining is done with (A) both
tion economy are crucial, places great edges in cut at the same time or (B) in
demands on both the machine tool steps. With internal step turning, a
and the cutting tool with respect to larger cutting depth can be taken in
the accuracy and versatility. This type one operation than when both inserts
of machining also demands short are in cut at the same time. However,
setting times and, in a minority of the feed must be decreased by half.
the operations, complete machining.
A B

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-35
When changing between heads with a

right-hand (R) and left-hand (L) direc-
tion the stop screw (A) must be moved.
This is important because it allows
the cutting forces to be absorbed by
the solid part of the bar. For bars with
coolant, the plug should be moved to
the opposite side (1). When a sleeve
is used, it should be turned half a
revolution (2).
Coupling for
radial adjustment 1.
Boring bars with a dovetail coupling
can be used when machining with
rotating tools. By adjusting the cutting
head radially the nominal diameter
can be reduced or increased. The table
below shows recommended setting A
ranges for different bar diameters.
The space, f, between the wall of the 2. 180°
hole and the top of the cutting head,
limits the possibility of obtaining a
smaller diameter. The recommended
values for the largest radial adjustment,
R2, should not be exceeded since
the clamping device could become A
overloaded.
R1 R2
D Dmin Dmax
d d d
d D R1 Dmin f R2 Dmax
.984 1.417 .079 1.181 .059 .157 1.732
1.181 1.732 .079 1.575 .079 .236 2.205
1.575 2.205 .118 1.968 .079 .315 2.835
1.968 2.835 .177/.197 2.480 .079 .354 3.543
2.362/2.480 3.543 .197 3.150 .138 .433 4.409
3.150 4.409 .236 3.937 .157 .591 5.591

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-36
Tool overhangs of ten times the diameter and more are possible with tuned bars
Countering vibrations with tuned tools

Problems that arise due to vibrations are frequently encountered in
boring and other operations and may cause problems such as bad
surface texture, insufficient accuracy, loss of productivity, increased
insert and machine tool wear and noise. Therefore, countering vibration
problems in the right way, with the right tools, is a very important task.
As explained, vibrations are oscillatory motions of masses where the

necessary conditions for initiation are:
- Ability of the system to move, for instance the play in machine com-
ponents or deflection of tool, etc. due to low static stiffness.
- Forces acting on the system, bringing it out of the state of equilibrium,
for instance cutting forces.
In practice, a vibration problem may be complicated by several factors

involved. The different factors may even interact to cause a very
complicated situation. But often there is one basic, dominating factor
which, when eliminated, reduces vibrations considerably or eliminates
them completely. With practical experience and a systematic approach,
it is possible to tackle the set-up to achieve satisfactory results and
performance.

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-37
If the machine is of a stable and rigid construction, and kept in good

condition, most vibrations are derived from either the tool, tool clamping,
tool mounting or the workpiece. In such cases, the vibrations will nor-
mally be of the self-generated type, oscillating with the frequency of
the system. This is contrary to imposed vibrations where the frequency
is determined by the forces acting on the system, for instance, imbal-
ance in the spindle or interrupted cuts.
If vibrations occur, find the weak link in the system, meaning the
element that is providing insufficient stability or static stiffness and is
the main contributor to the motion or deflection. Another alternative is to
reduce forces that cause deflection, for instance, by changing the insert
geometry shape, setting or cutting data.
These are the basic rules that always apply. However, when there are
geometric limitations that create long tool overhangs, as is often the
case for long stretches to the cutting zone, these basics become
critical factors. The reason is that increased overhang leads to:
- higher forces acting on clamping and tool mounting

- increased deflection with the same cutting force
- generally increased susceptibility to vibration.
Tuned adapters allow stable milling at long overhangs

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-38
If the basic rules as to static stiff-

ness and cutting forces are taken
into consideration, the limits on
results and performance can be
extended through the use of tuned
tools. The overhang limits when
using dampened tools are boosted
from 3-4 times the diameter up to 7
times and considerably more. This
Tuned adapter with milling cutters is due to the high dynamic stiffness
and the tools’ ability to withstand vibration. In these tools, this is obtained
by building in a damping system that actually counteracts vibrations.
The cutting geometry, nose radius and insert shape are especially im-
portant to consider in boring operations and become more critical as
tool overhang increases. An example is the difference in engagement
between a triangular and diamond shaped insert. While feeding
straight forward into the hole, cutting conditions are similar although
the diamond shaped insert has considerably less trailing clearance.
A = .006 A = .006
A = .009 A = .011
.004 r
= .016 .004 r
= .016
A = .006 A = .006
A = .011 A = .012
.004 r
= .031 .004 r
= .031
Difference in edge engagement between triangle and 80 degree diamond shaped inserts

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-39
If the tool is used for boring out

on the return stroke or is moved
out radially, say .004 inch, the
difference in chip cross-section is
considerable between the triangle
and diamond shaped inserts. More-
over, the out-feed lead angles are
very different due to the various
trailing clearance angles. The effect
on cutting forces from the in-
creased chip cross-section and the
much smaller out-feed lead angle
should be taken into account here.
Also the size of the nose radius
plays an important role in getting Tuned bar, diam. 2.362 with 9xD overhang
the right cutting conditions. machining Inconel with ceramics
Compensation for tool deflection can be achieved systematically, in

steps, as the example below shows. A pre-drilled hole of diameter
1.732 inch is to be machined to a diameter of 1.968. An initial cut of
.040 inch gives a machined diameter of 1.795, leaving .086 inch to be
removed and to be divided into two cuts, each with a cutting depth of
.043 inch.
ø1.968
ø1.732
236
ø 1.968-1.732= =.118 ø1.732
2
a p=.040 ø1.795
ø 1.968-1.795=
173
2
=.086 a p2 =.043 ø1.968
a p3 =.043
Compensation for tool deflection

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-40
Determining the frequency of the

vibrations that arise during boring
allows the dampening effect with
the boring bar to be tuned.
L(inch) Observing the regular pattern of
machining markings on the
surface of the hole and using the
indicated formula will provide the
0.2 x Vc frequency values (F) that arise in
F= the operation.
L
Vibration frequency
Tuned boring bars have become
a typical tool selection for optimizing operations. They are no longer
last-resort tools for solving vibration problems when tool overhang is
large. Minimizing tendencies for vibrations by using the right boring tool
leads to better quality components through good surface texture and
accuracy. Also, the security of the operation is improved through better
cutting action, which does not break down the edge prematurely.
Cutting fluid is supplied directly to the cutting zone through the boring
bar, which means that chip removal from the cutting zone is also
improved for long tool overhang. Suitable flats and markings provide
the means to accurately set the bars in the correct machining position
and the ability to perform more operations in the same workpiece set-
up increases. Noise levels are reduced and the parts on the machine
tool that are prone to wear from vibration effects are better maintained.
For successful boring, check the following points:

- use largest possible bar dia- - select a small lead angle, 0-15
meter/minimize overhang degrees
- use sufficient, good quality tool - select small nose radius
clamping - select positive, sharp inserts
- ensure that coupling surfaces - ensure good chipbreaking
are clean and undamaged when - avoid excessive flank wear
assembling the tool development
- spindle tapers must have the - use cutting fluid to ensure chip
correct shape evacuation
- tool clamping in the machine - select the correct boring bar for
spindle must give sufficient the job
clamping force

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-41
Ø d
inch h
d
.236-.472 4xd x T-Max U

.236-.630 6xd x T-Max U
.394-.866 4xd T-Max S
.472 10 x d x T-Max U
.394-1.575 4xd T-Max U
.630-1.968 4xd T-Max P
.630-2.362 4xd x x 570-1
.630-2.362 4xd x x x 570-2
.630-2.362 7xd x x x 570-3
.787-1.575 7xd x x x 570-3
.984-2.362 10 x d x x x 570-3
.984-3.150 4xd x 470-1
.984-3.150 4xd x x 470-2
.984-3.150 7xd x x x 470-3
.984-3.150 10 x d x x x 470-3
1.260-1.575 4xd T-Max
3.150-11.811 10 x d x x x 580-3
If vibrations occur when milling with tool overhang the following points
should be considered:
- change the table feed to a lower or higher value
- change the cutting depth/cutting width ratio by increasing
or reducing accordingly
- reduce number of inserts in cut
- use more positive inserts
- For overhangs larger than 4 x d, always use damped adapters.
Tuned boring bars can take on almost any special size and shape

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-42
L/ø = 6/1
= 0°
r = .016 in/min
vc = 460 ft/min
ƒ = .004 in/rev
ap = .010 in.
14.56 inch
ø + .001 ø + .001
-0 -0
1.929 1.772

19158 07_Boring 07-04-12 10.04 Sida VII-43
Tuned boring bars make some impossible operations possible
Boring is performed to high standards using very small positive rake tools
Correct, stable clamping of boring bars is always critical

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida 1
PARTING
AND GROOVING
INTRODUCTION 2 CONTROLLING THE
POSITION OF THE PIP 19
PARTING AND GROOVING 3
MACHINING TUBES 20
THE INSERT IN CUT 5
INTERNAL GROOVING 23
THE EFFECT OF
THE INSERT GEOMETRY 7 FACE GROOVING 25
CHIP CONTROL 9 CUTTING DATA 25
POSITIONING OF THE TOOL 12 TOOL WEAR 27
STABILITY OF CHOICE OF TOOL 30
THE APPLICATION 14
SUPPORT FOR
THE WORKPIECE 18
Basic back-up:
Forces 6 Principles for
Equilibrium 8 clamping the insert 26
Components Toolholders and blades 28
and resultant forces 10 Insert geometries for parting 31
Rotating and Application areas
bending moments 13 for inserts and holders 32
Energy and power with recti- Insert geometries for grooving 36
linear and rotating movements 16 Insert geometries for
Monitoring cutting forces 20 undercutting and profiles 36
Measurement of forces 21 Insert geometries
Combination tools 22 for longitudinal turning 37
The positioning of the Aluminum turning 37
insert in the insert seat 23 One tool - Several operations 38
19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-2
PARTING AND GROOVING INTRODUCTION
Machining of large batches of compo- Typical applications for automatic bar

nents is often done in machines which feed-in are the machining of small,
have an automatic bar feed-in. The components, such as ball bearings,
process of feeding in bar material, bolts, nuts, etc., in large batches.
machining, parting and then feeding in
new material was originally developed Within the automotive and aerospace
for the machining of screws and industries a large number of compo-
other small threaded components. nents, often with complex shapes, are
Depending mainly on the size of the produced with a tool system which is
batches and the diameter of the used for parting and grooving but is
workpiece, the automatic bar machine also suitable for other operations such
is a highly productive machine since as longitudinal turning, facing, under-
the process of loading and releasing cutting and copy turning.
the workpiece can be replaced by a
parting operation and the automatic
feeding in of new material.
IIX-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-3
Facing and parting involve radial feed, towards the center
PARTING AND GROOVING

In parting operations the workpiece As the machining progresses in towards
rotates while the tool carries out a radial the center, another factor takes effect.
feed movement. As with face turning, The diameter of the workpiece reduces
the tool is fed from the periphery of and, under the influence of the radial
the workpiece towards the center and cutting force FCN, the material will
the cutting speed reduces towards break before the insert has cut
zero - but here the similarities end. through it. This results in a pip being
FP
FCN
Pip-formation at the center in parting operations
MODERN METAL CUTTING IIX-3

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-4
formed in the center of the workpiece.

This pip will always be there after
parting but its size can be reduced by
taking such measures as adapting the
insert geometry, feed or support for
the sagging workpiece.
When parting, there is material on both

sides of the insert, which sets rather
high demands on accessibility. This
means that the tools used are narrow
and that the length of the toolholder
Grooving width and depth
increases with an increased diameter.
Therefore, stability becomes a critical It can be said that grooving is like an
factor. Since the size of the tool and interrupted parting operation and the
toolholder must be optimized in order same difficulties which have been
to meet the accessibility demands, only described for parting will apply in
a small surface is present for drawing varying degrees, depending on the
off the heat. For this reason, the depth of the groove. With grooving
cutting fluid has an important function. operations, the effects which appear
Unfortunately, because of the space in the last phase of the parting
restrictions, the supply of cutting fluid operation, before the tool breaks
is obstructed by the chips. through the center of the workpiece,
are avoided. Instead, there are higher
Since chip evacuation is difficult and demands on the tolerances set with
there is nothing against which to break respect to the depth, width and side
the chips, the side surfaces can easily surfaces of the groove.
be damaged during the operation.
Groove cutting in a stainless steel valve shaft

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-5
THE INSERT IN CUT

At the beginning, the insert will work Modern machines can be programmed
at a relatively high cutting speed, so that the spindle speed, (n), is auto-
which demands the capacity to resist matically increased towards the center
plastic deformation. The cutting speed thereby keeping the cutting speed con-
is defined as: stant. However, the maximum spindle
speed of the machine, (nmax), will be
vc = D x π x n
reached before the tool is at the center.
(ft/min)
12 This means that the tool machines in
the edge build-up area for part of the
This means that the speed reduces as operation. A tough tool material with
the tool approaches the center, at which the capacity to resist edge build-up is
point it becomes zero (diameter = 0). required closer to the center.
n
nmax
D
vc
Change in cutting speed and spindle speed towards the center

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-6
CUTTING FORCES AND POWER
F = mx g
A A
A
mxg mxg mxg
Forces
Normally forces are considered in the A falling body accelerates at an
context of the changes they cause to acceleration of gravity (g) which is
a body’s position or shape. In the field normally equal to 32.1740 ft/sec2. The
of statics, forces which act on a body unit of force is the pound force.
in equilibrium are calculated. Equili-
brium prevails when two or more forces The mass (m) is the same as the
counteract each other and, by defining material content of a body and equals
gravity and mass, it is shown that its weight in pounds (lbs). Newton’s
these forces really exist - despite their Second Law tells us that: “The change
not having any visible effect. of momentum per unit of time is pro-
portional to the applied force and takes
Gravity is defined as the effect of the place in the direction of the straight
earth’s force of attraction (F) on a line in which the force acts”. From
body. The point at which a force acts this it can be deduced that the force of
is known as the point of application gravity (F) is equal to the mass times
(A). The point of application for gravity the acceleration of gravity.
is known as the center of gravity. This
point has the same position no matter
how the body is turned. The force of
gravity varies in different places on
earth. It is greatest at the equator and
least at the poles.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-7
s or a concave end surface is obtained

(C). With a reduced lead angle, larger
radial cutting forces (FCN) are obtained.
This can cause vibration problems
p' s when, for example, small diameters are
n p' machined. When performing grooving
operations, a radial displacement of
the insert results in an impairment of
THE EFFECT OF the accuracy of the groove depth.
THE INSERT GEOMETRY
The demands for accessibility, com-
bined with the quality requirements set A
for modern metal cutting, are reflected
in the advanced insert geometries, FCN
which are necessary for performing
parting and grooving operations in a
satisfactory way.
A positive rake angle gives lower cut-

ting forces and thereby lower pressure FP
on the component, which in turn re-
duces the size of the pip. However, a
large positive rake angle results in a B
weaker cutting edge.
FCN
In order for clearance from the ma-
chined surface to be obtained, the F
insert must be provided with clearance
angles n, p' and s, as in the figure.
FP
The insert can be provided with a
varying lead angle, (). On straight or
so-called neutral inserts (A) the lead
angle is zero. This design provides a C
stronger cutting edge and a better sur-
face finish while maintaining closer
tolerances with respect to perpen-
dicular alignment. With an increased
lead angle, the axial cutting force (FP)
increases and the resultant force (F)
works to press the insert crooked(B).
With large lead angles the deflection
can be so strong that a rounding of the
end surface occurs, meaning a convex Effects of lead angle

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-8
D
r D
A smaller corner radius (r) will reduce large corner radii allow higher feeds
the load on the insert and produce a (ƒ) and increased tool-life.
smaller pip (D). At the same time
from B but in the opposite direction.

Pound force
Suppose that an object with a weight
of 1.1 lbs. lies on a table. This will be
acted on by the force of gravity F,
equal to 1.1 pounds.
The table must act on the object with

an equally large normal force, but must
act in the opposite direction in order
F=mxg for equilibrium to apply. Without this
equilibrium the object would not lie
F = Pound force still.
Newton’s First Law states: “A body

Equilibrium continues in its state of rest, or of uni-
Newton’s Third Law states: “For every form motion in a straight line, except
action there is always an equal and in so far as it is compelled by external
opposite reaction.” If a body A acts on forces to change that state.”
another body B with a force, then A will
be acted on by an equally large force

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-9
the chips can climb against during ma-

chining. After a number of revolutions
the chips will break automatically. The
diameter of the spiral spring chips is in-
fluenced by factors such as the width
of the insert and height of the bank,
the feed and the workpiece material.
In order to improve chip forming, the

following factors should be checked:
- Tool wear
- Correct chipformer
- Lead angle
- Positioning
- Cutting fluid
- Feed
It is more difficult to obtain good chip

control at the beginning of an opera-
tion. Shorter chips can be obtained by
CHIP CONTROL inserting stops in the feed.
With parting and grooving operations,
the insert has machined surfaces on Neutral inserts are best at chipforming.
both sides of the feed direction. There- The larger the lead angle the more the
fore the chips must be formed in such chips are pushed against the end
a way that they are more narrow than surface of the workpiece where they
the groove, otherwise the surfaces can are bent, pushed over to the opposite
be damaged. In addition, the chips end face and so on. With unfavorable
must be formed in such a way that they conditions, this process will result in
can be evacuated from the groove the chips damaging the machined sur-
disrupting the machining with long, face. The same applies if the tool is not
unwieldy chip coils. Therefore the positioned in such a way that it feeds
chips are formed in two directions: at right angles to the workpiece.
bent across their width and rolled
together longitudinally to form a
spiral spring-shaped chip.
In order to produce this ideal chip

shape the insert is usually provided
with a chipformer which is adapted to
suit both the machining conditions and
the workpiece material. It is shaped in
such a way as to form a bank which Chip direction with different lead angles

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-10
R
Modular tool holding for parting and
grooving tools
Components
and resultant forces
The forces are drawn as vectors same way a given force can be di-
(arrows), which depict the magnitude, vided into components.
direction and point of application of
the forces. Two forces which act on If more than two forces act at the
the same point, i.e. have the same same point, a polygon is drawn. In
point of application, can for the pur- order to produce the resultant force,
pose of calculation be replaced by a the force arrows are positioned behind
single resultant force (R). This resultant one another. The last side, needed to
force is equal to the diagonal of a complete the polygon, represents the
parallelogram which has the original resultant force.
force components as sides. In the
F3 F1 R
F2
F2
F1 F3

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-11
The resultant cutting force is an important factor in parting and grooving
Suppose that a weight of 11 lbs. hangs In order to establish the tensile force
on a cord and that the cord forms a on length B-C and the load which F1
60° angle with the vertical line. This will bear, S1 must be divided into the
can be done by fastening the cord horizontal and vertical components
into a hook fixed to the wall. What S2 and S3.
horizontal loading F1 will the hook
withstand? What tensile force must In order for equilibrium to apply, the
the cord bear for lengths A-B and sum of the forces must be zero:
B-C?
On length B-C the force of gravity F is: F - S1 x cos 60° = 0
which gives S1 = 160.8 = 22 lbs.
F = 11 lbs. cos 60°
The force of gravity will give rise to a F1 - S1 x cos 30° = 0, where S1 = 22 lbs
counteracting force S1 on length A-B. gives F1 = 32 x cos 30° = 19.1 lbs
A S1 S1 S2 = S1x cos 60°

60°
F1 F1
B S3 =
S1x cos 30°
F F = mg
C

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-12
As the cutting edge deviates from the

center line the rake angle, , and the
clearance angle, n, will be changed.
This change is due to the bending ra-
dius of the workpiece. In the chapter,
“Boring”, it was shown how rake and
clearance angles are changed with
internal machining. This is also valid
for internal grooving. With external
machining the reverse conditions apply
so that with high positioning the rake
POSITIONING OF THE TOOL angle will increase and the clearance
As with conventional turning it is im- angle will decrease. A clearance angle
portant that the cutting edge be posi- that is too small may cause the cutting
tioned on the same level as the center edge to rub against the workpiece and
line. In order to achieve satisfactory in the worst case, be broken. If the
results a maximum deviation in posi- cutting edge is positioned too low, the
tioning of only +/- .004 inch from the tool will leave material in the center
center line is permitted. and a pip will be formed.

n
n n
Position of tool relative center line

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-13
The tool should be fed at right angles

to the workpiece. This is necessary in
order to obtain straight chips. The per-
mitted deviation from a 90° feed-in
angle depends on the tolerance for
perpendicular alignment.
90°
Rotating and
bending moments
With a turning operation, the radial The moment is equal to the force
force, FCN, will give rise to a bending times the perpendicular distance to
moment, M1, and the tangential force, the center of bending or rotation.
FC, will give rise to a rotating moment,
M2 on the workpiece. In order for The bending moment gives rise to
equilibrium to apply, the chuck must deflection of the tool and workpiece,
be able to absorb the bending and which causes vibration. Therefore,
rotating moments with an equally large with operations which are sensitive
counteracting moment. At a state of to vibration, it is important to re-
equilibrium, both the sum of the member that bending resistance in-
acting forces as well as the acting creases with the diameter and that
moments must be zero. the moment reduces with reduced
overhang.
FCN
M1 L
FC
M 1 = FCN x L
FC M 2 = FC x r
FCN
r M2

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-14
STABILITY OF THE APPLICATION b

With conventional external turning,
the tool overhang is not affected by Stability factors
the length of the workpiece. The size
of the toolholder can be chosen so unnecessarily in the form of chips. This
that it withstands the stresses which can be expensive with large batches and
arise during the operation. However, when machining in expensive materials.
with parting and grooving operations
Vibration can also arise as a result of
consideration must be given to the
the deflection of the workpiece. The
depth of insertion and the width of
closer the chuck is to the parting posi-
the groove, which means that stability
tion, the lower the effect of the stresses
must often be compromised to meet
and the deflection of the workpiece
the demands for accessibility.
will be. Therefore, with a workpiece
which has a tendency to vibrate, the
To obtain the best possible stability the
machining should be done as close to
overhang should be as small as possible,
the chuck as possible.
so a holder for the shortest possible
insertion depth (L) should be chosen. The risk of vibration must always be
In addition, the largest insert seat kept to a minimum as much as possible
possible should be chosen. The width in order to obtain acceptable results
of the insert (a) and the insert seat (b) with respect to both quality and tool-
are not always the same. Varying in- life. In addition to choosing the best
sert seat sizes with the same insert tool and most stable set up, the cutting
width can be found. Wider inserts can data must be adapted to minimize the
be used in order to improve the tendency of the tool and workpiece to
stability, but more material disappears vibrate.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-15
Eliminating vibrations by machining closer to the chuck

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-16
Energy and power with rectilinear and rotating movements

If a body is moved by a force over a Power is defined as energy per unit of
certain distance for a certain time (t), time, which means that the power
physical work (K - in ft. lbs) is per- (P in Hp) can be expressed as force
formed which is equal to the product (F - in pounds force) times the speed
of the force (F - in pounds) and the (vc in ft/sec).
distance (s - in feet) in the direction of
the force. For rotating motion the work is equal
to the torque (M) multiplied by the
Energy (W) is defined as the capacity to distance and the power - expressed
undertake and maintain physical work. as the torque multiplied by the an-
However, in most processes, conver- gular velocity (), where the angular
sion of energy occurs without any work velocity is equal to 2π multiplied by
being observed, e.g. when energy is the spindle speed (n).
converted to heat which is conducted
away, as in all metal cutting.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-17
In order to calculate the net machine

power required (Pc) for a specific
s
operation, consideration must be given F F
to the energy losses which arise. The
relationship between the output or the t=0 t = t1
power available and the gross power
(P) gives the efficiency of the machine W = Fxs
. When stating the output for rotary P= K t1 P = Fxv
machines the shaft horsepower is
vc = S
often mentioned, which is also a mea- t1
sure of the torque which the spindle
transfers.
r t =t1 M = Fx r
K = M x
t=0 P = M x 2 x n
P = W
t1
M = 2 x n
Pc
(%) = Pc x 100
P

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-18
SUPPORT FOR THE WORKPIECE

During the parting operation the dia-
meter of the bar is successively reduced.
The bending moment to which the bar
is exposed contributes to early
breakage of the material and to the
formation of a pip that is undesirable.
The bending moment at the point of
parting (A) increases with the length
of the sagging workpiece. The size of
the pip can be reduced by supporting
the workpiece.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-19
CONTROLLING THE
POSITION OF THE PIP
Whether it is better to have a pip on
the workpiece that falls away or have
a pip on the bar which remains in
the machine depends on succeeding
operations. Parting with a neutral
insert, when the lead angle is zero,
always results in a pip on the
workpiece that falls away.
A tool with a right-hand positioned

lead angle (1) is used when the spindle
is rotated in a counter-clockwise direc-
tion, as seen from the workpiece facing
the spindle. A left-hand tool (2) is used
when the spindle rotates in a clock-
wise direction. Since the breakthrough
occurs at point (B), the pip will be on
the opposite side. When the tool is
chosen so that the pip is on the bar left
in the machine, it can be removed by
continuing the feed.
1. 2.
Coordination of direction of rotation and lead angle

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-20
MACHINING TUBES
When machining tubes, the tendency
for burrs to form can be overcome by
making a chamfer internally where the
workpiece is to be parted. However, it
is necessary to machine at the tip of the
C chamfer (C) when the parting opera-
tion is carried out. An alternative to
parting is to clamp the tube in a mandrel
and carry out a grooving operation,
followed by internal turning. This will
cause the rings to drop down and hang
1 around the boring bar, 1 and 2.
Monitoring cutting forces

Forces and moments which arise
during the machining process will be
transferred and affect the workpiece,
tool and all mechanical components of
the machine tool. The cutting forces
affect the deflection of the tool and
cause vibration and impair accuracy.
The cutting forces can also cause de-
flection of the workpiece and, in certain
cases, give rise to plastic deformation
– e.g. when machining thin walled tubes
or small diameter components. The
tool, or workpiece, is connected to the
machine spindle bearings which, when
there are large stresses, will be exposed
2 to wear. Other mechanical components
are also exposed to increased wear
with larger loads, thereby impairing
the accuracy of the machine. In order
to utilize modern machines and
tools optimally, a number of dif-
ferent systems for regulating and
monitoring the machining process
have been developed. The feed force
is a variable which is often monitored
thereby enabling tool wear, breakages,
chip jamming, faulty set-ups etc. to be
quickly discovered. A lower limit value
is often used to give a warning to the
operator. At an upper limit value, the
machine automatically switches off.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-21
Tool monitoring of cutting forces in machining

Measurement of forces
The simplest method of measuring Various types of gauges can be used
forces is to use a spring (1), where the for the measurement of forces. For
size of the imposed force can be example, a strain gauge (2) can be
determined by measuring the elastic used to measure the dimensional
deformation. Hooke’s Law states that change in an elastic body which is ex-
the strain (or deformation) produced posed to mechanical stress. The strain
is directly proportional to the stress gauge is a resistive gauge that utilizes
producing it. This principle is applied the electric resistance in a resistance
where simple dynamometers are used wire. By attaching the gauge to a
for the measurement of forces. Mea- body which is exposed to loading, the
surement equipment based on elastic linear strain of that body can be mea-
or plastic deformation is a relatively sured. As the wire stretches and be-
simple method, but accuracy is much comes thinner a larger electrical resis-
worse (+/- 10%) than when more ad- tance is obtained. The change in re-
vanced laboratory equipment is used. sistance is proportional to the dimen-
sional change in the body and, in this
way, the acting force or the acting
moment can be established.
1. F 2.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-22
Combination tools - Longitudinal turning (6)

The parting operation makes special - Special turning (7)
demands on tools with regard to such - Internal grooving (8)
factors as accessibility, stability, chip- - Parting, tubes (9)
forming, tolerances, cutting fluid supply These tool systems more than cover the
and wear resistance, in combination demands which have been mentioned
with the capacity to resist edge build- above. In addition to versatility, which
up and plastic deformation. Today’s enables parting, grooving, longitudinal
modern tools for parting operations turning, profiling and undercutting to
have been developed to cope with be performed with one and the same
these demands. The properties which tool system, these tool systems offers
are thereby offered have led to versatile great opportunities for rationalization.
tool systems, not only for parting and Substantial savings can be made as a
grooving but also covering all turning result of fewer tool changes, especially
operations where good accessibility is when machining components with
required. complex shapes. By using a neutral
- Parting, bars (1) tool, indexing time is eliminated for
- Radial grooving (2) any conventional turning operations
- Face grooving (3) where right-hand and left-hand tools
- Profiling (4) are normally used to carry out the
- Undercutting (5) same operation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Operations possible with

modern parting and grooving tools

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-23
INTERNAL GROOVING
The main problem with internal groov-
ing is chip evacuation. The risk of chip A
jamming resulting in tool breakage is
very high - especially when machining
small diameters. The chips have to be B
C
removed from the groove, then
change direction 90° and pass the side
of the toolholder to finally be removed
from the hole. The best way to obtain
short chips is to introduce repeated
stops in the feed into the program. B
Vibration is another common problem
with internal grooving. Stability is
related to the overhang, or how far The positioning of the
into the workpiece (L) the groove is insert in the insert seat
to be machined. The risk of vibration Quite a number of turning operations
is combated by using the largest tool- are required to produce workpieces
holder possible. Unfortunately, reducing which have complex shapes and all
the risk of chip jamming calls for the can be performed with one tooling
opposite. The overhang should not system. Even if the same toolholder
exceed 2-2.5 x D. Internal grooving is and inserts can cope with a number
of operations, it may still be desirable
a critical operation and it is necessary
to optimize the machining by using
to choose a tool with an optimum another insert or another holder.
compromise of chip evacuation and Today’s modern tool systems for
machining uninterrupted by vibration. grooving offer a minimized tool range
When vibration occurs the cutting where any insert geometry can be
speed should be reduced to approxi- mounted in any holder of a matching
mately 230 ft/min. size.
In some tool systems, the insert is

located against a stop lug (A) in the
insert seat. Depending on the geo-
metry, this will give a radial re-
peatability of +/- .0008 inch. The insert
has a three point contact and both the
bottom (B) and the rear section of the
top of the insert (C) bear on a V-
groove which matches the V-groove
on the insert.
L
L
2-2,5 x D
Maximum boring bar overhang

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-24
1 2
D1
D2
D
D<D 1
D
D>D 2
Face grooving factors

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-25
CUTTING DATA
With parting and grooving operations
it is not the depth of cut which is of
most importance but the width of cut.
The width of the insert (la) and the
choice of insert are controlled by vari-
ous factors. With grooving (1) the
width of the groove is decisive while
with parting (2) it is necessary to save
as much material as possible without
stability being impaired.
When choosing the cutting speed, the

FACE GROOVING risk of edge build-up at low speeds plus
With face grooving operations, the tool the risk of plastic deformation at high
is fed axially, rather than radially, to- speeds must be taken into account.
wards the end surface of the work- Since both the diameter and the
piece. The tool must then be adapted cutting speed decrease in the direction
to the bending radius of the groove of the feed towards the center, the tool
and the blade is therefore curved. often has to cope with both high and
When the machine spindle rotates in a low cutting speeds. It is true that a
counter-clockwise direction, a right- constant cutting speed is often sought
hand version of the tool is used (1).
When the machine spindle rotates in a la
clockwise direction a left-hand version
of the tool is used (2).
So that both insert and toolholder fit

into the groove, both the outer and
inner diameters of the groove must be
taken into account. The diameter
measured to the outside of the blade 1
(D1) determines the limit for the
smallest possible groove diameter
which can be machined. The diameter
measured to the inside of the blade
(D2) determines the limit for the
largest possible groove diameter which 2
can be machined. Where a groove is
machined in several cuts this applies
only to the first insertion, after which
the groove can be widened with
additional plunges to either smaller or Insert width considerations for grooving
larger diameters. and parting

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-26
1. Spring-blade clamping
2. Mechanical clamping
Toolholders with a spring-blade clamp

enable quick insert changes to be
made since the insert is loosened and
1. clamped in a simple operation. With
mechanical clamping the screw clamp
is integrated in the holder. This gives
very stable clamping of the insert and is
2. to be recommended for applications
where large cutting forces arise - par-
ticularly when combined with small
Principles for cutting depths. However, a holder with
clamping the insert spring-blade clamping is usually pre-
The grooving toolholders can employ ferred for parting, deep grooving
two different principles for clamping and face grooving operations since
the insert: this offers better accessibility.
higher feed as shown in the adjacent

la table. A suitable feed for the applica-
tion in question is determined by the
following factors.
1. Workpiece material
2. Deformation of the component
3. Size of the pip
ƒ
by regulating the spindle speed, but
the possibilities are restricted by the
machine’s maximum spindle speed and
the risk of vibration at certain spindle
speed intervals.
The recommended starting value for

the feed is determined by the geometry
and the width of insert where wider
inserts (la) are permitted to work with

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-27
TOOL WEAR
Criteria for establishing tool-life include
surface texture, size of pip, straightness
tolerances and breakage. With wear,
the cutting forces increase and due to
deflection, vibration occurs which
affects the surface. Wear can also
cause the insert to be positioned
below the center and the size of pip to
ƒ 0.25 ƒ increase. Corner wear of the insert
affects the perpendicular alignment of
the machined surface. Therefore the
wear criteria must be based on the
Feed change towards center tolerances required for the operation.
The chip forming area will vary de- However, wear on the insert increases
pending on the material. It is the area rapidly at the end of its life and, with
where the combination of insert width automatic turning in particular, it can
and feed produces satisfactory chips be difficult to keep to tolerances, so the
(cutting depth/feed diagram). pip size is used as a criterion. If machi-
ning is allowed to continue with the
Increased feed creates harder chip- same insert until the insert breaks, the
breaking, but the cutting forces also toolholder will usually also break.
increase, resulting in the risk of vibra- Therefore, it is best to establish a speci-
tion or deformation of the workpiece. fic number of components per edge
In order to reduce the size of the pip, based on your own tests. Using this as
the feed should be reduced by 75% a benchmark, change inserts at fixed
when the tool nears the center. intervals.
Because of the relationship between

inserts and varying cutting speeds, the
risk of edge build-up is of great
significance for wear. This can be
counteracted by choosing the optimal
grade/geometry combination and cut-
ting speed, plus ensuring accurate
application of cutting fluid.
Effect of excess cutting forces in parting

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-28
overhang can be adjusted depending

1 on the depth of insertion (3). However,
2 a shank holder provides greater stability.
Tool adapters for face grooving are

available in both straight and angled
styles (4).
With those operations where the tool

3 is fed axially, for instance, longitudi-
nal turning and copying, toolholders
with mechanical clamping are re-
commended for small plunging
depths in order to increase stability
and to resist the radial and axial
cutting forces which arise.
In the adjacent diagram the perform-

Toolholders and blades ance of the toolholders is indicated
Toolholders with spring blade clamping with respect to (a) accessibility and (b)
are available in both blade and shank stability for: blade holders with spring-
versions for parting and grooving. For blade clamping (A), shank holders with
blade holders (1), the actual blade (2) is spring-blade clamping (B), shank holders
manufactured with insert seats at both with spring-blade clamping and a
ends, which means that tool costs are strengthened blade (C) and shank
lower. When using blade holders the holders with mechanical clamping (D).
Access is often a key factor in grooving operations

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-29
4.
Tool adapters for face grooving
A
B
C
D
b
Accessibility and stability performance

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-30
A B C
First choice factors in parting
CHOICE OF TOOL
When choosing tools for parting it is However, the following factors must
generally recommended to choose (as be taken into consideration to arrive
first choice): at the optimal tool choice:
- (A) neutral inserts 1. Depth of insertion/Plunging depth

- (B) the smallest possible insert width When parting and deep grooving the
- (C) the largest possible toolholder length of insertion (L) can influence the
choice of insert width (la). With large
depths of insertion the width of the in-
sert must be large enough to ensure
that the necessary stability is obtained
when machining. The length of inser-
tion should not normally exceed 8 x the
insert width. The depth of insertion will
also influence the choice of toolholder.
la
L
8 x la
Depth of tool insertion/Insert width

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-31
Parting bearing rollers after turning

Insert geometries for parting
Q-Cut is Sandvik Coromant’s primary The range also includes the -5E geo-
parting and grooving system. insert metry - a positive insert with a smaller
geometries have been developed to corner radius and a sharper cutting
meet the demands which are set within edge in order to give lower cutting
the tool system’s wide application area. forces, less vibration and excellent chip
In addition to versatility and precision, control at low feeds. Geometry -5E is
the insert is characterized by wear the first choice for parting thin-walled
resistance and a geometry which tubes and small diameter components.
narrows and strengthens the chips so It is also recommended for opening up
that satisfactory chip control is obtained both internal and axial grooves.
in all types of operations. The inserts
are available in various carbide grades, Insert geometry -5F is recommended
coated, uncoated and as cermets. for machining in stainless steel and
when pip-free parting is desired. The
Geometry -4E is recommended for positive geometry -5F has a sharp
general parting operations. This insert has edge and is available with various lead
strengthened corners for high productivity angles ranging from 0° to 20°.
and is the first choice for parting in steel
and cast-iron, and for interrupted cutting.
Geometry factors in parting

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-32
Application areas for inserts and holders

These two diagrams illustrate the re- represents the first choice, while an
commended application areas for the open circle represents a possible
insert geometries and toolholders in the complement.
Q-Cut tool system. A filled-in marker
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4E
5E
5F
4G
5G
E-G
4T
5T
4P
5P
E-P
4U
Insert type application

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-33
1. Parting, bars 6. Longitudinal turning

2. Parting, tubes 7. Profile turning
3. Grooving, precision 8. Undercutting
4. Grooving, deep 9. Internal grooving
5. Face grooving 10. Internal longitudinal turning
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
151.2
151.20
151.21
F151.22
F151.23
151.2-21/25
S151.22
AG151.22
Toolholder type application

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-34
FCN
b
FP
c
g
Increases in strength, radial and axial cutting forces, pip size, vibrations, surface texture
and chip control relative lead angle are indicated by arrow direction.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-35
Turning operation with a parting and grooving tool

2. Insert width The adjacent figure shows how various
The smallest possible insert width factors are affected with different lead
should be chosen. Where expensive angles. The direction of the arrow
materials are concerned, this can in- illustrates increases in: strength (a),
volve large cost savings. However, the radial cutting force (b), axial cutting
minimum width of insert is restricted force (c), pip size (d), risk of vibration
by the necessary depth of insertion as (e), surface texture and straightness (f)
described previously. Wider inserts plus improved chip control (g).
and thicker blades provide increased
stability, increased thermal conductivity 4. Corner radius
and reduced wear, which means that Small corner radii produce a smaller
closer tolerances and better flatness size of pip, lower loading and better
can be achieved. When choosing an chip control at low feeds, while large
insert width for a parting operation, corner radii allow machining at higher
consideration should also be given to feeds and increase tool-life.
whether other grooves are to be
turned with the same tool in order to The choice of toolholder is influenced
achieve optimum machining economy. mainly by the requirements relating to
handling, accessibility, stability and
3. Lead angle capacity to resist cutting forces.
When using neutral inserts, better
control of surface finish and perpendi-
cular alignment can be obtained, while
at the same time higher feeds can be
used in comparison to feeds for inserts
with lead angles. Therefore, in those
cases where pip/burrs can be accepted,
neutral inserts are recommended.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-36
certain cases, be used for parting and

face grooving when close tolerances
and low cutting forces are desired.
The insert width tolerance affects re-

peatability and accuracy of the groove
width. Insert geometry -4G is manu-
Insert factured to a tolerance of +/- .0008
geometries for grooving inch on the width of the insert (la).
Close tolerances are often set for Therefore it is the first choice for pre-
grooving operations with respect to cision grooving.
groove depth and groove width. In-
cluded among Q-Cut insert geometries The -5G insert geometry is the first
are precision ground inserts which choice for general grooving in long
have been developed especially to chipping steels. The insert seat has
meet the particular demands set for been designed to make the inserts as
grooving. These geometries can, in strong as possible and provide good
clearances (p') at the sides of the

r l a= 2 x r insert, enables undercutting of small
diameters to be performed.
la
Insert geometry -4P is the first choice
for profile turning and when turning in
stainless steel and heat resistant mate-
rials. This geometry produces a sharp
edge which is suitable for difficult-to-
machine materials and, due to the low
cutting forces which are generated,
offers excellent surface quality.
-4U p' For roughing and profile turning of steel
components, insert geometry -5P is
Insert geometries for recommended. This insert is stronger
undercutting and profiles than those of the same size in RCMT
For undercutting and machining com- (see the chapter on “Turning”) and
ponents with complex shapes, great offers excellent chip control, even with
emphasis is placed on accuracy and low feeds and small cutting depths.
accessibility. For profiling in hardened steels, insert
Insert geometry -4U is designed in geometry E-P is recommended. This
such a way that the corner radii run geometry is manufactured in cubic
into one another and together form a boron nitride, for which insert grade
half circle at the front of the insert, so CB20 has been specially developed
that la is equal to 2 x r. This full radius in order to achieve good surface qua-
geometry, combined with the large lity, close tolerances and long tool-life.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-37
chipforming. Because of the reliability it

offers, the -5G geometry is recom-
mended for production where there is
an increased degree of automation. -4G
Insert geometry E-G is recommended
for grooving in hardened steels. This
geometry is also manufactured in cubic
boron nitride. The grade CB20 has
been developed to achieve good sur-
face quality, close tolerances and long
tool-life. After opening grooves in non
hardened materials, CB20 can be used
to finish with a few thousandths of an
la
inch as working allowance in hardened
condition.
± .0008 inch
Grooving width accuracy
Aluminum turning
In addition to those application areas
listed previously, there is in the Q-Cut
program the -AL insert geometry, which
has been specially developed for the
machining of wheel rims in aluminum
and magnesium.
This insert geometry can be used with-
Insert geometries for in the following application area:
longitudinal turning
Insert geometries -4T and -5T are the vc = 980 - 8200 ft/min
first choice for internal and external ap = .020 - .200 inch
longitudinal turning, but they are also ƒ = .008 - .030 in/rev
complementary geometries for internal, Occasionally, when turning against a
external and face grooving operations. shoulder, cutting depths of up to .28
Geometry -4T is designed for high inch can be accepted.
feeds (.008 - .016 in/rev) and is re-
commended for opening and turning
external and internal grooves.
Geometry -5T is designed for good
chip control in both radial grooving
and longitudinal turning. It is recom-
mended for opening and finish ma-
chining, primarily of external grooves,
but can also be used in internal turning.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-38
One tool - Several operations

When machining components with to the tool (3). This results in a differ-
complex shapes Q-Cut offers great ence in diameter in the transition be-
opportunities for rationalization. Since tween radial and axial feed. In order to
one single tool can be used for a num- compensate for this, the difference in
ber of operations, the result is a mini- diameter should be measured and the
mized tool range, fewer tool changes tool drawn back so that the correct
and more room in the turret. diameter is obtained in the transition.
The adjacent diagram (4), shows the
For example, the same parting tool necessary compensation (A) of the
can be used for (1) machining V-belt workpiece diameter for various cutting
grooves and for (2) chamfering and depths, ap, and feeds, ƒ. The tilt or
parting. clearance of the insert gives a wiper
effect, which means that better quality
With longitudinal turning or copying the with respect to surface finish (Rt) is ob-
tool is exposed to axial cutting forces tained with Q-Cut (5) than when con-
which cause a small tilt or deflection ventional turning tools are used (6).

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.10 Sida IIX-39
A
Diameter variation due to tool deflection
4
A (inch)
5 6
.004 a p = .12 in
a p = .08 in
a p = .04 in
ap ap
.0008
.004 .008 .012 .016 .020 ƒ ƒ Rt ƒ Rt

Compensation of diameter for feed and depth of cut and wiper effect in turning
ƒ
8
Chamfer start to turning and preferred in-copying
With axial turning, the workpiece is to choose copying-in in preference

should be provided with a chamfer in to copying-out (8). In this way closer
order to reduce the load on the insert tolerances can also be maintained
on engagement (7). One further re- with respect to perpendicular align-
commendation for increasing tool-life ment between the sides of a groove.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.11 Sida IIX-40
An example of the high versatility and performance of the modern parting and grooving tool

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.11 Sida IIX-41

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.11 Sida IIX-42
The unique bear paw type geometry has brought new performance in chip formation to
groove turning. Rills on the cutting edge strengthen chips for easy evacuation. The above
machining example shows a wide-groove application in very gummy low-carbon steel
where the indicated comma-shaped chips have improved the operation. Also shown are
type 6G geometry inserts for blade-type grooving tools.

19158 08_Parting 07-04-12 10.11 Sida IIX-43
Chip control in grooving operations

The unique bear paw geometry is specialized to improve productivity through
higher feed rates. It offers a high level of chip control and is particularily suit-
able for wide grooves. The specially designed rills on the cutting edge reinforce
the chips for easy evacuation out of the grooves.
Some important hints for applying parting and grooving tools:

- always use plenty of cutting fluid
- set the center-height of the cutting edge accurately
- make sure toolholder/blade is accurately positioned at 90 degrees to the
workpiece axis
- use a toolholder with the shortest possible length of insertion for the
operation in question
- select the largest shank/bar for the tool
- adapt the cutting speed to avoid vibrations
- reduce the feed rate for the final part when parting-off bar material/compo-
nents
- for axial grooving, make the first plunging cut at the largest diameter,
farthest out on the face, to minimize the risk of chip jamming
- use the smallest possible lead angle for avoiding pips/burrs in parting-off
- when possible, use a toolholder with a strengthening radius between
shank and blade

19158 09_Threading 07-04-12 10.16 Sida IX-1
THREADING
INTRODUCTION 2 SELECTING THE TOOL 13
THREAD TURNING 2 CUTTING DATA 17
RADIAL INFEED METHODS 4 CUTTING EDGE WEAR 22
POSITIONING THE SCREW THREAD TOLERANCES 23
THREADING TOOL 6 THREAD INSPECTION 34
INCLINATION OF INSERT 9 APPLICATION OF
MACHINING RIGHT THREADING TOOLS 38
AND LEFT-HAND THREADS 10 PREVENTING ERROR 43
GENERATING THE CONVENTIONAL
THREAD PROFILE 13 THREADING PROBLEMS 46
Supplementary part:
Improved threading with
PVD coated indexable inserts 48
Basic back-up:
The screw thread 5 Thread Outlet 19
The thread profile 8 Thread Forms 20
Coarse and Fine threads 10 The threading tool 21
Multiple-start Threads 15 Toolholders for threading 24
Right and left-hand threads 16 The threading insert 24
THREADING
INTRODUCTION
Threads, being an essential element on THREAD TURNING

many components, should be produced The principle of single-point thread
with the high cutting performance and cutting is the feed movement (ƒ) of the
reliability of modern turning. Develop- tool in relation to the workpiece rota-
ment of threading tools has come a tion (n). In this way the point generates
long way since the days of high speed the typical spiral groove that makes up
steel tool-bits and tips ground to shape the screw thread with a certain pitch
which were then slowly fed along by (p). Basically, then, threading is a well-
the lathe lead screw. Most of today's coordinated turning operation with a
threading is performed by indexable form-tool. During the feed passes, the
insert tools as part of a very rapid CNC tool is moved longitudinally along the
process. What used to be a relatively workpiece and then withdrawn and
difficult and time-consuming part of moved back to the starting position
machining is now standard procedure for the next pass along the same
as with any other operation. A typical thread groove.
part that requires a thread is routinely
accommodated through fixed cycles The feed rate is a key value that has to
of numerical control and a variety of coincide with the pitch of the thread.
other machine mechanisms and cut by The coordination is obtained by various
tools having the right thread shape. means, depending on the type of ma-
chine: lead screw, cam or numerical
Threading today is largely performed by indexable inserts as part of a rapid turning process
IX-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

Tool motion in threading by lead screw, cam or CNC

control (usually handled as sub-routines most advantageous cutting edge shape
in CNC). The shape of the groove for high speed and feed turning opera-
produced is determined by the shape tions. The relatively small 60° point
of the insert point and as can be angle of the tool makes the cutting edge
appreciated, feed rate is considerably susceptible to the forces and stresses of
higher than for an ordinary turning metal cutting. To counter this, a long-
operation. established compromise has been to use
the thread depth to determine the cut-
The pointed form of a thread is not the ting depth (ap), and to avoid machining
n p
ap
The thread pitch is a product of workpiece rotation and tool feed. Thread height/cutting
depth is achieved in several passes
MODERN METAL CUTTING IX-3

in one pass, as this would lead to a Radial infeed is most commonly used.
technically unsatisfactory situation. The tool is fed in at a right angle to the
Instead, the depth is machined in workpiece center-line with the mate-
several passes. The cutting tool opens rial being removed on both sides of
up the thread groove by cutting deeper the edge. This gives soft chipforming
and deeper, usually by making 5 to 16 and even wear on the insert.
passes, depending on the thread pitch.
As each pass is made, more and more Chip control is better when flank in-
material is removed per cut as a larger feed is used since chips can be directed
part of the edge is engaged. For this in different directions. In order to avoid
reason, the depth of cut is reduced poor surface finish or rapid wear due to
successively as the passes are made. rubbing on the non-cutting flank, modi-
fied flank infeed should generally be
It is best to have radial infeeds which chosen. The infeed angle should be
decrease successively as the passes are 3-5° smaller than the flank angle. This
performed. Recommended values are method provides a better surface on the
provided for each thread type. The thread flanks, especially in soft mate-
number of infeed passes is a balanced rials. For work hardening materials,
value to provide the edge with suffi- flank infeed should be avoided. For
cient, but not excessive, cut into the larger leads, flank infeed is advan-
workpiece. Too much cutting depth tageous. This is because it doesn’t have
per pass leads to threatening cutting a long length of contact like radial feed
forces while insufficient cutting depth has, which often results in vibration.
leads to premature tool wear.
For very large threads, incremental in-
RADIAL INFEED METHODS feed is usually employed. Generally,
There are three different types of in- this method is more advantageous to
feed used during the passes to achieve the tool life. An example of this type
the full cutting depth, which is really is shown in the figure below. After the
the thread depth (ap). They are: radial initial pass, subsequent infeeds are
(A), flank (B) and incremental (C). alternated, side to side, in order to
A B C
Radial, flank and incremental infeed methods

balance the insert wear. This process

is then repeated in a number of passes A
until the full depth is reached.
Internal threading needs a little more
attention than external - as is the case in
ordinary turning as well. Major factors
are stability and chip evacuation.
When pull threading out of a blind B
hole with modified flank infeed, chip
formation will take place as shown in
(A), providing advantageous evacua-
tion of the chips.
Diagram (B) above shows an example

of push threading into an open hole
with modified flank infeed. Chip eva-
cuation takes place through the hole.
The screw thread defined as the distance between corre-

Imagine that a right-angled triangle is sponding points on adjacent threads
wound around a straight cylinder in and is therefore expressed in terms of
such a manner that the base of the a unit of length (inch) or in terms of
triangle coincides with the circumfer- the number of threads per unit of
ence of the cylinder. The hypotenuse length (threads per inch).
(Hx) of the triangle will then define a
helix around the cylinder. A thread is The lead of the thread is defined as
obtained in the same manner, with the the axial distance through which a point
profile of the thread following a helix. on the thread advances during one turn
In the case of the single start thread, of the thread. The angle (ϕ) is called
the height of the right-angled triangle is the lead angle, but is also known as
equal to the lead of the thread, or pitch the helix angle, and thus describes the
(p) as it is also called. The pitch is also relation between pitch and diameter.
x D 3 2 1
P p
x D3
x D2
x D1
D

In order to reduce disadvantageous

cutting forces, which may cause exces-
sive deflection of the tool when using
the flank infeed method, the infeed
angle can be increased beyond the re-
commended 5°.
Accurate tool setting is vital in threading
POSITIONING THE THREADING TOOL The insert point has to be made as

As with most other cutting tools, it is strong as possible, so there is not room
essential for the cutting edge to be for a high degree of clearance. The in-
correctly applied in regards to height sert position in the toolholder has been
at the center line. This ensures that adapted for a certain lead angle and
the cutting geometry of the index- adjustments have to be made to pro-
able insert is used optimally, avoiding vide it with suitable clearance if the
unnecessary wear and cutting forces. lead angle varies. Thus, the clearance
The tool is provided with a suitable arrangements change with a changing
angle of inclination (), 10° for exter- lead angle - as can be seen from the
nal and 15° for internal, which also diagram below, which shows the angle
gives side clearance for the cutting changing from ϕ1 to ϕ2.
edge flanks in the groove.
For internal machining, more attention
Looking from above at the tool, the has to be given to the tool position and
thread profile of the insert is perpendi- the effects of cutting forces. A vertical
cular to the center line. This means deflection will take place due to the
that the tool has to be lined up accura- effects of the tangential force (FN)
tely in the turret or tool-post to achieve and horizontal deflection will occur
the correct thread. Any deviation will through the radial force (FCN). This
be transferred to the straightness of has to be taken into account and, as in
the thread on the workpiece. ordinary boring, handled by raising
the tool to compensate for the vertical
Flank clearance, () on both sides of deflection and taking programming
the point cutting the thread form is action to handle the radial deflection.
essential for satisfactory performance.

1 2

Tool overhang (L) in internal threading

should not exceed 3 times the bar
diameter. The recommended maximum
is 2.5. Also from a stability point of view,
multi-point inserts should not be used in
bars smaller than 1.25 inch in diameter.
The margins for clearance in internal

machining are normally quite small
and precision is needed to avoid any
contact other than at the cutting edge.
Diameter, pitch and number of thread

starts are related to the lead angle using
the formula shown earlier for screw
threads. The cutting tool is designed with
angles of inclination and clearance on
both sides of the pointed cutting edge. If
the lead angle is changed, it is primarily
the clearance that must be ensured.
This can be accomplished by changing
the angle of the insert location in the
toolholder. Though there are different
styles of threading tools, an advantage of
the laydown triangular inserts shown in
these drawings is that a wedge-shaped
shim/anvil is placed under the insert, which ance. This ensures that the cutting edge
can alter the angle of inclination and clear- flanks are evenly free in the thread groove.
L
FCN
FN

p truncating the triangle, effectively slicing

off its crests as shown, the thread
profile can be given flat or rounded
roots and crests.
The root is the rounded or flat part of

the thread groove between two flanks
d2 and will be on the minor diameter of
external threads and on the major dia-
meter of internal threads. Conversely,
the crest, which is the flat or rounded
top of the thread ridge will be on the
Screws having the same pitch but dif- major diameter of external threads and
ferent diameters will have different lead the minor diameter of internal threads.
angles. Normally, threads have only The depth of the thread is measured
one start, in which case the pitch and between the crest and the root at an
the lead will be the same. In the case angle perpendicular to the centerline.
of multiple-start threads, the lead is a
multiple of the pitch. At a given pitch, The major diameter (d, D) is the largest
the lead angle will vary depending diameter on an external or internal
upon the diameter and the number of thread. The minor diameter (d1, D1) is
thread starts. the smallest diameter on an external or
internal thread. The pitch diameter (d2,
The thread profile D2) is the diameter that cuts through
The thread profile is characterized by the thread profile at a level where the
the included thread angle (ß) which is width of the thread ridge is equal to the
measured between the flanks. In the width of the thread groove. If the posi-
basic triangle, the sides will constitute tion of the lead angle is not defined, it
the flanks of the thread profile. By is assumed to be at the pitch diameter.
d1 d2 d D1 D2 D

INCLINATION OF INSERT P
The holder is delivered fitted with a tan =
Dx
shim that gives the insert an effective L / P mm p tpi

angle of side inclination of 1°, which is 4
=4°
=3°
6
°
the most common. This can be changed
=2
5
1 2 5
to -2°, -1°, 0°, 2°, 3° or 4° by changing 4

=1
°
6
the shim. The shim is mounted in the 7

8
holder by means of a screw and can 3 9
11
=0°
very easily be replaced. The shims are 2 14
18
designed to provide the same cutting 1 24
32
point height, regardless of the angle 6 8 inch

2 4
of side inclination. 50 100 150 200 mm
Like the external holder, the internal The size of a clearance angle () on the
holder is fitted with a shim that gives flanks of the threading insert is de-
the insert the same effective side in- pendent on the size of the lead angle of
clination. Here as well, angles of -2°, the thread. When the lead angle does
-1°, 0°, 2°, 3° or 4° can be obtained by not coincide with the side inclination
changing the shim. A 0° shim is used of the insert, the clearance angle on
for larger bars when making grooves. one flank will be smaller than on the
When a smaller, .625 inch diameter other. This means that the flank wear
bar is used for reasons of strength, no will grow faster on one flank and pre-
shim is used, which means that the in- maturely shorten the life of the insert.
clination cannot be changed. This bar The most suitable angle of side in-
therefore has a side inclination of 2°. clination for different combinations of
Side clearance is optimized for the most pitches and diameters can be chosen
common diameters in this area. from the diagram above. To permit


easy identification of the shim which

Coarse and Fine Threads is mounted in the holder, and hence to
Coarse and fine, when referring to determine what angle of inclination the
threads, refer to the combination of holder has, shims are marked on the
pitch and diameter. For instance, the side so that the inclination can be read
ISO thread is made with a standard off directly.
pitch, which is a coarse thread, and al-
so with a finer pitch, called fine thread
for each diameter. For metric threads,
the pitch is given in mm and in number MACHINING
of threads per inch for Unified threads. RIGHT AND LEFT-HAND THREADS
The difference in direction between
The Unified thread is designated by right and left-hand threads does not
the diameter in inches followed by affect the thread profile, etc. It does,
UNC for coarse threads and UNF for however, have some effect on the
fine threads. The pitch can be choice and combination of tools. The
omitted, since only one coarse and method of cutting the thread depends
one fine pitch are made for each on the workpiece design. Working to-
diameter. Metric coarse threads are
wards the chuck is the most common
designated Md (d = diameter). For in-
stance, M30 for a diameter of 30 mm method while working away from the
has a pitch of 3.5 mm, according to chuck is in many cases also satisfactory.
the thread data table.
However, when it comes to cutting
For a metric fine thread, the pitch must right-hand threads with a left-hand
be indicated in the designation, Mdxp, tool, and vice-versa, the negative lead
since these threads are available with angle must be allowed for with the
a number of different pitches for the right combination. The advantage in
same diameter when the diameter is using right-hand tools for right-hand
greater than 7 mm. As an example,
threads and left-hand tools for left-
for the diameter 30 mm, there are fine
threads with pitches of 1, 1.5, 2 and 3 hand threads is that the holder is de-
mm. These are designated as follows: signed to give maximum support to the
M30 x 1, M30 x 1.5, M30 x 2 and M30 insert. But under normal cutting condi-
x 3. At diameters above 68 mm, there tions this order is not critical. It is vital
are only fine threads. that inserts always be used with hol-
ders of the same hand. The adjoining
figure shows combination possibilities
for both external and internal ma-
chining.
When selecting a method, it is vital to

take into account the direction of cut-
p p ting forces. These should be directed
into the machine and tool support,
especially when using multi-point in-
serts.

Left Hand Thread Right Hand Thread

LH RH
LH RH
LH RH
LH RH
RH LH
RH LH
Inserts shown facing towards and away in the figure, depending on how tool is applied.

LH RH
LH RH
LH RH
RH LH
RH LH
Inserts shown facing towards and away in the figure, depending on how tool is applied.

GENERATING THE THREAD PROFILE

The thread profile can be cut in diffe- A
rent ways using different types of in-
serts, depending on the necessity of
topping the thread.. If just a V-profile
insert is used, no machining is done on
the top of the thread. It is then neces-
sary to use pre-machined workpieces
having the exact major diameter on B
external threads and minor diameter
on internal threads. Extra de-burring
might also be necessary with some
materials using this type of tool. With
profiled inserts, the full shape of the
thread is cut from an oversize blank.
There are basically three different C
types of threading inserts:
V-profile (A), where each insert can

be used for a range of thread profiles
and the nose radius is for the smallest
pitch. Insert life is shorter because the The various insert profiles = V, full and
nose radius is not optimized for each multi-point
thread profile. An exact blank diameter
is required. An advantage of this thread whole row of teeth plus normal run-out.
profile is that fewer inserts need to be Conditions must be especially stable
stocked, since one insert can be used because of the longer cutting edge.
for several pitches.
It is vital to use the recommended in-
Full-profile (B), where inserts can also feed values so as to ensure the correct
shape crests. The nose radius is exactly workload on the two cutting points.
to specification. Full-profile inserts sim- The advantage of using the multi-point
plify threading and since no profile is type of insert is that the number of
deeper than specification, they are passes will be reduced by half.
also stronger. Correct depth, bottom
and top radii are achieved. Inserts
must be used for their specific pitch. SELECTING THE TOOL
Compared to conventional turning,
Multi-point (C) inserts reduce the num- the tool and machining parameters of
ber of passes required, leading to better threading are not so flexible. This is
tool-life. The second tooth cuts deeper because the feed is related to the pitch,
than the first, etc. This type does, how- the cutting depth is divided into passes,
ever, require a longer relief beyond the the cutting speed is limited because of
workpiece thread to accommodate the the pointed cutting edge and so on.

The V-profile insert is the simplest tool The multi-point threading insert cuts a
for thread turning with machining car- deeper profile as the insert is fed along.
ried out in two operations: diameter This means that the number of passes
turning and profile turning. However, can be reduced in relation to how many
there is then the risk that the major points are on the insert. The last point
diameter will not be concentric with produces the required thread profile.
the pitch diameter. Indexable inserts are available for ex-
ternal and internal threading. The in-
This is avoided by instead using a full-
serts for internal are mirror images of
profile insert with the crests formed in
the corresponding external. Both exter-
a single operation. When the pitch dia-
nal and internal inserts are available in
meter has been set, the tool generates
right and left-hand versions. Since tole-
the other dimensions. Provided there
rances and cutting geometry differ be-
is sufficient material for a full thread,
tween external and internal inserts, it is
concentricity, correct form and other
important that they should not be con-
dimensions are obtained and the pre-
fused.
ceding turning operation can be carried
out with less dimensional accuracy or, Although radial infeed with soft chip-
in some cases, omitted entirely. forming and even wear on the insert is
most commonly used, chip control is
The full-profile insert is the most ad- better when flank infeed is used since
vantageous choice for most operations the chip can be directed in different
as it generates the best finish and form. directions. Modified flank infeed can
The thread form is correct and only a prevent rubbing between insert flank
minimum of inspection is needed. Only and workpiece profile. This method
the pitch diameter needs to be mea- provides a better surface on the thread
sured and de-burring is not required. flanks, especially in soft materials. For
work hardening materials, flank infeed
However, full-profile and multi-point should be avoided. For larger leads,
threading inserts will only produce one flank feed is an advantage because of
thread pitch whereas the V-profile is the shorter length of contact compared
flexible. The latter type also requires a to radial feed which has a longer
more extensive thread relief at the end length of contact and can more easily
of the thread. lead to vibrations.
Chip formation during radial and flank infeed methods

Multiple-start threads can be manu-

factured in two ways. The first and the
most common way is to complete a
single thread groove in a number of
passes and then start with the next
groove. Another alternative is to adjust
the first infeed and machine one pass
on a groove, and then go back and
machine the first pass on the next
groove, after which the second infeed
is set and the next pass is machined
on each groove, and so on until all the
grooves are finished.
Multiple-start Threads
Threads can have two or more parallel
thread grooves, which means two or
more starts. The lead of a thread with
two starts will be twice that of a single- B
start screw. A large lead permits the
thread to be screwed in or out faster.
However, the axial load on the thread
increases with an increasing lead angle.
This load is distributed among more
thread grooves on a multiple-start
thread.
The lead increases in relation to the

pitch by a multiple equal to the number
C
of starts. On a single-start thread, the
pitch and the lead are equal; on a
double-start the lead is twice the pitch; A=Single start thread
with three starts, the lead is three B=Double start
times the pitch, etc. C=Triple start

Right and left-hand threads LH RH

There are threads which are right-
handed and left-handed, depending
on if they revolve clockwise or counter-
clockwise as the extend screw is
turned into the threaded hole.
Right-hand threads are by far the most

common and recommended as first
choice in most applications. The thread
direction is always indicated when left-
hand threads are used and also when
right-hand threads are combined with
left-hand.
Choices of right and left-hand threads

often become crucial when machine
elements have to be secured against
coming loose during motion; one ex-
ample is crank-pins, where the screw
thread has a tendency to be affected in
a certain direction. Thread flanks are
intermittently subjected to compression drawing below, showing the motion of
according to the outer forces working a crank, the wheel is looked at from
on the mechanism. Contact points be- the side where it is moving upwards, a
tween threads consequently move and right-hand thread should be selected
unscrewing tendencies occur. for the crank-pin if it is inserted from
the right-hand side. Choose a left-hand
In line with this, general recommenda- thread if the pin is on the left-hand
tions for selecting right or left-hand side. The direction of the force affecting
threads can be formulated. If in the the pin is then neutralized.

CUTTING DATA
In turning, accuracy and surface tex- speed, the toughest possible cemented
ture can be achieved by varying feed, carbide grade should be used. The cut-
cutting speed, depth of cut, etc. In ting speed range of 230-430 ft/min is a
thread turning, parameters cannot be risk zone. The cutting speed should not
varied to the same extent and several be less than 130 ft/min when ma-
limiting factors must be taken into con- chining with cemented carbide.
sideration.
The feed must coincide with the thread
The cutting speed is normally some pitch (or lead, in the case of multiple-
25% lower in threading than in turning. start threads). This means that the feed
This is partly because the shape of the rate must increase with cutting speed
threading insert limits heat dissipation in order to keep the feed per revolution
so that high cutting speeds result in constant. It should also be noted that
higher temperatures. With a high chip problems may arise in certain machines
load and cutting speed, the tempera- when attempting to stop the longitudi-
ture can often approach the sintering nal movement of the tool at the right
temperature of the cemented carbide. place at high cutting speeds, since the
The binder can then soften, resulting feed rate may be too great.
in plastic deformation of the cutting
edge. When machining with carbide Depth of cut is a critical factor in
tools, a high enough cutting speed threading. With each pass, an increas-
must be used to prevent the risk of ingly large portion of the cutting edge
built-up edge formation. is engaged in the work and the load on
the tool increases. If the depth of cut
Threading against a shoulder at high is kept constant during several passes,
speeds in CNC lathes has its problems. the chip removal rate can increase by
The control will signal the machine to up to three times with each infeed. In
start withdrawing from the workpiece, order to keep the stress on the cutting
probably too early, before a full thread
has been generated. This hindering
distance becomes critical in the
operation, especially with smaller dia-
meters. Lowering the cutting speed is
the most obvious remedy. However, a
compromise must be found when
threading in workpiece materials that
give rise to built-up edge.
Built-up edge formation (BUE) is

caused by metal welding on the cut-
ting edge and later breaking off, often
taking along a piece of the edge. If the Extra attention is often needed for the tool
machine does not permit a high cutting movement at the end of the thread

edge as uniform as possible, the depth In order to obtain a fine surface or

of cut should be reduced with each close tolerance, the threading opera-
pass. Suitable values can be obtained tion can be concluded with one or two
from the data tables. finishing passes. The light tool pressure
eliminates elastic deflections in the
The cutting forces and therefore the tool-machine-workpiece system, which
power requirements are often higher in improves accuracy. However, such
thread turning than in normal turning passes cannot be made in stainless
operations, especially when the chip steel, since this material is subject to
thickness is small. However, the cutting work hardening, which leads to high
forces approach the values for general tool wear. A nominal chip thickness of
turning when chip thicknesses increase. less than .001 inch should be avoided,
Pre-machined thread forms is often an advantage with larger profiles

since the material will deform elastic-

ally instead of being cut. For austenitic
steels, the infeed should not be less
than .003 inch.
The suitable number of infeeds some-

times has to be determined by trial and
error. If insert breakage occurs, the
number of infeeds should be increased.
If insert wear is high, the number of
infeeds should be reduced. When ma-
chining larger profiles, pre-machining
the thread form with a conventional
turning tool can be advantageous. In
general, the number of infeeds should
be increased when machining cast- Thread Outlet
iron. In some cases, threads are made with
thread outlets. This is the part of the
thread that is not given a full profile.
When establishing modified flank in- In the case of an external thread with
feed, the axial movement between in- thread outlet, the matching internal
feeds can be calculated simply by thread must have a thread relief
multiplying 0.5 times the radial infeed groove, in the form of a recess at the
for a 60° flank angle. The equivalent end of the thread (thread clearance),
for a 55° flank angle should be 0.42 in order for it to be screwed against
times the radial infeed. This gives an the shoulder. Another alternative is to
infeed angle which is 3-5° (or even provide the external thread with a
greater in some cases) less than the thread relief groove. Then the nut does
flank angle of the thread. not require any thread clearance when
fitted up against the shoulder.
The program development in CNC A thread relief groove is sometimes
lathes utilizes the availability of sub- used as a safety precaution when
routines for threading. Programming thread-cutting in machines where there
tasks have been rationalized with only is a risk that the tool will not be with-
a few parameters requiring definition. drawn at exactly the same point after
Often set cycles are included in the ma- each pass. If the tool is withdrawn too
chine control but these may need ad- late, the depth of cut may equal that
justing or resetting as they give rise to of the total depth of cut for several
an uneven distribution of cutting edge passes, which can damage the tool.
load.

One example of this is adjusting the

infeed when the cutting depth at the
first pass is too high, which can
jeopardize the cutting edge. Giving the
machine control a false, larger diameter a2
will leave more to cut in pass (a2). Since
the real workpiece is actually a smaller
diameter, not so much material needs
to be removed by the edge and a safer
overall cutting process will be the result.
screw threads was established and

has now been widely accepted. In
addition, however, there are numerous
special-purpose threads designed to
suit the demands of various industries.
These include: threads with included
profile angles smaller than 55°, usually
used for various types of precision
engineering; 55° angle threads such
as W tapered pipe threads; 60° angle
triangular threads that feature the ISO
basic profile, including, most notably,
the M pipe threads with 60° angles;
petroleum threads, including the API,
with angles larger than 60° and tapers
Thread Forms for the oil industry; trapezoidal threads
In 1841, Joseph Whitworth initiated the such as Acme; saw-tooth threads such
start of a development which resulted as Buttress; and round, knuckle threads
in today's standards of screw thread for pipes and many specials. The ISO
systems. His W-threads became esta- general purpose screw thread has a
blished and spread widely as a design basic profile which is the base for
standard. It also made apparent the triangular metric and imperial threads.
advantages of standards in regards to
ability to interchange and effectively 47,5° 60° 90°
assemble machinery. A number of other

standards were also adopted in the
U.S., France, etc., but in the late
nineteenth century, the SI system 55° 60° 29° 30°
promoted the metric threads.
Later on, the development of the metric

55° 60° 47° 14,5°
M-threads began in Germany, as well
as the imperial standards of the USA,
UK and Canada. In 1957, the com-
mon ISO profile for the M and Unified

A
C
The threading tool

The modern threading tool is essenti- ability and fast, simple insert indexing.
ally a form tool which generates the They encompass an extensive range
correct thread form and the specific of thread styles and pitches in right
pitch of the thread. One cutting edge and left-hand versions for external and
machines the various threads with the internal operations.
same form and size regardless of the
diameter, hand and number of starts. As a turning tool, the threading tool
The thread pitch is the main variable. has three critical elements that affect
performance: cutting geometry (A), in-
Important performance factors are: re- sert clamping method (B) and tool
liability, chip control, tool-life, accuracy material (C).
and versatility in regards to workpiece
materials. Modern indexable insert cut-
ting tools are essential for satisfactory
performance in today's production and
in CNC machines. There is no reason
why the threading operation should be
inferior in performance to other turning
operations.
Laydown triangular inserts are used in

many of today’s modern threading
systems specifically designed to meet
the requirements of present and future
techniques. These systems ensure un-
restricted chip flow, excellent repeat-

Compensation is made for the change in thread shape due to wear to prevent profile error
CUTTING EDGE WEAR

Normal tool wear in thread turning - Long tool-life is maintained with ade-
occurs mainly on the flanks of the in- quate clearance on the flanks. This can
sert. As the threading operation is di- be obtained by correctly compensating
vided into a number of passes, the part for the lead angle of the thread.
of the flank nearest the tip will have a
longer engagement time than the part - Too many passes can lead to abnor-
of the flank that cuts on the last pass. mal wear owing to insufficient depth
This leads to a change in the profile of cut and deformation in the
height. material. However, too few passes can
lead to insert fracture.
The change in the shape of the insert
profile due to wear is taken into - If the cutting speed is too high, the
account in the design and manufacture temperature at the tip of the insert may
of modern threading inserts. Therefore, approach values at which the insert
inserts will have a longer life with no might deform plastically.
profile error. Following is a brief
summary of factors that can affect
tool wear:

4
10 8
5
12
7
6
B 9
11
1 2 3
Thread nomenclature is made, provided machining conditions

Basic profile (B) are right. However, tolerances and in-
1. major diameter (d) spection can be more intricate because
2. effective pitch diameter (d2) of the various dimensionals. Measuring
3. minor diameter (d1) the individual elements such as major
4. pitch/lead (p) diameter, pitch diameter, minor dia-
5. included angle of thread () meter, profile angle, pitch/lead and the
6. flank angle () thread profile, is not straightforward:
7. height of fundamental triangle (H) the dimensional elements are linked, so
8. crest truncation changing one often affects another.
9. root truncation
10. width of crest truncation
11. width of root truncation p
12. basic height of thread (h)
SCREW THREAD TOLERANCES

Today, the thread form is not really d
complicated to manufacture. CNC and
full form threading inserts have high

accuracy and wear resistant cutting
d1
d2
edges, ensuring that the correct thread

The T-Max U-Lock Threading System

Toolholders for threading
The same toolholder can be used for
most threads because of the shape of
the basic, standard insert. The quick
and simple U-Lock system is parti-
cularly useful in CNC lathes, where
there is little space around the turret.
Inserts are very easy to change. The U-
Lock screw needs only to be loosened
half a revolution - not removed - for
the insert to be indexed or changed.
This means short handling times and
no screws lost in the machine.
The threading insert
Secure insert locking with the center The U-Lock inserts have form-sintered
screw and a three-point location keeps chipformers that are optimized for each
the cutting edge in place for accuracy profile and pitch, providing good chip
and security. This makes for excellent control in different types of material.
indexing repeatability. There are three geometry types: A, F
and C. On the A and C types the thread
There is a clear, unobstructed path for
profile has a recessed face on the chip
chips to follow, with no top clamp or
side with a primary land between the
loose chipformer. Cutting fluid can be
recess and the cutting edge. The F-
applied straight along the cutting edge.
type geometry has a plain chip face.
The angle of inclination is adapted by
the shim used under the insert. The
A correct thread profile is guaranteed
shim protects the seat and is easily
regardless of workpiece diameter. The
changed with a screw. Well-marked
geometry reduces the friction between
shims ensure correct clearance angles
chip and cutting face, thus providing
for various pitches, thus minimizing
low cutting forces, which leads to
wear.
long life and high edge strength. The
Threading bars for internal machining recess also reinforces chip formation
also have shims. This is with the ex- and, in combination with the chip-
ception of the smallest Ø .625” bar for former, provides controlled chip forma-
reasons of strength. tion within a large application area. At
small thread pitches, which involve
small profiles, there is no room for a
recessed chip face.
The cutting edge has a uniform edge

rounding, or ER treatment, around the
entire profile, including the crest-
forming portion of the insert. This en-
sures uniform cutting life. Crest-forming
takes place immediately behind the
thread being cut and follows the pro-

file so that any burrs will be removed.

The insert is highly resistant to break-
age because of its negative basic
shape and thickness.
The high cutting edge quality provides

accuracy, even wear pattern and long
tool-life. The close tolerances and in-
tegrated thread-crest cutting that is
performed after the thread cutting, give
an accurate shape. A large number of
cutting profiles have the same insert
size which means, of course, a large serts for internal threading are mirror
number of thread types can use the images of the corresponding external
same toolholder. inserts. Both external and internal in-
serts are available in right and left-hand
The sintered chip forming geometry is versions. Tolerances and cutting geo-
individually adapted to each thread metry differ between external and in-
pitch, providing chip control in almost ternal inserts. Identification codes are
any workpiece material. The U-Lock pressed into the surface of the insert.
threading inserts are available in V- They are marked with thread profile,
profile, full profile or multi-point forms. pitch and grade. In addition, inserts
for internal threading are marked with
Indexable inserts are different for ex- a circle in order to distinguish them
ternal and internal threading. The in- from those used for external threading.

Threads are made up of two compo- (o). Tolerance systems vary for
nents - the external and internal parts. different threads and several tolerance
For these to fit properly, the profiles classes have been standardized. For
and pitches have to match and the most thread types, the tolerance on the
thread diameters must be within tole- pitch diameter is the closest. It should
rances. The dimensional reference for be noted that there are allowances
threads is the theoretical basic profile specially drawn up for dimensioning
and from an inspection point of view, threads for galvanizing.
the above mentioned elements are re-
garded as most important. Tolerances For every screw thread there is a basic
are specified for the manufacture of profile (B), which is the theoretical
screw threads, as they are for other thread form. In practice when a thread
form dimensions. The basic profiles of is manufactured, deviations (∆) occur
the external and internal threads are and a practical profile (pp) is achieved.
identical. Each type of thread has its Deviations are applied to basic size re-
;
own basic profile. lating to the thread in question. There
are standard tables of tolerances avail-
A tolerance class is a combination of able. Deviations can be read or cal-
;;;;;
grade (T) and position in accordance culated. For instance, roots are rounded,
to the deviation (es) from the base line within limits, to avoid sharp corners.
;;;;
; ;
;;;;; ;; 0 es
T g
d2
pp B
0
d2
Tolerance class: grade, position and deviation as well as thread basic profile

P
ISO P
(B) 8
H
8
60° 5H
8 H
D
30°
d D2 P H
d2 D1 2 4
d1 P
4
Tolerances - ISO Metric threads

The basic profile, with a 60 degree in- For internal threads there are two
cluded thread angle, is theoretically the tolerance positions, H and G; for
same for external and internal threads external there are four; h, g, f and e.
but tolerances are applied differently Tolerances are designated for internal
for the two. Other factors vary, e.g. in threads: M30 x 1.5 - 6H. (When no
practice, peaks are rounded. The pitch is mentioned, it is understood
pitch diameter is always an important that the standard is used for each
element and as a rule, the tolerance diameter.) In this case the M30 thread
applied to the pitch diameter affects has a 1.5 mm pitch and a 6H tolerance
tolerances for the other elements. class on the pitch and major diameter.
Classified pitch diameter tolerances, for As can be seen the combination of
instance, also include certain contact H/h tolerance positions leaves no play
lengths between joined threads. while other combinations do.
G
;;;
H
;;;
C
;
h
g ƒ e

D1 4 5 6 7 8
d 4 6 8
D2 4 5 6 7 8
d2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Consider the M-thread example: - Fine: tolerance grade 3-5

M30 x 1.5 - 6H7H. In this case the 6H - Medium: -”- -”- 6
tolerance class is for the pitch diameter - Coarse: -”- -”- 9
and 7H for the major diameter. The
various thread diameters have several Root contours should not interfere
tolerance grades as follows: with the basic profile of the thread. For
external threads with a strength grade
Minor diameter (D1) - 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 of 8.8 or more, the root should not have
Pitch diameter (D2) - 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 a radius of less than 0.125 x p. Smaller
;
Major diameter (d) - 4, 6, 8 radii can be used on lower strength
;
Pitch diameter (d2) - 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 grades. The maximum radius for trun-
;
cation is 0.144 x p. For internal threads
;
In regards to the choice of tolerance Rmin: 0. Rmax: 0.072 x p. U-Lock inserts
quality, the following three categories are made to class 6, and strength class
;; ;
are commonly used: 8.8 or more, i.e., r 0.125-0.144 x p.
;;;;
B
Rmax = 0,0722P H /8
Rmin B
Rmin
Max D1
M Min D1

; ;
;
;; ; ; TD
2
; ;;;;;
2 TD
1
ISO M
2
D EI
2
D2
B
;;;;;;
D1
G
0 TD
2
2 TD
1
;
2
; ;
D
;
D2
B
;
D1
;; ;
H
0
Td
;
2
;
;; ;;;;;;
B Td
2 ISO M
2
d es
2
d2
;; ;
d1 max d1
0 Td
2 T
d2
g B 2
f
e d
;
d2
d1 max d1
0

ISO-Inch threads UN The various UN thread types include:

The ISO inch thread, UN, has the same - UNC: coarse pitch
basic profile as the ISO metric. The - UNF: fine pitch
pitch, however, is expressed in threads - UNEF: extra fine pitch
per inch (tpi). The UN system has - UN: constant pitch
three tolerance classes for external
threads (1A, 2A, 3A) and three classes There is full interchangeability between
for internal (1B, 2B, 3B). The classes the UN threads and the Americal NC,
are defined the same: coarse, medium NF, NEF threads except for 1"-14NF.
and fine. As with the ISO M threads,
the tolerance class includes both tole- The UN insert is designated as 1/4"-
rance grade and position. The coarse 20UNC-2A, where 1/4" is the major
and medium classes have flank allow- thread diameter and 20 is the pitch in
ance, while the fine does not. Classes tpi. UNC indicates that it is a coarse
2A and 2B are the generally used stan- pitch. The 2A means that it is a medium
dard while 3A and 3B are for precision tolerance class for an external thread.
use. 1A and 1B are used where assem-
bly has to be quick and easy and where For the root radius for external threads,
closer tolerances are not suitable be- the Rmin is 0.108 x p (high strength)
cause of interference or rough treat- and Rmax is 0.144 x p. For internal
ment. The variation in fit character threads, corresponding specifications
between the classes ranges from very are Rmin = 0 and Rmax = 0.072 x p.
small for 3A/B to large for 1A/B.
U-Lock threading inserts for UN
U-Lock inserts are made to classes 2A threads have Rmin= 0.108 x p.
and 2B. It should be noted that if the
whole of the pitch diameter tolerance is The principle of the tolerance system is
utilized, the minor diameter tolerance based on the top thread profile of the
may deviate beyond limits for classes external threads, 1A and 2A, having a
1A and 1B. nominal flank-play in relation to the
ISO - UNIFIED (UN)

UNC
UNF
1A 1B
UNEF
UN 2A 2B
3A 3B
ØD
Ød
Ø D2
Ø d2
Ø D1
Ø d1

UNF
;;; ;;
;;; ;;;
;; ;;
1B 3B
;
;
;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
;;
; D2 max D2 max
;
; D2 min
D min
D max D2 min
D min
D max
UNC
;;;;
;;;; ;;;;
;;;;
1A 3A
;
;
;;;; ;;;;
d 1 max d 1 max
d 1 min d 1 min
;;;; ;;;;
R R
;
;
d 2 max
d 2 max
d 2 min d 2 min

internal thread bottom profile. The top and are accepted as the international
profile of a 3A external thread co- standard. These Whitworth threads
incides with the internal bottom profile make up a range of diameters with
which means that there is no flank- corresponding pitches. The comple-
play in relation to the internal bottom mentary BSF series is for threads with
profile. The internal profile is based finer pitches. The Whitworth threads
on 3 tolerance classes on the internal have the pitch expressed in threads
thread profile. The tolerance area for per inch. The basic profile is quite
the internal thread pitch diameter is, different in that it is made up of a 55
within the same tolerance class, 30% degree thread angle and has a
larger than the corresponding area of rounded form.
the external thread.
For the external thread there are two
tolerance classes: fine class A and coarse
class B, both without flank allowance.
For the internal thread, there is only
Whitworth threads one class with no flank allowance.
BSW and BSF screw threads are now Root truncation is R: 0.137329 x p.
obsolete due to the introduction and
standardization of the ISO threads. The U-Lock inserts for Whitworth threads
pipe threads, however, are still in use are made for fine class A.
;
BSW/BSF
;
p
H
6
;
r
;
h H
D d r
;;;;;;;;;
55° H
D2 d2 6
D1 d1
ISO 228/1 Td r
;
TD
H
2 2
2
6 0´ 2 7 ° 3 0
2 7 °3 ´
H h
H
6 TD
2
2 TD
1
2
d1 d 2 d P D1 D2 D

Pipe threads
The ISO standard pipe thread, Whit- ISO 7/1
worth, is used widely in services with 27° 30°
pipes and fittings and when there are
some differences between assembly r
and pressure-sealing joints. ISO 228 H h r
and ISO 7 as well as BS 2779 are the 0°
9
key denominations. Pitches are 11, 14,
19 and 28 tpi.
P
Designation examples are:
For external thread: 1
Pipe thread ISO 228/1 - G 1 1/2 A
Pipe thread ISO 7/1 - R 1 1/2 16
For internal thread: In this case, P equals 11 tpi according

Pipe thread ISO 228/1 - G 1 1/2 to the table. A is the tolerance class.
Pipe thread ISO 7/1 - Rp 1 1/2 For external threads there are two
tolerances classes: A and B, where B
The ISO 228/1 threads are used when is twice the value of A. The choice
there is no pressure-tightening function depends on applications and is not
The ISO 7 is used in that situation. The applicable to ISO 228/1.
G indicates a cylindrical pipe thread.
R is always the taper and Rp indicates For external conical pipe threads (R)
a parallel pipe thread. The diameter and internal conical pipe threads (Rc),
indicated is the pipe internal diameter. U-Lock BSPT inserts can be used.
ISO 7/1 A
D
R B C
e f
d
T T
- 1 + 1
2 2
G K
H I
J

The following terminology is used to Solid gauges often have ‘go’ and ‘no-
describe the elements of pipe threads go’ profiles for the various diameters,
(see diagram on previous page): the profile angle and pitch. The caliper
- A: useful thread gauge checks external threads and plug
- B: complete thread gauges are for internal threads. There
- C: incomplete thread are also rings that may or may not
- D: washout thread screw on to the thread.
- d: gauge diameter
- e: gauge plane The go gauge with a full, correct profile
- f: end of longest permitted internal checks the pitch and minor diameters
thread at hand engagement as well as profile angles while the
- G: major cone no-go, with its excessively truncated
- H: gauge length profile, may check diameters by only
- I: wrenching allowance screwing on a certain distance. The
- J: fitting allowance plain go/no-go combination checks the
- K: allowance equivalent to positive major diameter and a thread template
tolerance on internal thread checks the thread profile.
Indicating checking devices are used

THREAD INSPECTION more extensively during manufacturing
Checking the main dimensions of a especially for precision threads. These
thread to ensure that they lie within provide a more detailed picture of the
their permitted tolerances, is carried thread and its individual elements. An
out individually and usually with dif- indicating thread gauge uses precision
ferent gauges. The aim is to make sure wires between two thread flanks.
threads fit properly with their opposite Using two different wires, is a very
component. effective method to check the pitch
diameter and thread angle. A micro-
meter is used to check the major
P diameter.
hs
Optical measuring devices are a more
intricate method, mostly for checking
d2 profiles. A reading microscope checks
the profile angle, the profile projector
M checks pitch and the profile measuring
90° apparatus checks the thread profile.
Øw
The various thread types each have

their own standards regarding inspec-
tion methods and equipment. These
standards are detailed, with extensive
references and limits for gauges as well
Thread measurement by wire (W) as suggestions for methods and means.

External and internal thread inspection

Measuring the pitch p: pitch

diameter and flank angle n: tpi
Establishing the pitch diameter for ISO hs: depth of basic-profile thread
M and inch threads can be carried out : flank angle
efficiently with wire measurement and : thread angle: 2 x a
subsequent calculations. The same prin- w: diameter of wire
ciple can also be applied to Whitworth M: measurement over wire
cylindrical pipe threads and thread B: calculation factor
profiles of ISO 228/1. C: correction factor
d2: pitch diameter
BSW w B
BSF
p M w mm
n mm mm mm
p
28 0,907 0,5 0,7115 mm mm mm
19 1,337 0,7 0,9320
14 1,814 1 1,4231 0,2 0,12 0,1868
11 2,309 1,3 1,8976 0,25 0,15 0,2335
0,3 0,17 0,2502
UN w B 0,35 0,2 0,2969
0,4 0,22 0,3136
p 0,45 0,25 0,3603
n inch inch inch
0,5 0,3 0,4670
28 .0350 .0197 .0281 0,6 0,35 0,5304
24 .0416 .0236 .0347 0,7 0,4 0,5938
20 .0500 .0276 .0394
0,75 0,45 0,7005
18 .0555 .0334 .0523 0,8 0,45 0,6572
16 .0625 .0354 .0521 1 0,6 0,9340
14 .0714 .0394 .0562
1,25 0,7 1,0175
13 .0769 .0452 .0692 1,5 0,85 1,2510
12 .0833 .0512 .0813 1,75 1 1,4845
11 .0909 .0512 .0748
2 1,15 1,7180
10 .1000 .0570 .0828 2,5 1,45 2,1849
9 .1111 .0629 .0927 3 1,75 2,6520
8 .1250 .0708 .1043
3,5 2,05 3,1189
7 .1428 .0807 .1184 4 2,3 3,4360
6 .1666 .0944 .1391 4,5 2,6 3,9029
5 .2000 .1181 .1811
5 3 4,6699
4 1/2 .2222 .1378 .2209 5,5 3 4,2369
4 .1574 .1378 .1968 6 3,5 5,3039

W2 - W1
2
M2 - W2 - ( M1 - W1 ) W2 - W1 -
sin =
2 M2 - W2 - M 1 + W1
M1
M2

The workpiece shown is made of a

powder-metallurgical tool steel, Vanadis,
with a hardness of 60 HRc. This was
finish-turned and threaded using
reinforced ceramics.

;
;;;
APPLICATION OF THREADING TOOLS
Modern threading tools with indexable If the thread profile is not deep enough,
inserts help to make thread turning a the center height of the cutting edge
relatively uncomplicated procedure. and component diameter should be
Full profile threading inserts ensure checked. Excessive insert wear might
that the thread has the correct form also be the cause.
during the tool-life of the cutting edge.
The V-profile type of insert requires a
The process of application starts with pre-established diameter on the com-
the component to be threaded. Mate- ponent to be threaded. The full-profile
rial, diameter and pitch sizes and ma- insert turns the full shape, including
chining parameters point the way to a crests with the correct radii. The multi-
suitable indexable insert, toolholder, point, full form reduces the number of
shim and cutting data. The machine passes required and increases tool-life.
influences the method of applying the
tool. The full-form insert is defined accord-
ing to thread type, for instance, ISO M
If the thread profile of the turned com- with the standard in question indic-
ponent is incorrect, it is usually an in- ated. (The V-profile insert is defined
correctly positioned tool that is the by the flank angles and nose radius.)
cause. The pitch size is then the leading

indicator in the insert code and size. to the insert. With normal cutting
The inserts are divided into external conditions, tools can be applied to
and internal types. produce opposite-hand threads, but a
holder and insert of the same hand
Machining with V-profile inserts de- must be used together. External and
mands special attention to strength internal tools and right- and left-hand
values in relation to the nose radius tools, as well as for upside-down
generating the thread truncation. mounting, are available.
Working towards the chuck is the Inserts are made to specific tolerance
most common machining method. classes for each thread type. This
When working away from the chuck, means that smaller classes are within
producing right-hand threads with left- the scope of the insert and for larger
hand tools and vice versa, it should be classes, a suitable cutting edge setting,
noted that compensation must be in relation to pitch diameter, should
made for a negative helix angle. also lead to conformity.
The advantage in using right-hand

tools for right-hand threads and left-
hand tools for left-hand threads, is
that the holder gives maximum support
s
z d
x
d1
z
d
x
d1
s
Basic thread inserts

z
x
f
h1
I1
f -2°- +4°
1°
h b
h1 f
I1
f -2°- +4°
1°
h
b
h2
x
z
f
h1 I1
d h
D b
h1
h d I1
D
b
External and internal threading tools

Always check the helix angle () of

the thread with the angle of insert in-
clination. The angle of inclination is
easily calculated and checked in the
relevant diagram. The correct inclina-
tion angle should be established with
a suitable shim.
The clearance angles of the flank of

the insert thread profile are dependent
on the helix angle of the thread. The
helix angle of the thread must coincide
with the insert’s angle of inclination as
far as possible to eliminate unfavorable
wear on one of the flanks, and thus
shorten tool-life.
The angle of inclination is calculated by

using the following formula (see also
the diagram on page 9 of this chapter):
P
tan =
Dx
A certain amount of trial and error

testing may be necessary prior to pro- tion should always be done in relation
duction to establish the practical out- to the pitch diameter. The nose shape
come. Gauges and measuring devices of the insert always falls within the
play an important role in the outcome. tolerance zone, as in crest-forming,
The tolerance position is determined where rounded corners are permitted.
by the setting of the cutting edge in the Angle and pitch deviations should
machine. Thread turning and inspec- also be within the tolerance zone.
=

1 2

The importance of correct insert setting For machining of metric threads, the
in relation to the pitch diameter can following points are worth mentioning:
be illustrated by four examples.
- Thread cutting and inspection always
1) The insert is not cutting deep enough use the pitch line as reference.
because the pitch diameter of the
- U-Lock inserts are designed for tole-
insert profile is not within the tole-
rance grade 6 (medium for general
rance zone formed by dmax/ dmin.
use). It should be no problem to
2) The insert is set correctly with the keep within smaller tolerances and
insert profile pitch diameter within larger tolerances can be achieved if
the tolerance zone. adjustments are made with reference
to pitch diameter.
3) The insert profile is at the maximum
permissable depth. - For UN threads, U-Lock external
; ;
inserts have a nose radius to comply
;
4) Pitch diameter of the insert thread
;
with Rmin: 0.108 x p. The nose and
;; ;;;; ;;;
profile is skewed in relation to that of
crest-forming are always within the
the workpiece thread pitch diameter.
tolerance zone since corners are
This affects the size of the tolerance
allowed to be rounded.
zone, surrounding the thread profile,
that the insert profile is able to utilize - Angle and pitch deviations should
;;;;;;;;;;
during the tool-life of the insert. also be within the tolerance.
1 3
; ; ; ;
d max d max
; ;
d min d min
; ; ; ;
d d
; ; ; ;
2 4
; ;; ;; d max
d min
d
Importance of correct insert setting

d max
d min
d

A B
PREVENTING ERROR the tolerance zone. A tight fit with the

A. The pitch should always be checked gauge in question will indicate this. As
to ensure that there are no program- the edge wears, the deviation line will
ming or machine errors. Poor feed- wander throughout the zone.
rate acceleration at the start of the
threading operation can lead to pitch When machining larger thread profiles,
errors. The insert position must be pre-machining of the form is an advan-
checked for accuracy. The cutting edge tage. Tool type WTENN is suitable
height is important, as is the state of for pre-machining. When machining
the shim, insert seat and screw. threads with small-radius roots and
crests (D) a similar method of pre-
B. If machining up against shoulders machining may be applied by rough-
leads to inferior threads towards the threading with an insert having the
end of the thread, the cutting speed same angle and a larger nose radius
should be lowered to enable the ma- (1). Machining allowance is thus left
chine to better coordinate the with- for the few finishing passes to be
drawal of the tool. taken with the right insert (2).
C. Internal threading bars can easily be If the gauge rejects the thread after
modified for threading in small holes an abnormally short threading time,
or in cramped positions where a special despite correct tool set-up and slight
tool would normally be required. An
important point is that after modifica-
tion, the bars do not lose much rigidity C
if the recommended minimum dimen-
sions are used.
Tool wear should be monitored to

establish suitable compensation pro-
cedures. At the start of one operation
with a new edge, the tool can be set to
achieve a minimum deviation within

if possible, have a chamfer (E) at the

start of the thread. This reduces the
shock load on the cutting point. Also
the life of the threading insert will be
1 greater if it is possible to have a large
nose radius.
Check the diameter to be threaded (F)

before machining. A ±.004 inch tole-
2 rance is recommended on the threaded
diameter. Follow, and then optimize,
nominal recommendations for speed,
feed and passes. Make sure the right
shim is in place relative to the diameter
D and pitch to obtain a favorable wear
pattern.
insert wear, the cause is usually pitch
error in the machine. The pitch error Check the established CNC program
uses up the tolerance in a way that for threading to see if it is suitable for
does not leave enough of the tolerance application, especially regarding passes.
to allow for wear of the insert. For a 60° This can affect performance and tool-
thread angle, a pitch error of .004 inch life dramatically. Adjustments to the
per revolution gives a pitch diameter program should be made as needed.
deviation of .006 inch. If the thread
gauge has 5 threads, the deviation will Vibrations rapidly deteriorate cutting
be .033 inch. edges and efforts should be made to
eliminate them. The overhang should
The component to be threaded should, not be more than two to three times
E F
Ø 0,1

the diameter of the bar. Both the tool operations. Chips can break down the
and component clamping should be cutting edge. In such cases, the C-type
checked for stability. Tuned bars geometry will help to produce chips
considerably improve performance that are more easily accomodated.
with overhang capability up to seven Flank infeed should always be used
times the diameter. Check to see which with the C-type.
tool pass makes vibration noises and,
if possible, increase the cutting depth Some important factors to be carefully
per pass. Also check to see if a established for successful threading are:
different type of infeed will improve - workpiece material/size
matters. The type of insert geometry - thread designation/tolerance
and tool material can influence the - machine/method of thread cutting
quality of performance. - pitch
- helix compensation
Always check the setting of the cutting - insert size/toolholder size
edge in relation to the pitch diameter. - insert type/cutting tool material
If this is correct the major and minor - cutting data
diameters are always correct and with- - infeed method
in tolerance. - number of passes
- establish suitable machine setting
The size of the nose radius of an insert - check basic thread elements
affects tool-life. External and internal - adaption to tolerance demands
inserts have different sizes and machi- - ensure correct thread during
ning should be adjusted accordingly. optimum tool-life
The V-profile inserts have a nose radius
adapted for the smallest pitch within
the application area. This means that
the cutting depth per pass must not ex-
ceed the largest depth for the smallest
pitch in question. The V-profile inserts
can machine a large number of pitches.
The thick, negative, basic shape U-Lock

inserts have strength for threading most
materials but the sharper F-type geo-
metry for U-Lock may be more suitable
for more demanding materials such as
stainless steel and high temperature
alloys. This means lower forces,
smoother chip formation and less ten-
dency for built-up edge.
The chipbreaking C-type geometry is a

good option for unmanned and internal

CONVENTIONAL THREADING PROBLEMS
Rapid flank wear. Edge frittering.

Cause Cause
- Infeed per pass too small - too many - Unstable workpiece and/or tool set-up
passes
- Cutting speed too high Remedy
- Lack of coolant - Increase the rigidity of the set-up
- Incorrect grade - Choose a tougher grade
Remedy Chipping of the cutting edge.

- Increase the depth of infeed for Cause
the smallest infeeds - reduce the - Intermittent cutting fluid flow
number of passes
- Reduce the cutting speed Remedy
- Increase coolant supply - Aim the cutting fluid jet and/or
- Select a more wear-resistant grade increase the flow
Uneven flank wear. Insert breakage.

Cause Cause
- Incorrect method of infeed - Instability
- Incorrect angle of inclination - Poor chip control
- Excessive plastic deformation
Remedy - Intermittent or inadequate cutting
- When using flank infeed, reduce the fluid flow
infeed angle by 3-5°, depending upon - Improperly prepared workpiece
geometry type
- Correct the angle of inclination ac- Remedy
cording to the previous diagram - Check rigidity of operation
- Choose a tougher grade
Excessive plastic deformation. - Use same depth of infeed per pass
Cause See point about plastic deformation
- Infeed per pass too large - too few - Aim the cutting fluid jet and/or
passes increase the flow
- Cutting fluid flow inadequate - Check the amount of pre-machining
- Cutting speed too high
- Incorrect grade Poor surface texture.
- Excessive stock removal from crest Cause
- Wrong feeding in method
Remedy - Cutting speed too low
- Reduce the depth of infeed for the - Wrong angle of inclination
biggest depths - increase the number
of passes Remedy
- Increase the coolant supply - Use modified flank feed
- Reduce the cutting speed - Increase the cutting speed
- Choose a tougher grade - Correct the angle of inclination
- Check the material stock above the crest

Excessive plastic deformation. Pitch not large enough or too large (A)
Cause Cause
- Infeed per pass too large - Pitch diameter wrong
- Lack of coolant
- Incorrect grade - Pitch diameter should be made smaller
- Excessive stock removal at crest to compensate error
Remedy Profile of thread outside tolerance (B)

- Decrease depth of infeed for largest - Deviations can be compensated for by
depths making the pitch diameter smaller
- Increase coolant supply
- Reduce cutting speed Shallow thread profile.
- Select harder grade Cause
- Check working allowance above crest - Wrong center height
- Insert not cresting
Poor chip control. - Excessive tool wear
Cause
- Wrong depth of infeed per pass Remedy
- Adjust cutting edge heigh
Remedy - Check blank dimension
- Use the same depth of infeed per pass - Change cutting edge earlier
- Reduce the number of passes
- Reduce the cutting speed
Incorrect thread profile.
Cause
Chatter. - Incorrect tool setting
Cause
- Too many passes - Correct tool setting
- Wrong cutting speed range
Remedy
- Reduce the number of passes
- Change the cutting speed
A B

Improved threading with PVD

coated indexable inserts
The development within thread turning tools has been considerable
during the past thirty years, since the introduction of the first flat in-
serts with a loose chipformer clamped on top of the inserts. Today’s
modern inserts have done away with most of the possible problems
that can arise with conventional threading inserts, as previously noted
in this chapter. Development has taken most of these shortcomings
into consideration to create a new generation of threading tools. This
has made threading more closely resemble a turning operation.
These new insert types are based on PVD (physical vapor deposition)
coated inserts and have a very large application area in most work-
piece materials throughout the P, M and K ISO areas. Also the combina-
tion of the specially developed F-geometry extends the coverage and
the number of operations in the application area. The high level of per-
formance is achieved through high wear resistance and toughness
along with the ability to maintain sharp cutting edges. Surface texture
quality is high with these inserts and built-up edge on the cutting edge
is much easier to avoid with the properties provided by the PVD
coating.

The photos below show a conventional grade threading insert where the
growth of built-up edge due to smearing workpiece material is welded
onto the cutting edge from the chip and component. In the bottom left-
hand photo, built-up edge and edge chipping have taken place to a
considerable extent, impairing results and reliability. The combination of
cutting geometry and PVD grade greatly affects performance and results
in threading. A standard, general purpose geometry covers most
operations, providing high reliability and good chip formation.
The multi-purpose PVD coated inserts allow a wider range of cutting

speeds between the area characterized by built-up edge formation at
lower speeds and plastic deformation at higher speeds. Threading
involves many short cutting sequences and often relatively low cutting
speeds throughout machining. Of high importance in threading is the
ability of the cutting edge to keep the built-up edge tendency to an ab-
solute minimum, or prevent it entirely, depending upon the workpiece
material. A built-up edge will cause poor surface texture and eventually
lead to edge frittering and breakdown.
For more specialized operations or when some level of other optimiza-
tion is necessary, the PVD coated grade is supplemented by CVD
coated grades, tough uncoated grades for such materials as titanium,
and cubic boron nitride for hard materials. Together with the basic
grade, considerable coverage and room for optimization is available.
Growth of BUE due to smearing of the workpiece material during machining

For low-carbon steel, cold worked austenitic stainless steel and heat re-
sistant alloys, it is usually advantageous to optimize with the U-Lock F-
geometry. This is a sharp cutting edge for these demanding materials
and keeps any built-up edge tendencies to a minimum.
For unmanned and internal thread turning, the U-Lock C-type

geometry for optimizing chip formation is the best choice. This is
especially the case for demanding, ductile materials that require more
controlled chipbreaking.
Conventional trouble shooting is obsoleted by these modern threading

inserts. They do create many opportunities for improving operations.
Four examples illustrate the advantages of a PVD grade in low carbon

steel (1 and 2) and in stainless steel (3 and 4). In example (1) in the
diagram to the right, a cermet threading insert was replaced and tool-
life increased several times with even wear. The cermet edge did not
have the strength to cope with this operation.
In (2), the PVD grade replaced a P30 threading insert because of

extremely poor tool-life and reliability. The previous cutting edge chipped
after just a couple of components while the PVD grade, using a
modern geometry, machined fifty parts.
In (3), machining in stainless steel, wear on the previous P40 threading

insert brought the machined parts out of tolerance after a substantial
number. But the PVD grade was capable of producing nearly double
the number of acceptable parts.
In (4), a P40 grade had previously performed well with even tool wear
but again, the PVD grade could machine several times the number of
parts.

1 2 M 20 X 1
M 82
X 1.5
3.94" 1.65"
Internal threading in material: External threading in material:

(01.1) Low Carbon steel (01.1) Low Carbon steel
Cermet PVD/GC P 30 PVD/GC
Cutting speed (ft/min) 810 810 Cutting speed (m/min) 540 540
Feed Radial Radial Feed 10 10
Cutting depth 11 passes 11 passes Cutting depth 7 passes 7 passes
Tool life (pcs/edge) 100 727 Tool life (pcs/edge) 2 50
Criterion = Cutting edge fracture Even wear Criterion = Chipped cutting edge Even wear
3 4
M 14
X 1.5
M 24
X 1.5
.35" .41"
External threading in material: Internal threading in material:

(05.2) Stainless steel (05.2) Stainless steel
P 40 PVD/GC P 40 PVD/GC
Cutting speed (ft/min) 85 170 Cutting speed (ft/min) 148 148
Feed Radial Radial Feed Radial Radial
Cutting depth 9 passes 9 passes Cutting depth 11 passes 11 passes
Tool life (pcs/edge) 400 780 Tool life (pcs/edge) 100 727
Criterion = Workpiece out of tolerance Criterion = Cutting edges evenly worn out
Typically improved threading operations using PVD coated inserts.

A PVD grade combined with the right geometry on an insert offers

clear advantages in most threading operations. The inserts extend the
range of speed between the two main premature wear types: built-up
edge and plastic deformation. Insert geometries are A, F and C.
Workpiece materials are:
1. steel
2. stainless steel
3. cast-iron
4. heat resistant alloys
5. aluminum
6. hard materials
T-Max U-Lock
A F C
PVD
Vc
Extended cutting speed range between BUE and plastic deformation

Chip formation in threading with modern indexable inserts

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida 1
MILLING
INTRODUCTION 2 3, 4 & 5 SHOULDERS,
GROOVES AND EDGES 88
BASIC MILLING 4
6. POCKETS 102
AVERAGE CHIP THICKNESS 18
7. CONTOURS 108
DEFINING THE
CUTTING EDGE POSITION 45 8. SLOTS AND CUTTING OFF 112
MILLING OPERATIONS 59 9. CHAMFERS 121
1&2 FLAT AND SQUARE
SHOULDER FACES 61
Supplementary part:
Using Round Inserts in milling 126
Shoulder-making Ability in Facemilling 130
Positive Milling 134
Routing Aluminum 137
Cutting Fluid in Milling 140
Milling with cermet inserts 143
Endmills in CNC machines 146
Turnmilling 152
Turnbroaching for crankshaft machining 158
Basic back-up:
Surface texture 8 Surface texture
Parameters and machining factors 35
describing profile height 12 Measuring surfaces 39
Surface texture defined 17 Establishing the
Surface texture - tolerances 23 machining methods
Machining methods 25 in relation to surface texture 40
Connection between parameters 29 Parameters describing
spacing and bearing 42
Terminology 31
19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-2
MILLING
INTRODUCTION
In principle, milling performs metal tion of flat faces, shoulders and slots
cutting by creating a coordinated but efficiency in contour-milling is
movement between a rotating, multi- growing with the use of CNC.
edge tool and a workpiece that is fed
past it. Today, however, milling is also Milling is becoming an increasingly
defined as the movement of the tool universal machining method with more
against the workpiece in almost any variations in machinery, controls and
direction. A milling cutter has several cutting tools. Today, machining centers
cutting edges. Each edge removes a are major users of milling tools and
certain amount of metal during a milling require a number of different types of
operation. The advantages of milling tools. Milling is performed on different
include high machining efficiency, types of machines, from those with
good surface finish and accuracy and basic designs dating back to the turn of
flexibility in generating forms. Most the century to those with sophisticated
frequently, milling entails the genera- multi-axis CNC.
bild FA 1
There are several different milling operations
X-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-3
CNC facemilling
Milling encompasses a great variety of made and seek out a modern way of
operations that can be performed and doing it - with all likelihood, the cut
machines, tools and workpieces that can will be made in much shorter time
be used. It is influenced considerably by and with better results. Consider also
the condition of all the equipment and whether the cut should be made in one
also of the component and requires or several operations.
awareness of various limitations.
When a component is scheduled for a
Based on the component drawing and milling operation, the choice of machine
production demands, the type of opera- - horizontal, vertical, universal, gantry,
tion and tool are selected. Conventional numerically controlled or machining
methods should always be questioned center - is the next decision. Machine
since machine and tool developments selection depends on availability and
continually change the possibilities for suitability for the operation in question.
milling. Study the type of cut to be When the parameters of the operation
MODERN METAL CUTTING X-3

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-4
Facemilling (1) involves the combined

cutting action of the cutting edges -
mainly the edges on the periphery and
B A to some extent, the edges on the face
of the tool. The milling cutter rotates
at a right angle to the direction of
radial feed against the workpiece.
Peripheral (slotting) milling (2) uses the

cutting edges on the periphery of the
C tool. The milling cutter rotates around
an axis parallel to the tangential feed.
Directions in milling
The two methods may also be distin-
and the capability of the machine are guished by the depth of cut taken:
matched, factors such as stability,
accuracy and finish should be assessed. Facemilling has a depth of cut in an
Instability is the greatest threat in metal axial direction determined by how
cutting not only to quality but also to deep the peripheral edges cut. The
tool-life and total performance, despite edges on the face of the tool generate
the suitability of the machine or tool. the finished surface. Peripheral milling
has a depth of cut in a radial direction
BASIC MILLING determined by how deep the diameter
Any type of milling cutter will basically of the cutter penetrates the workpiece.
employ one or a combination of the
following machining methods. With Some milling cutters can also work
the variations in methods of milling, it along a third feed direction - axially.
is important to distinguish between the Axial milling is actually a drilling
different feed directions in relation to operation performed by the cutting
the axis of tool rotation. (A) is the axial edges on the face of the cutter. This
direction, (B) is the radial direction method (3) is used for closed pockets
and (C) is designated as the tangential or slots where the tool drills down to a
direction. certain depth and then changes to a
1 2 3
Facemilling, peripheral milling and axial-feed milling

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-5
radial feed direction, letting the Cutting speed (vc - in ft/min) on the
peripheral cutting edges open up the other hand indicates the surface speed
hole. A combination of feed directions at which the cutting edge machines the
is also possible where angled planes or workpiece. This is an important tool
curved surfaces are generated. The oriented value and part of the cutting
axially-fed milling cutter must have data which ensures that the operation
edges across the center of the tool to is carried out as efficiently as possible
allow a cutting action across its face. by the tool being used.
To set up a milling operation, a number The spindle speed, tool diameter and
of factors must be considered. These cutting speed are obviously related,
elements define the dynamics of a and can be simply expressed by the
rotating milling tool with a diameter following formulas.
(D), moving against the workpiece.
Feed per minute or feed speed (vƒ - in
Spindle speed (n - in rpm) is the num- in/min) is the feed of the tool against
ber of revolutions the milling tool on the workpiece in distance per time-
the spindle makes per minute. This is unit. It is also called the table-feed or
a machine oriented value and does not machine feed.
say much about what is happening on
the periphery, where the cutting edge
is machining.
n
Vƒ
D
Vc
n
ƒ, ƒz Vc ƒ, ƒz
D Vƒ
πxDxn Vc x 12
Vc = (ft/min) n= (rpm)
12 πxD

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-6
Feed per revolution (f - in in/rev) is a

n value used especially for feed cal-
ƒz culations and determining the finishing
capability of a facemill. It is an
auxiliary value indicating how far the
tool moves during the rotation.
Feed per tooth (fz - in in/tooth) is an
vƒ important key value in milling. As the
ƒz ƒz milling cutter is a multi-edge tool, a
value is needed to ensure that each
edge machines under satisfactory con-
ditions. The capability of each tooth
vƒ vƒ sets the limits for the tool. It is the
ƒz = n x z (in) ƒ= n (in/rev)
linear distance moved by the tool
while one particular tooth is engaged
in cut.
ae
ap
ap ae
Cutting depth in face and peripheral milling

19158 10_Milling 07-04-18 14.52 Sida X-7
It is also the distance of table feed

8 covered between the engagement of
7
ƒz 6 ƒ= 8 xƒz two consecutive cutting edges. It can
ƒ 5
4
therefore be expressed in relation to
3 Z= 8 the number of edges in the tool (z) and
2
1
the table feed per minute or through
the feed per revolution.
1
8
u Depth of cut - axial, (ap) in facemilling,
2 radial in peripheral milling (ae), is the
7 amount of metal that the tool removes
from the workpiece. It is the distance
3 to which the tool is set below the
unmachined surface.
n 6
4 Cutting width or radial depth of cut,
5 (ae) in facemilling, axial in peripheral
milling (ap), is the distance which the
ØD tool covers over the workpiece surface.
ae
The volume of metal removed per
fz is a vital factor in milling, decisive for: time (Q) unit can be established using
metal removal per edge, load per edge, tool- some of these definitions. The volume
life and to some extent, surface texture. is the depth of cut times the width of
( is the pitch of the cutter) cut times the distance the tool moves
along during the time unit in question.
The unit for metal removal rate is cubic
inches per minute.
Q
Q = ae x ap x vf
Metal removal rate

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-8
SURFACE TEXTURE
Metalworking production creates vari- component. A rough machined surface

ous demands on the workpieces to may not need any additional machining
be produced, one of which is the because the only demand is that it
surface texture. The basic requirement should be within certain dimensional
here is that the machined surface limits to a reference.
should be within certain parameters
and be reproduceable in various ma- A bearing surface often needs to meet
chines, at different times and places. In several surface texture parameters to
response to this, machining processes ensure not only close dimensional
have to be established that reproduce accuracy but also correct contact with
surfaces, determine which parameters another surface and the ability to
should describe surfaces and how to retain a lubricant properly.
measure results of processes.
Because of the limitations of the various
The conventional definition of surface surface texture parameters, multiple
texture is the random and repetitive de- parameter evaluation often needs to be
viations of a profile (P) from the nominal applied to achieve correct definition of
surface (N), which is indicated on a a surface. This is a brief overview of the
drawing. No surface is ever perfect. major parameters of surface texture.
Machining processes must be chosen

to suit the limitations set down for a
component’s surface texture. To some P
extent, surfaces possess some forms
of irregularities and the objective is to
ensure that the machined surface is
satisfactory for the function of the N

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-9
In principle, the milling cutter rotates During up-milling (U) (also called con-
while the workpiece is fed against it or ventional milling), the feed direction
vice versa. In this way a cut is defined of the workpiece is opposite to that of
by the various parameters involved. the cutter rotation at the area of cut.
There are two different ways in which The chip thickness starts at zero and in-
this can be achieved, depending on creases to the end of the cut.
the rotation of the tool in relation
to the workpiece. This difference is In up-milling, with the insert starting
fundamental to milling and affects the its cut at zero chip thickness, there are
process considerably. The workpiece is high cutting forces which tend to push
fed either in the direction of rotation the cutter and workpiece away from
or against it. This determines the nature each other. The insert has to be forced
of the start and finish of the cut. into the cut, creating a rubbing or
burnishing effect with excessive
During down-milling (D) (also called friction, high temperatures and often,
climb milling), the workpiece feed contact with a work-hardened surface
direction is the same as that of the caused by the preceding insert. Forces
cutter rotation at the area of cut. The (F) will also tend to lift the workpiece
chip thickness will decrease from the up from the table, so precautions with
start of the cut until it reaches zero, at the fixturing must be taken.
the end of the cut, in peripheral milling.
D U
F
Down milling/climb milling and Up milling/conv. milling

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-10
In down-milling, the insert start its Cutting forces for a certain feed rate
cut with a large chip thickness. This will be higher in down-milling but the
prevents the burnishing effect, with length of cut is shorter. Up-milling
less heat and minimal work-hardening can be advantageous in some finishing
tendencies. The large chip thickness is operations. In facemilling, the type of
advantageous and the cutting forces cut changes at the axis, from up to
tend to pull the workpiece into the down-milling.
cutter, holding the insert in the cut.
Monitoring chip formation is critical in
During milling, chips will sometimes milling. To obtain the right perform-
stick or weld to the cutting edge and be ance, tool-life and results, it is necess-
carried around to the start of the next ary to establish chip thickness values.
cut. In up-milling, the chip can easily be
trapped or wedged between the insert The length of the tool path makes the
and workpiece, which can then result chip as the cutter enters and leaves the
in insert breakage. In down-milling, workpieces. The tool path is longer in
the same chip would be cut in half and up-milling than in down-milling, which
would not damage the cutting edge. is also a factor to take into account
As can be seen by the preceding in-

formation, down-milling is preferred
whenever the machine tool, fixturing
and workpiece will allow it. ƒz
Down-milling, however, makes certain
demands on the process. The forces
tend to pull the cutter along while they
hold the workpiece down. This means
the machine must cope with table-feed
play through back-lash elimination. If hx
the tool pulls into the workpiece, feed
is increased unintentionally which can
lead to excessive chip thickness and
edge breakage. Up-milling should be
selected in such cases. Also when large
variations in working allowance occur,
up-milling may be advantageous. Fix-
turing has to be adapted to hold the
workpiece correctly and the right κ
cutter size for the job must be used.
The direction of cutting forces are,
however, more advantageous as they
reduce vibration tendencies.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-11
ap
ap
hx
hx
0° 45°
Lead angles and chip thickness
when selecting a method. Chip shape same cutting depth, the larger angle
will vary with different milling methods produces a thinner, longer chip.
and cutter positions.
The larger the lead angle, the thinner
The maximum or undeformed chip the chip, spread over a greater length
thickness (hx) is the distance between of edge. The load will then be less on
the consecutive tool paths. It is the the edge, allowing for higher feeds
maximum thickness of material in the per tooth. To counter this, the larger
radial direction that a cutting edge en- lead angle creates a smaller depth of
counters and is important in assessing cut capability for a given edge length.
the maximum load on the edge.
The lead angle’s affect on the cutting
Chip thickness will vary with the way depth and length of the cutting edge
the cutter is presented to the workpiece. that is engaged is inversely related to
In facemilling, the lead angle () is a the sine of the lead angle. Sine 90
main determining value in this respect, degrees equals 1 and sine 45 equals
measured between the machined flat 0.7071. This means that the length of
surface to the axis of the cutter. The edge engaged on a 45 degree facemill
two extremes in modern facemilling are is 1.4 longer than a 0 degree cutter for
0° and 45° lead angles. The 0° angle the same cutting depth.
generates a thicker, shorter chip. At the

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-12
used all over the world. Although popu-

lar and widely accepted, it is vital to
be aware of the limitations of Ra and
to use a suitable combination of
surface texture parameters.
Ra is one of several parameters relating

to the height of profile irregularities. It
gives an average of irregularities, re-
distributing material from excessive
peaks to be within a rectangular area
where the cut-off is the base-length. It
will, as such, not give a clear indica-
tion of the physical surface. The same
value can be measured for various
types of surfaces. Its use is also
limited, as very rough, fine and short
surfaces are not suitably assessed
through the Ra value.
The profile for Ra can be obtained

through measuring with a stylus and in-
strument for mathematical assessment
Parameters of the values registered. The response
describing profile height characteristic must be selected to limit
Ra - There are quite a number of sur- spacing irregularities for roughness
face texture parameters, though some measuring. It also must be large
are used much more than others. Ra is enough to include detail but exclude
the arithmetic average of filtered rough- waviness. Standards specify suitable
ness deviations in relation to a center- data. This evaluation was previously
line along an established evaluation known as Center Line Average (CLA)
length. It is by far the most commonly or Arithmetic Average (AA).
y
P
X
Ra M
L

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-13
Ry (Rmax and Rma) - Maximum valleys over the profile within the
individual peak-to-valley height sample length. Depending upon the
- This is the maximum distance be- profile form, extra assessment may
tween the top-line at the peaks of be needed if insufficient peaks and
the profile and the bottom-line of the valleys prevail or if they are combined
valleys. These are obtained from a with waviness. It should also be noted
number (5) of smaller sampling lengths that the ISO and DIN standards are
within the evaluation length. not the same. (RZDIN indicates
maximum peak-to-valley height of
RZISO - Mean peak-to-valley height roughness values of five consecutive
- This is the arithmetic average of the sampling lengths over the cut-off
five highest peaks and the five deepest profile.)
yP1
yP2
yV2
yV1 Rz ISO

19158 10_Milling 07-04-18 14.52 Sida X-14
Wt
Rt (Rh, Rd) - Maximum peak-to-valley

Wt - Waviness depth height; the greatest roughness depth
- This is the maximum peak-to-valley - This is the maximum peak-to-valley
distance of levelled waviness with height of the filtered profile over the
roughness eliminated within the eva- evaluation length, with no reference
luation length. to sampling lengths.
Rt

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-15
RP
RP1 RP2
LN RP5
L = 5 x LN
RP1 + RP2 + + RP5
RPM =
5
Rq (RMS) - Root mean Rpm - Mean peak height value above
square roughness value the mean line; the mean levelling depth
- This is the square average value of - This is the arithmetic value of the
the profile deviations of the filtered five single highest peaks above the
roughness profile within the evalua- mean line, similar to RZDIN, of the
tion length. filtered roughness profile from each
sampling length.
Rp - Single highest
peak above the mean line Pt - Maximum profile depth
- This is the value of the highest - This is the maximum distance be-
single peak above the mean line of the tween two parallel lines containing the
filtered profile. (As taken from Rpm) filtered profile within the traverse
length.
FOTO 3

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-16

D ae

Two extreme situations of tool engagement
The chip thickness varies in milling, The relationship between tool diameter
especially in peripheral milling, from and cutting depth in peripheral milling
zero to the maximum. It is affected by may often be disadvantageous and
lead angle, tool position and feed. The requires certain measures to be taken.
theoretical chip thickness can be Since the tool axis is further away from
established for when the feed tool axis the width, the chip is thin in relation to
intersects the cut along the direction the feed per tooth and the arc of tool
of feed. Otherwise the chip thickness engagement (ϕ) is considerably smaller.
will vary.
Consider two extremes of the arc of

tool engagement () - when the cutter
is engaged 180°, as when an endmill
makes a slot, compared to only 45°
when a side and facemill is used. In
the first instance, the axis of the tool
is in the middle of the cut while in the
second, the axis is outside the cut.
It can be seen that in peripheral milling,

especially, it may be that the amount
of cut (the removed material per edge)
will be insufficient. The chip thickness
must, however, be maintained to an
acceptable level so as not to give rise
to a disadvantageous cut. The feed per
tooth then has to be increased and
established to a suitable corresponding Peripheral milling with endmill involving
value for chip thickness. small cutter engagement

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-17
F L
R
Surface texture defined straightness, roundness, etc. Both the
The surface texture in metal cutting is waviness and roughness irregularities
the resulting irregularities arising from may be superimposed on this conside-
the plastic flow of metal during a ma- rably longer inspected surface. These
chining operation. It varies mainly with deviations are not normally classified
the method of machining, type and under surface texture whereas wavi-
condition of tool, cutting data, work- ness and roughness are classed along
piece material and overall stability. with the following two elements:
Surface texture is defined through the - Surface lay (L) is the orientation of
following elements: surface pattern. This describes the
direction of the dominating pattern,
- Roughness (R) is the smaller irregu- generated by the machining method.
larities. These are finely-spaced micro-
geometric deviations measured along - Flaws (F) are faults not included in
the smallest sampling length on the the actual measurement of the surface
workpiece. but indicated separately in regards to
design and inspection. These include
- Waviness (W) is larger irregularities, material inclusions, scratches, cracks,
within the next higher level of the holes and other unintentional deforma-
sampling length on the surface. The tions of the surface.
spacing of peaks and valleys is larger
and sampling length is therefore longer In order to measure roughness, which
than that of roughness. The roughness might typically be within 10 microns in
irregularities are superimposed on the height with very short spacings, a
macro-geometric wavy profile. relatively short evaluation distance is
sufficient. For waviness of 30 microns
In the next level up are the deviations in height with much longer spacings,
from actual component form, such as a longer distance is needed.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-18
AVERAGE CHIP THICKNESS
When the tool feed axis does not intersect the tool engagement in the
workpiece, the chip thickness should be checked since it is less than the
feed per tooth. The maximum chip thickness (hx) should be checked along
with the lead angle to ensure a satisfactory entry into cut and to avoid
overloading the edge. In facemilling, the maximum chip thickness is
obtained when upmilling changes to downmilling.
ƒz = hx
D ƒz
ae
ae
hx
The chip thickness is variable in milling and often difficult to determine.
Therefore it is more practical, and more representative in many respects
to work with the average chip thickness (hm). This has been established as
a key value, especially in peripheral milling where the described relation-
ship between ae and D occurs. This can be seen in the form of the arc (ϕ)
generated by the tool. In addition to being a measure of the chip load, it
is also a factor in power requirements.
ƒz ƒz
ae
ae
hm hm

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-19
The average chip thickness is calculated through a rela-

tively simple formula for peripheral and facemilling.
Obviously the feed per tooth is one value, along with
cutting depth and cutting width in each respective
milling method. Cutter diameter is also an influential
factor because it affects the arc of cut. The lead angle
also affects the chip thickness.
The average chip thickness value should reach certain minimums. For peri-
pheral milling, this is generally in the range of .0016-.008 inch. For face-
milling, .004 inch is often regarded as a minimum depending on factors
such as material hardness and cutting geometry. Suitable values are
provided for each cutter type, enabling the calculation of the feed per tooth.
In facemilling, it is often accurate enough to let the feed per tooth equal
the value of the average chip thickness. An exception may be when there
is a large lead angle. For a lead angle of 45 degrees, the multiplying factor
for correction is 0.71. A minimum of .004 inch and a maximum of .016
inch are recommended values for feed per tooth. A small feed value will
mean poor usage of inserts and of power.
sin x 180 x ae x ƒz
ae hm =
hm = ƒz π x D x arcsin ( aDe )
D
ƒz = hm D
ae
ƒz (inch)
ae/D .0016 .0032 .004 .006 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .031 .040
hm (inch)
1/50 .0011 .0015 .0024 .0028 .0031 .0043 .0055
1/40 .0011 .0011 .0019 .0024 .0031 .0035 .0051 .0062
1/25 .0011 .0015 .0024 .0031 .0039 .0047 .0062 .0078
1/20 .0011 .0015 .0028 .0035 .0043 .0051 .0070 .0086
1/10 .0011 .0019 .0024 .0035 .0047 .0062 .0074 .0098
2/10 .0011 .0015 .0028 .0035 .0051 .0066 .0086 .0102
3/10 .0015 .0019 .0031 .0039 .0062 .0082 .0102
4/10 .0019 .0024 .0035 .0047 .0070 .0090
5/10 .0011 .0019 .0024 .0039 .0051 .0074 .0098

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-20
Average chip thickness

Chip thickness is generally not a critical issue for facemilling at recommended
rates of feed per tooth. However, when a milling cutter axis is outside the work-
piece width, the average chip thickness should be checked for the
application. The smaller the arc of cutter engagement, the further
away the cutter axis is from the actual cut and the thinner the chip.
This becomes an issue for peripheral milling or facemilling when a
facemill is offset from the workpiece and the average chip thickness
is smaller than the feed per tooth.
hm (inch) ae ae /D
hm= ƒz
D
.016
.020 .012
.012
.016
•
.012 .004
.003
.0024
.0020
.008
.0012
.004 .0006
ƒz
(inch)
.008 .016 .024 .031

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-21
Average chip thickness

Chip thickness has such a profound influence on the success of milling that the
average chip thickness and feed per tooth should be outstanding issues for any
application. The adjoining diagram and table provide relative
values for feed per tooth and average chip thickness in
relation to the arc of engagement between cutter and
workpiece.
Effect of arc of cutter engagement and

lead angle on average chip thickness
ƒ
hm = x z

x
= 0° = 15° = 30° = 45°
ae
D
0.025 0.16 1.0 0.15 0.97 0.14 0.87 0.11 0.71

0.05 0.22 1.0 0.21 0.97 0.19 0.87 0.16 0.71
0.075 0.27 1.0 0.26 0.97 0.23 0.87 0.19 0.71
0.10 0.31 1.0 0.30 0.96 0.27 0.86 0.22 0.71
0.15 0.38 1.0 0.36 0.96 0.33 0.86 0.27 0.70
0.20 0.43 0.99 0.42 0.96 0.37 0.86 0.31 0.70
0.25 0.48 0.99 0.46 0.96 0.42 0.86 0.34 0.70
0.30 0.52 0.98 0.50 0.95 0.45 0.85 0.37 0.70
0.35 0.55 0.98 0.53 0.95 0.48 0.85 0.39 0.69
0.40 0.58 0.97 0.56 0.94 0.51 0.84 0.41 0.69
0.45 0.61 0.96 0.59 0.93 0.53 0.83 0.43 0.68
0.50 0.64 0.95 0.61 0.92 0.55 0.83 0.45 0.68
0.60 0.68 0.93 0.65 0.90 0.59 0.81 0.48 0.66
0.70 0.71 0.90 0.68 0.87 0.61 0.78 0.50 0.64
0.80 0.72 0.86 0.70 0.83 0.63 0.75 0.51 0.61
0.90 0.72 0.80 0.70 0.78 0.62 0.70 0.51 0.57
1.00 0.64 0.64 0.61 0.61 0.55 0.55 0.45 0.45

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-22
(A) Coarse pitch cutters have fewer

z=8 teeth around the cutter and large chip
pockets. These are often used for
roughing and finishing steel and where
vibration tendencies are a threat to
the result of the operation.
(B) Close pitch cutters have more

teeth and moderate chip pockets.
u These cutters allow for high metal-
removal rates. They are normally used
for cast-iron and for medium duty
machining operations on steel.
(C) Extra-close pitch cutters have small

A milling cutter, being a multi-edge chip pockets and allow very high table
tool, has a variable number of teeth (z) feeds. They are suitable for machining
and there are certain factors that help of interrupted cast-iron surfaces, for
to determine the number for the type roughing cast-iron and for small depths
of operation. The material and size of of cut in steel. They are also used in
the workpiece, the stability, finish and materials where the cutting speed has
available power are work and machine to be kept low, such as titanium.
oriented factors. Tool related factors
include sufficient feed per tooth (with Vibrations will always develop in the
an average chip thickness of at least milling process, in the workpiece, tool
0.004 inch), at least two cutting edges or machine. In general, vibrations of
engaged in cut simultaneously and this type, if kept to a manageable level,
ample chip capacity of the tool. present no serious problem and should
not affect the finished result in gene-
The pitch (u) of a milling cutter is the rally stable operations.
distance between a point on one edge
to the same point on the next edge. Differential pitch refers to unequal
Milling cutters are classified into coarse, spacing of teeth around the cutter. It
close or extra-close pitch cutters. is a very effective means of coming to
A B C
u u
u
Coarse, close and extra-close pitches

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-23
Ra
Ø±
Surface texture - tolerances

The measurement of surface texture in-
volves the determination of deviations
from a nominal surface. For this reason
Differential pitch
there is a direct relationship between
terms with problems of vibrations dimensional tolerance and many sur-
face texture parameters. One important
and is often a standard feature on
point is that values from each type of
coarse pitch facemills. Sometimes, the limit should not impose on the other.
frequency of the inserts engaging in
the workpiece coincides with the Most importantly, the surface texture
natural frequency of the machine and values should be well within the dimen-
possibly of the workpiece. This situa- sional tolerance. Otherwise deviations
tion should then be changed, as these acceptable within the surface texture
vibrations can be very harmful. This parameter will exceed the permitted
phenomenon is common in milling and dimensional tolerance. This is particul-
steps can be taken to overcome it by arly important for bearing and locating
surfaces that are machined and clari-
adjusting the spindle speed so that the
fication should be established from the
frequencies no longer coincide. The start.
Total profile heights are often higher

than the mean measured roughness
values. It then follows that if the di-
mensional tolerance is close, especi-
ally when it comes to diameters. the
risk of a clash in limits is apparent.
For this reason it has been a practice
to have the surface texture parameter
of Ra set to below one eighth of the
diameter tolerance for accurate finish
machining. However, it is important to
assess each operation on the basis of
the limits indicated.
Milling of brake calipers

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-24
method, however, has its limits. Ad- every second insert from the cutter. A
justing the speed may mean going better solution to the vibration pro-
outside the cutting speed range most blem is to change to a differential-
suited to the machining operation. The pitch cutter.
possibilities of influencing natural fre-
quencies in the machine are, as a rule, The selection of milling cutter diameter
very limited. Controlling the natural is generally based on the workpiece
frequency of the workpiece also often size, and more specifically the width.
presents great difficulty. The first hurdle in this process is often
comparing and assessing the power
There is a definite relationship between requirement versus how much power
vibration and cutting force magnitude. is available in the machine. But there
The cutting forces can be reduced by are other very important factors for
selecting a positive rake, and can be the operation to run satisfactorily: the
further decreased by reducing the num- cutter position and the type of contact
ber of cutting edges engaging the work- the teeth has with the workpiece.
piece at any one instant. The cutting
force decreases even though the feed Generally, for facemilling, the cutter
per revolution remains unchanged. diameter should be 20 to 50% larger
than the width of cut. For very large
One remedy is to select a coarse-pitch surfaces, the workpiece surface may
cutter and also a positive rake. If vibra- have to be covered in several passes.
tion persists, the number of cutting
edges can in certain circumstances be The chip thickness, at the entry and exit
further reduced by simply removing of cut, is affected by the cutter diameter
and position. If the diameter is to or
slightly larger than the workpiece width,
chips that are too thin will be generated
in both places. The disadvantages of this
are similar to those when machining
with insufficient feed per tooth.
Same milling cutter with various pitches Facemilling with two passes

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-25
with grinding. In a lot of manufacturing

now, subsequent finish grinding is
completely eliminated. Thus, today
there are different variables used to
establish the correct manufacturing
operations relative to the design para-
meters on the component.
Not only has the cutting tool develop-

ment considerably changed the basis
for machining method selection, but
machine tools, controls and measur-
ing machines are of a completely dif-
Machining methods ferent class today. Older rules,
In general, when the surface quality dictating how many minutes it takes
increases, so do manufacturing costs. to grind or turn to a certain surface
It is therefore a vital task to specify texture value, are no longer relevant.
the parameters of surface texture in
regards to the various component de- Even so, wear, stability, lack of main-
mands. Most machining methods leave tenance and other factors will affect the
characteristic, visual and measurable end result. It is the consistent stability
markings on the surface, which em- of the machining system that counts in
phasizes the need for inspection met- achieving long-term success when it
hods related to the actual design comes to surface texture.
parameters of the component. A face-
milled surface might have definite Again, it should be emphasized that
visual marks from a cutting edge but the number one rule for successful
may still be well within the measurable metal cutting is STABILITY. Surface
design parameters. texture will be the first to suffer
when vibrations become excessive.
Modern cutting tool technology has
changed many of the conventional,
frequently occurring guidelines of the
machining process in relation to surface
texture, although these lines were never
particularily precise or definite anyway.
Take, for example, the distinction be-

tween metal cutting and grinding. Today,
recommendations differ considerably
to those of yesterday. Cubic boron
nitride, ceramic, cermet and diamond
cutting edges do a much more effective
job in many milling and turning opera-
tions. Even hardened parts are ma-
chined much more effectively than

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-26
speed but is relatively constant in

higher speed areas represented by
modern cutting materials.
D = ae ae
D The relationship between the specific
cutting force and chip thickness can
be seen against previous discussions on
the importance of having a sufficient
value on the average chip thickness to
achieve a satisfactory cutting action.
Adjusting factors (y) are shown on
D= ae the diagram to the right. The specific
D force value decreases with increasing
1.3 x ae chip thickness. Chips that are too thin
generate large values because the
force required to achieve metal cutting
Cutter diameter/Width of cut is distributed over a small chip cross
section.
The specific cutting force (kc) is an im-
portant factor to establish the power
needed for a milling operation. To
some extent, it indicates a value for the Fc
machinability of a certain material for
a certain geometry and chip thickness. A κ
ap
The specific cutting force factor is the
force (tangential) needed to cut a chip, Fc
with a cross section of .0016 square kc =
A ƒz
inch. In effect, it is the required
cutting force (Fc) divided by the un-
deformed chip area. (A) It has a unit of kc adjusting factor
lbs/inch2. For a medium carbon steel for true rake angles
the value might be 290,000 while for a True Rake Angle Multipl. Factor (x)
typical aluminum alloy, it is 116,000.
-7° = 1.000
-6° = .935
The specific cutting force is provided -5° = .970
in tables related mainly to the type of -4° = .955
workpiece material, but also for ad- -3° = .940
justment by the true rake angle and -2° = .925
-1° = .910
average chip thickness. The more 0° = .895
positive the rake angle, the smaller +1° = .880
the value will be. Adjusting factors (x) +2° = .865
are shown in the adjoining table. The +3° = .850
+4° = .835
value also decreases with rising cutting

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-27
y (kc) conditions such as in milling where ks

1.5 is the specific cutting force for a .008
inch chip thickness.
1.3
hm
In milling there are a number of vari-
ables that affect the power requirement
1.1
for an operation. Consider the differ-
hm ence between heavy roughing in steel
0.9 with a facemill to finishing in cast-iron
with a completely different geometry
0.7 and cutter diameter. There are several
complicated ways to calculate the
.008 .016 .024 .031 .040 hm power needed for various milling
operations but there are also some
approximate formulas that take just a
few direct factors into account.
k c = k s x .008 x 0.29
hm Basically, the power required varies
with the amount of metal removed,
average chip thickness, cutter geo-
Being specifically material related, metry, workpiece material and speed.
values are usually given for certain Obviously the work required to remove
FA 29 B
Heavy duty milling of tool steel

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-28
more metal will require more power.

There are, however, more and less effi-
cient ways of going about the opera-
tion. For instance, a thick chip is more
power efficient than a thin chip.
There are a lot of disadvantages with

trying to cut a thin chip, and especially
one that starts at zero. The burnishing
action of the cutter against the work-
piece gives rise to energy demanding
plastic deformation and forces that
strive to separate the tool from the Peripheral milling with endmill involving
workpiece. A suitably thick chip means large amount of cutter engagement
effective machining starts with the cut,
forces are lower and power is more made to establish an approximate value,
efficiently used. otherwise 0.8 is the common value.
The metal removal rate (V) is the volume Another factor that affects the power
of metal removed per time unit. The consumption is the lead angle of the
formula is cutting depth and width cutter. The indicated values for specific
multiplied by the feed per minute. The cutting force are based on a 0° lead
power (P) is then calculated by multi- angle, where the tangential cutting
plying the metal removal rate by the force at the cut is low. The size of this
specific cutting force, which is related force influences the power needed
to various properties, such as material, for an operation, and the force is
geometry, chip thickness, etc. dependent upon the lead angle.
In order to get the correct unit value, A 45 degree lead angle will raise the
this factor must be divided by a certain tangential cutting force to the extent
value and the machine tool’s efficiency that the power consumption might be
(η) should be taken into consideration. 10% higher than with the 0° cutter.
The efficiency value varies with the With a 15° angle, power consumption
condition and design of the machine. is around 1.5% higher and a 30° angle
The value is the percentage of motor might need around 4% more power.
power that is available at the tool in
the spindle. It might be anywhere be- κ P+
tween 0.5 to 0.9. Efforts should be
0° 1%
ap x ae x s' 15° 1.5 %
PHP = 30° 4%
vp
45° 10 %

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-29
Connection Selecting parameters that provide a

between parameters meaningful picture of a machined sur-
There is no direct connection between face requires some knowledge of how
the main surface texture parameters the various values are computed.
described here. Some are measured in National standards have detailed de-
length units, in height, amplitude or as scriptions and recommendations for
ratios. However, when it comes to different applications. Using multiple
metal cutting, an approximate diagram surface texture parameters, in suit-
can be sketched to relate the para- able combinations, will help to ensure
meters. For Ra values larger than 0.8 that sufficient knowledge of the ma-
microns, Rz can generally be seen as chined surface is obtained for its
being four times that of Ra. functional requirements.
Ra
mm Ra inch = Ra mm x 39.4
10
Rz
2,5
Ry
0,8
0,5
0,2
0,1
0,05
0,05 0,1 0,2 0,4 1 2 4 8 10 20 32

Rz Ry
m

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-30
On the other hand, a lead angle of 0° P

has a load on the cutting edge which is 1.5
the same as the feed per tooth. The 45

degree lead angle gives rise to a thinner 1.3
chip and only around 70% of the tooth
load generated by the 0° angle. 1.1
The cutting forces are generally more 0.9

balanced with larger lead angles,
giving smoother machining.
0.7
The 0 degree angle cutter is mostly

used for square shoulder requirements. .008 .016 .024 .031 .040 hm
This is partly to avoid the somewhat
irregular effect on the cutting action
but also to permit the use of larger the extent of influence with hm = .008
edge corners for strength and to avoid inch being set at a factor of 1. An
the frittering of workpieces at the end average chip thickness of .002 inch
of cuts, as with cast-iron. then consumes 1.5 times more power
while a .016 inch thickness consumes
Chip flow is not as advantageous with 0.8 times less power.
small lead angles, since higher loads
are exerted on the machine spindle, Tool wear also affects power consump-
which can create vibration tendencies. tion. A new cutting edge is obviously
However, not as much pressure is ex- more efficient than a worn one. For
erted downwards on the workpiece every .004 inch of flank wear, power
when using a smaller lead angle. consumption is usually elevated by
around 4%.
The average chip thickness has a con-
siderable influence on the power re- The rake angle affects the specific cut-
quirement. The diagram above shows ting force. Each degree may affect the
kc value by 1-1.5 %. Also the size of
the chip space in the pocket of the
cutter may affect the chip deformation.
P
+4% .004
.008
.012
.016
.020
+20%

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-31
LT
L
T
P C
M
B
LN
Terminology
The following is a basic overview of the both sides. The profile section level is
typical terminology used within surface the distance between the profile top-
texture evaluation relating to the most line to the parallel line, sectioning the
common standard methods based on profile where the bearing capability of
the center or mean line system. Some the surface is assessed.
methods evaluate the profile-height
dimensions, some evaluate the longi- The evaluation length is the measured
tudinal dimensions and some the length along the mean line and is made
form of the irregularities. up of several sample lengths (cut-offs),
usually five in number. The traverse
In a basic figure describing the center length also includes the start and finish
or mean line system of evaluation, distances.
there are the following definitions:
The majority of the more commonly
L - evaluation length occurring parameters describe the
P - profile height limitations of surface irregu-
T - top-line, within sampling length larities, while the other parameters
B - bottom-line, within sampling describe longitudinal spacing and
length bearing characteristics.
M - mean line
LN - sampling length (cut-off)
LT - traverse length Ra Ry Rz
C - profile section level Wt Rt Rg
Rp Rpm Pt
The arithmetical mean line of the pro-
file (also called the center line) is the Sm Lo
reference line parallel to the general
direction of the profile throughout the
sampling length. The areas limited by Sk ηp tp
the mean line and profile are equal on

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-32
Although the theory and calculation of workpiece. There are various ways of
forces will not be discussed here, a resolving the forces, depending on
general outline of forces in milling is which factor - power, feed or workpiece
useful for establishing the success of clamping - is being assessed.
the milling operation. Factors such as
sufficient machine power and security The cutting force is basically made up
of the workholding are important here. of three component forces: tangential
(Fc), radial (Fcn) and axial (Fp). The
It should be noted that the direction tangential acts in the direction of
and relationship of forces can deviate cutter speed and has the major in-
considerably in a complex way depen- fluence on power. The radial and
ding upon various factors such as: type axial forces affect the feed power for
of milling operation, tool position, the workpiece and its support
workpiece material, cutting geometry,
chip thickness, amount and type of The tangential force magnitude and
tool wear, cutting data, etc. direction is made up of each tooth’s
individual tangential force while it is
The forces generated in the milling in cut. These individual forces act in
process are mainly those produced by various directions as the cutter rotates.
the cutter teeth when machining the
Fcn
Fp
Fc
Fp Fc
Fcn
Fp
Fcn
Fc
Fcn
Fp
Fc

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-33
High cutting forces in heavy duty milling
gential force will result in a ‘to-the-feed’

direction, with perpendicular force. As
can be seen, this affects both power
and clamping.
Fc Fc
Fc1
Fc1 - Fc4 - Pƒ
Fc6
The type of operation, and especially

the depth of cut, affects the direction
and size of the force. A small depth of
cut with few teeth in cut, typically in
peripheral milling, will result in a tan-
gential cutting force almost in line with
the feed direction. When the depth of
cut is larger with more teeth in cut, as vƒ
is often the case in facemilling, the tan-

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-34
U D
Fc
Fc
Vƒ Vƒ
Cutting force directions in upmilling and downmilling
The power needed to feed the compo- power. However, this requires proper
nent Pƒ, depends upon the feed force backlash elimination.
or horizontal component. The force is
a combination of the tangential and The contrasts are not as sharp in face-
the radial cutting forces. It varies milling and are of less importance
considerably with how the cutter is when the cutter is close to the work-
positioned in relation to the workpiece. piece center line. As can be seen from
It will increase during upmilling as the this typical relationship, with other cut-
depth of cut gets larger, opposing the ting data parameters, a higher cutting
feed direction. In downmilling, the speed will mean a lower tangential
force acts in the same direction as the force. This means a larger tangential
feed and reduces the necessary feed force on each tooth as the cutting speed
is lowered - a factor to be considered
to avoid cutting edge fracture and
Fc when the workpiece is not very rigid.
The cutting speed can be increased by
changing to a higher spindle speed
or to a larger diameter cutter. This
provides an alternative way to calculate
power using the tangential force and
cutting speed.
When clamping the workpiece, the

acting forces can more practically
be resolved into vertical components.
Varying directions should be taken into
Vc account when establishing clamping

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-35
because support must be sufficient to

counter forces and to provide rigidity
for the workpiece, whatever its shape
Fc - a low, stable slab of metal or a
complex, prismatic housing with poor
inherent rigidity.
Upmilling and downmilling, especially

in peripheral milling, will also affect
these components. In upmilling, the
vertical force changes drastically in
direction as the cut gets deeper. This
tends to lift the workpiece. In down-
milling there is no reversing change of
Upmilling demands secure workpiece direction, reducing the need for certain
clamping
Surface texture and machining factors

Each type of cutting tool will leave The major factors
fairly unique markings on the ma- of the cutting tool are:
chined surface. The direction of the - stability
dominating surface pattern, lay, will be - overhang
influenced by the machining method. - cutting geometry
As mentioned previously, however, - workpiece material
conventional process-to-surface text- - tool wear
ure relationships have been changed - cutting data
by developments in cutting tools and - chip formation
machinery. Milling and turning can - machining temperature
machine surfaces that were previously
The major factors
ground, etc. This also means that the
affecting the machinery are:
conventional cost picture between the
- stability
level of surface texture and manufac-
- machining environment
turing costs has changed.
- coolant application
- machine condition
The theoretical surface texture can be
- power and rigidity
calculated for milling and turning opera-
tions. The result will give an approxi- The major factors
mate value of what can be achieved affecting the workpiece are:
under ideal conditions. The practical - stability
result will be affected by a number of - material quality
different factors in the processes. - design
Moreover, the resulting dynamic and - clamping
static stability of the total process - blank condition
system is of vital consequence to the - previous machining process
quality of surface texture achieved. - tolerances on dimensions and form

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-36
F F
R L
n n
Vƒ Vƒ
The helix angle and direction affect the axial cutting force

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-37
clamping measures. The size of the correct relationship between the feed
helix angles in peripheral milling also direction, direction of rotation and the
affects the size of an axial force, chip thickness, whatever the type of
pressing, pulling or deflecting the tool milling. In addition, the milling cutter
in the spindle in a way that can affect position relative to the workpiece is
the result of the cut. important. In facemilling especially,
where the greatest room for change
A larger helix angle will generate a exists, these factors should be correctly
larger axial force, pulling the cutter established for the best results.
harder against the workpiece. For end-
milling, the helix angle and cutting di- In facemilling, the workpiece width
rection combinations influence the should influence the choice of cutter
deflection forces acting on the tool. size. Successful initial contact between
Selection should be made so as to the cutting edge and workpiece is criti-
avoid cutter deflection in the direction cal and ruled by cutter geometry, posi-
of the depth of cut. It is usually advan- tion and size. The facemill diameter
tageous to have the cutter rotation di- should be at least twenty-five percent
rection the same as the helix direction larger than the width of the workpiece
when endmilling with the end face in and downmilling should be the first
contact with the workpiece. When this choice. Immediate engagement into
is not the case, and only the periphery full cut is established and there is no
is in contact, the directions should be problematic thick chip at end of cut.
opposite. A thinner chip, with less stress on the
edge, is to be preferred at the end of
As we have seen previously, the start the cut.
and finish of cuts are important when
planning the milling operation. It is Consider the case of a facemill with the
generally always important to have the center outside the line of initial cut on
Vƒ Vƒ
Initial cutting edge contact with workpiece is determined by cutter geometry,

position and size

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-38
the workpiece (A). The cutter begins

the cut with the most susceptible, outer- T
most cutting edge being subjected to
the first shock contact as the cutter re-
volves. The angle of entry is positive.
If the center is within the workpiece

width (B), the initial contact is further
in along the cutting edge, where there
is better support. The angle of entry is
negative and the cut starts more fa-
vorably. It should, however, be noted
that if the edge leaves the cut close to
the cutter centerline, the tool-life is
usually considerably reduced.
Although positive and negative cutting

angles are important factors, a milling
operation must be regarded from all
aspects and as a whole. Once the tool
is in cut, the intended cutting geometry Critical cutter-exit position with dip in tool-
will come into function regardless of the life (T) as the common negative result
angle and perform the actual metal
cutting as planned. The start and end of
cut must be considered separately, and different starts and finishes of
especially when machining workpieces cuts. Cutter pitch and geometry might
with voids, as this gives the cutter new have to be reconsidered in this case.
– +
B A
Cutter position effect on cutting edge engagement

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-39
The amplifier has a filtering arrange-

ment which can exclude irregularities
not needed for the evaluation. The
cut-off or sample classifies the mea-
sured surface into surface texture
categories. The sampling length cut-
off values, are standardized into a
Measuring surfaces range of values. The instrument re-
Surface texture is usually evaluated sponse is chosen to limit the spacing
through measurement with a small of irregularities and must be large
stylus moved along in a line which in- enough to indicate sufficient detail.
cludes the sample length or traversing
length. Other electronic and optical The instrument will show roughness of
methods have also been developed the surface but will not present a pic-
to map out the surface. The stylus tip ture of the physical character of the
radius is specified according to various surface. Various surfaces, with different
standards and is quite small so irregu- characters, can have the same rough-
larities smaller than the tip are not lost. ness values. Surfaces X, Y and Z have
all the same values for one type of
In a figure showing different interpreta- parameter but are quite different in
tions of the same surface, the magni- regards to functional suitability and
fication is the same vertically while the certain other parameters.
horizontal magnification is varied. This
varies the relationship between vertical In the figure, profile 1 is true movement
and horizontal, giving rise to different of the stylus over the surface. Profiles
profiles. The choice of magnification is 2, 3 and 4 are interpretations of the
related to the character of the surface same surface but with different samp-
and consequently to the machining ling values. Profile 2 shows all the finer
operation. In the top profile (A) the
vertical magnification is 100 times the
horizontal, in (B) it is 25 to 1, (C) 4 to 1 x
while in (D) the relationship is 1:1.
y
A
z
B
1
C 2
3
4
D

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-40
and some coarse irregularities while

profile 3 shows fine to medium irregu-
larities. Profile 4 shows only the finest
irregularities. Thus, reducing the samp-
ling value is to reduce the height in-
dication of irregularities. All irregulari-
ties with spacing smaller than the
sampling value are shown in the mea-
sured profile. The value, then, must be
set so as to exclude uninteresting,
variously-spaced irregularities.
Establishing the • Is the surface texture parameter

machining method in complete in regards to necessary
relation to surface texture data for inspection? Is there relevant
When confronted with the task of standard information available? Where
manufacturing a component through should limits be set for machining,
metal cutting, it is advisable to run within the indicated parameter limits?
through a number of points. This is in
order to establish a more sound basis
• What operations can achieve the
demanded result? Is roughing, semi-
for defining the process. finishing and/or finishing necessary?
Can grinding be eliminated? Are there
• Is there an indicated machining pro- more cost-effective solutions and is
cess and if so, is it realistic to achieve
there information available on the
the demanded surface texture? Is
latest machining methods and tools?
there a more suitable alternative met-
hod or process-type limitations? How • How does the workpiece material
does the process relate to the avail- behave when machined and what are
able machine accuracy and condition the general norms? Is the material
as well as the tool inventory? grade suitable for achieving the surface
texture? How does various cutting
• Is the indicated surface texture para- data affect the result and the
meter sufficient basis for establishing
efficiency of the operation? How will
a machining process? Are all the sur-
the coolant affect the result and is
faces to be machined defined?
the component clamped correctly?
Should there be some complimentary
parameters in regards to waviness • Are all tool factors established in
and bearing of surfaces? relation to the process and results?
Has tool-life been specified as to the
• If there are no surface texture para- machining criteria? Is there unnecess-
meters indicated, what is the policy?
ary overhang and is all tooling in good
How does the subsequent process
condition?
and treatment relate to the machining
process? Are the surface texture • Is the process system of workpiece-
parameters realistic in regards to machine-tool characterized by suffi-
limits on dimensions and form? cient stability?

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-41
Stress on cutting edge at exit of cut
The way a cutting edge leaves its en- at the exit edge in steel and edge
gagement is also important. At the exit frittering in cast-iron.
of cut, there will be a sudden release
of cutting forces. It is then vital to get The effect of various types of cutter
a compressive-type stress, not tensile exits has been studied to establish fa-
type stress, on the edge. vorable and unfavorable positions of
the cutter in relation to the line when
As the end is approached by the edge, the edge leaves the workpiece. Nega-
the remaining workpiece material gives tive (A) and positive (C) angles of exit
way, often eliminating the clearance for are favorable while the positions close
the cutting edge flank side and thus to or on the line (B) put unfavorable
causing excessive wear. But there is stresses on the cutting edges of the
also a momentary tensile force created milling cutter. This on-line alternative
on the chip face of the edge which is, means an end of cut where the chip is
as mentioned, unfavorable. This effect thickest. The general aim should be to
is particularly bad when the cutting have the thinnest possible chip at the
geometry is negative. Visually, this ef- exit.
fect is distinguished by a marked burr
– 0 +
A B C
Cutter center position

relative to type of
cutting edge exit

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-42
L
Sm1 Sm2 Smn
C1
C2
Sm = L/D
Parameters describing points on the negative flanks of the pro-

spacing and bearing file as they cross the mean line, along
the evaluation length.
D - Profile peak density
- This is a peak count over the evalua- Lo (lmo) - Developed profile length
tion length of the filtered roughness - This is the actual length measured
profile. A peak is only included after the of the filtered roughness profile when
profile has passed through a lower and all peaks and valleys over the traverse
upper variable threshold, parallel to the length have been levelled to represent
mean line. the straight line.
Sm - Mean spacing Ir (lo, lr) - Profile line ratio
of profile irregularities - This is the ratio of the developed pro-
- This is the mean distance between file length to the sampling length.
LO
l r = LO/L

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-43
SK ADZ
SK - Skewness of the profile; lengths (b) to the sampling length. The

amplitude distribution curve level is parallel to the mean line and
- This is a measure of the asymmetry measured from the higher peak.
of the distribution density as obtained
from the filtered roughness profile. For hp - Profile bearing length
instance, a negative skewness value - This is the total of the section lengths
represents good bearing properties. when the profile peaks are cut by a
The amplitude distribution curve (ADZ) section line (C) parallel to the main line
is the graph of the frequency in percent within the sampling length.
of profile amplitudes.
Bearing ratio curve; Abbot curve
tp - Profile bearing - This is a graphical (AC) representa-
length ratio; surface ratio tion of the ratio between the bearing
- This is a ratio in percent of bearing surface and the profile depth.
L C
Ctp
M
C
b2 bn 0 AC 100%
b1
πp b + b2 + + bn
tp = 100 = 1 100
L L

19158 10_Milling 07-04-19 11.15 Sida X-44
E D F

Off-center advantages in facemilling
The length of cut is affected by the

position of the milling cutter and tool-
life is related to the length of cut that
the cutting edge has to endure. A cut-
ter, positioned centrally on the work-
piece, gives the shortest length of cut
with the arc of cut becoming longer
when the cutter is moved to either
side of the workpiece center line (D).
This has to be compromised based on

the effect of cutting forces. The direc-
tion of the radial cutting forces in (E)
will fluctuate as the cutting edges start
and finish cuts and any play in the ma-
chine spindle will lead to vibrations
and premature edge breakdown.
Moving the cutter off-center (F) will

create a more constant direction of
forces. When the cutter is close to the
center, the largest average chip thick-
nesses are produced. On the other
hand, moving a large facemilling cutter
somewhat more off-center might be It the cutter has a large radial engage-
advantageous in some cases, as more in- ment and overhang, fewer teeth in cut
serts are brought into cut simultaneous- with a coarse pitch cutter may lead to
ly when the arc of cut () is elongated. less vibration tendencies.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-19 11.15 Sida X-45
DEFINING THE
CUTTING EDGE POSITION chips are directed up and away. Simi-
The cutting geometry of a facemill in- lar to the helix angle on peripheral
volves several angles to define the posi- cutters, the inclination angle plays an
tion of the insert, as held by the cutter important role at larger depths of cut
in three-dimensional space. The lead to allow sufficient chip evacuation.
angle () has been mentioned before The inclination angle is measured in a
as being the angle between the axis of plane parallel to the main cutting
the cutter and the main cutting edge. edge. Because the angle is positive, it
There are four additional angles that gives rise to less impact when the
define the position of the insert in a edge enters the cut.
facemill.
The effective rake, also known as the
Two of these are functional angles: the orthogonal rake or true top rake, in-
inclination (s) of the insert and the fluences the tangential cutting forces
effective rake (o). Along with the and thus, the power requirement.
lead angle, these strongly influence
both the power needed for the cut and A positive rake means less power. For
the chipflow. each positive degree increase, appro-
ximately 1.5 percent less power is re-
Also, the inclination angle and the quired. The rake angle is measured in
lead angle influence the approach of a plane perpendicular to the main cut-
the main cutting edge and how the ting edge.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-46
p
ƒ
Two design angles of the milling cutter

are the axial (p) and radial rakes (f).
These are also known as tool side rake
and tool back rake, respectively. The
axial and radial rake angles are mea-
sured in planes parallel and perpendi-
cular to the axis of rotation of the tool.
These angles define the cutter type

and, in combination with various lead
angles, give rise to the functional
cutting angles that are required for
different milling cutters.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-47
s
웂p A
C
A-A
B
C-C D A D
웂o B
C
B-B 웂f D-D

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-48
inside the chip-pockets.

A
In the double positive geometry (B),
the radial and axial angles are both
positive and single-sided, positive in-
serts are necessary. The double positive
cutters offer a more free cutting action
than the double negative cutters. The
chip thickness produced and the length
of contact surface of the inserts are re-
duced. Lower cutting forces are gene-
rated and less power and edge strength
is needed for the same cut in compari-
son with the double-negative cutter.
There are three main geometry de-
signs for facemilling: double negative, The chip formation is advantageous in
double positive and positive negative. that spiral chips are produced, which
are easily evacuated from the chip
In the double negative geometry (A), pockets. In many cases, when ma-
radial and axial angles are both nega- chining materials such as aluminum,
tive and negative inserts are used where ductile steels and some stainless and
clearance is obtained by tilting the in- heat resistant steels, where built-up
serts. This can be economical, as both edges have a tendency to form,
sides of the inserts are used, offering double positive cutters may be the
more and stronger edges. only solution.
Cutters with this type of geometry are Double positive cutters are also advan-
suitable for materials and machining tageous if the workpiece is fragile, un-
conditions involving heavy impact stable, has a tendency to workharden
stresses, for hard steels and cast-iron or when the available power is low.
machining and if the machine in
question has poor axial bearings.
B
The geometry makes considerable de-
mands on power and stability due to
the large cutting forces involved. The
large chip thickness obtained with the
long contact surface of the edge, when
machining long chipping materials,
often leads to extensive and disadvan-
tageous chip formation. Soft, ductile,
long-chipping materials can cause chip
jamming as the chips tend to curl up

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-49
tive cutters. Machining rates at high

C
feeds per tooth and large depths of cut
are easily achieved with this geometry
as the negative radial rake provides
high insert strength. Also, the positive
axial rake provides good chip forma-
tion, directing the chips away from
the cutter.
The positive/negative geometry clear-

shear is a distinct advantage with large
depths of cut. A good general purpose
cutter, especially when combined with
a 45 degree lead angle, it can cope
The positive/negative cutter (C), has with demanding work, materials and
positive axial and negative radial angles. conditions. As with endmills, long
The power requirements for these lengths of cut are suitable with this type
cutters are higher than double positive of geometry as spiral-shaped chips curl
and slightly lower than double nega- effectively out of the chip pocket.
The ball nose endmill can machine in several directions with the positive geometry insert

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-50
1 2 3
Negative, positively-held and positively-shaped inserts
Various shapes and sizes of indexable the inserts reduces contact between
inserts are used in the different types of chip and insert. These inserts cut
carbide milling cutters. Only recently lighter and require less power.
has the milling insert, through its own Strength is maintained by an accurate
geometry, influenced the tool geo- combination of chamfers and surface
metry. The tool geometry is largely transitions.
determined by the way the insert is
held in the cutter, where the shape of The strength of the insert is also affected
the insert influences the strength of by the thickness of the insert and the
the cutting edge, the number of edges adjustments made to the shape in the
available, the surface finish accuracy form of radius, chamfers and lands.
and, to some extent, the workpiece Certain modifications are also made to
configuration. some inserts to improve surface texture.
Today, there are three basic insert An insert may be provided with a radius
types. The negative shape (1) (r) on the corner. This rounding makes
features a strong, square cross-section a strong corner and provides an even
for negative milling cutters. The posi- spread of heat and wear around the
tively-held shape (2), due to its clear- most critical part of the tool. The big
ance, can be used in positive cutters. disadvantage, however, is the inability
to produce good surface texture. This
The third type (3) represents a new is where the use of parallel land (A)
development in milling. An additional on the insert becomes important. This
positive geometry is integrated onto a is a straight edge on the insert, parallel
positively-held insert. The true rake to the plane of cutter rotation. The
angle has been increased due to the parallel land considerably improves
wave-shaped cutting edge with the chip the surface texture and is widely used
forming top face. The wave-shaped on inserts.
configuration on the face of some of

19158 10_Milling 07-04-19 11.15 Sida X-51
When surface texture demands are

high, and especially when the feed rate
is high, the parallel lands may not be a
sufficient means with which to obtain
C satisfactory surface. The milling cutter
A
consists of several cutting edges and to
obtain high surface texture, the parallel
land on the edges should be set extre-
B mely close in relation to each other axi-
ally. The machined surface is formed
bs by the lowest parallel lands. To set
r these close enough to achieve very
good surface requires either extensive
setting or that the cutter be ground on
its axial face. Neither alternative is at-
The abrupt changes in the direction tractive because of the time and costs
along the cutting edge when using that are involved.
parallel lands can lead to a weaker
edge than those having a radius. For Modern milling cutters are, however,
this reason, chamfers (B) are applied much more accurate. Often, the use of
on the corners. These are angular flats wiper inserts is a good, complimentary
between the parallel land to the next solution. These provide a much larger
cutting edge. flat length (bs). The flat is located just
below the other ordinary parallel land
A negative land (C) has a strengthening inserts and wipes the surface smooth.
effect on the cutting edge. Negative Basically, it is a finishing cutting edge
lands are frequently employed on that has been added to the cutter.
milling inserts and are especially useful
for steel machining as they strengthen The flat length is dimensioned to cover
the edge against impact stresses. These the feed per revolution. The wiper-flat
lands, however, may require more insert produces good surface textures
power in cut and need to be carefully even under unfavorable machining
established in relation to the applica- conditions.
tion. Negative lands are not as critical
for cast-iron milling, and a honed edge
will often be suitable. Materials like
aluminum alloys demand extremely
sharp cutting edges and edge prepara-
tion, so making sure the edge is very bs bs
sharp is really all that is required. The
type and amount of edge preparation
can to some extent be related to the
size of the rake angle suitable for the
material.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-52
If the feed per revolution is smaller

than the size of the parallel land, the
surface will be formed by the lowest
positioned cutting edge and the posi-
tion of the other inserts is then un-
important.
This condition is especially related to

small-diameter cutters. At a moderate
feed, these will give a good finish in
spite of large variations in the axial
position of the inserts.
To obtain the best surface texture, the

size of the parallel land should be as the axial run-out (y) of the cutting
large as possible - although too large a edges that form the surface.
parallel land will cause vibrations.
The tendency of the workpiece to vib- The lowest positioned inserts must be
rate influences the maximum width of evenly distributed in the cutter so that
the parallel land that can be used. correct overlapping is obtained. If the
distribution is uneven, some of the sur-
The need for more cutting edges to lie face will be formed by the higher posi-
in the same axial plane increases with tioned inserts. This will give a larger
the feed per revolution. If the parallel profile depth even if the axial run-out
land is four times the feed per insert, of the cutter is the same. A cutter with
every fourth cutting edge must be in a large run-out can generate a good
the same plane. Deviations will be surface provided the low-lying cutting
reflected directly on the surface form. edges are evenly distributed in the
The profile depth will be the same as cutter.
l
y y
.0004 .0004
.0002 .0002
0 0
5 10 15 5 10 15
ƒz z=16 ƒz
Effect of axial insert position/run-out

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-53
Facemilling cast-iron automotive casings
Facemilling alloy steel plates

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-54
To achieve a good surface texture with

bs large cutters, a wiper insert can be used
which has an extra large, slightly convex
parallel land. When mounted in the
ƒz cutter body the land is positioned ap-
proximately .002 inch below the lowest
insert. The wiper insert will then form
the finished surface and will smooth
the waviness and other irregularities.
The slightly convex land eliminates the
tendency for saw-tooth profiles to form
bs due to faults in parallelism.
Normally, not more than one wiper in-

sert is mounted in a cutter at one time.
If, for very large cutters, two wiper in-
The axial run-out and angular position serts are necessary to cover the feed
of the parallel lands greatly affect the per revolution, parallel lands may have
surface texture. The radial run-out of to be ground in the cutter to adjust the
the main cutting edges is of less impor- lands to the same height. The effect of
tance as this only causes small varia- the wiper inserts may otherwise be lost.
tions in the chip thickness. The three-
point location of inserts eliminates in- Wiper inserts can be used for short-
fluence of form deviations in inserts. chipping materials to produce a good
result. For steel machining, wiper in-
Using wiper inserts will primarily re- serts are not always successful because
duce the waviness and also the profile of difficulties with chip-flow and
depth. If the feed per revolution is vibration. Wiper inserts have a limited
larger than the width of the parallel number of cutting edges, often only
land, the surface will be formed by two one or two, and usually wear faster
or more inserts. The axial deviation will than other inserts. If the disadvantages
then depend on the axial difference be- of wiper inserts prove very serious, the
tween the two parallel lands. causes of the waviness and toughness
should be analyzed and, if possible,
The waviness is related to the axial run- eliminated so that the wiper inserts
out of the cutter on the spindle and this can be removed.
run-out may be caused by such things
as inferior spindle bearings, knock If a very good surface texture is re-
marks or burns on the spindle-end and/ quired, it is necessary in most cases to
or the cutter contact surface, dirt or ensure that the parallel land or wiper
chips between the spindle and cutter land covers the feed per revolution.
or tool inaccuracy. The larger the The highest table feed (vƒ) which
cutter diameter, the larger the effect should satisfy this demand can be cal-
of any error. culated using a formula or the

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-55
generally accepted value of 0.7 x bs

may be used. Peripheral-type cutters Vƒ< bs x Vc x12
produce a wavy surface when the (inch/min)
wave-height/profile depth depends geo-
x D bs
metrically on the cutter diameter and
feed. When a cutter runs out, the profile
depth is not affected by the number of
inserts. Because a wave is obtained for
every revolution, the insert cutting the
largest diameter will determine the
surface finish. This can be theoretically
described by the formula.
Note that this takes into account only

geometrical considerations and should
not be considered an exact description.
The principal effect of the diameter
and feed is indicated, however. If
there is no cutter run-out, the profile
depth will be considerably smaller
and affected by the number of inserts.
D-H
ƒ 2
H=
4xD
H
ƒ

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-56
THE EFFECT OF TILTING THE SPINDLE

Some machines used for milling have
a spindle which is tilted slightly in the
direction of feed to ensure that the
cutter does not lie flat to the work-
piece. This tilt (q) may be around .004
inch per foot. The main reason for the
tilt is to prevent the milling cutter
from back cutting, which can ruin a
good surface finish by producing sur-
face marks which are of different
heights and opposite in direction to the
normal feed. Machining centers and
other multi-purpose machines often
have no spindle tilt and therefore back
cutting is normal and usually unavoid-
able. Even with the proper spindle tilt,
back cutting problems can arise due to
workpiece or spindle deflection. This
can be combated through:
• improved workpiece support

• change to a positive cutter
to reduce cutting forces
• check cutter mounting for
burrs, dirt or misalignment
• reduce forces by either reducing
feed, depth of cut, width of cut
or by increasing cutting speed
• change to a larger lead angle
to reduce axial forces
• reduce spindle overhang
to a minimum
When facemilling with a tilted spindle,

a plain surface will not generally be
produced. Depending on the amount
of tilt ( ), the effective cutter diameter
(D) and the workpiece width of cut
from the center line of the cutter (B),
a slightly concave surface will be the
result. Tilt is in thousandths of an inch

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.30 Sida X-57
per foot and ( ) is the angle of spindle The surface irregularities, which are
tilt. The deviation in shape (f) for a roughness on top of the waviness, can
cutter positioned on or close to the be caused by:
center of the workpiece can be cal-
culated with the formula. - axial displacement of inserts
- uneven wear of inserts
The milled surface, consisting of form - irregular shape of inserts
and surface fluctuations, is related to - irregular chip flow
the cutter-spindle accuracy or the axial - character of workpiece material
displacement of the inserts. The dis- - condition of the machine
tance between the wave crests often - workpiece clamping arrangement
coincides with the feed per revolution. - stability of workpiece
q
12 in.
f
(D2 -兹苵苵苵苵 2 2
D B f= q
12
X
D
4
-B ) (inch)
q =12 X tan

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-58
VIBRATIONS • Workpiece support: for best results

The machine condition and rigidity will the workpiece should be properly
affect the quality of the surface supported in relation to the cutting
texture produced. Excessive wear of forces developed by the machining
the spindle bearing’s feed mechanism process. Avoid cuts on unsupported
can result in poor surface texture. overhanging parts.
Without proper adjustment and main-
tenance of the machine, vibrations • Tool: select the proper cutter for
can develop causing poor tool-life and the job; use the correct diameter to
poor surfaces. Vibrations can also be workpiece width ratio; choose the
affected by other variables such as: right pitch, as too many teeth in cut
can cause excessive pressure, and
• Spindle overhang: the distance be- where possible, use a positive geo-
tween the workpiece and the spindle metry cutter to reduce cutting forces.
head should be kept to a minimum Position of the cutter is important
for maximum rigidity. and should override the contact
length aspect.
• Tuned toolholders may be necessary
for milling with an overhang. With • Feed per tooth is always important
overhangs of more than four times and should always be checked, espe-
the diameter, productivity can be in- cially with vibration tendencies. It is
creased two to three times. usually better to raise than lower feed.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-59
MILLING OPERATIONS
An overview of milling operations in- The applications shown cover most of
dicates the applications of facemilling the elements that occur in milling.
and peripheral milling, and the com- Milling tool types indicated are usually
binations of both methods. Facemilling the first choices to be considered, the
is generally the most efficient for application of which is described in
machining flat faces while peripheral more detail under each heading.
milling can be more advantageous for
longer open slots and forms.
APPLICATION:
1&2. Flat surfaces
1 and square shoulders
3,4&5. Shoulders,
grooves and edges
2 6. Pockets
7. Contours
8. Slots and cutting off
3 4 5 9. Chamfers
PRINCIPAL MILLING TOOL TYPE

1&2. Facemill
Square shoulder facemill
6
3,4&5. Endmill
Square shoulder facemill
Long edge milling cutter
Side and face milling cutter
7
6. Drilling endmill
Facemill with round inserts
Endmill
8 7. Ball nose endmill
8. Slitting cutter
Grooving cutter
9 Side and facemill
9. Chamfering endmill
Facemill
Long edge milling cutter
Endmill

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-60
The type of machine available, its

power and capability are the foremost
factors for selecting the facemill type
and size. With a range from small ma-
chining centers to huge gantry and bed
type machines and power ratings of an
equivalent range, it must first be estab-
lished whether or not the machine im-
poses a limitation upon the planned
operation. A capacity assessment and
a power calculation will provide an
indication as to whether a smaller dia-
meter or specific type of geometry
should be selected.
Stability is vital to success. How rigid

is the machine? Is the spindle strong,
large enough and its bearings in good
condition? Is the feed mechanism in
good condition and how good is the
toolholding?
On the other hand, if the machine is

new or in good condition, and there is
plenty of power, the aim should be to
utilize what the machine has to offer
and to make sure that efficiency is high.
Again, a power calculation and an eco-
nomic assessment will indicate the right
direction to take when planning.
Facemilling of large steel components

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-61
more efficient process in regards to

performance and final result.
Quite often a flat face will be designed

1 to end against a perpendicular face,
requiring a square shoulder. This de-
mands a facemill that cuts a square
shoulder with a 0 degree lead angle.
Because a larger lead angle is generally
2 more advantageous for facemilling,
milling tools that machine with lead
angles larger than 0 degrees are
classified as facemills. Cutters with a 0
1&2 FLAT AND degree lead angle are referred to as
SQUARE SHOULDER FACES square shoulder facemills.
Machining flat faces of various sizes
is carried out very efficiently with a The latest of today’s square shoulder
modern face milling cutter. Generating facemills, however, are designed to be
flat faces in milling is like generating more universal in that they are not
a round surface in turning, Turning is only capable of producing a 90 degree
a single point process while milling shoulder but are, in many instances,
nearly always uses a multi-point cutter. an efficient general facemill as well.
Historically, machining a large flat face This has provided many machine shops
used to be carried out with a single with the means to have one type of
point tool in the shaping process. facemill instead of two when square
Today, facemilling is a many times shoulder milling is a requirement.
Vertical facemilling of large steel-plate component

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-62
ae
ap
1
HRC
P 2
1. Workpiece 2. Machine 3. Operation

Material Type Working allowance
Hardness Power Surface texture
Quality Capability Intermittent cut
Stability Limitations Entry
Cutting width Condition Exit
Cutting depth Stability Number of passes
THE APPLICATION OF GENERAL

AND SQUARE SHOULDER FACEMILLS metry is established to provide the best
Having established that the operation performance and results in a range of
is to be facemilling or square shoulder materials. The type, hardness and qua-
facemilling, the next step is to select the lity of the material should always be
tool. A number of basic factors should reviewed.
affect the choice of facemill.
The width of the face to be milled in-
The workpiece material (1) influences fluences tool diameter selection. Along
the choice because the tool design is to with the cutting depth and feed, the
a considerable extent based on the ma- material removal rate must be set
chinability of materials. The tool geo- against the power of the machine.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-63
The stability of the workpiece and its efficiency, in regards to both the ma-
clamping or fixturing are additional chining capability and the time and
key points for successful milling and equipment used for handling, preparing
also have some affect on the choice of and clamping tools.
cutter. Forces can be redirected and
the amount of material removed per In operation (3), the working allow-
cut can be changed through the tool ance, accuracy and surface texture are
and cutting data. determining factors for selecting and
applying facemills. Intermittent cuts
The machine tool (2) type, power, and possible cutter entries and exits
capability, limitations and stability are also important to review. The
should also be listed. The choice and condition of the machine tool, how-
application of tools can make up for ever, also affects the finishing possi-
shortcomings or alternatively, make bilities and the amount of material
full utilization of a capable machine. that can be removed in one pass of the
cutter. Some facemills are for general
The method and quality of toolholding purposes while others are designed for
in the machine is also a vital factor for finishing or heavy duty roughing.
An increasing amount of milling is performed on machining centers

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-64
1. The type of workpiece material to Seven basic material areas should be

be machined may narrow the range considered to influence tool choice:
of possible tools. There are general
purpose facemills that will machine 1) Long chipping, most steels
steel, stainless steel, cast-iron, titanium
2) Stainless steel
and to some extent aluminum and
copper alloys. But depending upon the 3) Short chipping, grey and
type of production and operations, nodular cast-iron, etc
these may not always be the optimum 4) HSHR alloys
solution. They may be an ideal answer
for mixed production in machining 5) Soft materials, aluminum,
centers and small machines but a poor copper alloys, etc
solution for special purpose machines 6) Hard materials
or extensive machining in large
milling machines. 7) Titanium

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-65
0° 0° 0° 2°
Various ways to machine square shoulders
2. The lead angle is one of the main finishing 90 degree shoulders. Covering
indicators of facemill type. It is at this small diameters, these cutters are ideal
point in the planning that a direction for low-power operations.
is taken towards using either a general
facemill or a square shoulder facemill. For short-chipping materials, like grey
If a square shoulder facemill is used, cast-iron, the Auto-F with a 0 degree
then a 0 degree lead angle is required lead angle and square inserts, provides
on the facemill. good wiper insert combinations for
accuracy and good surface texture.
Sandvik Coromant has a variety of
However, a compromise on the
facemills available. The 290 type of
accuracy of the right angle to be
square shoulder facemill with square
produced. is made with this cutter.
inserts, offers an advantageous combina-
The Auto-F produces an 88 degree
tion of a 0 degree lead angle and per-
shoulder. This combination between an
formance of a general facemill. This is an
almost square shoulder and facemill is
alternative for situations where square
an economical choice in that square
shoulder capability is required but is also
inserts can be used instead of triangular.
mixed with general facemilling.
The 0 degree lead angle, however, does
U-Max square shoulder cutters are basic
have a tooth load equal to the feed per
machining center tools for roughing and
0° 45°
ap ap
h = ƒz h = 0.707 x ƒz
Lead angle relative to chip thickness/feed and depth of cut

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-66
Steel milling with 90 degree cutter
45° 30° 15° 0-2° R°

Cast-iron milling with 45 degree cutters
tooth, similar to the way chip thickness effects of a 90 degree cut can, in some
equals the amount of feed. Larger lead cases, be detrimental, for instance when
angles have loads that equal the feed giving rise to workpiece edge frittering in
multiplied by the cosine value of the lead some materials. Chip flow and edge
angle. This means that the proportional utilization are generally more advan-
tooth load on a 45 degree cutter insert is tageous with a larger lead angle.
0.707 times that of a 90 degree.
General facemilling should have a 15 or
While square shoulder facemills generate 30 degree lead angle. These are power
only minimal axial forces, facemills with efficient as well as universal for roughing
larger lead angles, such as 30 and 45 and finishing. The 15 degree type is the
degrees, have a more balanced, smoother general first choice. The 30 degree al-
cutting action. Also, the large radial force ternative provides a stronger approach
is demanding on the machine spindle and for the edge, such as in heavy duty
can give rise to vibrations. The sudden operations. The 15 degree cutter also has

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-67
Milling with round inserts in steel

the capacity to take a large cutting depth. forces, with downward pressure on the
workpiece, are high. A 45 degree lead
The 45 degree facemill is suited either angle is also suitable for facemilling
for the low-power/small machine range materials such as grey cast-iron. The
of small diameter cutters, alternatively Auto type cutter roughs and semi-
for large, heavy duty applications or finishes components, reducing risks of
for short-chipping materials. The 145 workpiece edge frittering.
type facemill, with extra positive geo-
metry combined with the 45 degree Round inserts provide a changing lead
lead angle, is suitable for long chipping angle, depending upon cutting depth,
operations where power is limited and and a strong cutting edge. Axial
conditions are unstable in regards to cutting forces are higher and the chip
spindle, tool overhang and workpiece. thickness varies with the depth of cut.
This is a basic machining center facemill Workpiece and machine must be stable
for roughing and semi-finishing. and strong. However, modern cutters
and positive inserts have changed
On the other hand, the 45 type facemill these tools to be much more universal
covers a larger range and medium to and they should always be considered.
heavy duty operations with high re-
moval rates. Again the relatively low Recommended feed values in face-
power requirement and advantageous milling often apply to lead angles of 0-
chip formation make the 45 facemill 15 degrees. For larger angles of 30-45
suitable for large boring mills and ma- degrees, the feed can be increased by
chining centers. However, axial cutting 40-10%, respectively.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-19 11.15 Sida X-68
3. The cutting geometry of a facemill facemills to suit various operations.

is made up of a number of elements. (A) is a facemill for softer materials,
Altering the combination of lead angle, especially aluminum alloys, (B) is for
angle of inclination, effective rake, axial finishing short chipping materials, like
rake and radial rake means that the cast-iron, (C) is a square shoulder
power requirement, chip flow, edge facemill for long-chipping materials
approach and other factors can be like steel, (D) is a small 45 degree face-
established for various facemill types. mill for general facemilling and (E) is
The figure below shows a variation of a general purpose, strong edge face-
angle combinations for a few different mill for steel.
Various milling cutter geometries

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-69
Facemills for various applications

General purpose 45 and 30 degree face- and stability are required for the strong
mills generally have a positive/negative inserts to deform thick chips and stand
geometry. This clear shear geometry up to heavy impact stresses.
provides advantageous chip formation
in combination with a strong insert. Square shoulder facemills generally
Demanding roughing cuts and good have double positive geometries com-
surface texture can be achieved with bined with the 0 or 2 degree lead angle
this combination. For cast-iron, the 45 to provide low power requirement for
degree Auto facemill has a double a wide range of workpiece materials.
negative geometry. For heavy-duty However, a 290 square shoulder face-
long-chipping applications, a 30 degree mill has a positive/negative shear geo-
lead angle facemill uses a double metry with the advantageous com-
positive geometry to take large depths bination of chip formation and cutting
of cut, making optimum use of avail- edge strength for a large range of
able power. roughing and finishing applications.
The cast-iron facemills with a 0 de-
Facemills with a 15 degree lead angle gree lead angle have a double nega-
will have either a negative/negative tive geometry.
geometry or a positive/positive geo-
metry depending upon the type of ap- Softer materials, such as aluminum
plication. The double positive geo- alloys, demand extra positive geomet-
metry gives an efficient cutting action ries to achieve the right cutting action
in that cutting forces and power con- with a sharp edge. General facemilling
sumption are low. The shearing action is often carried out using a 15 degree
spirals chips out of the insert pocket lead angle.
aiding evacuation and surface texture.
Such a facemill will have a universal Facemills with round inserts, are used
capability in regards to workpiece ma- for demanding applications involving
terials. The double negative 15 degree hard materials, heat resistant materials
facemill has been designed to machine and titanium. Very strong cutting edges
harder steels and also cast-iron. Power reduce chip thickness and often make

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-70
a success out of applications where larger than the cutting width and to
other facemills do not perform well. use downmilling with the thinnest
Modern positive inserts provide a possible chips on the exit side.
positive cutting action, making these
cutters more universal. If power is limited, use a small diameter
facemill taking the cut in several passes.
4. The facemill diameter affects the Power limitations will otherwise lead
power needed, cutter position relative to to unfavorable feed per tooth rates
the workpiece, cutting edge entry/exit, and cutting depths. Incorrect entries
relationship between spindle bearings and exits can lead to shorter tool-
and tool diameter and can also affect lives and unsatisfactory cutting edge
surface texture. The general rule is to reliability. In the figure below, situations
select a facemill diameter 1.2-1.5 times are marked either positive or negative.
D = ae 1,2-1,5 x ae
Facemilling points regarding cutter positioning with positive and negative effects on
machining

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-71
close. The close pitch is the basic choice

for general milling. The coarse, diffe-
rential pitch is often the one to use if
problems arise from power limitation,
instability or long tool overhangs or can
be used so that a satisfactory feed per
tooth rate is reached. The extra close
pitch is suitable for applications when
a softer cutting action may be required,
such as on thin-walled workpieces.
5. Wiper finishing inserts can be used

on some facemill types to improve
the surface texture. Most inserts have
parallel lands that reduce waviness
Small-diameter steel facemilling
but, especially on larger diameter face-
Smaller general purpose type facemills mills, one insert with a wiper flat can
and square shoulder cutters, such as be used. Positioned slightly below
145 and U-Max for machining centers other inserts, it will produce good sur-
and for milling machines with limited face texture and smooth irregularities.
power, have diameters ranging from
1.50/2.00 to 3.00/5.00 inch. The larger Wiper inserts work best in short
ranges of general purpose facemills chipping and soft materials. Applying
with various lead angles range from them for long chipping and harder
small (2.00, 2.50 or 3.00) to large materials requires more care to avoid
diameters - 20.00 inch. vibration tendencies and unsatisfactory
chip flow. The wiper insert should only
The universal 290 type square shoulder be used for finishing operations and
facemill ranges between 2.00 to 10.00 be set to recommended positions in
inch. More specialized facemills, such the facemill. These inserts are normally
as those for milling cast-iron and alu- precision type inserts, automatically
minum have a large range from 3.00 to positioned approximately .002 inch
20.00 to cover the broad variation in below other inserts in the facemill.
facemilling applications that occurs on
these workpieces. Facemills intended
for heavy duty applications have dia-
meters to cope with larger workpieces
in powerful milling machines.
At this stage the type of pitch should

also be established in relation to the
parameters of the operation. Some
facemill ranges have three pitch types
to select from - coarse, close and extra Wiper insert effect

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-72
On the basis of the application and

established tool factors, there should The following table considers the tool
now be sufficient data to form a profile factors: lead angle, cutter geometry,
of a facemill suited to the application. pitch type and insert geometry.
The size of the cut (ae) in width leads
to options for the diameter (D) of the The operational factors are in order:
tool, working allowance and type of
operation point to the cutting depth 1. Facemilling of longer, stable work-
capability (ap). The workpiece material piece
provides alternatives for cutter type, 2. Square shoulder milling
lead angle and geometry. For finishing,
some facemills may have to be equipped 3. Unstable or weak workpiece
with a wiper insert to smooth any
4. Long tool overhang
surface irregularities.
5. Risk of workpiece frittering
The table to the right is an overview
listing the main factors and options in 6. Low power machine
tool selection. Additional factors may 7. Heavy duty machining in powerful
also need to be considered, depending machine
upon workpiece, machine tool avail-
ability or operation. 8. Narrow workpiece (ae)
9. Higher surface texture demands
Workpiece hardness, quality and stabi-
lity should always be considered as well 10. Vibration tendencies in weak/
as the general condition and capability poor spindle or unstable tool
of the machine and special demands clamping
made by the operation.
D6
ap l2

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-73
p
Z +
1 15° +/+ +
+/-
2 0° +/+ +
3 0°(15°) +/+ +
4 45° +/- +
5 45° +/- +
6
P(Hp) +/-
45° +
F 30° +/-
7 +/+
HD 45°
8 45° +/- +
Ra +/-
9 0° +
10 45° +/- +
Coarse pitch Close Extra Close Flat New Wave
Facemill selection factors

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-74
FACEMILL SELECTION OVERVIEW

Cutting width/diameter, cutting depth, workpiece material,
ae
Ø ap
Øinch inch
1.50-3.00 .59
1.50-3.00 .24
2.00-5.00 .25
2.00-5.00 .49
2.00-4.00 .52-.70
2.00-10.00 .47
3.00-10.00 .67
4.00-16.00 .25/.34
10.00-16.00 .45
5.00-20.00 .35-.55
5.00-20.00 .35-.55
3.00-20.00 .45-.67
3.00-20.00 .52-.70
3.00-20.00 .45-.67
3.00-20.00 .52-.70
3.00-20.00 .31-.39
3.00-20.00 .37
3.00-20.00 .35-.47
3.00-20.00 .35
3.00-20.00 .24
3.00-20.00 .04
5.00-20.00 .31
First choice 1) Long chipping, most steels

2) Stainless steel
Alternative 3) Short chipping, grey nodular and cast iron, etc
4) HSHR alloys
Acceptable
5) Soft materials, aluminum, copper alloys, etc
Possible 6) Hard materials
7) Titanium

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-75
entering angle, geometry, wiper and cutter type.
p
r ƒ
0° +/ - U-Max (252.44)
Round O -/ - U-Max (250.44)
45° +/ - T-Max 145 (260.22)
0° +/ + T-Max 190 (262.22)
0° +/ + T-Max (262.2)
0° +/ - CoroMill 290 (290.90)
0° +/ + T-Max AL (262.2AL)
45° +/ - T-Max 45 (260.7)
30° +/ + T-Max HD (267.21)
45° +/ - Modulmill 145 (260.22)
30° +/ - Modulmill (287.5)
15° -/ - Modulmill (285.1)
15° +/ + Modulmill (285.2)
-2° +/ + Modulmill (283.2)
0° +/ + Modulmill (282.2)
Round O -/ - Modulmill (280.2)
Round O Modulmill (280.6)
15° +/ + T-Max (265.2)
15° +/ + T-Max-AL (265.2 AL)
45° -/ - Auto (260.3)
0° -/ - Auto-F (260.4)
0° -/ - Auto-FS (262.4)

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-76
INSERTS FOR FACEMILLING

There are several different inserts for The insert shape varies with the face-
facemills. The different lead angles, mill type for which they are intended.
cutter geometries and types of opera- Unlike turning, where one toolholder
tion determine which type of insert will hold several different types of
should be used. insert with the same size and shape,
facemills have a limited number of
The cutting edge is defined in space by inserts designed especially to suit
the geometry of the facemill. A plain specific cutters. The square insert,
insert is provided with inclination and featuring several cutting edges and
rake angles through its position in the strong corners, dominates. Even in
insert seat. Depending upon this geo- square shoulder milling, the square
metry, the insert is negatively shaped insert is replacing the triangle due to
with no clearance, or positively shaped the development of first the 2° cutters
with various amounts of clearance from and then the modern 290 type. Round
the cutting edge back. In this way the inserts, featuring many very strong
clearance angle on the main cutting edges and variable lead angles, are
edge can vary by up to 27 degrees, primarily used for the more de-
such as on inserts for milling aluminum manding application areas with tough-
which are inclined back considerably to to-machine materials.
provide a large rake angle.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-77
Large diameter facemilling in horizontal machines

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-78
27°
45°
哶
哷哶
2° 11° 15°
哷哶
0° 4°
哷哶
0°
25°
Selection of different facemills with varying geometries and insert types

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-79
30° 11°
哶
15° 15°
Round
7°
哷哶
0° 18°

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-80
be compared with the recommenda-

tions for each tool type. Variations in
capability are great, depending not
IC only upon lead angle and insert size,
but also on the geometry and the
design of the facemill. Inserts also
vary in thickness for some facemills.
MAX A thicker insert may be necessary for
ap some operations to increase cutting
edge strength. The smallest possible
size and thickness should be established
to gain the best utilization. However,
IC the insert should still be large enough
to withstand the chip load and not
MAX jeopardize the edge reliability.
ap Chipbreaking has not been an impor-
tant issue in milling as the length of cut
is limited and will only produce a rela-
tively short chip. Chip formation and
flow, on the other hand, have been
IC important issues especially regarding
MAX chip congestion and the design of insert
ap pockets and clamping. The positive/
negative geometry in the cutter gives
rise to advantageous chip flow. Inserts
have stayed plain, with no effort made
to change the chip face until recently.
IC MAX
ap
Insert size/Cutting depth

The insert size for a facemill applica-
tion is influenced by the general recom-
mendation for facemilling: the cutting
depth should not be greater than two-
thirds of the cutting edge length. How-
ever, the maximum cutting depth for a
facemill and the inserts should always Steel chip formation

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-81
Inserts with positive geometry

Positive milling has gained a lot of metry emphasizes the true rake angle.
ground, partly influenced by more The new concave and convex cutting
widespread facemilling in smaller ma- edge geometries for milling provide
chining centers and weaker milling lower axial force and more favorable
machines. A 45 degree lead angle force distribution. Chip formation, tool-
combined with a positive/negative geo- life and edge security are improved.
metry provides an efficient tool. This
change has been compounded by the The geometries have been worked
development towards positive and out into combinations of wavy edges,
wavy-edge inserts. chamfers, negative lands and radii.
Extra light cutting action is achieved
Milling with low cutting forces is always with strong positive inserts with a sharp
an advantage. A one degree increase in edge, with various feed rates covered
positive rake can mean a one and a half through geometry types. Chipformers
percent lower power requirement and ensure good chip control also at small
less vibration tendency. The wavy geo- cutting depths.
Extra positive effect of inserts

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-82
-WM -BA/CA -WM -CA
-WL -CA/BA -WL -TNKR
-WL -11 -31 -32

Selection of modern, positive milling inserts from Sandvik Coromant
Through development, the geometry for machining with long overhangs.

of the cutting edge for milling has Low power requirement and soft cut-
improved performance considerably. ting action mean a long, dependable
Several new positive insert geometries tool-life. A strong cutting edge with
are now the obvious choice for steel low forces provides stability. Used in
milling and other materials. New geo- 145 and 290 type facemills, WM covers
metries have especially changed face- many machining center operations.
milling into a more efficient, quieter,
cooler and more reliable operation, WL is suitable for lighter machining.
with improved chip flow. This is a sharper, positive cutting edge
taking even less power than WM in-
Sandvik Coromant’s WM geometry is serts. Some facemilling operations are
a general purpose geometry for me- carried out with low feeds per tooth
dium duty machining of steel, stainless and need a fine micro geometry to pro-
steel and nodular cast-iron. It has vide the right cutting action in 145 and
ideal cutting action for smaller milling 290 type cutters.
machines and machining centers and

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-83
very high feeds and unfavorable posi-

tioning may require the maximum
security of a flat insert.
CA and BA geometries are intended

for use in 15 and 90 degree, small to
large facemills and square shoulder
facemills. These are inserts for heavier
facemilling of steel and steel castings as
well as general shoulder milling. Strong,
positive cutting edges take heavy feeds
and deep cuts. The square CA insert
is an obvious choice for general steel
milling - even when demands are high.
Square shoulder facemilling
The flat insert in this area is best for
The elevated center of the WM and stainless steel, cast-iron, aluminum and
WL inserts, in combination with the copper alloys.
concave cutting edge and chip forming
face leads the chip away from the For square shoulder facemilling of vari-
cutter. An emphasized rake is also the ous materials using the 290 type cutter,
result. Contact between insert and chip with square inserts having a positive/
is limited, with less heat development negative geometry, there are also WM
and better use of available power. and WL types. These provide the new
type of facemilling with efficiency and
The step to flat milling inserts is, as a security. Again, the WM geometry is
rule, taken when extra demands are of a general type, to cover most ap-
made. Even though the cutting action plications with varying conditions in
of WM and WL inserts gives rise to steel. WL is the light cutting geometry
advantageous forces and strength in for general facemilling with smaller
relation to cut, hard materials require diameter cutters. Feed per tooth areas
a solid edge cross-section they do not are divided for the two geometry types.
have. Also interrupted cuts, instability,
90°
Milling a square shoulder with a square insert

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-84
Large-component facemilling in a horizontal mill
For cast-iron facemilling with Auto The 31 and 32 type geometries on the
type cutters, there is a positive type LNCX facemill inserts are for the 45
geometry (CA). This type of cutting degree cutter, intended for moderately
geometry provides a higher level of heavy duty milling. The positive/nega-
smooth, efficient machining. Workpiece tive geometry of the cutter in combina-
edge frittering is kept at a minimum. tion with the lead angle has special
There are also positive chipformer geo- capabilities. The positive insert, type
metries on square finishing inserts for 31 is mainly for stainless steel while
cast-iron facemilling that demand less the 32 is for various heat resistant
power and reduce vibration tendencies. alloys.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-85
U-Max 90 R 215.44
U-Max (250.44) RCMT
T-Max 145 (260.22) SEMN, SEKN, SEHN WM/WL
T-Max (262.2) TPKR, TPKN, TPMN BA
T-Max 290 (290.90) R 290.90 WM/WL
T-Max AL (262.2AL) TFAN
T-Max 45 (260.7) LNCX, LNMX 31/32
T-Max HD (267.21) SPMN, SPUN-T
Modulmill 145 (260.22) SEMN, SEKN, SEHN
Modulmill (287.5) SNHN
Modulmill (285.1) SNKN, SNMN, SNAN
Modulmill (285.2) SPKR, SPKN, SPMN, SPAN CA
Modulmill (283.2) SPEN
Modulmill (282.2) TPKR, TPKN, TPMN, BPKX BA
Modulmill (280.2) RCEN, RCMN
Modulmill (280.6) RDHN
T-Max (265.2) SPKR. SPKN, SPMN, SPAN CA
T-Max-AL (265.2 AL) TFAN
Auto (260.3) TNMF-CA, TNHF-CA, TNJN, TNMF
TNKF, TNMN, TNKR, TMCN CA,TNKR
Auto-F (260.4) SBAN, SBMX, SBEX -11
Auto-FS (262.4) SBAN, SBMX, SBEX

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-86
Square inserts in 0 degree facemill
Triangular inserts in 45 degree facemill

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-87
I.C.
I
bs
S
I.C.
r
I d1
bs
S
Er
Ia d1
bs
S
I.W.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-88
become factors in choosing tool size and

type. Making a smaller square shoulder
can be compared to making a ledge-type
shoulder although the width to depth
relationship is considerably different,
thus requiring a different tool concept.
The endmill has a working range which

is defined by its diameter and cutting
depth ability. Some endmills can basi-
cally be used as small-diameter square
shoulder facemills with added capacity
3, 4 & 5 SHOULDERS, for depth. An endmill’s capacity is
GROOVES AND EDGES also affected by the type of operation:
Machining these basic configurations, making a shoulder (3) or groove (4).
which are common on many work-
pieces, requires peripheral type milling Machining an edge (5) or shoulder
in combination with facemilling. De- primarily involves side-milling, often
pending on set-up, however, facemilling called edging, and involves making two
may also be used for configurations like faces. A limiting factor here may be the
3 and 5 horizontally or in several passes. deflection of the tool.
In facemilling, the width of the face to Machining a groove or slot, often called
be machined is the main factor for full slotting, involves three machined
choosing tool size; the working allow- faces. The groove might be open at
ance then has to be machined in acc- both ends or closed at one end (grooves
ordance to the maximum cutting depth closed at both ends are pockets, re-
of which a particular facemill is capable. quiring endmills that can drill, that is,
Shoulders (3) and grooves (4) have machine in an axial direction.) The
several faces that are machined simul- endmill is in contact with the workpiece
taneously. This means that both cut- over half of its circumference, resulting
ting width (ae) and cutting depth (ap) in a high tendency for deflection.
3 4 5
ap ap ap
ae ae ae

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-89
Endmilling a groove
The limiting factor in full-slotting ope- susceptible to the effects of cutting
rations is often chip evacuation. The forces, especially at high machining
modern endmill is very efficient with rates. Very stable toolholding is
a high metal removal rate but it is im- essential, otherwise, with the over-
portant to ensure that chip jamming hangs used in endmilling, deflection
does not take place as this can lead to and vibration are inevitable. Endmills
cutting edge fracture. Compressed air are available in different shank types,
or coolant under pressure directed at some of which are better than others.
the cut in the groove is a satisfactory Collet chucks and modular toolholders
method to remove chips quickly. usually offer superior stability through
rigid shank clamping.
The endmill is a tool designed to reach
axially. This obviously makes it more The effects of cutting forces on an end-
mill can influence the results consider-
ably. The radial, axial and tangential
forces will work to deflect and pull the
endmill along. Up and downmilling as
well as any inclination or helix angle
should be considered in relation to the
ap proposed cut.
ap
Cutting depth capability, axially

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-90
ap ap P v D/ae
D ae ƒz ƒz I2 ƒz
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The choice of tool for the operation also it will have a varying number of inserts
must be precise in regards to size and and pitch depending upon diameter.
application data. It is important to have This type of endmill features modern
the correct diameter to cutting depth cemented carbide grades and insert
relationship. The capacity or limitations geometries, making it a formidable
of an endmill can be expressed in tool. Coarse and close pitches are
several ways, where cutting depth and used to achieve the best operating
diameter often are the factors: axial conditions in regards to the tooth
depth to diameter (1), axial depth to engagement, average chip thickness,
feed rates, (2), power to feed (3), metal material, power requirement and sta-
removal rate to tool length (4) and bility.
diameter/radial cutting width to feed
(5) are some of the common ones. Downmilling is preferred for peripheral
type milling as the feed per tooth can
Endmills are available with indexable be varied in accordance with a range,
inserts, and in a more conventional for from full slotting to lighter edging.
with long, helix cutting edges. The
insert endmill has a high machining From diagram (A) it can be seen that
capacity but the axial cutting depth is when the diameter/radial cutting depth
limited to the edge length of the insert. (D/ae) relationship is such that full
Like a small square shoulder facemill, slotting or virtual full slotting, up to
Down milling with endmill

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-91
to the diameter. It is also important,

F1
A especially for sidemilling with a small
arc of engagement, to ensure that the
4 average chip thickness is large enough.
ƒ1 x ƒz
3 The relationships described, however,
must be judged in accordance with the
2 actual operation. The capacity factor
may not always be fully applicable as
1 D surface texture and climbing tenden-
ae
cies may limit the feed rate.
1 5 10 20 30 40 50
Full slotting with an endmill is a de-
ae
D=ae manding operation. Generally, the
ae D D axial cutting depth (ap) should be re-
duced to around two-thirds of the edge
where the cutting width is 40% of the length of the insert. The amount of ma-
diameter, or with D/ae at a maximum chine rigidity and chip evacuation will
of 2.5, the feed rate has to be kept to then also decide the outcome of the
around nominal values. But as the operation.
operation approaches edging, with a
smaller area of cutter engagement, The indexable insert endmill can also
the feed rate can be progressively be used for a limited combination of
increased. For edging, the feed per radial and axial feed direction. The
tooth (ƒz) should be multiplied by the operation is called ramping and can
capacity factor (F1). This has been be carried out within the length of the
calculated to increase the metal re- facing cutting edge (width IW) per
moval rate as the cutting depth pro- radial pass. It can be widely utilized to
gressively becomes smaller in relation speed up milling in CNC machines.
IW
Ramping capability of endmills

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-92
for the possible axial cutting depth, or

sidemilling capability, a deeper groove
or shoulder must be machined in
several passes. The high machining
rates of indexable insert endmills,
7 1 6 4
2 3 5 however, make up for the cutting edge
2
limitation. They can generally, in the
7
right machine, produce edges and
grooves faster in several passes than a
slower, long-edge helix type endmill.
Pocket ramping sequence For deeper, larger and/or heavier

shoulder and grooving applications, the
When ramping into a pocket, the long edge milling cutter is the natural
operation should be started around extension. A typical endmill may have
the center, machining outwards in the a cutting edge length of around one
pocket to facilitate chip evacuation quarter of the long edge cutter for the
and clearance. The endmill then same diameter. The long edge cutter
leaves the pocket in a suitable corner. has a large metal removal capacity and
However, there are other drilling is generally used for rough machining as
endmills that are more suitable for the resulting surface texture is charac-
extensive ramping requirements. terized by sidemilling at high feed rates.
Because the indexable insert endmill

is limited to the length of the insert edge

r
l1
d1
l2
l3
r
s ap
lW
s D

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-93
Ramped steel pocket

The long edge milling cutter is like a
large helical endmill where the long
cutting edge is made up of indexable
inserts. Today’s long edge cutter bears
some operative resemblances to yester-
day’s high speed steel slab milling cut-
ter, used on an arbor, in horizontal
Full groove-milling with long edge cutter
milling machines. With helix angles of
15 or 30 degrees, these cutters are effi- Various total cutting edge lengths can
cient metal removers but make de- be designed to suit applications. Shorter
mands on stability, spindle condition, lengths are good for full slotting or to
chip evacuation, toolholding strength compensate for machine limitations.
and power. Radial forces are consider- Longer designs are intended for edging
able, making this a tough sidemilling operations in powerful, stable milling
application. machines. Carefully designed insert
ap
ap ap

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-94
Slots the same depth as the diameter

can be machined efficiently with shorter
types. Shoulders with depths of twice
the diameter can be machined through
edging with the short or long types.
Feed rates can be increased for edging,
and are high for most workpiece ma-
terials.
A close pitch type, with the larger helix

angle, is especially suitable for edging.
External and internal shapes can be
machined efficiently on milling CNC
machines. Deep shoulders or thick
component edges, involving long axial
r
cuts, can be machined involving a ra-
2° dial cutting depth of 0.5 times the dia-
meter. The large helix also ensures suf-
ficient teeth in cut and a smooth cut-
ting action for edging at small radial
positions on the cutters make up the cutting depths.
complex cutting edges that vary with
different diameters. One option is to Surface texture in endmilling will de-
use the long edge cutter type with ex- pend on the radial run-out of the tool
changeable end caps, providing alterna- but the cutter diameter/overhang rela-
tive end configurations with a radius or tionship, feed per tooth and the cutter
straight taper. clamping have to be assessed.
Edging with long-edge cutter

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-95
flection of the cutter. However, care

ƒ2 must be taken when machining stain-
H= less steel to maintain sufficient cutting
4xD
depth and avoid deformation hardening
of the workpiece.
With an indexable insert endmill, tole-

rances and cutter deflection will contri-
bute to a deviation from a true square
shoulder. For a very close angular tole-
rance, a regrindable, helix type endmill
may in some cases be the best tool.
The long edge concept can also be used

for special profile cutting of contours.
Sidemilling operations are efficiently
H performed with peripheral milling for
ƒ
longer, uniform lengths of contours.
Modern indexable insert technology
The worst finish is achieved when only creates high performance solutions to
one edge generates the surface. A operations that were previously ma-
change from downmilling to upmilling chined with form-ground high speed
can improve the surface texture for steel milling cutters. Standard index-
some materials. Also the proper use able inserts can be mounted on cutters
of coolants, especially when finishing made to produce almost any form.
sticky materials, affects results. For CAD/CAM systems ensure the shape
finishing operations the radial depth accuracy and the correct mounting of
of cut should generally be kept low as inserts to provide continuous cutting
this has an important effect on the de- edge and clearance.
Examples of milled configurations with long-edge milling cutters

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-96
D1
l1

r l2

l3
ap
la d1
IW s D
Long-edge milling of open pocket

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-97
Edging of large steel con-rod
There are important areas for solid performed with relatively large radial
endmills to complement indexable in- cutting depths. These tools are rigid,
sert endmills. They are easily shaped, minimizing deflection and giving good
regrindable, accurate and capable of finishes.
producing good finish with a long
edge in small and large sizes in
cemented carbide and Coronite.
Solid carbide and brazed carbide end-

mills are made in larger diameter sizes
(.375-2.00 inch) with long cutting edge
capability. These are suitable for certain
operations, materials and when high
accuracy and good surface texture is re-
quired, with productivity several times
higher than that of high speed steel.
Solid carbide helical endmills withstand

high cutting edge temperatures and are
suitable for a large range of workpiece
materials. They have drilling capability
and can mill full slots with a depth equal Edging with brazed cemented carbide
to the tool diameter. Sidemilling can be endmill

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-98
Small diameter endmilling, where tool

diameters are generally below .750 inch,
represents a large share of applications
carried out by high speed steel tools.
These have been manufactured down
to rather small diameters, such as .150
inch. Although lower in tool cost, the
inferior performance of these tools,
which have been around for many
decades, today often means poor ma-
chining economics. Modern milling ma-
chines, machining centers and turning
centers should not have to machine at
comparatively low cutting speeds for
operations such as smaller slots or
keyways. The higher the machine cost,
the greater the cost with slow tools.
For application areas where endmills

are below .750 and down to .150 inch
A brazed carbide helical endmill also in diameter, Coronite endmills offer a
has drilling capability and was designed higher productivity alternative to high
especially for aluminum machining. A speed steel. With the toughness of HSS
25 degree helix and a very positive combined with the wear resistance of
rake make it suitable for roughing and cemented carbide, machining speeds
finishing various walled components, ten times faster plus longer tool-life is
although radial cutting depths have to achieved. This is a growing program of
be limited to minimize deflection. endmills in a relatively new cutting
Shoulder-milling with two different types of cutters

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-99
tool material, based on extra small, rake angle, is especially suitable for
hard particles on a tough steel core. stainless steel and sticky low-carbon
Coronite is the ideal material for end- steel machining, while 30 degrees is
mills which have to cope with modern suitable for general endmilling.
cutting demands and stand up to con-
siderable bending forces due to the These endmills cover tool-types for
length of the tool from chuck to cut. roughing, semi-finishing and finishing
of slots, keyways, pockets and con-
(R: roughing, F: finishing.) A large tours. Good surface texture is achieved
helix-angle (40 degrees), with a large and is often best when upmilling is
ae ae
ap
ap
R F
ap = D ap 艐 1,5 x D ap 艐 0,6 x D
ae 艐 0,6 x D ae 艐 0,1 x D ae = D
Endmill machining factors

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-100
carried out in finishing cuts. Cutting

speeds of 330 ft/min and higher are
recommended for non-alloy steel
machining.
As in all endmill operations, it is vital

to hold the endmill very securely with
the shortest possible tool overhang, to
have ample coolant or air remove chips
from slots and to optimize cutting data
carefully using recommended values.
Slot-milling procedure
d d d
l1 l1 l1
ap ap ap
D D D

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-101
Examples of edge, groove and shoulder milling

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-102
The drilling ability is not a unique func-

tion of modern indexable insert end-
mills. High speed steel and cemented
carbide endmills have also machined
closed keyways and pockets for a long
time. Modern milling cutters, however,
do the operations extremely fast, and
6. POCKETS CNC or conventional milling opera-
Pocket milling is the ability of the tool tions are extremely efficient when the
to drill to a certain depth and then mill. right modern tool is applied correctly.
The milling tool has to have the ability
to be fed axially for the entire depth The continuous drilling ability is ap-
into the pocket, either in one straight- parent from the endface design of an
forward cut or in several opening-up or endmill. The drilling endmill has one
ramping cuts. The endmill must have a or several cutting edges that span the
cutting edge across the center of the diameter of the tool.
end-face to drill relatively deep, as with
tool types (A). Alternatively, the end- Tools with limited drilling ability, but
mill (in some cases even a facemill) can suitable to various levels of opening up
drill or ramp within the axial clearance and ramping, will have a face cutting
between the end-face cutting edge and edge only so far in towards the center
tool body, as with the tool types in (B). and a certain clearance to the cutter
a a a
Axial-feed capability of various milling cutters

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-103
Rough-milling of die with round-insert cutter

body. The axial feed and ramping endmill. It has the ability to machine in
capability is then limited in relation to all feed directions, which can be especi-
the cutting edge to cutter body distance ally useful in machining centers. It also
(a) and length of the axial cutting edge. performs a number of operations in
addition to slots and shoulders: counter-
The efficient modern drilling endmill, boring, sloping pockets and various
with indexable inserts is also advanta- copy-milling cuts. For drilling opera-
geous because it can do the job of two tions, coolant should be applied as chip
conventional tools: a drill and a slotting evacuation is essential.
Insert combination of modern drilling endmill

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.31 Sida X-104
ƒz
ƒz
ap x 0.67
D
ƒmax = .004 inch
0.65 x ƒz
Feed rate adjustments have to be made chip thickness. The arc of engagement
depending upon feed directions. Nomi- in relation to the tool diameter should
nal feeds used for straight radial and be established correctly to ensure the
upmilling should be lowered for down- success of the operation. Two and
ramping with limited cutting depth per three-tooth cutters are advantageous
pass. For drilling, the feed per rev. is for these operations with large cutting
limited and is to some extent dependent depths.
upon the diameter of the endmill.
The solid carbide and some types of

Coronite endmills are also capable of
drilling to depths of around 0.7 times
the diameter. Feed rates have to be ad-
justed to considerably lower values for
drilling when subsequent radial feed
to make a slot is required. Chip removal
is also an important factor and com-
pressed air or pressure coolant should
be used. Also crucial to the success of
the operation, especially with regard
to the sidemilling cut, is the average Drilling endmills

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-105
a
270°
Non-drilling endmills
Limited axial feed capability is an advan-

tage in many operations. Holes, pockets
and slots can be machined efficiently and
contours can be milled. Endmills and
facemills with round inserts mean tools IC
max
have strength. In addition, three fourths 2
of the insert circumference (270°) is
available for cutting. This lends itself to
drill/ mill operations of various kinds.
High metal removal rates and cutting
edge security make this type of tool a
good choice for demanding operations. .12 inch
Ramping at high feed rates and the abi-
lity to reach far into workpieces mean D °
that round insert cutters are tools for 16 13
complicated forms, such as when profile 20 12
25 9
milling in five-axis machines and 32 7
roughing in three axis machines. Face- 40 6
50 5
milling and straight milling in pockets 63 4
can be carried out using a cutting depth 80 3
of half the insert diameter. The ramping
angle is dependent upon the diameter of
the cutter used: a .625 inch cutter down-
ramps at 13 degrees while a 3.000 inch
cutter manages 3 degrees. The amount
of clearance also depends upon the dia- IC 3 x IC
max
meter of the cutter. 2 4

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-106
d d
I.C.
d1
la s
l1 l1
ap l a l d1
N x 45°
l3 I.W.
s
D ap
1° 30´
D d1
l
I.W.
s
D1
d1
D3
l2
l3 IC s
ap
D
D6

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-107
Rough machining of cavities with round-insert cutter

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-108
such as ball nose and to a lesser extent,

round insert endmills. The ability to
not only generally mill, but also drill,
follow and cut around intricate forms
– at efficient machining rates – demands
a lot from the tool.
For continous machining along concave

and convex forms, the end cutting
7. CONTOURS edge has to be round with an effective,
Various contours on workpieces are general machining capability. This has
machined in copy-milling and CNC been achieved both with a brazed car-
machines. Profiling ability is essential bide cutting edge and with indexable
in tool-making and although groove inserts. The insert type of cutter is
and pocket making tools can machine intended for roughing and for semi-
some contours, true profiling ability finishing operations while the brazed
belongs to round cutting edge endmills type is precision ground for finishing.
Die-machining of tool steel with different sizes of round insert cutters

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-109
ƒz ƒ= .004
2
Vƒ
ƒz
< 30° ap = D
2
< 30°
Possibilities/limitations with round insert cutters
The ball nose indexable insert concept ball nose endmill has an efficient geo-
has been broadened to include large metry for drilling. It should be noted,
size cutters where the cutting edge is however, that a round-form deviation
made up of several inserts accurately, may occur at the center point and some
carefully staggered to provide smooth profiles mismatch, which have to be ac-
cutting action. The center point of the counted for in the finishing operation.
Deff
ap ae
100 100 100

80
100
60
60 100 60
Contour milling adjustments of feed rate

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-110
Productivity and security are the im-

portant main benefits of the modern
ƒz = hmax x ƒ1 x ƒ2 (inch) ball nose endmills.
.38-
D .50 .625 .750 1.000 1.250 The calculation of feed per tooth for
hmax .003 .005 .0055 .006 .0094
ball nose endmills, for the cutter to
Deff
ae 50 40 20 10 5 2.5 2 1.5 1 cope with the large possibilities of cuts,
ƒ1 4.5 4 3 2 1.5 1 1 1 1 should be carried out with certain
correction factors for radial and axial
ap (inch) depths of cut. The effective tool dia-
meter should also be used when cal-
D culating spindle speeds.
.08
D
.12
D
Ramping ability is considerable and no
.16
D
feed adjustments from nominal values
.24
D
need be made until ramping at an angle
D .39
.79
larger than 30 degrees is performed, in
ƒz D or out. Drilling should be carried out
at half the general milling feed.
ap
Ø 1.250 in.
.63
.59
.55
.51 Ø 1.000 in.
.47
.43
.39
Ø .750 in. n = Vc x 12
.35
.31
Ø .625 in.
x
Deff
.28
Ø .500 in. (rev/in)
.24
Ø .375 in.
.20
.16
.12
.08
.04
0
.08 .24 .39 .55 .71 .87 1.02 1.12
D eff
.16 .31 .47 .63 .79 .94 1.10 1.26

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-111
d dh6
l1
l2 l2
l3
ap
ap
D
D
Small round-edge endmilling
D1 D1
IW S
d1
l
r l2 l2
r l3 l3
ap
a p l4
a1 D
S
la la d1
r d1 l
S
d IW IW

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-112
8. SLOTS AND CUTTING OFF

Slots, in this context, belong to the milling cutters, can also be used for long
category where side and facemilling is shoulders, giving the cutters a more
chosen in preference to endmilling. general purpose range. Sidemilling is
Practically, the borderline is somewhat one option of peripheral milling.
diffuse and affected by various factors.
The choice has also become a victim of It is, however, often the type of ma-
the machine-culture change that has chine available and the frequency of
taken place during the recent decades. the operation which decide whether an
Traditionally, the selection is mostly endmill, long edge cutter or S/F milling
determined by length and depth of slot cutter should be used. For larger
and to some extent, the width while volumes of long, deep slots, S/F usually
endmilling is selected for shorter, more turns out to be more efficient in the
shallow slots such as keyways and espe- right machine. A horizontal milling ma-
cially for closed grooves and pockets. chine with correctly set-up S/F milling
has generally proven to be the best
Side and facemilling (S/F) can cope and the machine type has always been
with long, deep slots in a more efficient a favorite in machine shops. In the past,
way. The larger diameters of a saw-type a high speed steel slitting cutter or wider
milling cutter with many teeth are un- S/F mill was a first choice for most slots
beatable for some of these applications. and edges. High speed steel endmills
The wider, and thus more stable, S/F were far too slow in comparison.
Multi-grooving milling across large workpiece face with slitting cutter also showing
spindle-head supporting wheel

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-113
The situation has changed today. Mo- working range of endmills, long edge
dern endmills and long edge cutters cutters and S/F mills. Then examine
are many times more efficient, and suit- table feed rates for each tool applica-
able for a greater variety of cuts and tion to establish productivity com-
forms. The growth of vertical milling parisons. The volumes and frequency
machines and machining centers has as well as available machinery will
also seen a move away from S/F milling, determine the choice.
although excellent holders for S/F mills
are available for vertical machining, Indexable insert S/F mills often push
often making peripheral milling an machine tools to their limits. Their ma-
interesting alternative. chining rates are impressive and im-
provements have been made in conver-
If you are on the borderline between sions to modern tooling. A full S/F mill
selecting S/F milling or endmilling, look with a diameter of 10 inch can have a
at the slot dimensions in relation to the slot depth capacity of 2.40 inch with a
width of 1 inch. The right tool is
capable of machining over 3 feet of
this slot per minute in steel. A long
edge cutter having a diameter of 1
inch standard depth capacity of 1 inch
can be capable of machining a quarter
of 10 in/min. Thus especially for
deeper slots, the S/F mill machines at
rates which are several times faster.
As mentioned previously, a critical fac-

tor in peripheral milling is to achieve
suitable feed per tooth. Insufficient
values lead to such disadvantages that
extra care should always be taken to
ensure a suitable feed for S/F milling.
The radial depth of cut is limited by

the chip capacity of the insert pocket
and, of course, by the diameter of the
arbor boss as well as deformation of
driving keys. It may also be the case,
that on some machines, the strength
capacity of the machine arbor and its
drive is insufficient. For vertical app-
lications, minimum overhang and thick
arbors are very important. S/F mills
have maximum radial (ae) and axial
Various types of side- and facemills (ap) depths of cut indicated.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-114
ap
E B
A ae
D B
E
ae l1
d s1
asp A
ap d
D
r
F
l3
asp r
Fixturing and arbor support must be For making slots, full S/F mills (A) are
strong to take up cutting forces. Down- used, having cutting edges staggered on
milling, being the most suitable method, both sides of the cutter. Cutting edges
requires a firm stop in the direction of have corner chamfers and negative
tangential cutting forces. The work- primary land for strength. In the half
piece is pushed down against the table S/F mill (B) for edges and shoulders,
but as the feed direction coincides with the effective number of cutting edges
the cutting force, and the cutter has a equals the number of inserts. The
tendency to climb, rigidity and back- staggered edges on a full cutter mean
lash elimination are important. Up- that only every other insert cuts on the
milling should be regarded as the alter- same side.
native for applications where problems
arise through insufficient rigidity and For thin slots and cutting off, the slit-
for exotic materials. ting cutter of today is an efficient in-
dexable insert, full S/F milling cutter.
Narrow slots - down to .080 inch wide
and .67 inch deep - can be milled,
making it a versatile and accurate tool
for internal slotting and suitable
for machining centers as well. Many
precision cutting-off operations are
performed efficiently. The Q-type
A B cutter employs chip-forming inserts,
placed in-line around the periphery to
align cutting forces and minimize
Full and half side- and face-mills cutter run-out.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-115
Gang of slitting cutters for multi-grooving

Average chip thickness should, as men- For cutters with staggered teeth, only
tioned, be checked and be close to half the number of inserts should be
.004 inch for wider S/F milling and considered as the effective number of
.003 inch for slitting operations. This teeth. The feed per tooth can be in-
corresponds to fz =.012 inch in most creased when the workpiece is small
S/F milling operations. For slitting and off center.
cutters, the feed depends upon the
position of the workpiece centerline in In S/F milling operations on horizontal
relation to the milling cutter and type milling machines, only a few teeth are in
of operation (A, B or C). The nominal engagement which can cause heavy
feed per tooth should be used: A - feed torsional vibrations, detrimental to the
per tooth about the same as average machining result. A flywheel is often the
chip thickness, B and C - according to solution to this problem and in many
the formula. The most suitable formula cases the key to improved productivity.
for feed per tooth should be used The moment of inertia increases with
against machining conditions. The the square of the radius. The best posi-
average chip thickness can vary but is tion of the flywheel is close to the main
always smaller than fz. The average frame, on the inside. The outside posi-
chip thickness, being nominal for tion is an alternative, but it is impor-
position B, will vary - slightly up for tant that the distance between the cutter
position A and down for position C. and fly-wheel be as small as possible.
ƒz = hm = .003 ƒz = hm兹苶
D
a
Vƒ = ƒz x n x zeff.
e
in / min
A
D
ae
B
C
Feed-rate relative to cutter position

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-116
d 1.06 1.26 1.57 1.97
inch
7 9- 11- 16-
11 16 23
lbs.
Flywheel adaption to arbor size
A flywheel can be built up from a - A higher speed and more inserts in
number of carbon steel discs, each cut also reduce the necessity for a
having a center hole and keyway to fit flywheel.
the arbor. The following weight re-
commendations should be regarded as
- A small or low-powered machine
starting values. The flywheel diameter
needs a flywheel more than a large
here is 16 inches.
or powerful one.
For a given flywheel weight, the mo-
ment of inertia increases as the dia- - Choose the smallest possible cutter
meter increases which means that if diameter so that the spindle speed
the arrangement permits a large dia- can be increased for a given cutting
meter, the weight of the flywheel can speed.
be reduced.
- Place the flywheel on the inside for
For a machine shop where S/F milling is
stability and as close as possible to
frequently used it may be advantageous
the cutter to minimize torsional
to make a set of flywheels in varying
oscillations.
widths, diameters and center holes.
The following suggestions are suitable - A reinforced or redesigned work-
for the application of flywheels: piece fixture is also usually a good
- Double keyways on side and face- investment along with a flywheel.
mills with diameters larger than 3
inches permit the cutters to be dis- - More even running of the cutter is
placed, half the pitch in relation to obtained with a flywheel. This leads
each other, when used in gangs. Such to better results regarding reduced
a measure evens the load variations noise and vibration as well as longer
and reduces the need for a flywheel. insert life.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-117
vƒ2
vƒ1
ae
vƒ2
ae vƒ1
n
Interpolation machining of grooves
Frequent operations in machining cen- tween up and downmilling. In peri-

ters include, in addition to machining pheral downmilling the entry into cut
slots on flat component surfaces, inter- is at maximum chip thickness and
polation of grooves on external and should be checked when heavier loads
internal round surfaces. This entails are used in side- and facemilling and
turning or boring grooves as a milling slitting operations.
operation with a rotating spindle. It is
often an operation that has to be per- The following diagram indicates typi-
formed on a round part or in a hole on cal transitions for working areas in-
a prismatic component and means that volving long edge/endmilling (A) and
the same set-up is used. Modern index- side and face milling (B). Area (A) is
able insert cutters should be used with dominated by wide grooves in relation
the option of having various groove to depth, while (B) is more oriented
configurations. towards deep, narrower slots.
Such milling cutters are primarily in-

tended to provide high efficiency in
shallow grooving operations. High feed
rates and accuracy characterize these
single edge and multi-edge grooving
cutters.
In facemilling, the maximum chip

thickness is at the transition point be-

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-118
Indication of slot width/depth for various cutter types

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-119
d D1
l1
l2 s
l1
la ae
l3 D IW
Form-milling with gangs of side and facemilling cutters

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-120
The modern side and facemill is a system for universal milling in line with versatility
demands of operations in machining centers, etc. A multi-purpose tool, cutters are axially
adjustable with wide, accurate setting and with positive geometry inserts

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-121
9. CHAMFERS
Chamfers, V-cuts, under-cuts and de-
burring along straight workpiece edges
are frequent operations. Depending
upon the type of machine and set-up,
these operations can be performed in a Dedicated chamfer milling cutter
variety of ways. A small facemill or a moved with standard indexable insert
long-edge milling cutter can be used, milling cutters at high machining rates.
depending upon spindle configuration. Reach and stability are also needed
This does however, necessitate spindle for machining around and in housings
inclination to suit the chamfer angle. and especially for back-chamfering, to
Angular high speed steel cutters have facilitate machining in one set-up.
been used frequently to provide the
angle chamfers and form cutters to Using the right tool also means that a
make V-cuts. variety of spot operations can be per-
formed with the tool. Limited face-
Today’s machining centers and milling milling can be performed with a tool,
machines should have efficient tool so- that in principle, is a small diameter,
lutions that machine at an angle be- on-shank facemill, having a small lead
tween faces. Sharp edge removal, weld angle. Peck-drilling a hole is another
preparation, clearances, etc. can be re- example of auxiliary applications as is
Various methods of chamfer milling with facemill and long edge cutter

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-122
d d
D5
l1 l1 D4
ap ap
l3 l3
D3 D3
D ap1 D ap1
D6 D2 D6 D2
machining of a wide, shallow groove The indexable insert chamfering end-

with angular sides. In fact, such a tool, mill, with a 45 degree lead angle, ma-
if included in the machining center chines open edges, holes and edges at
magazine, can be creatively employed the back. The 30 degree lead angle
for a variety of operations often elimi- machines weld preparations or angles
nating one or more special purpose at 60 or 30 degrees. Long shanks
tools. allow varying degrees of accessibility
and rigidity.
Machining angled faces with chamfer mills

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-123
Smaller scale operations such as: cham- ensure stability, long tool-life and that
fering, weld preparations, deburring, sufficient teeth are in cut.
finishing faces and shaping are per-
formed by rotary burs made in cemen- Ranging in diameters from .118 to .630
ted carbide having chipbreaking facili- inch, cutting edges can be either con-
ties along the cutting edges. These are tinous, sharp for softer materials or
very effective as small milling cutters, short cross-cut for hard and soft
and are available in a wide range of materials. The plain-edge rotary burr
shapes and sizes to suit various applica- generates better surface texture with
tions, many of which are performed by needle-shaped chips. The cross-cut
robots. Helical teeth, in a spiral pattern can machine at lower speeds and gives
Machining possibilities with rotary burs

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-124
Deburring with rotary bur

short, blunt chips. Rotary burs can also than those of endmills can be used.
be reground to a limited extent. Speeds are twice as high for steel and
five times as high for alloys such as
Small diameter tools mean high spindle brass. The spindle speed is then deter-
speeds also have to be maintained mined by the diameter of the burr as
evenly during relatively heavy loads. well as the machinability of the work-
The type of rotary burs most frequently piece material. Cemented carbide
used resemble endmills in cutting tool burrs should normally be run con-
principle. However, higher cutting speeds siderably over 15,000 rpm.
D
D D
inch r

.63
.47 la la
.39
.31 33-75 HRC l1
l1
.24
<33 d
.12
20 60 100 n x 1000
in/rev

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-125
Milling is a varied, flexible and very productive machining method applicable for a lot of
different components. Whether performed on a massive or a smaller scale, it is vital for the
right tool to be applied correctly and for the basic factors to be analyzed for success.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-126
Using Round Inserts in milling

The lead angle of a milling cutter has a decisive affect on the cutting
action. It affects how the main cutting edge is presented to the work-
piece, how cutting forces will act and how pressure is distributed along
the cutting edge. The differences between the 90 degree square shoulder
facemill and 45 degree general purpose and cast-iron facemills have
already been discussed, as have the 15 and 30 degree lead angle
cutters. But the round insert facemill and endmill have not been
looked at in any detail from the point of view of lead angle effects.
d
ap
d

ap F

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-127
45
40
The lead angle of the round insert
milling cutter can vary. The effec-
tive lead angle will change with the
30 relationship between the cutting
depth (ap) and the diameter of the
20 insert (d). Starting at zero, the
effective lead angle grows to 45
10 degrees when the cutting depth
is equal to half the diameter of
0 the insert, which is also the
maximum depth of cut.
ap D ap D
The chip thickness changes with
the feed per tooth which applies
to round insert milling cutters.
But for round inserts, the depth of
ƒz cut also influences the chip thick-
ness. It is also important in face-
d milling to monitor the average
chip thickness for round insert
ap cutters to ensure correct feed per
hm tooth and power requirements.
The formula for calculating average

hm = ƒz √苶 ap chip thickness for facemilling is
d generally somewhat complicated
but, at least it is not as critical
here as it is for peripheral milling
if the cutter is not too far off-set.
For facemilling with round inserts,
however, the average chip thick-
ness takes on a more variable
size and is comma shaped, as in
peripheral milling, making it a
more critical issue. The formula for
facemilling with round inserts is
the same as for peripheral milling.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-128
Average chip thickness values of .004-.008 inch can be used,

depending upon workpiece material hardness. From being a
specialized cutter for demanding materials, facemills and endmills
have, through new developments, come to be more like general
purpose tools. They are suitable for a wide range of materials, yet they
still retain the strength for demanding operations. The round cutting
edge is the strongest, and if applied and handled in the right way, can
offer many productive edges.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-129
The strength of the round cutting edge means that these tools lend
themselves well to machining most materials and especially high
strength steels, heat resistant alloys, titanium alloys and the various
stainless and aluminum alloys. Round insert cutters were intended for
roughing applications, with high feeds per tooth, and where surface tex-
ture was not the main criteria. However, the milled surface can be mo-
derated through cutting data to achieve a higher standard. Modern
round inserts give positive milling which is advantageous for sticky
materials. Chip thickness is limited for tougher alloys. Waveline geo-
metries provide a positive, free cutting action making round insert cut-
ters ideal for stability at large overhangs. A close pitch cutter is gener-
ally a good initial choice for downmilling. Flood coolants are often the
best, if coolant is needed.
Round insert milling with long tool overhang

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-130
Shoulder-making Ability in Facemilling

Facemilling against a shoulder, making a shoulder or generally face-
milling with limited contact-faces are frequently occuring operations,
not only on larger milling machines but increasingly so on machining
centers. The borderline between the indexable insert endmill and the
small square shoulder facemill is disappearing. The choice of endmill
and square shoulder facemill is now one based on several operative
factors, not always dependent solely on size. At the other end of the
range, there remains numerous heavier operations where square
shoulders have to be machined on long components.
Versatility, with retained high performance and reliability, is one priority

in square shoulder facemills for machining centers. The modern cutter
should also be a general purpose facemill to cover additional
facemilling operations. Moreover, the cutter in some applications can
also be used to enlarge cavities through circular interpolation and
other turnmilling operations.
Today’s wide range of square shoulder facemills provides the optimum

cutter for the various demands ranging from broad applications in
small machining centers to heavier milling on shoulders in long-table
gantry boring mills. The modern square shoulder cutters also have
wide capabilities in various workpiece materials, and are backed up
by special-purpose square shoulder facemills for production of cast-
iron and aluminum components.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-131
A B
The square shoulder facemills (type A & B) provide the modern ap-
proach for the smaller to medium milling width range. Offering positive
inserts, choices of three pitch-types and axial machining possibilities
with roughing and finishing capabilities, they represent a first choice not
only for small machining centers but also for many of the medium
range applications, which often need an optimum cutter to provide satis-
factory productivity. There are also other cutter types in larger
diameters for heavier applications in larger machines.
A B
90° 90°
r
r
bS bS

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-132
Square shoulder facemilling of automotive components
A choice of pitches - coarse, close and extra close - provide the best
possible conditions for each operation. The close pitch is the general
first choice. The coarse pitch alternative ensures good performance
for instability, low power or long tool overhang. The extra close pitch
alternative will be best for short chipping materials, titanium, stable
conditions or small radial depths of cut.
90° ap u/Z L M H
U-Max
Ø 1.5-3.0" .59
(252.44) A
Coromill 290
Ø 1.5-10.0" .50
(290.90) B
Modulmill
Ø 3.0-20.0" .52 - .75
(282.2)
T-Max AL*)
Ø 3.0-10.0" .71
(262.2AL)
Auto FS **)
Ø 5.0-20.0" .71 262.4
(* For machining aluminum)
Recommended Alternative
(** For machining cast-iron)
L = light duty, M = medium and H = heavy

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-133
The choice for solving problems The first choice for general The productivity booster under
– with extended tool length purpose milling. specific conditions
advantage when combined – for milling short chipping
with modular extensions and materials, such as cast iron,
vibration damped adapters. under stable conditions.
– on machines with low spindle – using small radial depths
power. of cut.
– on weak machines requiring – when machining is limited by
reduced cutting forces. low cutting speed, i.e. in
– in weak or badly clamped titanium and titanium alloys.
workpieces requiring reduced
number of edges in cut.
Square shoulders can be tackled in various ways with the right tool

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-134
Positive Milling
more than an extra power
source
The growing use of machining
centers, smaller CNC milling ma-
chines and machines more suit-
able for machining weaker work-
pieces have brought about the
need for more power-efficient and
light-cutting milling tools. Cutting
forces have become the big issue.
The cutting geometry, and especially the rake angles, considerably

affect the cutting forces. By altering the rake to become more positive,
material deformation and cutting forces and consequently power, is re-
duced. This does not mean that in practice the more positive, sharper
insert is weaker - the included angle at the cross-section point is smaller
but cutting forces are cleverly redirected to a better supported area of
the insert and the tool material is tougher. The new positive indexable
inserts have wavy cutting edges, either convex or concave depending
upon type. They are a new generation of milling cutting edges that
have brought about a new performance level to milling, in line with
machine shop developments.
Typical designs of positive insert geometry

for milling

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-135
These inserts not only provide a sharper, positive cutting edge, they
also have chipforming ability and have carefully designed transitions
between various parts of the geometry, adding micro strength to the
cutting edge. The chipformer loops reduce contact between chip and
edge and curl the chip, making it more manageable and carrying
away more heat from the cutting area.
Positive geometry inserts have now become the first general choice
for facemilling, square shoulder facemilling, endmilling and long edge
milling. Specially adapted designs of the concept have been developed
to best suit the various cutting edges for the different operations.
Typically, there are three categories for:

- light machining
- medium machining
- heavy machining
For the light duty, WL type inserts have the most positive and sharpest
cutting geometry and are especially suitable for smaller, low-powered
machines and finishing cuts. The edge is strong but also sharp enough
to give positive cutting action at the smallest feed-per-tooth rates.
P
Hp
WH
AAM
(WM) AAH
WL
.002 .006 .012 fz

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-136
Medium machining means broad capability, with a strengthening cham-

fer for higher demands. WM type inserts are generally the first choice
for a stronger edge with lower power requirements. The inserts cope
with higher feed rates and tougher workpiece materials. There are also
flat insert types, AAM and AAH.
Heavier machining (where combinations of high feed rates, deeper cuts,

demanding and harder materials and more available power prevails)
requires an extra strong edge. WH is the modern edge for these com-
binations and is also very reliable for interrupted cuts.
Combined with flat, conventional inserts for certain exotic alloys, the
range of positive inserts, in new tool materials, have given milling more
scope for efficient machining in almost any workpiece material. Direct-
pressed indexable inserts, with sophisticated macro and micro geo-
metries, are also adapted to the various operations as they are
provided with alternative corner radii, parallel lands and a geometry to
provide square shoulder milling capability with square inserts. Even
round inserts, that have a reputation for generating high forces and
needing considerable power, are furnished with a positive geometry.
Vibration tendencies are also minimized when high metal removal
rates are used for roughing and finishing.
Positive milling inserts for various applications

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-137
Routing Aluminum
Aluminum alloys are generally regarded as easy to machine with com-

paratively low cutting forces and even lower forces at higher cutting
speeds. Limitations have mostly been set by machine tools and
cutting tools. Endmilling has been an area dominated by large ranges
of high speed steel endmills, used in smaller mill copying machines
ranging up to large multi-axis CNC aerospace machines. The main
criteria for finishing operations are usually cutting action, surface tex-
ture and tool-life with ground helical endmills. Brazed carbide and
Coronite endmills considerably improve finishing and small-diameter
milling of aluminum workpieces with higher cutting speeds and longer
tool-life. But for roughing, and to some extent finishing, indexable
insert routers provide the best performance.
Routers for milling aluminum

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-138
Cemented carbide endmills gene-

rate less heat than high speed
steel cutters and can be run much
faster. Indexable insert routers are
primarily high-productivity roughing
tools but are capable of good
surface texture. No programming
changes are necessary when
changing to new cutting edges as
is necessary with reground high
speed steel endmills.
The router is mainly a pocketing

endmill, designed for high machi-
ning rates in aluminum alloy work-
pieces with a diameter range of
1-2 inches. Having mostly one
edge, two for larger diameters, the
1 router is balanced by design to
3 machine up to 10,000 rpm. They
2
can also be used in low-power
4 machines at lower spindle speeds.
6
5
Designed for high cutting speeds
in combination with maximized
feed rates to optimize available
machine power and provide the
longest tool-life, routers have
max15° minimum vibration tendencies.
Even thin-walled components are
machined efficiently, without burn
marks, when using a suitable
corner radius on the insert. Feeds
per tooth of .012 to .020 inch
are nominal values for adapting
A the spindle speeds for maximum
max ° B utilization of machine power.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-139
Routers work by ramping down axially into the pockets being produced
at high speed. The AL routers have been designed to provide efficient
chip evacuation from large chip pockets in the tool. With a sharp cutting
edge, fine grained cemented carbide inserts have been developed for
long tool-life in aluminum alloy milling and to give a good finish. Ser-
vicing for short machine downtimes and time spent in the tool-room
work is minimal. Various corner radii can also be used to adapt the
router to the application.
Routers are intended for high metal removal rates and very fast indexing
to a new cutting edge and as such, are mainly used as roughing tools. A
clearance of about .020 inch is recommended to be left after each
radial pass for chips to clear the tool shank. This leaves a small
working allowance for a finishing cutter, a brazed carbide endmill, to
produce a good surface texture. The floor of the pocket is finished
with the router and, as with general rules, a suitably sized corner
radius should be selected to avoid any vibration.
D1
I2
I3
ap
D r

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-140
Cutting Fluid in Milling

Modern cemented carbide, especially coated carbides, do not normally
require cutting fluid during machining. GC grades perform better with
regard to tool-life and reliability when used in dry milling conditions. If
cutting fluid has to be part of the set-up, such as in endmilling to
evacuate chips, it should be supplied in copious amounts around the
cutting edges throughout the process. Above all it should not be used
in short supply or in parts of the process.
Today’s high cutting speeds with coated carbides mean that the ma-
chining zone becomes very hot. The cutting action takes place with
the formation of flow zone, between the tool and the workpiece with
temperatures of around 1000 degrees C or more. Any fluid that comes in
the vicinity of the engaged cutting edges will instantaneously be
converted to steam and have virtually no cooling effect at all.
The effect of cutting fluid in milling is often to emphasize the tempera-

ture variations that take place as the inserts go from cut to cut. In dry
machining, variations do take place but within the scope of the machining
for which the grade was developed. Adding cutting fluid will increase
variations by affecting the actual cutting edge only when it is out of cut.
The fluid will cool it somewhat, only for it to be heated up again in cut.
Thermal shocks lead to fluctuations between stresses in the insert and,
subsequently, to thermal cracking, bringing a premature end to the tool-
life of the cutting edge. The hotter the machining zone is, the more
unsuitable it is to use cutting fluid. A modern carbide grade works
efficiently at high cutting speeds and thus higher temperatures.
Wrong Correct

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-141
vc
t T
A
BUE
B
vc
When using coated milling inserts, the layer thickness of the grade
plays an important role. Imagine pouring boiling water into a thick-
walled glass and a thin-walled glass to see which cracks. It is the same
with inserts with thin and thick coatings with the application of cutting
fluid. Thin walls or coatings lead to less stress. Tool-life differences of
up to 40% are not unusual, making dry milling an advantage.
If machining in sticky materials, such as low-carbon steel and stain-

less steel, has to take place at speeds where built-up edges are
formed, precautions need to be taken. The temperature in the cutting
zone should be either above or below the unsuitable zone. Achieving
the flow-zone at higher temperatures eliminates the problem while
machining at lower temperatures, with lower cutting data, can lead to
other unsuitable phenomena. In this latter case, cutting fluid may need
to be applied to achieve satisfactory surface texture, etc.
The adjoining graph illustrates the principal differences achieved in

tool-life when milling (A) without any cutting fluid, (B) with cutting fluid
used profusively and (C) with cutting fluid used sparingly. With the
right coated grade, the best tool-life performance is achieved in dry
conditions. The worst for any milling grade is to have fluid that only
emphasizes the temperature variations in and out of cut.
If, as in some machining centers and special purpose machines,

cutting fluid is used continuously and milling must be performed wet,

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-142
a cemented carbide grade should be used which is recommended for

use in wet as well as dry conditions. This will usually be a tough,
coated grade.
Cutting fluids are usually applied to an operation for the following

reasons:
- for chip removal, especially during some endmilling and drilling
- to moderate temperatures in the workpiece for maintaining accuracy
- for stainless steel operations to improve surface texture
- for cast-iron operations to collect and sweep away dust
- to wash chips away from fixturing
- when other tools need cutting fluid in the same set-up
To achieve optimum machining results, the application should be ana-

lyzed to establish whether cutting fluid is absolutely necessary. Also,
establish if there is a possibility to run completely dry, for instance
through the use of compressed air to remove chips. If cutting fluid has
to be applied, it should be:
- in large amounts around the cutting edges
- in combination with the right grade (thin coating)
- with the right type of cutting fluid
It should also be remembered that with respect to costs, coolants

may approach values amounting to 15% of the production cost of
components in metal cutting. (This can be compared to that of
the cutting tools amounting to only around 3%.) Dry machining
should always be considered as an alternative.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-143
Milling with cermet inserts

Cermet inserts have proven successful for many milling applications.
Not only finishing and semi-finishing, but light roughing under the right
conditions has proven successful.
A modern P20 application area cermet grade combined with the right
insert shape and geometry has proven successful in optimizing a con-
siderable range of operations and workpiece materials. The right insert
shape, especially round inserts or rhombic inserts with large nose radii,
have shown good performance. Combined with a geometry which pro-
vides added toughness behavior to the cutting action, workpiece
materials ranging from carbon steel, stainless steel, HSHR alloys and
tool/die steels can be machined. Tool steels with abrasive carbides
are successfully milled with cermets as are components with casting
and forging skins. Austenitic stainless steel is often also machinable
with cermets.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-144
There are applications involving high and low cutting speeds of 2300-
330 ft/min and feed per tooth up to .010 inch with a lead angle of 45
degrees. Larger cutting depths and interrupted cuts are carried out
with great security. Positive geometry inserts have also done a lot to
moderate adverse cutting forces.
Facemilling a flange in alloy steel (CMC 02.2) with hardness 300 HB in

a machining center (A) improves performance with P20 cermet in-
serts. A T-Max 145, 4 inch diameter milling cutter in a 45 Hp machine
faces 288 components to a high finish. Cutting speed is 1280 ft/min,
table feed 43 in/min and cutting depth .04-.08 inch.
A Duplex type stainless steel, 290 HB hardness, plate, 12 feet long (B) is
milled with a 3 inch diameter T-Max 145 coarse pitch facemill equipped
with cermet P25 inserts. One and half components, with two long cuts
each, are machined with the tool in a 25 Hp milling machine. Cutting
speed is 1000 ft/min, table feed 48 in/min and cutting depth .16 inch.
Milling with cermets is often very advantageous, with mirror texture

being achieved. This can be an alternative to grinding operations.
A B
1 2

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-145
Milling applications with cermet inserts

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-146
Endmills in CNC machines

The spread of CNC machines and machining centers has influenced
the development and use of endmills. The necessity to fully utilize
these machines due to the higher cost rates per hour has meant that
shoulders, grooves, pockets and contours are often machined using
very different methods compared to the practices of conventional
machinery. To start with, high performance machining is a must and
the machines do have the capacity. The endmill is no longer matched
to the shape and dimensions that will be produced. Instead an under-
sized endmill, sometimes more than one, for roughing and finishing, is
used. CNC capability moves the endmill efficiently in various axes, at
high machining rates, that easily beats older methods. Rapid tool
changes can make new combinations of endmills competitive.
Moreover, the undersized endmill can be used for several different
operations and component types, providing a combination of
flexibility and reduction in tool magazine and inventory.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-147
The endmill is a very versatile

milling cutter and a key cutting tool
in modern machines. Sometimes
1
up to half the tools in a machining 7 1 6 4
center magazine are endmills. 2 3 5
These are responsible for a large 2
variety of operations, higher ac- 7
curacy, more complicated cuts,

more demanding materials, longer,
more reliable tool-life and more productivity. In line with this develop-
ment, endmills have evolved considerably to make a large variety of
cuts very effectively and also to be suitable for most materials.
Correct application and cutting data are essential for success. Picking
an endmill is not just limited to shape, size and type of cut, although
each available endmill covers large areas. Average chip thickness
values are essential to monitor so as to keep above minimum values. A
high feed per tooth usually helps considerably to provide longer tool-
life. Insufficient feed is one of the major reasons for rapid wear in
endmills. The rate at which the endmill machines depends upon the
feed per tooth, times the number of teeth in the tool, times the spindle
speed. The pitch of the endmill then influences the material removal
rate because more teeth means higher feed. But there are limitations
to this as endmills are affected by overhang and chip space as well as
limitations to spindle clamping and power. The quality of the endmill
clamping affects the performance and the result from the endmill. The
close pitch endmill alternative requires stable conditions or high feed
rates. The coarse pitch has fewer inserts in cut, depending on the width
of engagement. This can reduce vibration tendencies, especially for
Q = ae x ap x vƒ
vƒ= z x n x ƒz
ƒz = hm√苵苵苵
D
a e
VB
Metal removal rate related to average chip thickness

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-148
longer tool overhang (TO). This is

generally a safer choice for un-
stable conditions and smaller V
taper sizes in machines.
With solid or brazed endmills, the

helical cutting edge facilitates entry
into cut, gives an easy cutting ac-
tion, and a relatively long and
accurate cutting edge. The number
of flutes affects the chip space - a TO
four-flute tool has considerably
less space than a two-flute. A two-flute endmill is well suited to drilling
and heavier grooving. The four-flute endmill generally offers smoother
machining, with less interruption between tooth engagement. This often
means that there is less deflection and vibrations with the multi-flute
endmill. A three-flute endmill is a compromise between the smoothness
of the four-flute action and the chip-space capacity of the two-flute
endmill. Cutting edges, with a geometry that breaks chips, are often best
for roughing cuts. The split chips are thick but short and manageable,
efficiently transporting themselves and heat away from the edge.
Long edge milling cutters with indexable inserts - the extension of end-
mills - offer considerable machining capacity and can be used with
great versatility when larger diameter tooling can be used. The inserts
mounted in carefully established relationships make up a serrated,
staggered cutting edge. Each insert starts a new cut and a smooth cut-
ting action is obtained for demanding operations. The long edge milling
concept is ideal for hogging off lots of metal in roughing cuts and for
special tool shapes.
Endmilling in a CNC turning center

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-149
Inserts for endmills and long edge cutters vary considerably in type,
in line with the function that the cutting edges have to perform. Wave
shaped, positive cutting indexable inserts have made in-roads to end-
milling as well as facemilling and square shoulder facemilling. This
provides advantages such as cutting force control, lower power con-
sumption, free chip flow and strong but sharp cutting edges. Inserts
are also suitable for a wide range of workpiece materials. Variations in
corner radii provide the optimization towards strength and machining
sharp corners.
Points for endmill efficiency:
• Minimize distance from tool chuck to cutting edge
• Use largest possible diameter
• Downmilling is first choice for roughing - check backlash
• Facilitate chip removal - coolant/air
• Use best possible, clean toolholding equipment
• Quick change toolholding should be stable and accurate
• Use coarse pitch cutters to reduce vibration tendency
• For long overhangs, use more shallow cuts and heavier feeds
and consider vibration dampening adapters
• Make sure workpiece fixturing is adequate with ample support
against major cutting forces
• Check average chip thickness/feed per tooth
• Check ramping limits for the tool
• Use modern positive indexable inserts wherever possible
• Use coated cemented carbide grades and Coronite
wherever possible
• Use high helix cutters for smoother milling

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-150
Updated methods can cut machining time in half

An example of machining with modern endmills in a CNC milling
machine is this application where the die for a large automotive
component is machined efficiently. The die is made up of three
different types of die steel and initially weighed eight tons.
Through the combination of modern methods, programming and

cutting tools, the optimized machining time was cut in half compared
to the time it took with conventional methods and tools. The project
meant looking at machining from a new angle, selecting endmills and
tool paths to achieve the highest productivity.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-151
Tool overhangs up to 20 inches were necessary in order to reach into

cavities. This was achieved through the use of positive geometry
cutters and tuned adapters of the modular tooling system. Milling was
performed along the longest possible routes to minimize machine
time. Finish milling provided a texture of Ra 40inch which meant
reduction of polishing work in the die.
Roughing and semi-finishing were performed mainly with round-insert

milling cutters which accurately prepared the blank for subsequent
tools. Ball nose endmills machined round faces and various cavities. A
combination of coated and uncoated carbide, cermet and Coronite
grades were used.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-152
Turnmilling
Turnmilling consists of a number of different machining methods where
a milling cutter machines a rotating workpiece. These methods are
primarily used for machining various eccentrically shaped parts;
plane, tapered and cylindrical surfaces; grooves and inside holes.
Turnmilling requires a machine tool with certain functions and a number

of axes. Machining centers, turning centers, specially adapted lathes,
milling machines, boring mills and special-purpose machinery are used.
When other operations of turning and drilling are combined in the ma-
chines, single set-up machining leads to advantages of fast through-put
times and flexibility of production.
The method of machining is characterized by high security and produc-

tivity. The application of a milling cutter instead of a turning tool can lead
to advantages in applications that fulfill certain requirements.
The actual principle of turnmilling is obtained when the milling cutter’s

peripheral speed gives the cutting speed (vc) and the workpiece rotation
(n) gives the feed rate (vƒ) in combination with an axially fed tool (f).
Usually, the tool is also fed axially.
The method is used in machining centers to open up bores, either by

having the workpiece rotate and the rotating milling cutter being fed
straight in (A); or by having the tool fed along a spiral-shaped path into
the hole (B).

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-153
Also classified as turnmilling are whirlmilling, turnbroaching and thread-

milling. The CNC can be made to interpolate movements simultaneously
in several axes to produce polygonal shaped components.
Turnmilling can be performed as facemilling (C) or peripheral milling (D).

Mainly, the form to be machined determines the choice of method.
The facemilling method can be performed in two different ways, either

by having the center axes of the milling cutter and workpiece intersect
or by having the axes some distance apart. The peripheral milling method
employs a side-and-facemilling cutter, with its rotation axis in parallel to
the workpiece axis, fed axially while both tool and workpiece rotate.
n
vc Vƒ
A B
C D

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-154
Basically, the workpieces most suitable are larger bar or tubular com-
ponents without an excess of copying and grooving. Also, workpieces
should not be too complicated so that the milling cutter has sufficient
access. Fairly large holes being machined on machining centers into
most components are also typical applications. A milling cutter used for
other purposes, on a sufficiently long holder, can be used and be
applied for a large range of diameters, providing flexibility advantages.
An increasing amount of machining is performed in one set-up,

necessitating more cutting tools in the magazines of machining
centers. Large-diameter boring tools take up two to three positions
and are rigid in their application areas. Turnmilling methods are
flexible using a multi-function milling cutter, suitable for a large range
of other operations as well.
Turning large diameter components makes demands on the tool’s chip

control so as to prevent chip congestion. It is also an advantageous
operation to deal with smeary austenitic and low-carbon steels in the
respect of chip formation. Turnmilling will improve this with the inter-
mittent cutting action of the milling cutter. With several cutting edges
F E

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-155
in the tool, security is also added as well as a high machining rate and
long tool-life. However, in spite of the versatility of the method, some
complimentary turning should be planned for as recesses, grooves and
certain profiling need additional operations.
When employing the facemilling method of turnmilling, with the milling

cutter and workpiece axes coinciding (E), the tool engagement is limited
by the cutting edge length of the facing edges of the cutter. By off-
setting the axis of cutter-rotation (F), the milling width is increased along
with the machining rate. A milling cutter for eccentric facemilling, posi-
tioned at axis-intersection, is principally the same as for conventional
face or square-shoulder milling having sufficient face (axial) cutting
edges. This to ensure a minimum of waviness on the milled surface.
Advantages usually recognized with turnmilling are, in addition to those

already mentioned: capability in machining large, unbalanced
components which cannot be rotated at high speeds; complex surface
shapes, eccentric parts and components with additional elements that
protrude; long, unstable shafts or thin-walled parts; surfaces requiring
good texture; large and very small working allowances and
demanding intermittent machining.
Planning turnmilling involves establishing a number of parameters in

connection with a suitable milling cutter:
- cutting speed
- feed per tooth
- number of teeth engaged in cut
- cutter position relative work
- average chip thickness
- off-setting distance between tool/work axes
- cutting width
- cutting depth
- surface texture
- power
- torque
- cutting data limits

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-156
y G
y
90°
z
n
z
90°
The application and some of these parameters require a different way

of calculating and combining elements as compared to conventional
milling. The examples of components that can be machined through
turnmilling are considerable: cams, crankshafts, cylindrical housings,
large rolls, transmission shafts, etc.
Turnmilling operations can be considered an advantage when

machining demands such as: difficult chip control arising from
machining a large diameter in ductile material; considerably varying
working allowance, where an insert geometry does not span
satisfactorily over the range; welding joints and voids causing
varying stresses on the tool; workpiece instability due to design
and flimsy structure; necessity for the tool to have a tool-life that
lasts for the complete machining of a component; finishing
operations of large-diameter heat-treated bars not suitable for
single-point turning; high-productivity roughing operations of
axles and components with variously shaped parts.

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-157
For instance, an elliptical-shaped cross-section (G) can be achieved

at high machining rates through turnmilling if the milling cutter has a
feed-direction along a curve, perpendicular to the axis of the workpiece.
Synchronized feeds in four axes by the part and tool produce the
elliptical shape.
An example of cutting data for turnmilling a complex-shaped com-

ponent (H) before hardening in a machining center from an alloyed
steel bar is: 2.5 inch diameter facemill with six cemented carbide
inserts, rotating at speeds varying between 1000 to 2000 rpm,
workpiece rotating at 5 rpm and cutting depth .20 inch.
Another example involves roughing a large camshaft (I) in carbon

steel, also with a 2.5 inch diameter facemill, axial depth .14 inch, cutting
speed 650 ft/min and feed rate of 24 in/min. Finishing used a cutting
speed of 1000 ft/min and feed of 120 in/min.
H I

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-158
Turnbroaching for crankshaft machining

Turnbroaching is an efficient method for machining steel and nodular
cast-iron crankshafts. Special turnbroaching machines are available for
linear, circular and spiral operating methods of operations. The
peripheral type milling cutters are built in segments, characterized by
simple handling of the roughing tools and close-tolerance adjustability
in the finishing sections.
There are three main methods of operating:

- Linear turnbroaching, where the crankshaft axis and tool are posi-
tioned at fixed distances. Stock removal is by cutting edge progres-
sion in the tool.
- Circular turnbroaching, where the crankshaft axis is positioned at a
fixed distance. Stock removal is controlled by feed of the tool axis.
- Spiral turnbroaching, where the tool and crankshaft axes are
positioned at a fixed distance. Stock removal is by cutting edge
progression in the tool.
The turnbroaching systems basically use the similar standardized com-

ponents for roughing and finishing. The type of machine determines the
tool design: linear, circular or spiral. The number of segments and roughing
inserts in the tool depends on the stock removal rate required and
where the last segment is for finishing. The finishing segments are fitted

19158 10_Milling 07-04-12 10.32 Sida X-159
with inserts in adjustable cartridges that can be set to close tolerances.

The segment for roughing has fixed insert pockets.
Tool segments are computer designed and manufactured for each ma-
chine to suit the required form and tolerance of each crankshaft. The
number of inserts and position of each segment is designed to give low
cutting forces. The roughing segments have hardened, fixed insert seats
and big chip pockets to ensure secure production. Inserts are tangenti-
ally mounted and locked in position by a center screw.
Applied to the correct workpiece, turnbroaching can provide consider-

able advantages compared to other processes, linear or rotating. A high
degree of repeatable precision is provided. As with a fixed axial spacing,
the tool is passed tangentially along the workpieces. No new radial de-
livery is effected. Good surface quality is achieved by gentle insertion
and extraction of the cutters, and by additional burnishing effects. A
further advantage is the ability to keep close tolerances. The reduction
of wear tolerance is in many cases also a benefit of the above.
Long tool-lives arise as a result of the short engagement times of the in-
dividual cutting edges and low thermal stress. A high degree of utilization
of machines is obtained, as the finishing cutters need only be changed
once per shift as a rule and the roughing cutters about once every third
shift. Short machining times result from the high performance of the
tools, mainly as a result of careful cutting edge distribution on the tool
and the arrangement of the respective tools.
As an example, the combination

of operations in roughing and fini-
shing round bearing surfaces in
one set-up in one machine involves
considerable savings in handling
and investment. A more suitable
method could easily be found rather
than putting the positive features of
turnbroaching to the test on crank-
shafts, one of the most difficult and
most cost-intensive workpieces in
mass production.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida 1
DRILLING
INTRODUCTION 2 SELECTING THE DRILL 43
THE DRILLING PROCESS 3 DIAMETER ADJUSTMENT
OF THE DRILL 59
DRILLING DEFINED 5
CUTTING FLUID PRESSURE
CHIP FORMATION 8 AND CUTTING FLUID VOLUME 61
CUTTING FORCES AND POWER 15 SUMMARY-CHOICE
APPLICATION OF OF TOOL FOR DRILLING 61
DRILLING TOOLS 20
Basic back-up:
Machining results defined 7 Indexable insert drill 48
Reference surfaces 9 Regrindable drills 50
Tolerances for properties 13 Stack drilling 52
Reference elements Regrinding modern drills 53
and tolerance fields 16 Regrinding Delta-S drills 54
Dimensional tolerances 22 Regrinding Hard-Cut drills 55
Taylor’s principle 25 Regrinding Delta-C drills 56
Measurement adjustment 27 Regrinding
Roundness 30 Coromant Delta drills 58
Coordination Nomenclature of
between tolerances 36 basic drill geometry 60
Machining costs 41
19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-2
DRILLING
INTRODUCTION
Drilling is a term which covers all Previously, holes were drilled mainly
methods of making cylindrical holes in conventional, vertical machines and
in a workpiece with chip cutting tools. drilling was often the cause of bottle-
In addition to short hole and deep necks in production. Today, however,
hole drilling, the term is also used to this operation is now carried out in
describe subsequent machining, such most machines. The quick formation
as broaching, reaming, counter- of short holes in modern FMS, ma-
boring and various forms of finishing, chining centers, NC and CNC lathes is
including skiving and roller burnishing. in wide-spread practice.
Common to all these processes is a
main rotating movement combined Drilling is by far the most common
with a linear feed movement. This machining operation. The majority of
section only deals with short hole hole diameters are within the range of
drilling. Deep hole drilling is discussed 3/8 - 3/4 inch. This shows quite clearly
in the next chapter. how important the operation is in the
Modern technology for hole making
XI-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-3
field of modern metal cutting.
With the development of tools for

short hole drilling, the need for pre-
paratory and subsequent machining
has changed drastically. Modern tools L L
allow solid drilling to be carried out in
a single operation without having to
pre-drill center and pilot holes. The D D
hole quality obtained is so satisfactory
that subsequent machining, usually D 1.12 inch D 1.12 inch
performed to improve the measure- L 5-6 x D L 2.5 x D
ment accuracy and surface texture,
can often be eliminated.
Short hole drilling covers holes with a
relatively small hole depth to hole
diameter ratio. For hole diameters of
up to 1.12 inch, hole depths that are a
THE DRILLING PROCESS maximum of 5-6 x D can be produced.
The drilling process can be compared The hole depth for larger diameters is
with turning and milling in most cases, limited to 2.5 x D.
but the demands for good chipbreaking
and chip evacuation are more stringent The relationship between hole depth
with drilling. The greater the hole and hole diameter, which defines short
depth the more difficult it is to control holes, is limited by available techno-
the process and to remove the chips. logy and could change with future tool
Furthermore, in a general comparison, development. For example, only about
the quality requirement is greater ten years ago, short hole drilling was
when machining deep holes. Short categorized as a roughing operation.
holes occur more frequently, so higher With today’s more advanced tools,
material removal rates are desirable tolerances of IT9 can be obtained,
for good machining economy. sufficient for most finishing operations.
This means that the differences be-

tween short hole drilling and deep
hole drilling are not just restricted to
the relationship between the hole
depth and its diameter. The para-
meters which have been mentioned -
chip evacuation, quality and material
removal rate - influence the differing
methods used to drill short holes as
opposed to long, deep holes.
MODERN METAL CUTTING XI-3

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-4
drilling method, which can be done

1 2 with short hole drills. However, this
method does not usually provide suffi-
cient accuracy. The pre-drilled hole can
cause deflection of the drill when tools
with asymmetrical geometry are used.
Many short hole drills are self-
centering and in a pre-drilled hole,
uneven loading of the cutting edges
Drilling and trepanning occurs when the drill searches for the
center. This means that the drill
Drilling is a combination of two move- follows a crooked path, which results
ments: a main rotating movement plus in oval holes.
a linear feed movement. With short
hole drilling in conventional machines
the most usual form of this work is
where both the rotating and feeding
movements are done by the tool.
However, the use of universal NC and
CNC controlled lathes for short hole
drilling has lead to an increase in the
combination of rotating workpiece
and non-rotating drill.
The most common drilling method is

solid drilling (1), where the hole is
drilled in solid material, to a pre-deter-
mined diameter, in a single operation.
Trepanning (2) is principally used for

large hole diameters since this method
is not as power-consuming as solid
drilling. Trepanning is also carried out
in one operation but, instead of all the
material being removed in the form of
chips, a cylindrically shaped core is
left at the center of the hole. The
method is for through-hole applica-
tions only.
In order to improve the surface quality

or the tolerance of the hole in some
operations, subsequent counterboring
can be performed. This is a third Counterboring and possible tool deflection

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-5
DRILLING DEFINED
Regardless of whether a solid drill or
a drill with replaceable indexable in-
serts is used, the basic definitions for D D
the drill’s working conditions are the
same.
ap ap
In drilling, the main movement is
rotation, which can be done by either
the tool or the workpiece. The spindle
speed (n) is the speed at which the
main movement takes place and is
expressed in number of revolutions The feed speed or penetration rate
per minute. (vf - in in/min) is the feed of the tool
in relation to the workpiece or, alter-
The cutting speed (vc - in ft/min) is natively, the feed of the workpiece in
determined for drilling by the peri- relation to the tool, expressed in
phery speed and can be simply cal- length per unit of time. This is also
culated when the number of revolu- known as the machine feed or table
tions per minute is known from the feed.
spindle speed. During one revolution
the periphery of the drill will inscribe Feed per revolution (ƒ - in in/rev)
a circle with a circumference of π x D, expresses the movement of the tool or
where D is equal to the tool diameter. workpiece during one revolution and
If the diameter is expressed in inches, is used to calculate feed.
the result must be divided by 12 in
order to obtain the cutting speed in The cutting width or radial cutting
feet per minute. depth (ap - in inches) is that part of
the workpiece surface which the tool
vc = D x π x n (ft/min) covers and is measured, as for turning,
12 on half the diameter.
vf = ƒ x n (in/min) ap = D - d (in.)
2
Since the drilling tool is equipped

with several cutting edges (z=number
n vc of edges), the feed per edge (fz - in
inch/edge) is used to define the chip
area (A - in inch2), which is the area
of the material removed in one cut,
ƒ i.e. the radial cutting depth times the
D vƒ feed per edge.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-6
ƒz ƒz
ap
ap
fz = ƒ (in/edge)
Z
A = ap x fz (in2)
By using some of these definitions the V = A x vc x 12 (in3/min)

material removal rate (V - in in3/ min),
or the volume of material removed By stipulating the length fed (L + h -
per unit of time, can be established. in inch) and dividing it by the feed
The volume of material removed in speed, the effective drilling time (T -
in3/ min is the chip area multiplied by in min.) is obtained. The drilled, or
the cutting speed multiplied by 12. fed, length is equal to the hole depth
plus the height of the drill’s point.
h = D x cot ϕ (in.)
2 2
T=L+h (min)
vf
L
D/2

h

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-7
TOLERANCES
Machining results defined
Components are drawn at the design - For what property is the tolerance
stage with the required dimensions and intended ? Size, shape, direction,
other properties, such as roundness, position, surface finish or run-out?
straightness and angular precision, - How large may the deviation be?
established. Since no machining can - Deviation in relation to what?
produce the exact size, the deviations
which are permitted are always stated There are various standards for how
on the drawing. Tolerances are those tolerances should be shown on a
deviations which can be accepted drawing. ISO (the International Orga-
without jeopardizing the function. Tole- nization for Standardization) covers
rances are set in such a way that the 95% of the world’s industrial produc-
component is not manufactured with tion. However, in many countries,
greater accuracy than necessary, since national standards, such as ANSI
in most cases close tolerances increase (American National Standards Institute)
the costs of both the machining and are applied which differ from the
subsequent inspection. international ones to a certain extent.
Furthermore, since standards are the
By indicating elements for which the subject of continual revision, only the
tolerances have been set, information principles of tolerances are dealt with
is provided. Elements are indicated here without going more deeply into
with an arrow and a line leading to a drawing specifications and terminology.
tolerance rectangle, where the follo- Surface texture is described in detail
wing questions are answered: in the chapter on Milling.
L1
Ø D1
ØD
L
Component elements limited by tolerances

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-8
considered acceptable if the chips can

be led away from the drill’s cutting
edges without any problem.
Studying the chipbreaking range will

provide good insight and guidance as
to how the cutting data should be
adjusted. The chipbreaking area is
obtained by test running the tool with
various combinations of cutting speeds
and feeds in the material concerned.
It is the area where satisfactory chip-
breaking is obtained. As shown in the
diagram below, the cutting speed will
be too high at the periphery (p) for
satisfactory chipbreaking to be ob-
tained. In this example the problem
can be solved by increasing the feed.
If the power of the machine or stabi-
lity is a critical factor it may be more
appropriate to reduce the cutting
speed.
Since the cutting speed gets pro-

gressively slower from the periphery
Cutting fluid plays an important role in towards the center of the drill, the risk
drilling of edge build-up must be taken into
account when reducing the cutting
CHIP FORMATION speed. A certain amount of edge
Most short hole drills have two chip
channels and, generally, two cutting
edges. The chips are evacuated via chip
channels. With modern machines and vc
drilling tools, this can be done very p
effectively by supplying cutting fluid
internally through the tool’s coolant
holes.
Chip formation is influenced by the

workpiece material, tool geometry,
cutting speed, feed and choice of cut-
ting fluid. Generally, increased feed
vƒ
and/or reduced cutting speed produces
shorter chips. The chip length can be Excessive speed at periphery of drill

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-9
/2
h2
ƒz
h1
hx

Chip formation factors
build-up in the vicinity of the center deformed chip thickness, h1, differs
of the drill must be accepted in most from the theoretical chip thickness, h2.
cases, but reducing the cutting speed The theoretical chip thickness when
means that edge build-up starts closer drilling increases with increased feed
to the periphery. per edge and increased point angle.
Since the chip material which is h1 = fz x sin ϕ (in.)

separated in the chipbreaking process 2
undergoes plastic deformation, the
Reference surfaces
Reference surfaces must be made
very clear in the production drawings.
Fixtures used during machining must
be kept to the specified tolerances. In
order to achieve the best machining
1 economy and quality, a sequence for
the process should be set up during
production planning, with the same
reference surface being used where
possible. Every time a reference surface
that is used is machined, or replaced
by another one, new deviations will
be added to the final measurements.
This can mean that very close ma-
chining tolerances must be achieved
at the end. This is the case in Figure 1.
2 Instead, a tolerance setting based on
a reference surface is recommended
as shown in Figure 2.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-10
1 2 xD
e

ƒ/2
A ƒ/2 e

B
Cutting edge action in drilling
The working conditions of the insert e = + η

when drilling are similar to turning (1).
However, the rake angle , which is the
tan η = ƒ
angle between the chip surface (A) and πxD
a line at right angles to the direction
of cutting (B), will be changed on e = - η
engagement (2). When machining is
in process, the insert edge moves along With increased feed, the feed angle
a spiral path which inclines the feed increases and the clearance is re-
angle η (tan η = ƒ/π x D) and increases duced. This reduction is greatest at the
the effective rake angle on engage- closest point to the center. Therefore,
ment e. the clearance angle should increase
from the periphery towards the center
in order to avoid abrasion between the
tool and the walls of the hole.
The rake angle e varies along the

cutting edge and drops in size from
the periphery towards the center of
the drill. Since the cutting speed also
drops from the periphery towards the
center, where it is zero, the cutting
edge will work very ineffectively at
the point of the drill. As the point of
the drill presses and scrapes the
material, rather than cutting it, a
plastic deformation occurs where the

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-11
A B
Reduction of chisel edge cutting action
rake angle is negative and the cutting On conventional twist drills, web
speed approaches zero. This pressure thinning can be applied. This involves
gives rise to a relatively high axial grinding down the spiral slot at the
force component. If the machine is point of the drill. This reduces the
weak in relation to the size of hole to length of the transverse cutting edge
be drilled, the machine spindle may and the main cutting edge forms a
spring because the feed force will be broken line (B). In order to obtain
too large and, as a result, oval holes straight main cutting edges after web
may be obtained. thinning, corrective grinding is often
subsequently carried out. Corrective
The problems that arise from the grinding can be done to the entire chip
unfavorable working relationship of the side of the main cutting edge, or just a
chisel edge has spurred tool deve- part of it, so that a constant rake angle
lopment. Chisel edges have been is obtained during the operation. For
greatly diminished or totally eliminated. example, during the drilling of brittle
Instead the cutting edge passes in a materials it may be advisable to use a
radius towards the center of the drill drilling tool with a smaller rake angle
(A). along the whole cutting edge.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-12
1 A A B B A
B B B
A
A A
2
A
A
B A B
B
3 A
B A
A
A B B
B
A B

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-13
Tolerances for properties Positional tolerances (3) apply to

Properties for tolerances can be divided position/positioning in the workpiece,
up as follows: coaxiality and symmetry. Run-out (4)
applies to deviations in radial or axial
- Size directions on rotation.
- Surface texture
- Shape
- Direction 4
- Position A
- Run-out B
The tolerance shows how much the
actual outcome (A) differs from the
theoretical exactness (B).
Tolerances for shape (1) include B

straightness, flatness, roundness, cy- A
lindricity, profile shape and surface
shape. Specifications for direction (2)
can apply to demands on parallelity,
squareness and angular precision.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-14
lbs/inch2 gallons/min
D D
Cutting fluid pressure and volume to drill diameter
Drilling with modern cemented carbide that the machine be equipped with a
drills enables high material removal rotation stop. If the cutting fluid
rates to be achieved and creates large contains chip particles, the housing’s
volumes of chips. Chips are flushed seals may be cut and it will begin to
away with cutting fluid, supplied inter- rotate. The hoses for cutting fluid
nally or externally under high pressure. supply are then torn off and, on
The required pressure (lbs/inch2) and rotation, can cause serious injury.
flow (gallons/min) depend primarily
on the hole diameter but are also
affected by the machining conditions.
For instance, the workpiece material
has an influence on cutting fluid usage.
When cutting fluid is supplied inter-

nally, rotating drills require higher
cutting fluid pressure than non-rotating
drills due to the drop in pressure caused
by the effect of the centrifugal force.
But a certain drop in pressure in the
conductive system must also be taken
into account for non-rotating drills and
drills with external cutting fluid supply.
Therefore, it is important to check
that the pressure is at least at the
recommended level for the drill and
that there is a good margin at the tank.
When using holders with a housing

for cutting fluid supply, it is important Typical cutting fluid supply

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-18 13.19 Sida XI-15
Multi-hole drilling of large steel components
CUTTING FORCES AND POWER

The specific cutting force (ks - lbs/in2) lbs/in2 and for a normal aluminum
is important when calculating the feed alloy 109,000 lbs/in2.
force, torque and power required.
The specific cutting force is a The specific cutting force is obtained
measurement of machinability for a from tables where the value is mainly
particular material with a determined related to the workpiece material, the
rake angle and chip thickness. effective rake angle and the average
chip thickness. Specific cutting forces
The specific cutting force is defined as fall in size with increased positive rake
the tangential force required to cut a angle and increased average chip thick-
chip with a cross-section of .0015 in2 or ness. For each degree of increase in
the effective cutting force divided by the rake angle, the kc value decreases
the theoretical chip area. For carbon by 1-1.5%.
steel (C 0.8%) this value is 392,000

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-16
Reference elements
and tolerance fields
To obtain meaningful tolerances on a defined as the center line of the largest
property, the property itself must be inscribed cylinder (1), while the center
clearly identifiable both during manu- line of a shaft is defined as the center
facture and subsequent inspection. line for the smallest circumscribed
The tolerance must state a reference cylinder (2). In this way the position of
to which it can be related. The refe- abstract references are determined.
rence element can be concrete (R),
for instance a surface, an edge line or The property to which the reference
a hole, but it can also be abstract, applies is represented by a symbol in
such as a center line or a plane. the tolerance rectangle. The field within
which deviation can be accepted is
For abstract references there are theo- known as the tolerance field and con-
retical definitions in the standard. For sists of an area or a space, depending
example, the center line of a hole is on the property to which the tolerance

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-17
refers. The area or space is limited in Where nothing else is stated, shape,
various ways, for example: surface finish and direction can vary
within the tolerance field without the
- For size, the tolerance field consists component being deemed faulty.
of an area between two parallel
straight lines. When more than one reference is used,
- The tolerance field that designates it is important to rank them in order of
roundness consists of an area be- priority. This ranking is of considerable
tween two concentric circles. significance to the results obtained. In
Figure 1, reference A is given as the
- For straightness, the tolerance field reference of primary importance, while
consists of a space within a cylinder. in Figure 2 reference B is used as the
prime reference.
A A
1 B 2 B

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-18
The cutting forces that arise in drilling formula. The lead angle is the angle
act on the cutting edges, the drill point, between the main cutting edge and
the chip surfaces and the guiding lands the feed direction.
at the periphery of the drill.
The cutting force, which is considered Fp = 0.5 x kc x ap x fr x sin r (lbs)

to operate in the center of the
theoretical chip area, consists of three
components which act in tangential, Fc = kc x ap x fr (lbs)
radial and axial directions. They are
influenced by the workpiece material,
cutting depth, feed and tool geometry. The total tangential force (Fc - in lbs),
The sum of the axial force compon- or main cutting force, gives rise to the
ents is the product of the number of torque (M - in inch-lbs). Corresponding
cutting edges and the axial cutting to the feed force, Fc, is the product of
force per edge (Fpi). This gives rise to the number of cutting edges and the
the feed force or drilling pressure (Fp tangential cutting force per edge (Fci).
- in lbs). The feed force must be taken The torque is the sum of the moments
into consideration to ensure that the on each cutting edge. Therefore, the
spindle of the machine is not too weak total drilling moment to which the
and that its feed mechanism copes drill is exposed is the product of the
with the operation. The feed force tangential cutting force and the radius
increases with increased lead angle, to the center point of the chip area,
r, in accordance with the following rA.
Solid hole:
M = Fc x d (inch-lbs.)
2
r
Trepanning:
Fpi rA = d + ap = D + d (in2)
ƒz Fci 2 2 4
M = kc x ƒ x (D - d )
2 2
(inch-lbs)
12 8
FcNi
ap

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-19
D D
Fc
d Fc
rA
ƒz rA
ƒz
ap
ap
Drilling and trepanning force factors
Increased feed results in increased chip divided by 60 to convert it to seconds.
thickness which contributes accordingly
to a smaller specific cutting force. These formulas only give approximate
But at the same time, the chip area values, since the variances in speed
increases, so the total increased feed and rake angle along the edges are
contributes to larger tangential force not taken into account. Furthermore,
and larger torque. However, if the no consideration is given to the fact
point angle is increased, thus increasing that the friction forces, which arise at
the chip thickness, the tangential force the guiding edges due to chips sliding
and torque will be reduced as a result against the hole walls, influence the
of a smaller kc value. moment and power.
The drilling power (Pc - hp) is the

product of the drill’s turning moment
and its angular speed,
. With uniform
movement, the angular speed is 2π
times the spindle speed. If the spindle
speed is given in revolutions per
minute, the result must additionally be

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-20
In order to calculate the machine

power required (P - in hp) considera-
tion must be given to the power losses
Fc in the machine. The gross power re-
Fc quired can be calculated by dividing

the drilling power by the efficiency of
the machine, . The efficiency shows
what percentage of the power supplied
can be utilized.
Pc = M x
P = Pc (hp)

= 2π x n
APPLICATION OF DRILLING TOOLS

n = vc x 12 Faulty centering is the most common
πxD cause of short tool life and damage to
the drill. For applications in which the
P = Horsepower (for drilling) tool rotates, centering is achieved by
kc = Specific cutting force in tons/in2 pre-drilling a pilot hole, using a drill
bushing or by using a self-centering
P= D x ƒr x kc x vc (hp) drilling tool. The geometry of the self-
64 centering tool should guide the drill to
follow the center line throughout the
operation.
Tool centering is critical in drilling

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-21
For applications with a stationary drill fz1 = fz - x tan (90° - ) (in)

and a rotating workpiece, it is important 2
to ensure that the center line of the drill
fz2 = fz - x tan (90° - )
coincides with that of the workpiece.
(in)
If it does not, an oversized hole will 2
be obtained and the cutting edges will
be exposed to uneven loading.
This can be illustrated by a drill with

two cutting edges where the center fz2
deviation is . The feed per edge, fz, is
reduced by x tan (90° - half the point
angle) on the first edge and increased
by the same amount on the second. fz1
The high feed on the first edge results
in quick wear on the drill or overload, 90°- —
2
which leads to drill breakage.
High-productivity drilling of plate component

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-22
Dimensional tolerances
There are three types of dimensional transition fit (B) and interference fit
tolerance: (C). The basic measurement Ø gives
- numerical tolerances the exact diameter of the hole or
- general tolerances shaft. From this basic dimension an
- system tolerances. upper measurement (D) and a lower
one (E), known as limit measurements,
Numerical tolerances are sometimes are allowed. Together, the limit mea-
referred to as “wild tolerances” be- surements form the tolerance width (F).
cause they do not follow any system
but are added directly to the dimen- In accordance with the ISO system, the
sion. Example: .866 + .004/-.005 tolerance position of a hole is shown
in capitals and the tolerance position
For dimensions where tolerances are of a shaft in lower-case letters. J and
not of significance to the function, the JS plus j and js tolerances respectively,
designer’s drawing work is simplified by lie symmetrically around the basic
using general tolerances. This means dimension. Other tolerances will permit
that dimensions are given without tole- larger or smaller over and under sizes
rance information. Instead, a note on or, alternatively, a tolerance width in
the drawing describes what tolerances one direction only. The type of fit de-
are applicable for dimensions for which pends not only on the tolerance
tolerances have not been set. The fit widths for holes and shafts, but also
gives the dimensional difference be- on the mutual tolerance position of the
tween two related parts. This difference parts. The tolerance width or degree of
will give rise to a positive or negative tolerance is designated by a number.
play between the parts. A higher number indicates larger tole-
rance widths. With the ISO system
To facilitate design work there are the fit is indicated by a virgule ( / ) be-
ready-to-use system tolerances avail- tween the tolerance information relating
able for diametral fits. There are three to the hole and to the shaft, for
different types of fit: clearance fit (A), instance H8/h7.
A B C

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-23
d h7
ØD D H8
E
ØD
Cemented carbide drill with cutting fluid supply to evacuate chips in low-carbon
steel plate

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-24
Any difference between the center In applications with a rotating drill (B)
lines of the workpiece and the tool a funnel-shaped hole is obtained if the
causes oversized or undersized holes. run-out results in the center lines of
When the center lines are parallel it is the workpiece and tool crossing each
easy to measure the difference by sim- other. The relationship between 1
ply using a gauge. It is even possible to and 2 determines the shape of the
compensate for the difference. When funnel-shaped hole. When 1 corre-
the tool or workpiece is out of line, sponds with 2 the size of the hole
due to inaccuracy in the machine decreases for half the depth of the
spindle, chuck, tool holder or tool it- hole and then increases again. If 1 is
self, the center lines of the tool and greater than 2 the size of the hole
workpiece often cross. This can give decreases from the beginning of the
rise to problems with regard to both hole. If 2 is larger than 1 the size of
dimensional and shape tolerances. the hole increases. It is important to
check dimensions carefully here. The
top part of the hole in the latter case
In applications with a stationary drill, might be within the dimensional toler-
(A) an oversized hole may be obtained ances, but the hole is actually defective
if the center difference on engagement, and should not be approved when
1, is smaller than the center difference checking the dimensions.
at the end of the hole, 2. If 1 is
larger than 2 a funnel-shaped hole is
obtained.
1 < 2 1 > 2
A
1 1
2
2
Center difference effects with stationary drill

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-25
1 1
Center difference effects with rotating drill
Taylor’s principle A
Since the values of properties for
which tolerances have been set may
vary within a field, the tolerance con-
sists of two limits: a go limit and a
stop limit. The go limit (A) consists of B
the upper limit measurement. The ØD
stop limit (B) is the lower limit mea-
surement.
C
The go and stop limits are of great
significance for subsequent inspec-
tion of the component. Measurement
is often applied in accordance with
Taylor’s principle:
A go gauge (C) should have a shape

which permits inspection of the work- D
piece’s shape to its full extent. A stop
gauge (D) should have a shape which
permits inspection of the workpiece
at certain points.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-26
Diagram (A) shows adjustment of the

hole size when drilling with stationary B
indexable insert drills equipped with
one center insert and one periphery
insert. When the edges overlap each
other, eccentric positioning of the drill
can normally be accepted if the displace-
ment is such that the cutting edges are
parallel with the direction of dis-
placement. A small core at the center of
the tool is always obtained. If this core
is greater than .020 inch in diameter,
however, the balance of the drill will
be disturbed and the center insert and
body of the drill can be damaged.
The radial displacement of the center of

the drill can be used to adjust the hole
diameter. Since the workpiece rotates Larger diameter through drill displacement
and the tool is stationary, the drill will
continually cut at the same distance
D D D

D1 D2
D1 < D D2 > D
Radial displacement of drill

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-27
from the center of the workpiece. If hole diameter is obtained which is

the tool is positioned in such a way equal to the nominal drill diameter
that the outer insert produces a larger minus twice the displacement. When a
diameter (B), the hole diameter will be smaller diameter is required, the dis-
equal to two times the displacement placement must not be so large that
plus the nominal drill diameter. When the center insert passes the center of
the tool is positioned so that the outer the workpiece, since this would result
insert produces a smaller diameter, a in a core at the center of the hole.
1 1.9685+.004 / -0
2
+0 +0
- .004 - .004
Ø . 3858 Ø . 3858 Ø . 3818 Ø . 3818
1.9685+.004 / -0 Ø . 3937 Ø . 3937
X1 = 1.9645 + .3937 - .3818 = 1.9764

+.004 + .004
-0 -0
Ø . 3937 Ø . 3937
Measurement adjustment
Sometimes it is possible to exceed the On inspection, it is shown that the
specified tolerance limits when one or diameter dimension of the dowels lies
more measurements work in conjunc- on the stop limit (Ø.3858 - .004 =
tion. It is then necessary to ensure that .3818 inch) and at a center distance
the function requirements are met. of 1.9764 inch, which is .004 inch
When adjustments are made to mea- outside of the tolerance specified.
surements, subsequent inspections Since the hole diameters lie on their
are usually made with function gauges. go limits (Ø.3937 inch) and with
1.9645 inch between the center lines,
In Figure 1, the distance between the it will be possible to assemble the
center lines of the dowels is set at components.
1.9685 ±.004 inch. The diameter of the
dowels is set at Ø.3858 +0/-.004 inch. The function demand has been met
When assembled the component will fit and the component can be approved
into a disc with two holes. The distance even though the distance between
between the center lines of the holes is the center lines of the dowels does
set at 1.9685 ±.004 inch. The holes not meet the tolerance specified.
have a diameter of Ø.3937 +.004/-0 in.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-28
1 2 90° 3
270°
When drilling with stationary index- In order to achieve the best hole qua-
able insert drills it is possible, in lity it is recommended that the initial
certain cases, to undertake machining penetration surface of the workpiece
operations where the set-up would be at right angles to the tool.
normally be too weak if the drill were
only turned into a suitable position. With an inclined penetration surface
(A) the cutting edges will be unevenly
With the normal setting of the inserts, loaded, resulting in quicker wear of
a weak set-up means that the drill is the drill. An uneven load means that a
lifted. This puts the center insert at risk very stable tool is required in order to
of being damaged, since it inclines in cope with vibration and keep within
relation to the center line of the work- tolerances. To reduce the load, the
piece (1). feed should be reduced.
If oversized holes are acceptable, a 90° When penetrating a convex surface

rotation of the drill is recommended (B) the conditions are better since the
(2). center of the drill comes into contact
with the workpiece first, providing
If undersized holes can be accepted, a normal torque.
270° rotation is recommended (3).
When concave penetration surfaces
On the other hand if the drill is rotated (C) are drilled, the cutting engage-
180°, the core diameter increases. This ment varies depending on the radius
can cause damage to the drill. of the concave surface and the dia-
meter of the hole in relation to the
height of the drill point. If the radius

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-29
A B C D
of the concave surface is small in rela- vide sufficient accuracy. Modern self-
tion to the hole diameter, the peri- centering twist drills have too much
phery of the drill will be engaged first. room for play when seeking the center,
which results in oval holes. If index-
With asymmetry (D), the drill tends able insert drills with an asymmetric
to bend out from the center - as when geometry are used, deflection of the
penetrating against an inclined sur- drill can occur.
face - so the feed should be reduced.
In some cases, these problems can be
When machining several different dia- remedied by reducing the feed. The
meters in the same workpiece (E), it recommended procedure, however, is
should be noted that short hole drills to drill the larger hole first (1), then
are not designed for counterboring. the smaller one (2). Hole diameter (3)
Conventional twist drills do not pro- is drilled from the opposite side.
1 2 3
A
Drilling of several, different diameters

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-30
Roundness
Deviations in the roundness of a hole
are normally caused by deflection,
vibration, insufficient lubrication, wear,
etc. The “out of roundness” of a hole
normally consists of waves. The num-
ber of indentations and bulges can
vary from two to several hundred. in
rm
rm
Out of roundness is specified as the
difference between the largest and
ax
the smallest measured radii, measured
from a defined center point. However,
there are various ways of defining the
center of a hole:
High productivity drilling of heat exchanger plates

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-31
- The most common method (1) is to

define the center as the point at
which the smallest radial deviation
is obtained. This method is known
as Minimum Radial Separation
(MRS), or Total Indicator Reading
(TIR). 1 2
- (2) The Least Center Circle (LCC)
method defines the center point as
the center of the circle where the
sum of the squares on the radial
coordinates gives the smallest value.
- (3) The Maximum Inscribed Circle 3 4

(MIC)
Roundness can be measured in vari-
- (4) The Minimum Circumscribed ous ways but principally, a pin that
Circle (MCC) follows the internal diameter of a hole
or the external diameter of a shaft
If nothing else is stated, the round- when the workpiece rotates, is used.
ness value refers to the measurement The pin senses the variations in shape
in accordance with TIR, which gives and from this, a polar diagram can be
the smallest value. drawn and studied.
.0 0 0 5

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-32
1 2
Drilling of
cross-holes
When drilling holes that cross the axis Various criteria are used to indicate
of another hole (A) the drill will exit when tool wear necessitates regrinding,
from a concave surface and then be changing indexable inserts or replacing
forced back into a concave surface drills. Normally, surface texture and
again. During the transition there is tolerance are used as criteria but it is
a risk of chip evacuation problems also common for 80% of the estimated
occurring, so the safest procedure is drill tool-life to be established and
to drill the hole from two directions. used as criteria.
If, despite these problems, it is decided When drilling, there are normally two
to cross-drill the hole in one operation, types of wear, in addition to any built-
great emphasis must be placed on the up edge tendency: flank wear, which
stability of the tool. When exiting from occurs on the clearance side of the cut-
the concave surface the front part of ting edge (A), and crater wear, which
the drill loses the support of the walls of arises on the chip face (B). The amount
the hole. In such a case it is necessary of wear that can be permitted depends
for the drill body to be designed so on the hole diameter and tolerance.
that it provides the necessary support
until the drill head has entered the
workpiece on the other side of the
hole it crosses.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-33
itself to the workpiece or follows the

chips. This can result in increased
crater wear and, if the built-up edge
attaches itself to the workpiece, a
considerable deterioration in surface
B quality.
Increasing the cutting speed moves

the edge build-up area more towards
the center of the drill. In addition, the
A temperature increases with higher
cutting data and the capacity of the
Choosing optimal cutting data with cutting edge to resist wear is reduced.
regard to wear is like walking a tight- Higher feeds produce harder chip-
rope. The cutting speed and chip thick- breaking and, as a result, increased
ness vary along the cutting edge which wear on the cutting edges. When the
means that the edge build-up area feed is too low, long chips are obtained.
increases towards the center. BUE These can cause insert breakage. In
affects the geometry of the tool since addition, low feeds produce a small
the actual rake angle increases and feed angle and a large effective rake
the clearance angle is reduced. The angle that can give rise to cratering.
reduced angle means that flank wear
increases with the BUE, which, when The longest tool life is obtained by
formed, breaks free and either attaches adapting the cutting data so that the
wear obtained from the center to the
periphery is as constant as possible.
Studying the chip breaking area for
the tool concerned can provide some
guidance for selecting cutting data.
In horizontal machines, the core which

is formed at the center of the hole
Faulty centering is the common cause for

short tool-life

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-34
1 2
Core handling in trepanning
during trepanning will press down- insert. So that the positioning of the
wards against the inside of the tool. support does not cause problems with
Since there is always play between the the balance of cutting forces, the drill
core and the inner wall of the tool, the should be set-up so that the cutting
hanging core can damage the cutting edges are positioned in the vertical
edge closest to the center. When tre- plane.
panning short holes, dealing with the
core does not normally pose a pro- When trepanning with a non-rotating
blem. In other cases a hole can be drill, the core does not normally cause
drilled in the core and then a stable a problem provided that the cutting
mandrel or plug may be fitted as a edge is positioned in the horizontal
support. However, the cutting fluid plane (2). With horizontal drilling, this
flow and pressure are normally position ensures that the core will not
sufficient to protect the cutting edges fall against the cutting edges.
against the weight of the sagging core.
When trepanning in vertical machines
When the drill breaks through the the problem of the core dropping onto
workpiece the cutting fluid pressure the tool is eliminated. The force of gra-
will drop and, in certain cases, it may vity acting on the core is in the direc-
be necessary to stabilize the core to tion of the machine table where the
protect the cutting edges. workpiece is supported during the
operation.
As a special solution the tubular drill
body can be equipped with (1) spring- The factors which affect the toler-
loaded support pads for the operation. ances for the hole size, surface finish
The pads are positioned so that they and shape often result in cutting data
press the core away from the center combinations which cannot be met

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-35
P = D x fr x k c x vc
—————––
64
Factors affecting hole accuracy in drilling
simultaneously. In addition, the choice centering between the workpiece and

of machine may be limited due to the tool can be maintained without diffi-
stability, the need for a particular type culty.
of clamping and the power available. - Good chipbreaking is required, which
The choice of machine is also dictated - in turn is influenced by the workpiece
with respect to production economy - material, choice of tool, feed and
by the batch size and any before-and- cutting fluid.
after machining which may need to be
performed in the same clamping. When choosing a machine based on
Production planning work involves stability and power requirements,
several factors and it is necessary to consider the following basic factors,
choose the most suitable tool, cutting which are limited by machine stability
data, material and machine even if the and the power available:
choice means that individual para- - High feeds produce harder chip-
meters cannot be provided with the breaking, and therefore, shorter chips.
best possible conditions. The power and stability requirements
increase with higher feeds.
When great emphasis is placed on
good dimensional tolerance: - The workpiece material has a major
affect on the cutting forces (specific
- The workpiece should be machined cutting forces) and therefore affects
in an accurate machine where good stability and power requirements.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-36
Coordination Such an interpretation can only be

between tolerances made when the shape is oval, that is,
It is often thought that dimensional the number of indentations and bulges
tolerances will limit shape deviations are even. However, in most cases the
within the actual measurement length. waviness consists of an uneven num-
But this theory works under the ber of indentations and bulges.
assumption that Taylor’s measurement
principle is used. (A) If only a point When point measuring hole or shaft
measurement is made, (B) the shape sizes, the measured diameter can be
deviations can very well exceed the equal to that of the nominal one, re-
dimensional tolerance. gardless of where measurements are
taken on the workpiece, without the
One common fault when measuring hole being exactly round.
round surfaces is to interpret varia-
tions between the smallest and largest Due to variations in shape the effec-
diameters as a value of roundness. tive hole diameter will deviate from

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-37
D1 D2 D3
D1 = D2 = D3
0.84 D 0.95 D D
the one that is measured. To define - For a shaft, the effective external
effective diameter: diameter is equal to the diameter
of the smallest, roundest hole into
- For a hole, the effective diameter which the shaft fits.
is the measurement of the largest
go gauge that will fit in the hole.
Drilling tools designed to also make chamfers at holes

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-38
.004 in. .004 in.
.004 in.
Tolerances are set so that specifica- since they replace one another. A posi-
tions do not conflict with one another. tion can be given with a dimensional
If, for example, a deviation of .004 tolerance or a position tolerance but
inch is allowed for both the size and these two specifications do not have
the roundness, problems will occur. A the same meaning.
roundness tolerance of .004 inch will
allow a diameter variation of .008 inch A dimensional tolerance limits the
since shape deviations refer to radial tolerance field by straight lines, while
variations. a position tolerance limits the position
of the center line by the space in a
Dimensional tolerance and position to- circle or a cylinder.
lerances cannot be set simultaneously
丣 Ø .001 A B
B
L ± .008
L ± .008
L
A

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-39
- The geometry of the tool is of great - Good chipbreaking/chipforming is

significance to achieving satisfactory important as it allows for satisfying
chip formation but, at the same time, chip evacuation and helps to prevent
consideration must also be given to the chip jamming. Chips jamming occurs
stability of the machine and the avail- when chips are pressed into the
able power. machined surface, causing the surface
finish to deteriorate. It is, however,
- The choice of cutting fluid also has a more common for chips to force the
certain significance for chipbreaking. drill to shift laterally, thus impairing
In general, oil causes harder chip- the drill’s accuracy. The chipbreaking
breaking than emulsion. is influenced by the choice of tool,
feed, workpiece material and cutting
Surface texture is influenced by the fluid.
choice of tool, cutting data, workpiece
material and cutting fluid. The workpiece material, choice of tool
and cutting data all influence the
- Poor centering can cause the tool to requirements which are set for the
follow a crooked path, thus affecting stability of the machine and the power
surface texture. The workpiece should available.
be machined in an accurate machine
with sufficient stability, where good
centering between the workpiece and
tool can easily be maintained.
—————––
64
Factors affecting surface texture in drilling

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-40
—————––
64
Factors affecting shape accuracy in drilling
The shape tolerances specified for The tolerance for straightness is signi-
holes are roundness and straightness. ficantly more critical when drilling
The result when drilling to shape deep holes. For short hole drilling it is
tolerances is affected principally by the mainly chip evacuation that restricts
choice of tool, feed, material, depth of the hole depth with which this method
hole, wall thickness and clamping. can cope, but for deep hole drilling
straightness is the restricting factor.
When great emphasis is placed on In general, the best straightness is
close roundness tolerances, the tool obtained when both the drill and the
must provide sufficient stability for workpiece rotate. If this is not possible
the application in question. The shape a rotating workpiece should be chosen.
of the chisel edge gives a large feed The worst condition for obtaining
force, as do high feeds and materials straightness is drilling with a rotating
with high kc values. When the feed tool and a non-rotating workpiece.
force - which forms a pressure on the
spindle - is large, the machine spindle The choice of tool, feed and work-
may bend if the machine is too weak. piece material affects the stability
This may result in oval holes, parti- and power required. Along with the
cularly in thin walled components. clamping method used, these factors
will dictate the choice of machine.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-41
C HSS
2
1 Trend of cost per

component relative
Cm to machine cost for
various drill types
DRILLING TOOLS
Machining costs the need for pre-drilling guide holes
A drilling tool can be defined as a rota- and using drill bushings. This means
ting tool with one or more end-cutting that, together with the substantially
edges and one or more helical or higher stock removal speeds which
straight flutes. Common to all drilling are offered, the machining times
tools are the problems which can arise obtained are 3-4 times less than with
because the cutting speed varies from conventional twist drills.
zero at the center to a maximum at its
periphery. The chips which are formed With low machine costs per hour (Cm),
inside the machined hole must be of the indexable insert drill (1) is still the
such a shape that they can easily be least costly option with respect to ma-
removed without damaging the machining cost per component (C) since
chined surface. The choice of tool is indexable inserts can be changed 30-
determined by a number of parameters 40 times during the service life of the
such as the hole size, hole depth, the drill. However, indexable insert drills
tolerances required, the workpiece ma- do not cover the most common hole
terial, the production volume and the diameters, which means that conven-
machine available. tional high speed steel drills (2) still
dominate when drilling small holes. In
Drills are designed with the tip posi- modern machines with high machine
tioned in the center so that symmetry is costs, conventional HSS drills do not
obtained and the cutting forces balance meet the performance requirements
each other out. Short hole drilling tools which are set in order to obtain accept-
can be divided into two main groups: able machining economy. In addition,
regrindable drills and indexable insert HSS drills require time-consuming
drills. For small holes, ranging in dia- pre-drilling and finishing operations in
meter from .100 inch up to .500 inch, most applications. Therefore, the use
regrindable drills are used exclusively. of regrindable drills with modern drill
The tool geometry, specially developed geometries (3) is increasing in order
for modern short hole drills, provides a to compensate for investments in new
self-centering effect which eliminates machines which have high cost rates.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-42
1 2 3
4 5 6
The range of tools available today 4. Shape of the component

includes a large number of products
which can be used in different combi- 5. Workpiece material
nations to achieve optimal machining
results in each particular situation. 6. Machine power and stability
However, this continuously expanding
choice of products makes production
planning increasingly more complex, The first two parameters will deter-
particularly when searching for tools mine whether the tools should be
and machining data to optimize a parti- selected from the short hole drilling
cular application and improve quality range or the deep hole drilling range.
and economic production. When very close tolerances are re-
quired it may be appropriate to use a
deep hole drill even for short holes.
When drilling, the following para- Alternatively, the short hole drilling
meters must be established before the operation can be followed by counter-
tools and machining data can be boring or internal turning. A finishing
chosen: operation after drilling is normally the
most economic solution since special
1. Diameter and depth of hole machines are normally required for
deep hole drilling.
2. Tolerances required
3. Machine costs

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-43
Triple-spindle drilling of heat exchanger plates

SELECTING THE DRILL In the smallest diameter range, the
The first question to be answered when choice of tool will be determined by
choosing a drilling tool is whether an the tool material in relation to the
indexable insert drill or a regrindable machine capacity.
drill should be used. Indexable insert
drills cannot be used for small diameter Where it is possible to machine at high
holes. These applications demand re- spindle speeds, the properties of ce-
grindable drills. In any case, it is advis- mented carbide should be utilized in
able to first consider the diameter of order to achieve increased productivity.
the hole when choosing a suitable tool. When the machine capacity is low due
to poor stability, the capacity of solid
1. Small diameter holes carbide drills can not be utilized. A
Regrindable drills are available in a high speed steel drill - is a better
number of versions, the diameter choice.
ranges of which overlap.
HSS Solid Carbide

Choice of drill type is relative to machine capacity and
condition

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-18 13.20 Sida XI-44
IT9
IT Ra =
40 - 80in.
Carbide Tipped
Ra IT10
Ra =
120in.
Solid Carbide
vc, ƒ
Coromant
Carbide Delta
Tipped
ISO K
Coromant Delta C
Solid Carbide
When the diameter of the hole is with-

in the range covered by both solid
carbide and carbide tipped drills, then
the latter drill is normally the best
choice. Carbide tipped offers closer
tolerances with respect to both size
and surface finish, plus higher cutting
data in the ISO K area.
Carbide tipped drills

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-45
2. Medium-sized hole diameters

Indexable insert drills and carbide
tipped drills overlap in the diameter
range designated as medium-sized
hole diameters.
When close tolerances are required,

and/or the hole depth restricts the use
of indexable insert drills, then carbide
tipped is the only choice.
On the other hand, when the initial

penetration surface is not flat, if the
hole is pre-drilled, or if cross drilling
must be done, then the indexable
insert drill is the only option. These
drills will provide the lowest cost per
machined component, since they have
change-able inserts. This cost
advantage is particularly beneficial
when machining large series.
Indexable insert drill

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-46
3. Large diameter holes The choice of insert geometry is affected

Only indexable insert short hole drills by the cutting data and workpiece
are available for what is designated material chosen. The combination of
here as large diameter holes. The tool insert geometry/grade can be varied
selection mainly focuses on choosing between the peripheral insert and
the right insert geometry and grade. center insert in order to provide
When the machine power is limited, optimal performance.
trepanning drills are used instead of
solid drills. 4
1 1
2
3 3
vc
HB vc1 vc2 vc3

ISO CMC D
1 3 2 4 1 3 2 4 1 3 2 4
............ ......... ....... ....... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
............ ......... ....... ....... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-47
vc ISO CMC HB D vc ƒ
........ ....... ..... ..... ..... .....
........ ....... ..... ..... ..... .....
........ ....... ..... ..... ..... .....
found in actual test runs. For example,

ƒ if an application lies in the middle of
the specified cutting speed interval, it
must be assumed that the cutting speed
is medium. In any case, test machining
Indexable insert drills with several car- must be carried out in order to establish
tridges have peripheral inserts (1), in- an optimal cutting data combination to
ternal peripheral inserts (2), center in- achieve satisfactory chipbreaking and
serts (3) and internal center inserts (4). tool-life at any speed.
In the insert geometry/grade combina- High feed gives short chips which are
tion tables, there are recommendations easy to evacuate but, at the same time,
for low, medium and high cutting increases the heat and edge wear.
speeds. Different insert geometries Also, the machine power may be
and grades can be used in the center limited. If, for this reason, you do not
and peripheral inserts. However, when want to increase the feed, it is possible
tools with several cartridges are used, to reduce the cutting speed in order to
the same combination is usually obtain shorter chips.
recommended for the peripheral
inserts and both center inserts.
As with insert geometry/grade combi-

nations, cutting data recommenda-
tions can be obtained from tables.
When the choice of tool is being
made, different combinations of insert
geometry and grade are selected
depending on whether the cutting
speed is low, medium or high.
No precise guidelines can be given for Chips must be easy to evacuate when
determining where the borders between drilling at high penetration rates. The
low and medium, or medium and high flute design affects the capacity of the
cutting speeds lie. These must often be drill in various materials.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-48
Indexable insert drills

Short hole drills with indexable inserts The indexable insert can be triangular,
do not provide the same accuracy as round, trigon shaped or square. The
a modern drill geometry based on the inserts lie in pockets with a three point
twist drill, but offer high productivity support and are held securely in place
and are principally used for larger hole with well-dimensioned screws. For
diameters. larger hole diameters, the drill is
equipped with four overlapping inserts
The most common indexable insert which sit in replaceable cartridges.
drill has asymmetrically placed inserts Both the inserts and cartridges are
which overlap. A great advantage of easy to change using a normal Torx
this design is that the machining pro- screwdriver. For high stock removal
cess can be optimized by using capacity the insert should have strong
different insert grades and geometries cutting edges and a form-sintered
at the periphery than those used at chipbreaker.
the center. This type of indexable
insert drill can be used for both solid
drilling and trepanning.
An indexable insert drill with its rigid, helically designed shank. Cutting fluid holes
follow the helix and flutes to provide smooth chip evacuation.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-49
The indexable insert drill can cope feed should also be reduced when
with the initial penetration of convex, penetrating irregular surfaces and
concave, inclined and irregular sur- when crossing another hole in the
faces. For the initial penetration of workpiece, the diameter of which ex-
concave surfaces, the feed should be ceeds 1/4 of the drill diameter. In
reduced to 1/3 of the recommended order to avoid deflection of the drill,
value. This reduction also applies when pre-drilled holes should not be larger
the angular deviation of the surface to than 1/4 of the final hole diameter.
be penetrated is greater than 2°. The
D/4
Various initial penetration surfaces

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-50
Regrindable drills
The twist drill is the most common with modern tool materials, offer
short hole drill. There is, however, a economic machining in a single
considerable difference between con- operation to hole tolerances of IT9
ventional HSS drills, conventional ce- and a surface finish of Ra 40 inch.
mented carbide drills and drills with
modern drill geometries. There is no chisel edge because the
cutting edge curves in a radius
Modern drill geometries have radically towards the center, where the rake
changed the prerequisites for ma- angle decreases from a very high
chining. The self-centering capacity value down to zero degrees. In this
and close tool tolerances, combined way the problems of high feed forces,
Volume compensation may be necessary for rotating drills

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-51
and an ineffective cutting process in an unchanged pump pressure.

the vicinity of the drill tip, are avoided.
Hard cut drills are cemented carbide
The cutting geometry gives the chip a drills with straight flutes designed to
radial movement at the center which remove broken screw taps, hardened
reduces the risk of edge build-up. In bolts, etc.
batch production, cemented carbide
drills with a diameter of less than .197 Hard cut drills can also be used
inch should be used with caution for drilling in difficult-to-machine
because they are considerably more materials such as chilled cast-iron,
brittle than corresponding HSS drills. stellite and glass.
TiN coated high speed steel drills with
have been developed for small Before drilling out a broken screw tap,
diameter holes. a center reference is first drilled in the
surface of the tap. This center drilling
When drilling with rotating drills, the is done with a larger drill than the one
drop in the cutting fluid pressure is used for the actual drilling-out. After
greatest in the rotating holder. A volume the screw tap has been drilled, the
compensator must be mounted when remains of the tap are removed with a
a holder with a housing for cutting fluid pointed tool.
supply is used together with carbide
tipped drills. This provides twice the
flow of cutting fluid through the drill at
Hard-Cut drilling

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-52
Stack drilling
The stack drill is excellent for drilling continue outwards to the periphery. It
stacked individual components and was previously impossible to stack
saves space in the tool magazine. drill in applications with air gaps be-
The drill body of the stack drill is tween the stacked components. The
designed in the same way as the in- end disc which was formed at the exit
dexable insert drill with the exception from the first component prevented
of inserts and insert seats. The center all further drilling and resulted in insert
insert of the stack drill is positioned breakage. By using triangular inserts
so that the center point begins cutting in the inner cartridge no core is formed
first. Furthermore, the insert is posi- and the small end disc which forms
tioned somewhat in front of the peri- when drilling a through-hole can be
pheral insert. This design enables easily removed down any of the large
machining to start at the center and chip channels.
DIAMETER ADJUSTMENT WITH DRILL

The diameters of indexable insert and which is supplied with the eccentric
stack drills in the .500 to 1.614 inch sleeve, is used to tighten the drill. The
diameter range can be adjusted. The retaining screw should be located
size of the adjustment is equal to the against the recess in the shank of the
hole diameter ± .012 inch. drill.
When an eccentric sleeve (A) is used When adjusting the diameter, the re-
it is important to choose a tool holder taining screw is loosened and the ec-
which is one size larger. The eccentric centric sleeve is turned either to the
sleeve is mounted in the holder in right, in order to increase the diameter,
such a way that the driving shoulder or to the left to reduce it.
of the holder fits into the recess on
the flange of the sleeve. The drill then
fits into the sleeve and the screw,

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-53
Stack drilling
so that the original point geometry,

and therefore the design performance,
is retained. When choosing drills, look
for a drill that is simple to regrind. In
addition, to facilitate regrinding, restrict
the number of different point geo-
metries in the tool store of the work-
shop.
Coated drills can be reground but,

since the TiN coating disappears, the
tool-life will be somewhat shorter and
the cutting speed should be reduced
by around 20% after regrinding.
Regrinding modern drills When regrinding a drill, it is important
Following are instructions on how to make sure that the characteristic
the regrinding of modern twist-type radius over the center is not damaged
drills is performed. The object of this in the process.
is not to provide a complete service
manual, but to give an insight into Regrinding can be done in an ordinary
the geometry developments of drills. machine where the drill is clamped in
a chuck. The clamping should allow
There is a large number of different indexing and the total run-out dimen-
edge geometries which are specially sion on the diameter of the drill must
adapted for machining in modern ma- not exceed .0008 inch.
chines and in various types of ma-
terial. Most of these can be reground,
but it is important to follow instructions

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-54
REGRINDING OF DRILLS FROM SANDVIK COROMANT

r A
2 r
A
r = lead angle
2 r = point angle
Regrinding Delta-S HSS drills
If wear permits, the drill should be If the center of the drill is damaged
reground so that the geometry, which HSS drills can be reground using the
does not have a chisel edge, is re- same methods as for conventional
tained. twist drills. The chisel point must be
thinned (A) and, since a geometry
Both the main cutting edges are re- with a chisel edge is obtained, the
ground so that point angle (=2r) is feed should be reduced by 25%. The
reduced. The amount that the angles cutting speed should be reduced by
are changed depends on the wear to approximately 20%.
the drill but the change should be
kept to a minimum. When grinding, the
drill should be set so that a clearance
angle of 7° is assured.
With the drill’s combination of depth capacity/tool rigidity, this stainless steel component
was able to be drilled in one set-up on a lathe

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-55
Regrinding Hard cut drills

For regrinding Hard cut drills, a metal The two main cutting edges are ground
bonded diamond or silicon carbide first (2) with the fixture turned 30°.
wheel, used with a simple fixture Then both surfaces are ground at a
specially produced for the Hard cut 60° angle (3). The fixture is then placed
drill, is recommended. A special setting on its side and turned 30°. Check that
block is used to set the drill in the the drill point is still in the center after
fixture correctly. grinding.
The drill is placed in the fixture in such

a way that the angles of the drill line
up with the corresponding angles on
the fixture. The fixture and the setting 1.
block are positioned on a level sur-
face and the drill is lined up using the
setting block (1). The drill is then
securely clamped with the clamping 60°
screw on the top of the fixture.
2.
30° 30°
3.
60°
30° 30°

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-56
1. 2.
B
B 140°+- 2°0'
7°
A
3.
36°
Regrinding Delta-C solid

carbide drills from its original position as shown in (1).
The geometry for Delta-C differs from Then grind the rake angle to 36°. Be
Delta-S and Coromant Delta. Delta-C careful not to destroy the position and
drills have a positive rake angle going dimensions of the chisel edge b (see 4).
in to the center. When regrinding Delta- Rotate the drill 180° further and repeat
C the primary clearance angle is ground the grinding procedure.
to 7°, the rake angle to 36° and the (4) Turn the drill back (clockwise) 30°
secondary clearance angle to 20° in and grind the marked chamfer so that
the following way: the angle is 30°. Rotate the drill 180°
(1) Roughly set the drill in the horizon- and repeat the procedure. It is impor-
tal plane by using reference points A tant that the 30° angle be maintained
(center) and B (worn edge). In order to on both sides of the chisel edge. The
obtain exact reference points, grind the length of the chisel edge (b) varies
primary clearance until all signs of wear with the drill diameter (D) as follows:
or damage have been removed. D (in) b (in)
(2) Check that the corners, point B, on .1180 - .3149 .0060 ± .004
the primary clearance land are sharp. .3153 - .4724 .0078 ± .004
Set the drill in its horizontal plane by .4728 - .5000 .0098 ± .005
using the reference points A and B. (5) Place the drill in the horizontal posi-
Turn the drill up approx. 10° and grind tion as shown in (2). Then grind the
the primary clearance angle 7°. Rotate secondary clearance angle (E) to 20°.
the drill 180° and repeat the grinding (6) When the Delta-C is honed after
procedure. grinding, the negative chamfer (F)
(3) Turn the drill 40°, counterclockwise should be .006 - .010 inch.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-57
4.
.003 A
30°
A .004 A
5.
140°+- 2°0'
20°
E
6.
F

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.43 Sida XI-58
r
2 r
R
w

r = lead angle
2 r = point angle
Regrinding Coromant Delta

carbide tipped drills is recommended for the lead angle (r).
As with the regrinding of Delta S, the After grinding both main cutting edges,
lead angle is changed with regrinding. the negative chamfer should be honed.
The drill should be set for a clearance The width of the chamfer (w), should
angle of 8° and a starting value of 21° be of equal size on both sides.

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-59
ALIGNMENT OF THE DRILL

In order to achieve specified tolerances
.001
it is important that the centering
between the workpiece and the drill
comply with manufacturer instructions.
For Delta S, the total run-out between

the tool and workpiece must not exceed U øD +- .008 inch
.0008 inch in applications with a non-
rotating drill. This is in order to obtain
a tolerance of IT 10. The same recom- .004 - .008
mendations apply for Coromant Delta
to obtain a tolerance of IT 9. For Delta
C the total run-out must not exceed
.001 inch in order to obtain a tolerance
of IT 10. This applies to both rotating
and non-rotating drills.
.0008
.0008
For U-drills, any misalignment between

Coromant Delta IT 9
Coromant Delta S IT10 the tool and the workpiece at the
center must not exceed .001 inch in
applications with a non-rotating drill.
This is in order to obtain a hole tole-
.001 rance of ± .008 inch. When a U-drill
with cartridges is used a total run-out
of only .0008 inch is permitted. For an
indexable insert drill with cartridges, a
misalignment between the tool and
the workpiece of .008 inch at the
center is permitted. For trepanning
drills, it is necessary for the peripheral
.001 insert to be set .004 - .008 inch behind
the center insert. This is done with the
axial adjustment screw in the cartridge.
Coromant Delta C IT 10

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-60
15 17
21
16 4 17
22
(4)
3 2
1
20
8 2 15
19
7 1 2 12
7
13
5 6 23
18
14
Nomenclature of 10 11 11
basic drill geometry
1. Chisel edge
2. Chisel edge corner
3. Web 9
4. Chisel edge angle
5. Chisel edge length
6. Web diameter or web thickness
7. Lip
8. Flank
The flank can be divided into facets

and web thinning:
9. First facet
10. Second facet
11. Third facet/web thinning/ Lip
correction
12. Outer corner 18. Depth of body clearance

13. Lip length 19. Face
14. Drill diameter 20. Lip clearance angle
15. Land 21. Helix angle
16. Heel 22. Point angle
17. Body clearance 23. Flute

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-61
CUTTING FLUID PRESSURE

AND CUTTING FLUID VOLUME
The extreme conditions for chip
evacuation which apply when drilling
PSI mean that correct cutting fluid
gal/min
pressure and volume are necessary in
order to obtain a reliable machining
process and good quality. Diagrams
are available which give guide values
D D but these must sometimes be adjusted
to suit the machining conditions, for
instance, type of material.
SUMMARY - CHOICE OF TOOL FOR DRILLING

The table shown below can be used as a guide for choosing tools for various
applications.
• Predrilled holes
• Uneven initial
D penetration
Low surface.
machine • Cross cutting
L capacity • Low cost/com-
ponent.
øD (inch) L Ra
Coromant
.098-.472 5xD 120in. IT 10 X Delta S
Coromant
.118-.500 5xD 120in. IT 10 Delta C
3.5 x D 40-80in. IT 9 Coromant

.374-1.181 Delta
5xD 80-160in. IT 9
.689-2.283 250- T-MAX U

2.5 x D IT 10 X
2.362-3.150 400in. solid drill
Adjustable T-MAX U
2.362-4.330 2.5 x D 250- maximum X trepanning
400in. .040 inch on drill
the diameter

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-62
Trepanning a large propeller axle where the tubular component gives rise to convex and
concave entries and exits

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-63

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-64
Drilling of automotive components

19158 11_Drilling 07-04-12 10.44 Sida XI-65
Drilling of plate components

19158 12_DeepDrill 07-04-12 10.53 Sida 1
DEEP-HOLE DRILLING
INTRODUCTION 2 PERFORMANCE FACTORS 35
DRILLING METHODS 2 THE APPLICATION OF
DEEP-HOLE DRILLING TOOLS 42
DEFINITIONS AND
APPLICATION TECHNIQUES 6 CHOICE OF DRILLING SYSTEM 43
CUTTING FORCES AND POWER 25 SUMMARY - CHOICE OF TOOL
FOR DEEP-HOLE DRILLING 64
MACHINE EQUIPMENT 27
Basic back-up:
Primary functions 8 Storage, maintenance
Cutting fluid and and waste disposal 41
the environment 12 The gundrilling system 46
Cutting oils 22 The ejector system 53
Types of cutting fluid 24 Drills with brazed tips 56
Water-soluble cutting oils 26 STS 59
Synthetic and Drills with indexable inserts 60
semi-synthetic cutting fluids 29 Re-grinding gundrills 62
Choice of cutting fluid 34
Re-use of cutting fluid 38
19158 12_DeepDrill 07-04-12 10.53 Sida XII-2
DEEP-HOLE DRILLING
INTRODUCTION
Ejector
Most of the basic theory which was Therefore, reliability during the opera-
covered in the chapter on drilling also tion is usually given high priority. The
applies to deep-hole drilling. This tools and drilling systems which are
chapter will therefore complement the developed to satisfy these requirements
previous one and primarily deal with offer qualities which, in certain applica-
the techniques and problems which tions, are desirable even when drilling
are particularly associated with deep- short holes.
hole drilling.
Deep-hole drilling is characterized by

high material removal rates plus high DRILLING METHODS
accuracy with regard to the straightness The term ‘deep hole’ is applied to the
of the hole, dimensional tolerances and machining of holes with a relatively
surface finish. The extreme conditions large hole depth to hole diameter ratio.
which apply when drilling deep holes This primarily includes hole depths
place high demands on the tool, ranging from 5 times the diameter up
machine and associated equipment. to more than 100 x the diameter. The
high material removal capacity of the
Deep-hole drilling applications are tool, plus the ability to obtain dimen-
performed in a wide range of industries, sional tolerances from IT 8 and surface
such as steel, nuclear power, oil, gas finishes from Ra 40 µinch, means that
and aerospace. Here, high demands are this method can sometimes be a com-
placed on quality as well as dimensional petitive solution even when drilling
and shape tolerances. Workpieces can hole depths as small as 2 x the hole
be very expensive, so rejections often diameter.
have costly economic consequences.
XII-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

away all the material in the form of

L chips, a core is left in the center of the
hole. When drilling expensive materials,
the core is often utilized for other
purposes, such as static tensile test
D specimens or material analysis.
In deep holes, certain problems can

L=5-100 x D arise during insert changes. If a problem
IT 8-10 does arise due to insert changes, the
Ra 40 - 120inch trepanning tool must be removed
from the workpiece in order to
Large hole depths increase the demand replace inserts. Due to the weight of
on both tools and techniques to obtain the hanging core, however, it can be
good chipbreaking, lubrication, cooling difficult to guide the drill back into
and chip evacuation. When drilling the drilled hole again.
large holes the necessary cutting fluid
supply and chip removal are obtained
by using specially developed deep- 1.
hole drilling systems.
Deep-hole drilling operations are

normally performed in special deep-
hole drilling machines which are
designed to provide a choice of set ups:
with rotating workpiece, rotating tool, 2.
or both workpiece and tool rotating.
The most common set-up used is one
where the workpiece rotates and the
tool supplies the linear feed movement.
Three different drilling methods are

used for deep-hole drilling:
3.
Solid drilling (1) is the most common
method for smaller diameters. This
involves drilling a hole in solid material
in one single operation.
Trepanning (2) is used principally for

large diameter holes since the power
requirement is lower than for solid
drilling. Trepanning is also performed
in one operation but, instead of drilling Drilling, trepanning and counterboring
MODERN METAL CUTTING XII-3

STS
Counterboring a pre-drilled hole (3) is Pull boring is a counterboring opera-

normally used to obtain better surface tion used for machining tubes. The
finish and tolerances when machining tool cuts the chips as it is pulled out
forged, cast, pressed or extruded com- of the workpiece. When equal wall-
ponents. If the machine power is in- thickness is required, the tool follows
sufficient for solid drilling in one the existing hole. When pull boring is
operation, the hole can be pre-drilled performed to straighten a hole, the
with a smaller solid drill and then tool follows the center line of the
counterbored to the desired diameter. machine.
Gundrilling

STS
EJECTOR
When drilling, it is of the utmost im- principle is utilized with the gundrill
portance to maintain satisfactory chip system where the chips are removed
breaking and to ensure that the chips through a V-shaped groove along the
can be conveyed from the hole without outside of the drill.
affecting the machined surface. The
greater the hole depth is, the more 2. The cutting fluid is supplied extern-
demanding and difficult it is to achieve ally and chips are transported through
disturbance-free chip evacuation. the tool. Two different systems are
used in accordance with this principle:
There are two principle methods for STS (Single Tube System) and the
supplying cutting fluid and controlling Ejector system, which is a twin-tube
chip conveyance: system.
1. The cutting fluid is supplied inter-

nally through the tool and the chips
are transported externally through a
groove in the shaft of the tool. This

fz
ap vc
D vf
n
hx
fz
h2
␸
h1
DEFINITIONS AND vc = x D x n (ft/min)

APPLICATION TECHNIQUES 12
The basic concepts of spindle speed,
cutting speed, feed, cutting depth, chip A = ap x fz (in2)
area, etc., covered in the chapter on V = A x vc x 12 (in3/min)
drilling are also applicable to drilling
deep holes. hx = fz x sin (in)
2
Indexable insert and brazed carbide drilling heads

The primary concerns when drilling to the Ejector system. With STS, the
are to obtain satisfactory chipbreaking quantity of cutting fluid passing
and to remove the chips from the through the drill is approximately
cutting edges of the drill without twice as great, with higher pressure
damaging the tool or workpiece. As than when the Ejector system is used.
with short hole drilling, chipbreaking is This provides better chipbreaking
influenced by the workpiece material, and, even with varying chip lengths,
the tool geometry, the cutting speed, the chips can be removed without
the feed and the choice of cutting fluid. jamming.
With deep-hole drilling the choice of
drilling system is also important. Ejector drilling is an efficient, self-
contained system that does not
In materials where problems with chip- require the more complex sealing and
breaking can arise, STS is preferable pressure arrangements of STS.
vf vc

CUTTING FLUIDS
Primary functions
High temperatures are generated in the which continually rub on the surface
metal cutting zones and high friction of the workpiece.
forces arise at the point of contact The energy which must be supplied to
between the tool and the workpiece. deform the metal when forming chips
In many cases this would lead to un- causes high temperatures in the cutting
acceptable results if the machining was zone. Tool wear is very much affected
performed without cutting fluid, the by the temperature, so efficient cooling
primary functions of which are to is important in order to extend the life
lubricate, cool the tool pads and of the tool edge and pads.
transport chips away from the
cutting area. A
When two surfaces slide past one
another without lubrication, uneven
points on the surfaces will rub against
each other (A). This means that either
the material will be heated by friction
or that pieces will be worn free from B
the surfaces. The lubricating properties
of the cutting fluid reduce the wear
between the workpiece and the tool
by separating the surfaces from one
another (B). In deep-hole drilling,
lubrication is of great importance for
reducing wear on the support pads,

R
1 2 3
In the diagram above, the specific The machined surface must not be
surface texture, (R), is illustrated as a damaged by chips and other particles
function of the edge temperature, (T). which break free during the machining
The worst finish is obtained with process. Therefore the cutting fluid is
extensive edge build-up (2). At lower used to remove this material in an
temperatures, there is what is known efficient way. This is particularly im-
as a reaming zone (1) where the surface portant with deep-hole drilling since
is more even. chips and particles can become
embedded in the machined surface
The best surface finish is obtained in by the pressure of the tool’s support
the free cutting zone (3). When there pads. Chip forming is facilitated in
is a risk of edge build-up various mea- certain materials by using a drilling
sures can be taken to change the edge system which produces a high cutting
temperature. These depend upon the fluid pressure. Also, high cutting fluid
circumstances: If the edge temperature pressure can help prevent the formation
is close to the free cutting zone, the of large built-up edges.
risk of edge build-up can be reduced
by increasing the cutting data, thereby To summarize, the cutting fluid performs
increasing edge temperature. At lower the following functions in deep-hole
edge temperatures, one possible drilling:
solution is to use a cooling cutting
fluid to reduce the temperature and - Lubricates and increases the service
thus avoid the edge build-up zone. life of the tool’s support pads and
Although a cutting fluid with a strong cutting edges
cooling effect can be used when the - Cools the drill head with pads, there-
edge temperature lies in the free cut- by increasing its resistance to wear
ting zone, if the temperature is close to - Removes the chips
the edge build-up zone, such a cut- - Facilitates chipbreaking in certain
ting fluid can increase the risk of edge materials
build-up. - Prevents built-up edge formation

A B
b
Indexable insert type drills are cutting edge will work very in-
normally provided with form-sintered effectively at the center of the drill
chipbreakers (A). In deep-hole drilling, where the cutting speed is zero. At
where machining conditions are more the same time, the clearance angle
difficult than for short holes, de- reduces towards the center, creating a
tachable chipbreakers are used when risk of rubbing between the tool and
chipbreaking problems occur (B). the walls of the hole. In order to avoid
Reducing the chipbreaker width makes these problems in deep-hole drilling,
shorter chips (C). The cutting speed an asymmetric tool geometry is used
reduces from the periphery to the and the point of the drill is displaced
center. This means that the length of from the center. The clearance to the
the chips reduces from the periphery to insert increases while the axial pressure
the center. Therefore, in order to obtain at the point of the drill decreases.
consistent chipbreaking, the width of
the chipbreaker (b) is reduced from However, the asymmetric design means
the center outwards. the cutting forces are not balanced.
Therefore, in order to absorb the
The cutting geometry in deep hole resulting radial cutting forces, these
drilling is generally the same as other unbalanced drills are provided with
drilling geometries. Since the cutting support pads to support (A) and guide
speed is dependent on the diameter (B) the tool during the operation. The
and reduces from the periphery, the force acts between the support pad

and the guide pad. The force acts

closest to the support pad. By locating
the cutting edge on both sides of the
center line of the drill, a large per-
centage of the force is neutralized by
the support pad.

D
E
B
E
Cutting fluid and the environment

Cutting fluid should primarily provide cutting fluid should be suitable for
good lubrication and cooling but there all, or at least most of the materials,
are a number of other requirements reducing the need to change cutting
which must be taken into account fluids. Of particular importance is
when choosing a cutting fluid: the risk of corrosion attack with
non-ferrous materials, for instance,
- The cutting fluid must not produce copper, brass and aluminum.
unpleasant side effects like smells
or allergic reactions, (A). - The cutting fluid must not cling or
stick causing the chips and particles
- It should be able to cope with high to become attached. This makes
pressure equipment, such as centri- cleaning the tank more difficult and
fuges, without foaming (B). can ruin the workpiece surface (E).
- The cutting fluid must not dissolve - Most machines leak oil. Modern
paint thereby affecting the coating machines can leak about 1/4 gallon
on the machine (C), nor should it per day. Therefore, it is preferable
corrode seals. that the cutting fluid be able to
dissolve leakage oil without its per-
- The cutting fluid must not be the formance deteriorating (F).
cause of corrosion attacking the
workpiece (D). Since a variety of
materials are usually machined, the

guide the drill against the surface of

the drilled hole.
The drill starts in a drill bushing which

guides and supports the drill from the
initial penetration until the support
pads bear on the drilled surface.
The drilling of deep holes should pre-

ferably not start or finish in inclined
surfaces. The Ejector system can be
used if inclined initial penetration is
necessary but then the design of the
Due to the large ratio of hole depth to drill bushing should correspond with
hole diameter, plus the accuracy which the inclination of the workpiece. In
is required, the drill will need to be addition, an extra support pad is re-
supported during the actual machining commended with inclined penetration
process. Therefore, deep-hole drilling and also when drilling cross holes.
support pads are used, not only to bal-
ance the cutting forces but also to
STS

DH6 Dh6
(D- .0008)
R .016 in.

DG6 Dh6
(D-.0012)
The demands for a particular kind of accordance with ISO G6/h6 is recom-
drill bushing vary depending on the mended. This is equal to a minimum
drilling system used. play of .0002 inch. The drill bushing
should be made of a hardened material,
With an internal cutting fluid supply preferably cemented carbide, since this
(gundrilling), a fit tolerance in accord- gives a longer service life. Hardened
ance with ISO H6/h6 is recommended. bushings should have a hardness of
This provides a minimum play of .0002 60-62 HRc. The permitted wear on
inch. Preferably, the drill bushing should the drill bushing depends on the tole-
be made of cemented carbide and rance of the hole, but .001 inch is
should be changed when its diameter normally allowed with an external
has worn more than .0008 inch. cutting fluid supply.
With gundrilling, any center hole in

the workpiece must have a smaller dia-
meter than that of the drill. Otherwise
chip jamming in the space between the
workpiece and the drill bushing can
damage the tool (A). If it is not possible
to reduce the size of the center hole, a
special bushing which guides the drill
a little way into the pre-drilled hole
should be used (B).
With an external cutting fluid supply

(STS and Ejector drilling) a fit tole-
rance between the drill and bushing in Ejector

.200 in.
.400 - .600 in.

.040 in.
When the Ejector system is used, no since the support pads are relatively
seal is required between the work- short, the distance should not exceed
piece and the drill bushing. The drill .040 inch to ensure good initial
bushing should be positioned as close penetration. For an efficient cutting
to the workpiece as possible and, fluid supply, the length of the drill

the tool continually lies in the same

position in the drill bushing. By
making a notch in the drill bushing,
contact between the peripheral insert
and the drill bushing can be prevented.
The centering between the drill and

workpiece affects the dimensional
accuracy of the hole. Therefore, the
center line of the drill bushing should
not deviate more than .0008 inch
from the center line of the workpiece.
STS
However, even if the center line of
the drill bushing and that of the
bushing should be at least .200 inch workpiece coincide, it must be noted
longer than the length that the drill that too large a drill bushing causes
head extends in front of the drill tube. center divergence between the drill
However, the guiding length in the tool and the workpiece.
drill bushing need not be longer than
.400-.600 inch, depending on the drill A rotating workpiece/non-rotating
diameter. drill is the most common set-up in
deep-hole drilling. With this set-up any
For applications with a rotating drill, center divergence between the drill
it is important that the drill’s support bushing and the workpiece results in a
pads bear on the drill bushing. Other- bellmouth entrance to the hole with a
wise, the peripheral insert will cut into wavy surface.
the drill bushing and enlarge it. This
means that the drill will not get Assume that the centerline diver-
sufficient support during initial pene- gence is for an application with a
tration. However, when machining is rotating workpiece and a stationary
performed with a non-rotating drill, drill. The cutting forces will press the
.0008
Centering of drill

1.
D-2
2.
D+2
support pad against the drill bushing, support pad enters the hole the center
causing too small a hole diameter at divergence will be displaced towards
the entrance to the hole (1). When the the peripheral insert and make a hole

3.
D-2
which is too large (2). When a drill In applications where the drill rotates,
with a support pad (3) is pressed the center divergence will affect the
against an enlarged hole diameter, the positioning of the hole in the work-
center divergence will be displaced piece. With counterboring operations,
again, this time towards the support uneven loading on the cutting edges
pad, causing a ring formation on the occurs. In long, slender workpieces the
surface. This waviness diminishes radial forces can cause deflection and
successively since the support pads vibration which will impair the quality
press down the ring so that it becomes of the hole.
smaller and disappears after reaching
approximately 5 times the length of
the support pads.
If the center divergence is displaced

towards the peripheral insert, a funnel- A
shaped entrance is obtained with a ring
formation which begins with a dia- A
meter that is too large. The distance
between the rings (A) depends on the
type of support pad used. A

.20
+.004
D +.002
⬇ .39
+0
D -.004
Pilot hole method
Ejector drilling can, in certain cases, In cases where diameter accuracy is

be performed without a drill bushing. not critical, Ejector drilling can be
Instead a pilot hole is drilled, which is performed without previous counter-
counterbored to ensure that the dim- boring of the pilot hole. However, in
ensional tolerances and straightness this case the Ejector drill begins to cut
are obtained with the subsequent from the entrance of the hole and a
Ejector drilling. bushing must be used to prevent cut-
ting fluid loss. If a pilot hole is used, it
The pilot hole should be at least .20 should be .39 inch deep and maintain
inch longer than the length of the drill a tolerance of 0 to - .004 inch.
head in front of the drill tube. The
hole should be within a tolerance of
+.002 to +.004 inch.

In order to maintain lubrication and

cooling when drilling through-holes, a STS
capsule (A) can be fitted over the
hole. shafts in one pass. It is necessary,
however, to have one drill bushing for
With Ejector drilling, the cutting fluid each penetration surface in order to
is supplied in a “closed” system be- guide the drill tool.
tween an inner and an outer tube.
This means that this technique can be
used with interrupted drilling without
any cutting fluid loss, for instance, in
operations such as machining crank-
Ejector drilling is a closed system with two tubes

Cutting oils
Cutting oils have good lubricating - Mineral oils.
properties and provide good pro- - Fatty oils.
tection against corrosion but do not - Mixtures based on mineral oil and
provide as efficient cooling as water- fatty oil.
based cutting fluids. Neat cutting oils, - EP (extreme pressure) oils.
meaning oils which are not mixed
with water, can be divided into the Fatty oils are based on animal or
following main groups: vegetable fats, for instance, colza oil.
They are fatty and provide very good

machining, the additives of fatty oil

do not provide sufficient lubrication.
Fatty mineral oil is primarily used in
applications where the goal is to
improve the surface finish by means of
increased lubrication, for instance,
when machining harder brass and
copper and where more active addi-
tives cause corrosion attack.
In applications where the cutting

forces are high, the cutting fluid must
provide lubrication even when there is
lubrication but offer poor resistance great pressure between the sliding sur-
to welding. Today they have been faces. In order to cope with this, cut-
replaced by mineral-based oils, partly ting oils with EP additives are used for
because fatty oils are expensive and difficult machining.
difficult to get but, above all, because
there are now additives that can be Such additives form compounds with
mixed with mineral oil to provide a the metal of the sliding surfaces. The
substantially more efficient cutting effect takes place at those points
fluid. where any unevenness in the surface
breaks through the film of oil. The
Mineral oil is used either neat or mixed. compound forms a firm lubricant
Neat mineral oil has very good lubri- which prevents welding between the
cating properties and provides very opposing peaks on the surfaces. The
good protection against corrosion. Be- additives consist of sulphur, chlorine
cause its cooling properties are not and phosphor compounds which react
so effective, mineral oil is primarily at high temperatures to form metallic
used for lighter machining, for instance, sulphides, chlorides and phosphides.
in brass, cast-iron and light alloys.
In order to cope with machining

operations where the loading between
the workpiece and tool sets greater
demands on the cutting medium’s
bearing strength, mineral oil can be
mixed with additives of fatty oil.
Additives of fatty oil provide a thin
coating with high bearing strength and
low shearing resistance. This coating
provides lubrication and prevents
friction between the tool, chips and
workpiece, even when the film of oil
has broken down. However, in difficult

Types of cutting fluid

Cutting fluids can be divided into two oil. To call a cutting fluid water-soluble
main groups: is actually a misnomer since oil is not
- Neat cutting oils soluble in water. The oil is dispersed
- Water-soluble cutting fluids as small drops in the fluid (A) and is
stabilized by means of additives
In order to have good cooling pro- known as emulsifiers.
perties the cutting fluid must have a
high temperature diffusion capacity. Synthetics contain no oil but consist
Water meets this requirement but has of other elements, such as glycols,
poor lubricating properties and it also which are emulsified or dissolved in
reacts corrosively with ferrous metals. water. These are transparent and
On the other hand, neat cutting oil provide a good view of the operation
has good lubricating properties and compared with when oil emulsions,
forms good protection against corro- which have a milky appearance, are
sion. However, the oil’s low heat con- used. By mixing a small quantity of
ductivity and specific heat means that emulsified oil with a synthetic cutting
its cooling properties are poor. fluid, a semi-synthetic fluid is obtained,
combining the advantages of synthetics
The good cooling properties of water with the substantially better lubricating
have been utilized in the development properties of oil emulsion.
of various water-soluble cutting fluids.
These can be divided into: In certain cases gas is also used as a
cooling and lubricating medium. The
- Oil emulsions gas is applied at high pressure and
- Synthetic or chemical cutting fluids evacuates chips and other particles.
Air is the most common gas used but
The use of oil emulsions is the tradi- carbon dioxide and liquid argon and
tional way of combining the cooling nitrogen are also used occasionally.
properties of water with the lubricating
and corrosion-protecting properties of

However, the friction forces which

arise due to the use of support pads
will give rise to a torque, M, which in
turn contributes P to the total drilling
power.
In order to calculate the machine

power required (P - in Hp), allowance
must be made for power losses in the
machine. The gross power required can
be calculated by dividing the drilling
Ejector power (P) by the efficiency of the
machine . The efficiency shows what
CUTTING FORCES AND POWER percent of the power supplied can be
In principle, the basic theory for utilized.
calculating cutting forces and torque is
the same as that described for drilling. Power (in Hp):
However, support pads are used in P = D x ƒr x kc x vc (Without pads)
deep-hole drilling and the friction
64
forces which arise on account of these
are not negligible. It is difficult to P = D x ƒr x kc x vc (With pads)
calculate the exact contribution that
48
these cutting forces make. Therefore
these formulas are only approximate. PG = P PG = gross Hp
= efficiency
Feed force (lbs): factor
Ff = .5 x D x ƒr x kc x 2000
2 (Without pads)
Ff = .65 x D x ƒr x kc x 2000
2 (With pads)
Torque2(ft lbs):
M = D x ƒr x kc x 167
8 (Without pads)
M= D2 x ƒr x kc x 167
6 (With pads)
To obtain satisfactory chipbreaking,

relatively high feed speeds are used
for deep-hole drilling. This means that
the machine must have high available
power. The basic theory for calculating
power corresponds with that of drilling. STS

- The water should be of a suitable

pH value and hardness.
- The oil concentrate should not be
added more quickly than it can be
converted to emulsion.
The quantity of undissolved salts,

mainly calcium, magnesium and iron,
Water-soluble cutting oils affects the hardness of the water. In
Water-soluble cutting oils are supplied order to obtain softer water, soda is
as concentrates and the user must added. The hardness of the water is
prepare the oil emulsion by mixing the normally expressed in the number of
concentrate with water. When using parts per million (ppm) of water-free
oil emulsions, the lubricating and sodium carbonate needed to make the
corrosion protecting properties of the water completely soft. Undissolved
oil are combined with the cooling salts can react with emulsifiers and, in
property of water. The water-soluble addition to causing the emulsion to
concentrate also contains additives break down quickly, forms a foam
to improve various properties. For which can clog the filter, piping and
example: pumps in the cutting fluid system.
Also, hard water which contains more
- Emulsifiers to prevent separation than 200 ppm can reduce the
- Lubricators to prevent corrosive corrosion-protecting properties. In the
attack table below, an approximate classi-
- A conservation medium to prevent fication of the hardness value of water
the growth of bacteria expressed in ppm is given. Adding
- Grease to improve the lubricating too much soda increases the pH value
properties of the water. Although low pH values
- EP additives to improve the bearing increase corrosion tendencies and
strength encourage the growth of bacteria,
high pH values increase the risk of
It is extremely important that the skin irritation. The pH value for oil
preparation of the oil emulsion be emulsions should be between 8.5 and
done correctly so that the cutting fluid 9.3.
is stable:
- The oil concentrate should be Hardness in ppm

added to the water and not the Soft 0-50
other way around. Moderately soft 50-100
- The mixture should be stirred con- Slightly hard 100-150
tinually when preparing the emulsion. Moderately hard 150-200
- The mixing ratio of oil to water Hard 200-300
should be measured accurately. Very hard 300-
- Clean vessels and tanks should be
used.

.0002 / .0004
Particle size
.0004 / .0008
Particle size
MACHINE EQUIPMENT
The demands which are placed on the
machine tool and its equipment vary mechanism with a constant, prefer-
depending on which drilling system is ably stepless, mechanical feed is re-
to be used. commended. With stepless changes in
spindle speed, the feed can be
Generally, deep-hole drilling is char- optimized in relation to the cutting
acterized by high feed speeds in order speed and, in this way, the tool-life
to obtain good chipbreaking. This can be maximized.
means that the machine must have
high available power. In order to In order to obtain the accuracy which
obtain even chipbreaking and avoid is required with deep-hole drilling
chip jamming the feed should be kept operations, the machine must be stable
at a constant level. Therefore, a feed and the spindle bearings free of play.

Unfiltered particles in the cutting fluid the pressure on the cutting fluid has
can become attached to the machined reached a pre-set minimum. The temp-
surface and negatively affect the surface erature and flow of the cutting fluid
finish if they are pressed down into the should also be at the correct level
material by the support pads. The before the machine starts. It is best to
criteria which determine the choice have an overload protection which is
of filter depend on the workpiece connected to the feed pressure. The
material, the surface finish required and overload value should not be set
the pump manufacturer’s recommenda- higher than 10-30% above the feed
tions. Good cutting fluid filtering pressure recommended for the tool,
extends the life of the tool, drill drill diameter and feed being used.
bushing and pump. When a very good
surface finish is required, the cutting The workpiece, tool and drill bushing
fluid filter, supplied internally, should should be set up in such a way that
leave a maximum particle size of the radial forces which affect the
0003 inch after cleaning. With an machining are counteracted. When
external cutting fluid supply, a maxi- clamping the workpiece, hydraulic
mum of 0008 inch is recommended. locking is preferred over pneumatic.
When machining long workpieces,
In order to protect the machine, tool both the workpiece and the drilling
and workpiece, it is important that the shaft should have extra support. The
machine be fitted with safety devices. steady rest should be placed as close
The machine should have adjustable to the drill bushing as possible and
overload protection for the feed should form a stable unit with the drill
movement. It should not be possible bushing’s holder.
for the machine spindle to start before
STS

Synthetic and
semi-synthetic cutting fluids
Synthetic cutting fluids contain no value does not cause allergic reactions
mineral oil and were previously used or skin irritation to the operator.
solely for grinding operations. How-
ever, the development of synthetics Dissolving oil in synthetics produces
with improved lubrication properties fluids known as semi-synthetics.
and improved rust protection has Semi-synthetics generally have the
increased the field of application for same properties as totally synthetic
these considerably in recent years. cutting fluids but offer substantially
better lubrication properties. Semi-
The use of synthetic cutting fluids has synthetics are more suitable than oil
economic advantages over oil-based emulsions for grinding operations
fluids. Synthetics provide quick heat since they contain a smaller quantity
dissipation, good cleaning properties of oil. Oil tends to cause overloading
and good protection against rust. They of the grinding wheel.
are also simple to prepare. In addition,
the fluid is transparent, which helps The oil particles in semi-synthetics
the operator to monitor the operation. are smaller than in oil emulsions. The
However, with difficult operations, the high content of emulsifiers provides
lubricating properties may possibly be extra capacity to emulsify leakage oil
insufficient. This can cause sticking (A) from the machine. However, this
and/or wear to the sliding surfaces. method of absorbing leakage oil
cannot continue indefinitely. When
Since totally synthetic cutting fluids excess emulsifiers in the cutting fluid
form a true solution with water, the have been used up in order to
concentration will increase with use emulsify leakage oil, the oil floats up
because the water evaporates. Since and forms a coating on the surface
the synthetics have strong cleaning (B) while the oil particles in the fluid
and alkaline properties (pH 9-9.5), the increase in size (C). This oil coating on
concentration should be checked the surface can then increase the
more often so that an increased pH growth of bacteria.
A
B

n
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000 .118Ø
.198Ø
4000 .256Ø
.354Ø
3000 .433Ø
.512Ø
2000
.590Ø
.669Ø
.787Ø
1000
L
inch
3.94 7.87 11.81 15.75 19.68 23.62 25.60 31.50 35.40 39.37 43.30 47.20
Gundrilling length without support
The use of a steady rest is particularly hole diameter D, the wall thickness
important with an internal cutting should not be less than .16 - .39 inch
fluid supply (gundrilling) since the with external cutting fluid supply.
drill shaft is weaker than when the
cutting fluid is supplied externally. The
adjoining diagram shows the maximum
machining length (L) which can be
permitted without support when gun-
drilling.
Cylindrical workpieces are clamped in

a chuck. With thin-walled components .16-.39 inch
extra care must be taken in order to
avoid deformation of the hole and
clamping in a collet, rather than in a
chuck, is preferred. Depending on the

A B C
Deep-hole drilling machines are often flow. The volume of the tank should be
designed to offer a choice between a sufficient to allow effective filtering and
rotating workpiece (B), a rotating tool cooling. A filter is normally necessary
(A) or both the workpiece and the to separate the chips and smaller
tool rotating (C). A stationary drill is particles from the cutting fluid. The
the most common option. cutting fluid tank should normally be 5-
10 times the capacity of the pump and
When straightness of the hole is the preferably over 120 gallons.
primary requirement, the best results
are obtained if both the drill and the Heat is conveyed to the tank from the
workpiece rotate. drilling power and the pumping power.
Since the drilling power forms the
In that case the direction of rotation largest source of heat, the engagement
of the drill is opposite to that of the time determines the rate at which the
workpiece. When machining an asym- tank heats up. The tank is cooled prin-
metrical workpiece, the machine works cipally by means of its heat emission
exclusively with a rotating drill and a and the cooling effect of the workpiece.
stationary workpiece, since the work- The temperature of the cutting fluid
piece cannot rotate with sufficient should be in the area of 20-50°C.
speed.
The heating and cooling factors for
In order to obtain satisfactory chip- deep-hole drilling are shown in the
breaking and chip conveyance, it is im- following tables. Table 1 shows heating
portant to follow the recommendations and cooling factors at 100% cutting
given for cutting fluid pressure and time and Table 2 at 50% cutting time.

The cooling effects are calculated meter. With the following formulas,
at a tank temperature of 50°C, with a the time (T) it takes to increase the
workpiece having an external diameter temperature in the tank from 20°C to
that is twice the hole diameter and a 50°C can be calculated. In this way it
length that is 20 times the hole dia- can be determined if extra cooling is
Drill Heating Cooling Surplus

dia- power power heat
meter kW kW kW
o inch
Drill Pump Total Work- Tank (gal.) Tank (gal.)
piece 264 2114 7926 264 2114 7926
STS-drilling
.787 6 9 15 1 2 7 16 12 7 –
1.181 9 10 19 1 ” ” ” 16 11 2
1.575 12 12 24 2 ” ” ” 20 15 6
2.362 18 15 33 3 ” ” ” 28 23 14
2.755 21 17 38 3 ” ” ” 33 28 19
3.937 30 20 50 5 ” ” ” 43 38 29
4.724 36 20 56 5 ” ” ” 49 44 35
5.906 45 20 65 7 ” ” ” 56 51 42
7.874 60 20 80 9 ” ” ” 69 64 55
9.843 65 20 95 12 ” ” ” 81 76 67
11.811 90 20 110 13 ” ” ” 95 90 81
15.748 120 20 130 18 ” ” ” 110 105 96
Ejector drilling
.787 6 2 8 1 2 7 16 5 – –
1.181 9 2 11 1 ” ” ” 8 3 –
1.575 12 3 15 2 ” ” ” 11 6 –
2.362 18 4 22 3 ” ” ” 17 12 3
2.755 21 4 25 3 ” ” ” 20 15 6
3.937 30 5 35 5 ” ” ” 28 23 14
4.724 36 5 41 5 ” ” ” 34 29 20
5.906 45 6 51 7 ” ” ” 42 37 28
7.874 60 7 67 9 ” ” ” 56 51 42
9.843 75 9 81 12 ” ” ” 67 62 53
Trepanning
4.724 35 20 55 5 2 7 16 48 43 34
5.906 37 20 57 7 ” ” ” 48 43 34
7.874 47 20 67 9 ” ” ” 56 51 42
9.843 50 20 70 12 ” ” ” 56 51 42
11.811 52 20 72 13 ” ” ” 57 52 43
15.748 54 20 74 18 ” ” ” 54 40 40
Table 1

necessary. V is the volume of the tank Oil: T= 14.25 x V (h)

in gallons and P is the surplus heat P
expressed in kW.
Water: T= 33.8 x V (h)
P
Drill Heating Cooling Surplus

dia- power power heat
meter kW kW kW
o inch
Tank (gal.) Tank (gal.)
264 2114 7926 269 2114 7926
STS-drilling
.787 7 2 6 12 5 1 –
1.181 9 ” ” ” 7 3 –
1.575 11 ” ” ” 9 5 –
2.362 15 ” ” ” 13 9 3
2.755 18 ” ” ” 16 12 6
3.937 23 ” ” ” 21 17 11
4.724 26 ” ” ” 24 20 14
5.906 30 ” ” ” 28 24 18
7.874 37 ” ” ” 35 31 25
9.843 43 ” ” ” 41 37 32
11.811 50 ” ” ” 48 44 38
15.748 60 ” ” ” 56 52 46
Ejector drilling
.787 4 2 6 12 2 – –
1.181 5 ” ” ” 3 – –
1.575 7 ” ” ” 5 1 –
2.362 10 ” ” ” 8 4 –
2.755 11 ” ” ” 9 5 –
3.937 16 ” ” ” 14 10 4
4.724 18 ” ” ” 16 12 6
5.906 22 ” ” ” 20 16 10
7.874 30 ” ” ” 28 24 18
9.843 36 ” ” ” 34 30 22
Trepanning
4.724 26 2 6 12 24 20 12
5.906 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
7.874 30 ” ” ” 28 24 18
9.843 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
11.811 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
15.748 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
Table 2

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Choice of cutting fluid

The choice of cutting fluid is dictated 3. Milling
by the machining operation, work- 4. Drilling
piece material, tool material and 5. Reaming
cutting data. 6. Boring
7. Deep-hole drilling
Generally, better lubrication should be 8. Gear making
sought with: 9. Thread turning
- low speeds 10. Threading with a screw tap
- difficult-to-machine materials
However, the degree and number of
- difficult operations
demanding factors depend on condi-
- demands for a better surface texture.
tions, cutting data, tool geometry and
Improved cooling should be chosen material.
for:
There are other factors to consider, in
- high speeds
addition to lubrication and cooling
- easy-to-machine materials
properties, when selecting a cutting
- simple operations
fluid. Cutting fluids must not be harmful
- problems with edge build-up.
to the environment. The cutting fluid
The adjoining table shows various ma- must not cause rust or corrosion on the
chining operations listed in order of workpiece and should actually protect
metal cutting demands, from relatively the material. Cutting fluid must not
light-demanding operations (such as damage the machine or constitute a
grinding) to highly demanding opera- health risk for the operator. Water-
tions (such as thread turning and soluble cutting fluids should be
threading with a screw tap): compatible with the water that is
1. Grinding used. The pH value of the water is
2. Turning important in this respect.

vc (ft/min)
SL
feet
PERFORMANCE FACTORS
In deep-hole drilling, the drill bushing poor guidance. If the drill bushing is
and support pads play very important too large or is worn, the support pad
roles in obtaining the required accuracy. and the corner of the peripheral insert
will be exposed to great wear when
Wear on the support pads is influenced the hole is entered.
by the cutting speed and the size of the
drill bushing. The diagram above shows Wear to the drill bushing causes an
the cutting speed, vc, as a function of unwanted center divergence between
the service life (SL) of the support the tool and the workpiece. There-
pad expressed in feet of machined fore, a rotating drill bushing is recom-
surface. With cutting speeds of more mended for machining conditions
than 400 ft/min, the wear on the where the drill bushing is exposed to
support pad increases drastically, heavy wear.
resulting in centering problems and

P = D x ƒr x k c x vc ( Without )
64 pads
P D x ƒr x k c x vc ( With
pads )
=
48
Dimensional tolerance factors in drilling
As is usually the case in drilling, the Chipbreaking is affected by the feed,

dimensional tolerance is affected by material and choice of tool and cutting
centering and chipbreaking. fluid, just as it is in short hole drilling.
Also, the drilling system selected will
Centering is affected not only by the play an important role here.
accuracy of the machine, but also by
the drill bushing and the support pads. If chipbreaking problems arise, STS
As previously discussed, if the drill is the recommended solution, preferred
bushing is too large, it causes center over the Ejector system. STS offers
divergence between the tool and the substantially higher cutting fluid pres-
workpiece even if the center lines sure for improved chip handling.
coincide. The same effect occurs with
worn support pads.

64 pads
pads )
=
48
Surface texture factors in drilling
The surface texture is affected by the extremely important as it can prevent

choice of cutting data, the workpiece accompanying particles from being
material, choice of tool and the cutting pressed down into the machined
fluid. Wear on the support pads also surface by the support pads.
affects the surface texture. Although
support pads guide and support the Poor centering between the work-
tool, they also press irregularities down piece and tool causes a wavy surface
into the surface, thus damaging the at the entrance to the hole. Centering
texture. is affected by the accuracy of the ma-
chine but centering problems with
In deep-hole drilling, greater demands deep-hole drilling are mainly caused
are placed on the whole cutting fluid by worn drill bushings and support
system. Filtering of the cutting fluid is pads.

1 6 8
2
3 5
Reuse of cutting fluid can reclaim cutting fluids from chips.

The technique used for circulating The process is not economically viable
cutting fluid for reuse requires continual when water-based cutting fluids are
maintenance and inspection. Pollution, used. However, when using cutting oil,
micro-organisms and changes in the up to 78 gallons of cutting oil per ton
concentration are continually monitored of chips can be reclaimed. In order to
in order to control the breakdown of enable the bulky chips to be handled
the cutting fluid and extend its service more easily, chip crushers are used
life. (1), after which the crushed metal
mass is placed in a centrifuge (2) so
When a central coolant system is that the oil is thoroughly removed.
used, a number of machines use the The oil which is reclaimed is passed
same cutting fluid. The advantage of on for cleaning, together with the
this is that maintenance and inspection used cutting fluid from the machine.
can be carried out at one single
container. However, central systems Cleaning systems vary from simple
demand that the same type of cutting sedimentation tanks to more advanced
fluid be suitable for all the machines. plants which can consist of:
Since very large quantities of cutting - Sedimentation (3)
fluid are involved when central systems - Heat treatment (6)
are used, it is very expensive to replace - Filtering/centrifugation (7)
cutting fluid before its expected service - Temperature regulation (8)
life is over, due to any contamination. - Automatic inspection and
filling up (9)
Today, there are special plants which

Sedimentation of undissolved particles cleaning of synthetics where oil floats

using the force of gravity is the easiest up to the surface in free form. High
way to remove pollutants from the speed centrifuges are used to remove
cutting fluid. However, since sedi- emulsified leakage oil effectively.
mentation takes a relatively long time,
bacteria growth can create a problem In central systems, the cutting fluid
and, furthermore, the leakage oil is not circulates continually and the sedi-
removed by this process. If neat cutting mentation method does not work. In-
oil is used it is not certain that very fine stead, various types of filters are used.
particles will drop to the bottom of the With fluids of high viscosity, filtering is
container. Instead, due to the oil’s high a slow process since the flow speed
viscosity, particles can be enveloped through the filter is reduced. The
by the oil and accompany it out. This filtering of oil with a high viscosity is
could damage the circulation pump facilitated since the oil is heated up
and/or impair the surface finish during and therefore becomes thinner. In
machining. The cutting fluid should order to remove the smallest particles
always pass a filter (4) before being with a filter the mesh size must be
passed on with a pump (5). small. Unfortunately, the tight mesh
can cause certain additives in the
In order to obtain quicker separation cutting fluid to also be filtered away
of the pollutants, sedimentation tanks unintentionally. Another disadvantage
that separate the cutting fluid into layers is that leakage oil can clog up the
are used. In this way, the distance filter. Therefore the use of centrifuges
the particles must fall is reduced. The is common in central systems.
leakage oil also has a shorter distance
to travel to reach the surface where it The cutting fluid system should ensure
is continually skimmed off. Heat treat- that the cutting fluid maintains a
ment of the cutting fluid can speed up working temperature of approximately
the separation. It may be difficult to 20°C. If the volume of the tank does
use this method with water-soluble not allow sufficient cooling, various
cutting fluids, where leakage oil can types of heat exchangers or cooling
be emulsified. It is best suited to the units can be installed.
Cutting fluid should maintain an approximate temperature of 20 degrees C

64 pads
pads )
=
48
Factors affecting straightness in drilling
The factors which affect the roundness and the workpiece rotate. Worn or
of the hole are generally the same as incorrectly positioned drill bushings
in drilling. The straightness of the hole affect the straightness of the hole in a
is more critical in deep-hole drilling negative way. With deep holes, where
due to the depth of the holes. The best great emphasis is placed on straight-
straightness is obtained with double ness, additional steady rests can im-
rotation, that is when both the drill prove the results considerably.

cult to reach spaces, a bacteria killing

agent, known as biocide, must be
added when cleaning. If pollutants
and contaminated cutting fluid remain,
any fresh cutting fluid which is added
will soon become contaminated.
The concentration and composition of

cutting fluid changes with use. This
occurs through water evaporation, cut-
Storage, maintenance ting fluid losses, reaction when leak-
and waste disposal age oil mixes with the cutting fluid,
Water-based cutting fluids should not etc. Therefore it is important that the
be exposed to extreme temperatures concentration of the mix be checked
in either direction. High temperatures regularly. When the concentration
can result in water evaporation and needs to be changed, mixed cutting
low temperatures can result in the fluids are added. The water added
separation of certain additives. Even must not be too hard since the fluid
concentrates normally contain a small may then separate, creating a film of
quantity of water. Should the water oil on the surface. On the other hand
freeze, the oil will be very difficult to water which is too soft causes frothing.
mix when the temperature rises again. Modern systems for the reclamation of
The barrels of oil should be stored cutting fluids should have automatic
under cover so that they are not equipment for measuring, filling up
exposed to wetness. When the oil is and mixing supplementary cutting fluid.
stored outdoors, temperature varia-
tions can cause the barrel to let in Rejected cutting oil and oil emulsion
water which has collected on top of must not be released into the public
the cover. In order to avoid this the oil sewage system. Emulsions are treated
barrels should be stored on their so that oil and water are separated. In
sides. order to break down emulsion, ferrous
sulphate, salts and, in certain cases,
Water-soluble cutting fluids require strong acids are used. If acids are
more maintenance than cutting oils. used, the water is neutralized before it
The most important maintenance for is released into the sewage system.
water-solubles is limiting the number The oil which is separated is strongly
of micro-organisms in the water since contaminated by the substances
these shorten the service life of the which are used in the treatment. The
cutting fluid and can cause corrosion oil, like the rejected neat cutting oils,
problems, cause clogging of supply can be burned in special furnaces.
lines and valves and create an For most workshops it is not econo-
unpleasant smell. There are three mically viable to handle rejected cut-
types of micro-organism: bacteria, ting fluids in the shop. Therefore most
fungi and algae. When using water- companies engage contractors who
based cutting fluids where accumula- specialize in this type of waste dis-
tions of bacteria often occur in diffi- posal.

THE APPLICATION
OF DEEP HOLE DRILLING TOOLS
A number of parameters must be conventional HSS drills in these ap-
established before tools and machining plications, should now be compared to
data can be chosen for deep hole tools with modern drilling geometries.
drilling. The first priority, of course, is
to decide whether the drilling is to be Modern short hole drills cope with
done with tools for short hole drilling increasingly greater hole depths and
or deep hole drilling. The primary fac- the accuracy, in most cases, can be
tors for determining this are: compared with the accuracy obtained
with deep hole drills. It is generally
1. Diameter and depth of hole accepted that the gun drill is in a class
2. Tolerances required of its own with regard to small dia-
3. Machine equipment available meter holes and hole depths where
4. Production economy high precision and accuracy are re-
quired. However, the gun drill requires
It is quite clear that short hole drilling special machine equipment.
is now being used for a number of ap-
plications for which deep hole drilling Since the stock removal speed with
tools were previously used. Deep hole gun drills is substantially lower than
drills, which previously competed with that which is obtainable with modern
1
2
5XD IT R
a
3 4

short hole drills, a calculation should

be made comparing the economics of
gun drilling in one operation with a
short hole drilling operation followed
by a finishing operation in order to
achieve the same accuracy.
Ejector
CHOICE OF DRILLING SYSTEM
The choice of drilling system depends
on several different parameters, the
most common of which are:
1. Hole diameter
2. Tolerances required
3. Production economy
STS 5. Shape of the component
6. Machine available
With very small hole diameters, there

is only one option: the gun drilling
system. For very large diameters
trepanning tools must be used and
STS is the only option available.
STS
EJECTOR STS
ØD

The gun drilling system (A) offers a In materials which cause difficult chip-
dimensional tolerance of IT8-9 and a breaking conditions, for instance, stain-
surface finish of Ra 40 - 125 inch. less and low carbon content steels, STS
This should be compared with IT10 should be selected. The reason for
and Ra 80 - 100 inch, which are the this is the system’s high cutting fluid
normal tolerances that can be obtained pressure and flow.
with other systems (B).
In applications where sealing problems
Due to the substantially higher stock can arise and with interrupted drilling,
removal speeds obtained with the such as when drilling crankshafts, the
Ejector and STS systems, production Ejector system should be used.
economy will be an important para-
meter. Depending on the application,
solid drilling followed by a counter-
boring operation can sometimes be
more profitable than gun drilling in
one operation.

STS
In many cases, if other parameters do which drilling system should be used.

not indicate that one method should Therefore, it is important to note that
be given preference over another, the the Ejector system is the only system
machine equipment available is of which is easily adaptable to most
great significance when determining machines.
EJECTOR

DEEP HOLE DRILLING SYSTEMS
The gundrilling system

In the gundrilling system, the cutting addition, it is necessary to have a tank
fluid is supplied internally through which provides efficient filtering and
the tool and the chips are removed cooling (E), plus a pump (F) with suffi-
through a V-shaped groove in the cient capacity in terms of both pres-
shaft. Conventional machines with sure and volume.
sufficiently high spindle speed and a
suitable range of feeds can be modi- The gundrill is the only tool which
fied for gundrilling. However, the best can be used with the gundrilling
results are obtained with special gun- system. Gundrilling is primarily used
drilling machines. when precision-drilling small dia-
meter holes. It can cope with hole
The machine should be equipped depths of up to 100 x the hole dia-
with a drill bushing (A), a splash guard meter. If additional steady rests are
(B), an oil supply unit (D) and, gener- used, it is possible to drill up to
ally, it is necessary to support the 200 x the hole diameter provided the
workpiece with a steady rest (C). In capacity of the pump is sufficient.

A B C
D
F F

The choice of drilling method depends Solid drilling is the most common
on the following parameters: method but, under certain conditions,
it can be replaced by trepanning or
1. Hole diameter counterboring.
3. Tolerances required Trepanning is the only solution for
4. Machine power available very large diameters. Even if there are
ØD

solid drills available for the diameter Gun drills are used to machine small
range in question, trepanning may be diameters to very close tolerances in a
the only option when the available single operation. Therefore both tre-
machine power is limited. Another panning and the need for a subsequent
application area for trepanning drills counterboring operation are ruled out.
is when machining expensive material. The gun drill is available in two
Using the core produced by trepanning versions: solid cemented carbide and
for other purposes is highly economical. cemented carbide tipped.
In order to obtain better accuracy The carbide tipped gun drill is normally
with respect to dimensional tolerances used for larger diameters, where it is
and surface finish, counterboring of a more suitable than using a solid
pre-drilled hole may be a solution. carbide drill. In larger diameters, the
This is also an option for smaller carbide tipped drill provides a greater
diameters when the machine power is opportunity for optimizing the mate-
limited or when the core formed during rial in the tool. With smaller dia-
trepanning would cause problems. meters, solid carbide gun drills can be
more economical in batch production
After the drilling system and drilling since the regrinding length (l) is some-
method have been chosen, the drilling what longer than that of a drill with
tools which will give the best possible the same diameter in the carbide
performance with respect to quality, tipped version.
reliability and production economy
should then be selected.

Ejector and STS drills, with either Counterboring tools are available in
brazed drill heads or with indexable several versions. The selection criteria
inserts, can be used for solid drilling. for these tools are:
The choice is determined by the dia-
meter of the hole. 1. Tolerances required
2. Working allowance (cutting depth)
For the Ejector system, there are
brazed drill heads in both disposable A multiple insert drill head is prima-
and regrindable versions. The version rily used for larger cutting depths.
used should be selected based on the Single insert drill heads are available
workpiece material and on production in two styles. The tolerances specified
economy factors. Regrinding is rela- for the operation will determine which
tively expensive and furthermore, the of the two styles is the best to use.
permitted chamfer wear for regrind- There are also adjustable counterboring
able drill heads is not as great as it is heads in various sizes and designs.
for disposable drills. This means that
the machining cost per drilled unit of
length is lower when disposable drill
heads are used. However, with the re-
grindable version, the drill can be re-
ground to adjust the cutting edge to
suit a special material.

M C
P
............... ...............
ØD ......... ...... ...... C M P
....... ............ ...... ...... .................. .... .................. .... .................. ....
....... ............ ...... ...... .................. .... .................. .... .................. ....
....... ............ ...... ...... .................. .... .................. .... .................. ....
....... ............ ...... ...... .................. .... .................. .... .................. ....
....... ............ ...... ...... .................. .... .................. .... .................. ....
...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ......

C M P
......
......
......
......
......
......
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.................. .................. 앱 앱 .................. .................. 앱 앱 .................. .................. 앱 앱
1 1 1
Once the drilling system, drilling the cartridges is fixed for each drill
method and drill head have been diameter. The choice of single insert
chosen, the last item to be selected is counterboring drills depends on the
the tool-material grade. The insert type tolerances specified. Cartridge types,
and size are, at this point, already and the inserts that are used with them,
determined by the tooling decisions are often listed in catalogs as shown in
made in the early stages of planning. the diagram above for easy selection.
In modern designs, solid drills, tre- Recommended grades (2) are listed in
panning drills and multiple insert a table next to each insert type and
counterboring drills with replaceable are related to the workpiece material.
cartridges are supplied with the screw-
through-insert clamping system. The
inserts are available in two geometries,
the first of which is used for periphery
cartridges and the second for the inter-
mediate and center cartridges. 2
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The insert size (1) is related to the drill ....... 앱 앱
diameter used and can vary between

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the different inserts of the drill. The ....... 앱 앱
combination is fixed since the size of

Ejector & STS STS
Ejector Ejector
STS STS

The Ejector system The Ejector system is self-contained

The Ejector system has twin drill tubes. and can be adapted quite easily for
The cutting fluid is pumped in between most conventional machines, ma-
the inner and outer tubes. The major chining centers, NC and CNC lathes.
portion of the cutting fluid is led The machine should be equipped with
forward to the drill head while the a drill bushing (A), inner and outer
remainder is forced through a groove tubes (B), a vibration damper (C) plus
in the rear section of the inner tube. a connector with a collet and a
The negative pressure which arises in sealing sleeve (D). In addition, it is
the front section of the inner tube necessary to have a tank with efficient
means that the cutting fluid at the drill filtering (E) and cooling (F), plus a
head is sucked out through the inner pump (G) with sufficient capacity in
tube together with the chips. terms of both pressure and volume.
B C D
A
E F

1.
2.
Non-rotating and rotating Ejector connectors for drilling-tubes in machines

ap
The drill head is screwed firmly onto ISO CMC HB vc ƒ

the outer tube, which has a four-start ..... ....... ....... ...... .... .... ....
square thread. If the support pads are
not in contact with the drill bushing ..... ....... ....... ...... .... .... ....
another thread start can be used. The
thread starts have a 4 x 90° positioning. ..... ....... ....... ...... .... .... ....
Connectors are available for both

rotating and non-rotating drills. The
connector for a non-rotating drill (1), In solid drilling, the cutting depth is
which is the most common application, equal to half the hole diameter. In
has no rotating parts. For rotating drills, trepanning, cutting depth is determined
a connector is used with a mounted by the core which is obtained with the
and sealed housing around the spindle tool chosen since the depth in this
(2). The outer and inner tubes are
case corresponds to D-d. For counter-
attached to the connector by a collet.
A sealing sleeve is also used here at boring, the maximum cutting depths
the entrance for the cutting fluid. The are given. These cutting depths are
collet and the sealing sleeve must be related to different hole diameters.
changed for different diameter ranges.
The recommended initial cutting data
Because the cutting fluid is pumped values for speed and feed can be
into the space between the inner and obtained from tables and are related
outer tubes, no seals are required to the drill diameter or cutting depth
between the workpiece and the drill plus the workpiece material. In prac-
bushing. Therefore, the system is
tice, test machining must be carried
often used with workpieces where
sealing problems could otherwise out to establish the cutting data which
arise. This feature also makes the provides optimal results with respect
Ejector system very suitable for use to chipbreaking and tool-life.
with interrupted drilling.
If inserts with form-sintered chip-
The Ejector system can cope with breakers produce unacceptable chips,
hole depths of up to 100 x the hole and additional optimization of the
diameter when drilling horizontally cutting data does not produce the
and approximately 50 x the hole dia- desired results, using inserts with
meter when drilling vertically.
loose chipbreakers can be a solution,
Ejector drilling places greater de- provided that cartridges with top
mands on good chipbreaking pro- clamping are used.
perties than STS drilling, since the
cutting fluid pressure and volume
are approximately 50% lower.

With normal tolerance requirements,

gundrills can be reground 10-20 times
with a tool life of 40-80 feet per re-
grinding. Suitable regrinding criteria
are a flank wear of .008-.016 inch for
drill diameters of less than .600 inch
diameter and .016-.024 inch for larger
diameters. Regrinding is carried out at
the front end of the drill, which means
that the length of the drill is reduced.
Since the drill is tapered, the diameter
is also reduced and, at a .0006-.0008
inch reduction in diameter, the drill
bushing should be changed.
There are multi-insert drill heads with

brazed inserts available for use with
the STS and Ejector drilling systems
(2). These are used for medium-sized
Drills with brazed tips holes of up to 2.559 inch diameter.
The gundrill (1) is a precision tool for Normally the drills are of the dispos-
drilling mainly deep holes in the .077- able type and a permitted flank wear
1.378 inch diameter range, but it can of .032-.055 inch is recommended.
also drill short holes. The tool consists This gives substantially lower costs
of a drill head, a shaft and a driver. The per drilled unit of length than when re-
cemented carbide drill head is brazed grindable drills are used. The brazed
onto a tube-shaped shaft with the drill head has three cemented carbide
same 110° V-shaped chip flute as on inserts which are positioned so that
the drill head. The shaft is available in overlapping takes place. The inserts
different lengths and is manufactured are positioned so that the pressure
with a rear taper of approximately against the support pad and pressure
.0007 inch/foot in order to provide pad is reduced. The support pad,
sufficient rear clearance. A gundrill is pressure pad and peripheral insert
normally supplied with a driver which is determine the diameter of the drilled
brazed onto the shaft and is available hole and are ground to a tolerance of
in different versions. However, the tool ISO h6. Normally a diameter toler-
can also be supplied without a driver ance of IT 10 and a surface finish of
and, by using an adapter, the gundrill Ra 80 inch are obtained when
can be used by drivers which are not using brazed drill heads. The chip-
standard. The drills are ground to a breakers are individually ground or
diameter tolerance of ISO h5 and form-sintered into each of the three
make it possible to machine a sur- inserts so that the width increases
face finish of Ra 40 to Ra 125 inch towards the center, which provides
and a hole tolerance of IT 8-9. uniform chipbreaking.

IT 8-9
Ra 40-125 inch
IT 10
Ra 80 inch
2
Brazed tip deep hole drills

Ejector
The choice of cutting fluid depends on machine materials and at high speeds,
the machining operation, workpiece a cutting fluid with good cooling
material, tool material and cutting properties should be chosen. For
data. Generally, cutting fluid with satisfactory chipbreaking and chip
better lubrication properties should be evacuation it is also important that
chosen at low speeds, when a better the recommended values for tank
surface finish is required and in diffi- volume, pressure and flow are
cult-to-machine materials. In easy-to- followed.

A B C D
G
E F
STS
In the STS (Single Tube System) drilling The high cutting fluid pressure and
system, the cutting fluid is forced in flow makes the system suitable for
between the drill tube and the walls of use where material with poor chip-
the hole. The cutting fluid should have breaking capacity is to be machined.
sufficient pressure and flow to remove Since trepanning can only be used with
the chips efficiently through the tool this drilling system, it is often used for
and drill tube. drilling large holes of over 7.500 inches
in diameter. Hole depths of up to 100 x
Only special deep hole drilling ma- the hole diameter can be drilled using
chines are used for STS drilling. The STS.
machine should be equipped with an
oil pressure head with a drill bushing The tools which are available for STS
and seals (A), a drill tube (B), a vibra- drilling are brazed drills plus indexable
tion damper (C) and a connecting insert drills for solid drilling, counter-
chuck (D). In addition, it is necessary boring and trepanning. In addition,
to have a tank which gives efficient pullboring tools and skiving and roller
filtering (E) and cooling (F), plus a burnishing tools can also be used.
pump (G) with sufficient capacity in
terms of both pressure and volume.

IT 10
Ra 120 inch
Drills with indexable inserts to achieve the required diameter and

There are drill heads with indexable cutting depth. The peripheral cartridge
inserts for use with STS and Ejector is adjustable to nominal size. The per-
drilling systems. Indexable insert drills missible flank wear to the peripheral
are available for solid drilling, counter- insert is .016-.024 inch depending on
boring, and trepanning using STS. A the hole diameter and tolerance.
drill head with indexable inserts con-
tributes to reduced machining costs The support pads are in the form of
since the wear parts are replaceable. cylindrical segments that fit into the
radial position in the body of the drill
Using indexable insert drills, a di- head. They are cushioned and can be
mensional tolerance of IT 10 and a turned to obtain maximum contact
surface finish of Ra 120 inch can against the hole wall. When setting
be obtained. the diameter, the support pad must
be moved forward. The drill head is
Each drill head is furnished with two provided with an extra screw hole
replaceable support pads (support which is used when measuring. When
pad plus pressure pad) and an odd the correct diameter has been set, the
number of insert seating units which support pad’s position should be
can be quickly and simply replaced. checked so that its highest point is at
The insert seating units are combined the center.

When setting the diameter of the drill,

the clamping screw is released (1).
Then the diameter is adjusted using
two adjustable screws in the insert
seating unit of the peripheral insert (2).
The adjustable screws are first set to a
diameter that is smaller than the one
required, then screwed to the right
diameter. The last few thousandths of
an inch can be set in with the
clamping screw tightened.
STS

Regrinding gundrills
Gundrills can be reground in a con-
ventional grinding machine. As a result
of special fixtures and machines for
regrinding gundrills, the original cutting
geometry can be maintained with
1. great repetitive accuracy.
Standard facet grinding (1) provides

good chip control with most materials.
In order to provide the drill with better
2. strength and extend its tool-life, it can
be facet-ground with an outer edge
chamfer (2). Facet grinding with an
enlarged flute for the cutting fluid
supply (3) is used in order to improve
chip removal when there is a risk of
3. chip jamming. This grinding can be
combined with the grinding of the
outer edge chamfer (4).
When facet grinding does not provide

4. satisfactory chipbreaking, face grinding
with an outer edge chamfer (5) is
recommended. The power required
increases by 30% but the chips pro-
duced are small and cone-shaped,
which facilitates chip evacuation. An
5.

0,15
6.
alternative when the machine power

is too low, or when face grinding does
not provide sufficiently good chip-
breaking properties, is to grind a
chipbreaker into the standard geo-
metry (6). The width of the chip-
breaker should be limited so that .006
inch of the width of the round
chamfer surface remains.
The most simple grinding is spiral

grinding (7), which is applicable for
drills of up to .236 inch diameter.
7.

SUMMARY - CHOICE OF TOOL FOR DEEP HOLE DRILLING

This table summarizes the parameters Obviously, this table cannot cover all
which influence the different stages of possible situations that can arise when
choosing tools for deep hole drilling. selecting tools. However, it provides
1
Normal operation
;;;
ÀÀÀ

@@@
ÀÀÀ

@@@
;;; D
2
øD
(inch)
Ra
inch
Solid drilling
.038 -1.378
IT 9
.724 - 2.559 .496 -7.087
IT 10
4-125 in. 80-120 in. 80-120 in.

IT 10
Chipbreaking
problems
x
• Sealing problems
• Interrupted drilling x
• No special machine
Gun
Ejector STS
drilling
3 3
• Diameter Solid carbide Brazed

• Production or • Diameter or
• economy Carbide tipped Indexable inserts

an overview of the most commonly the drilling method (1), drilling system
occurring parameters when choosing (2) and drill head (3).
Expensive work material Limited power

Limited power Close tolerances
Trepanning Counterboring
4.724-9.843 inch .787 (wall) .787 (wall)
IT 10 IT 9 IT 9
120 inch 40 inch 40 inch
x x
STS Ejector STS
3 3
Brazed • Tolerances Single

• Diameter or • Cutting or
Indexable inserts • depth Multiple inserts

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 1
TOOLHOLDING
INTRODUCTION 2 THE BLOCK TOOL SYSTEM 20
MACHINING CENTERS 6 THE COROMANT
CAPTO TOOLING SYSTEM 26
LATHES 7
TIME SAVING 32
TURNING CENTERS 8
MILLING MACHINES 10
THE VARILOCK MODULAR
TOOLING SYSTEM 12
Supplementary part:
Checklist for Adopting Modular Tools 39
19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 2
TOOLHOLDING INTRODUCTION
This chapter will deal almost entirely In a modular tool, the cutting unit is a
with the most modern method of tool- smaller, separate part of the tool that
holding: modular tooling. The holding does not interface with the machine
and clamping of conventional tools is tool. The cutting unit is united with the
a familiar subject to most machine modular tool by a coupling. Within the
shops and engineers. Modular tooling modular tooling system there is one
is taking over to an increasing extent. common coupling. This means that a
Today, many new machine tools are cutting unit within the same size range
supplied already equipped with a can be used in any machine fitted with
modular tooling system. the modular tool clamping unit or
basic holder. A modular tool coupling
A tool is normally mounted in a ma- must be accurate, strong and quick and
chine tool on a tool-post, turret or in a easy to change.
spindle, if it is rotating. Shanks, bars,
cutters or tapered holders are clamped Machining centers have automatic
in various ways and need to be set so tool changing abilities that use a set
as to bring the cutting edge to a specific mechanism and time. This means that
position. Screws, clamps, adapters and they are not affected by the time
draw-bars are used. Tool changing is taken to change tools. However,
carried out either by indexing inserts much of the tooling used today is still
or changing the entire tool. These modular. Modular tooling can provide
methods are too time consuming for more flexibility with a reduced tool
today’s production demands. inventory. Modular or quick change
XIII-2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 3
tooling in a lathe can provide great

benefits due to the speed of the tool
change. Without modular or quick
change tooling, these tool changes are
still largely a manual task. All quick
change tool systems are modular but
not all modular tool systems are
necessarily quick change systems.
Because of the current attention paid

to quick change tooling, many believe
that this concept of tooling machine
tools is a new one. However, the idea
is over one hundred years old. It began
in the 1890’s with the development of
a square tool post on the cross slide of
an engine lathe. Progressively, several
different designs of quick change tool
posts positioned on the lathe cross Turning with modular tool
slide were developed. Paralleling the
tool post development was the cutting Even though the terms quick change
tool industry’s introduction of ‘throw- and modular were not used during
away’ insert tooling to replace the this development period, they certainly
original brazed tipped tooling. This were applicable. If the simple defini-
indexable insert concept was in itself a tion of quick change is “faster than
form of quick change as it addressed before” and the simple definition of
the common time related problems of modular is “more than one piece”,
set-up and down-time on the lathe then these two terms fit the indexable
related to regrinding of the brazed tools. insert tooling concept well.
Overview of toolholder and lathe development since 1940
MODERN METAL CUTTING XIII-3

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 4
new machines used robotics, rather

than operators, to change the work-
pieces and cutting tools during the part
runs. Initial modular tooling devel-
opments supported the FMS concept,
with efforts concentrated on automatic
tool changing. This involved developing
new automatic clamping methods and
robotic tool changing methods.
Even though the FMS idea made a

great deal of sense to many industries,
the concept did not develop in many
areas. The main problem was that of
interfacing the central computers to
run the systems. The system-type
Robot changing tools in a cell computers needed to coordinate the
processes between parts, machines
While these tooling developments and tools were either too expensive,
were taking place, dramatic advances unreliable or simply did not exist, and
in machine tool technology were also programming was complicated. Systems
underway. Machines with higher power were also plagued by downtime
and spindle speeds were introduced to problems, where entire installations
take advantage of the advances in would come to a standstill due to
cutting tool materials. The introduction problems with one component, such
of numerically controlled machine tools as in the instance of a broken tool.
in the 1950s began to address the
common problems with set-ups and Also during this time period, the
long run times that still occur today. concept of machining parts in cells
This machine tool development initially was developed and adopted by many
addressed milling machines but rapidly manufacturers. Moving workpieces all
moved into the lathe area. over the shop floor no longer made
much sense. The non-productive, time
The 1970s brought the introduction of consuming practice of moving a work-
computer controlled machine tools to piece from the saw to the mill to the
the forefront. At the same time, many lathe to the broach was too expensive.
cutting tool companies were addressing It made much more sense to move
the problems of setting tools for new parts very short distances within a cell
batches and changing tools during the of machines. Today, grouping machines
running time. together into cells is a common prac-
tice in many industries.
Machine tool companies began intro-
ducing flexible manufacturing systems With most manufacturing companies
(FMS) to the metalcutting industry. The paying a great deal of attention to the

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 5
cost of their finished goods inventory, tooling (2) would be to say that the
the development of smaller batches has setting up and tool change times are
become the norm. This means that cut by approximately 50%. (In most
the cost of setting up the machines for cases a considerably larger decrease in
the number of pieces manufactured at down-times is achieved.)
one time becomes a major considera-
tion. If set-up times do not change The improvements gained are especially
but the lot sizes become smaller, the noticeable in the medium-volume and
individual cost of producing the parts low-volume machine shops the amount
will dramatically increase. One of the of metal cutting time can be doubled.
easiest way to reduce this set-up time The gain in actual metal cutting in a
is to bring a modular tooling system high-volume machine shop might look
into the machines. modest but has a major effect on
productivity and the utilization of large
Consider the typical high-volume production resources. It is easy to see
machine shops (HV), medium-volume these effects by comparing the process
(MV) and low-volume (LV). During of changing a small cutting unit in and
all the production time available using out of a coupling in just seconds to the
conventional tooling (1), the average more cumbersome process of unbolting
time devoted to actual metal cutting tool blocks or shanks. Changing just the
(M) has been, and often still is, 22%, cutting unit also means the inserts
8% and 6% respectively. Setting up need not be changed in the machine.
and tool changing (TC) can take up
7%, 14% and 16% respectively. Before exploring the application of
modular tooling to specific machines, it
A conservative estimate of improve- should be noted that modular tooling
ments gained and of the available requirements will vary for each of the
potential with quick-change modular basic types of machines.
1 22%
8% 6%
M
M 14% M 16%
Tc Tc
Tc 7%
HV MV LV
2 26%
16% 15%
M M
M 6% 7%
Tc Tc
Tc 3%
HV MV LV
Utilization rates with conventional and modular tooling

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A modular tooling system for

machining centers uses basic holders
(B) that fit into the machine spindle
B and act as carriers through the
machine’s chain magazine. This basic
holder can be used with an adaption of
any type of front end tool. Extensions
can be used to increase the overall tool
length, thus correcting the general
reach problems that are typical in ma-
chining center applications.
Clamping through the basic holder
with a center bolt means tools in
machines such as milling machines,
special purpose machines and transfer-
lines, can be easily and efficiently
A changed.
In effect, the classic modular machining
center tooling has become a quick
change tooling system as well. When
tool changing is relatively frequent,
MACHINING CENTERS tool building and changing times can
Machining centers generally consist of be rationalized. Conventional milling
stationary workpieces and rotating and boring machines especially can be
tools. Many of these machines utilize a better utilized, with less down-time.
pallet shuttle to move workpieces into
the cutting area and a tool changer to
draw tools from a magazine. Since this
is a rotating tooling application, many
of the tools used can perform only one
function. For example, most drills are
usually designed to only drill a certain
hole. If a hole must be rough and
finish bored, a minimum of two tools
must be used. Therefore, machining
centers require an assortment of tools
for the various applications required.
Combined with the obvious problems
of varying sizes and reach, this requires
maintaining a costly inventory of tools
that perform only one function, (A).
Modular tools become even more effective
when more than one machine is involved

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The tooling system becomes even more Quick change lathe tooling features a
effective when more than one machine clamping unit that is mounted into a
is used in the facility. Basic holders are position on the lathe turret. This
available for most common types of clamping unit is designed to remain in
spindles, each using the same front end position on the turret permanently.
connections. Some of the features of Cutting units are then mounted into
the system include: the clamping unit to perform various
metal cutting functions. The precision
- the flexible use of tools, despite and repeatability of the coupling
differences in spindle types between the cutting unit and the
- reduction of tool inventories clamping unit allow for the position
- more effective tool handling, storage of the cutting edge to be known at all
and set-ups times. This permits faster set-up times
- simplified use of special tools. from one batch or component to the
next and the ability to pre-measure
In a pure machining center environ- cutting units to reduce or eliminate
ment, modularity is more important measuring cuts either on set-up or
than quick change. A tooling system during the production runs. The tool
with tools that can be easily changed can, however, be measured in the
into different configurations right in the machine using a measuring probe.
tool-room, between part runs, can be a
worthwhile investment. Until the late The conventional
1970s machining centers were tooled activities in a lathe are:
with one-piece, integrated-type tools
which could normally not be changed. - Machine tool maintenance
Today, the optimum solution is usually - Workpiece changing
a mix of modular and integrated solid - Set-up changes from job to job
tools selected for a specific application. - Measuring cuts
- Machining
LATHES
Other types of machines include lathes
and other turning machines where the
workpiece rotates and the cutting tool
is stationary. The tool often performs
several different operations. Certain
vertical boring machines, with stationary
tools and rotating workpieces, can also
be categorized in this group. Because
of the limited number of positions
available on the turret or tool-post and
the time needed to reset new tools,
quick and accurate tool changing is the
number one criteria for lathe tooling.

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 8
Lathes that have frequent or long set-up times are made much more effective with
modular tools
The use of quick change modular - Higher cutting data becomes

tooling will have a profound effect on more economical
utilization if any of the following - Cycle times are decreased
factors are present:
- Machine requires frequent set-up TURNING CENTERS
changes A type of machine that is gaining
- Measuring cuts are necessary for popularity is the turning center or mill-
production turn lathe. These machines are popular
- Machining is performed with for the same reason as modular tooling:
relatively high cutting data reduced down-time. In just one set-
- One operator services more than up, components can be turned, milled,
one machine drilled, bored, tapped, etc. Rather than
- Materials with short tool lives such moving from machine to machine,
as high temperature super alloys depending on the operations, all the
are being machined machining is done in the turning
Machining economics can be improved center by stationary and rotating tools
with the use of quick change modular situated in a large number of axes.
tooling because: Obviously there are limitations in
- Set-up times are reduced dramatically accordance to the size, power and
- Measuring cuts are eliminated capability of the machine and not all
- Tools are changed quickly components are suitable. It is a fact,
- Tool inventory is reduced however, that more and more machine

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 9
Modular tooling is a key factor in any application
shops are moving towards using ma- developed for these machines and for
chining centers and turning centers. machine shops where the same modular
system can be used on several different
Again, modular tooling is a key ele- machines.These systems perform equally
ment in the success of these machines. well in turning, milling and drilling
A turning center cannot run efficiently operations, providing accuracy, strength
without modular quick-change tooling. and quick, easy handling. They are
But the tooling for these machines must suitable for turning centers, machining
be equally capable of turning, boring, centers, special purpose machines,
milling and drilling in fixed and driven milling machines, boring mills, transfer
tool positions in turrets and extra lines, etc. and can be truly universal tool
spindles. A common center height is systems for any machine shop.
required for external and internal
machining at the centerline of the
coupling.
There has also been development of

automated turning centers where, as in
machining centers, tools are changed
between positions in the turret and a
magazine. In-process measuring with
probes and coded cutting units are also
becoming economically viable in this
environment.
A new generation of quick-change A turning center must have modular

modular tooling systems have been tooling to achieve satisfactory utilization

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A good modular system can cope with any machining

MILLING MACHINES
Conventional milling machines and driving pins on the adapter, which fit
certain other manual tool changing ma- into matching grooves in the main
chines can be equipped with a manual body.
quick change system. This is a modular
tooling system built with a machine- The simplest pre-setting method is to
oriented basic holder and a cutting place the tool adapter on a support ring
tool adapter. Different adapters fitted and measure it with a height scriber
with cutting tools can be connected to or a dial indicator. The tool adapter is
the basic holder while mounted in then placed in a mounting fixture and
the machine spindle. Such systems the dimensions are corrected with the
provide a stable, accurate coupling pre-setting key. The correction is read
with high repeatability. Clamping is directly off the key, which is graduated
powerful and run-out is minimal. down to one thousandth of an inch.
The basic holder features either a cen- The various systems permit rapid and
tering stub with double centering or an simple pre-setting of the tools due to
internal straight draw-in flute. With the large, accurate, grounded contact
both of these alternatives, the drawer- surfaces, which provide a perfect refe-
effect is avoided, even though there is rence base for setting.
little clearance between the main body
and the tool-adapter. Typical tooling
systems feature small clearance, giving
repetitive accuracy. The spindle torque
is transmitted to the cutting tool by

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 11
Quick change modular tooling for milling machines

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 12
tool changes. The time taken to change

tools is a machine tool function that
has changed in line with the mecha-
nical developments. Setting up for new
batches has become more efficient for
machining centers because tooling sets
are now prepared in the tool-room
and then placed into the magazine of
the machining center. There are also
machines that have more than one ma-
gazine or allow for complete magazine
changes. Using modular tools in ma-
chining centers is beneficial partly
because of this efficiency outside the
machine, along with added operative
capacity and tooling versatility.
MODULAR TOOLING SYSTEMS FROM If a complete machining center tooling

SANDVIK COROMANT stock is made up of integral solid tools,
THE VARILOCK SYSTEM the tooling is dedicated to a specific
The principle method of tooling ma- spindle interface. It is also limited to
chining centers has not changed much the number and type of operations it
during the development of machinery. can perform. If workpieces change or
Since the introduction of the first machining centers with different inter-
manual machining centers in the 1960s faces are brought into the machine
and the development of automatic tool shop, completely new tooling has to be
changing and CNC during the 1970s, bought, inventory increases and more
various standards have developed for special tooling has to be acquired.
the tool/spindle interface. Different
holders have been established for Modular Varilock tooling is flexible in
specific machine tools and standards. that the cutting tool, length, diameter,
During the 1980s, there was consider- etc. can be changed. If a new machine
able growth and development in this
area, including ISO taper standards
and modular tooling, advanced pallet
changing machining centers, and also
a separate trend towards smaller
machines. Today, more than half of the
machining centers in use have an ISO
40 size interface and more than a third
are ISO 50 size.
The cutting tool part of the tooling has

also undergone major changes to speed

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 13
The principle of modular tooling for machining centers
with a different spindle is bought, all Usually a mix of modular and solid
the existing tooling can still be used. tooling is the best solution. Modular
Only new basic holders are needed. If tooling is selected when:
workpieces change or new ones have
• The tools must be used on several
to be machined, existing tooling is
machines of different type or taper size.
modified with adapters or new cutting
tools only. A wide range of tools can be • Workpieces or production changes
built from a limited modular tool inven- demand flexibility from the tooling
tory. Modular tools have a broader use, system.
a definite advantage if the tools are
• The workpiece complexity requires
complex, expensive specials.
a higher number of special tools.
A wide range of tools can be put together from a limited modular inventory

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 14
Solid tooling is mainly selected when: used in any machine type fitted with
• Set-ups are dedicated to operations commonly sized basic holders. This is
that definitely do not change. a significant factor in reducing tool in-
• It is technically or practically the best ventory.
solution, for instance with a short tool
length requiring very close run-out.
• The same tools are used in almost
every type of operation and are usually
not affected by dimensional change,
for instance, milling cutter holders
and collet chucks.
The Varilock tooling system includes

both modular and solid tooling to form
a wide, systematic basis for optimum
tool selection. Careful assessment and
planning for future needs should form
the basis for selection of cutting tools,
holding tools, adapters, extensions,
tooling sets and inventories.
Each Varilock adapter will fit all basic Extension, reduction and expansion of
holders of the same size. They can be tools with adapters

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The system consists of machine adapted

basic holders and cutting tool adapters,
plus extension, reduction and expansion
units. The use of extension, reduction
and expansion units provides even
greater adaptability.
Assembly of tools is simplified by use

of a centering stub which locates across
two diameters simultaneously. Connec-
tion and separation is easy even with
the close tolerance mating parts, and
run out between all units is very low.
The system is designed to withstand the

high cutting forces imposed by modern
cutting tools. In addition, milling arbors
can be extended when it is necessary to
machine difficult-to-reach surfaces and
tuned adapters can be used as well. The Varilock principle
maximum flexibility.
Certain operations such as fine boring,
require the exact position of the cutting • Use the very stable, center-bolt
edge to be known when the spindle is clamped type for maximum rigidity.
stationary. The Varilock coupling with
its single driving pin, means that the • Use the front-clamped Varilock type
exact position of the cutting tip is when a quick-change or building of
always known. tools in the tool-room (or even in the
magazine) is a priority for some of the
The modular design offers substantial tooling being used.
advantages in flexibility and economy.
The different clamping methods avail- Often a mix of the two clamping types
able for the Varilock system can offer is the most advantageous. Some tools
are almost always changed more fre-
quently than others, either because they
wear out more quickly or because they
are effected by changes in operations.
The Varilock system includes three
sizes: 50, 63 and 80, determined by the
coupling diameter in millimeters.
Using a series of extensions and
A mix of modular/solid tooling is reduction and expansion adapters,
advantageous tooling can be used on all three of the

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 16
system sizes, allowing a high degree of integral couplings are clamped with
standardization and reduction of the eight tons of clamping force, much
overall number of tools needed. more force than can be obtained with
conventional clamping screws. This
The classic type of Varilock is clamped creates a shorter, stronger tool capable
via a large axial bolt retained in the ba- of better performance and longer tool-
sic holder by a counternut. The large life. Varilock holding tools feature a
bolt size permits high torque values, through-hole for cutting fluid supply.
generating maximum clamping forces.
This can be an optimum solution for The Varilock system can be used as a
heavy machining, particularly when basic tool holding method for manual
long overhangs are employed. machines as well. The coupling used
with Varilock integrated cutting tools
Most modern machining center tooling provides short overhang and is a very
has an integral coupling option. This strong, stable alternative for manual
eliminates the need for a cutting tool machines. Several extensions can be
adapter, thus reducing the number of used to provide longer reach with
parts and the price of the tooling high stability. Tuned anti-vibration
assembly. Also, the integral coupling tooling is also a complement for
minimizes tool overhang. Tools with solving long-reach operations.
Flexibility in tooling is achieved with modularity

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 17
Modular tools are changed with adapters for machining components with different
dimensions, for instance, length-to-reach into housings
Varilock front clamping transforms the coupling with a matching drawbolt.
modular system into a quick-change Contact is always made on the back
system, but with all the benefits of the side of the serrations to generate axial
classic type. clamping force. The design features a
large clamping surface, low surface
In manufacturing, where tool replace- pressure that minimizes wear on the
ment frequency is high, tool-build moving parts, fixed clamping pressure
time can be critical. Front clamping for coping with large radial forces and
simplifies handling of the tools, saving through-tool coolant capability. The
valuable time. Conventional, manual entire existing, comprehensive range
machines become revitalized with of cutting tools and adapters can be
access to modern machining center held in the front clamping basic holder
tooling. The quick-change concept or extension by simply screwing in a
dramatically increases the machine standard drawbolt. In cases of extreme
efficiency and utilization. overhang, a combination of the classic
clamping and front clamping is the best
The Varilock front clamping mecha- solution. The front clamping extension
nism operates with a differential screw. is then used at the cutting tool end of
Opposite sets of serrated clamping jaws assembly. At this end, the bending
grasp and pull the tool back into the torque will be at its minimum.

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 18
Classic clamping and front clamping styles of Varilock
Aside from the obvious advantages, entire tool must be thrown away, but
modular tools bring about improved with a modular tool, only the damaged
tool utilization: component needs to be replaced.
• Many existing special tools can be • The front clamping type allows the
built from standard modular elements. same system to be used in other types
• Additional set-ups can be eliminated of machines with manual tool changing,
by achieving reach through the compo- such as milling machines, boring mills
nents to bore or mill with damped and special purpose machines, thus
tools. This also means faster produc- providing a universal system.
tion rates, better finish and a tool-life • Boring bar lengths are usually cal-
that extends longer into the workpieces. culated to cover the longest bore in a
• Exchangeability between machines group of components. This practice
of the more expensive tooling for limits performance on the majority of
boring, and tapping between different the other parts where the extra length is
spindle taper sizes. not needed. Instead, short bars or long
• Tool costs are lower. Tool crashes are bars can be built with modular tooling
a machine shop hazard. If the working to optimize cutting data. Standard exten-
end of a solid tool is destroyed, the sions are added for extra length.

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 19
Modular quick change tools mean short down-times and efficient tool preparation

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Only brief stops are needed to change cutting tools in any manual or CNC lathe
THE BLOCK TOOL SYSTEM

Tooling for lathes and other turning units, they form a simple, cost effective
machines with stationary tools has system which can be integrated into
changed considerably with modular almost any turning machine.
tooling. The down-time in these ma-
chines is greatly dependent upon the The cutting units, available in several
time it takes to set-up for a new batch size ranges, are light-weight to facilitate
of workpieces or change to a new tool easy handling and fast changing. The
during production. The Block Tool units adapt well into tool management
System (BTS) was developed to concepts. Adjustable center height of
rationalize tool handling on center the cutting edge and an internal coolant
lathes, CNC lathes, vertical and front- supply are important features of BTS.
loading machines, multi-spindle auto-
matics, etc. Designed to offer flexible
benefits for manual, semi-automatic
and automatic tool changing through
reduced machine down-time, BTS
allows for much quicker and easier
tool changing and setting. Since its
introduction in 1980, thousands of
machines have been rationalized with
the system.
The unique BTS coupling offers high

accuracy, stability and easy tool changes.
Standard cutting units use ANSI/ISO
standard inserts and can use the same
spare parts as other tools. In combina-
tion with machine-adaptable clamping

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 21
Cutting units fit into clamping units, short drawbar stroke allow simple and
which have an established datum posi- efficient tool changing.
tion in the machine. The BTS clamping
unit is the universal adapter that allows The BTS coupling offers no play in any
BTS cutting units to be used in any direction when in the clamped position.
pre-determined position. They are The force on the drawbar makes the
available with various mounting types, Block Tools as rigid as a solid tool.
such as shank, VDI, etc. This means The cutting unit is supported under-
that BTS provides interchangeability neath to the extent that in many cases,
between tool positions and machines. stability is even better than that of
solid tools. Plain contact faces and
The cutting unit is axially supported, high precision between the unit and
providing the unit with very high holder help to maintain the stability of
stability. The centerline position of the coupling.
the drawbar ensures that the clamping
pressure directly opposes the cutting The accuracy of the coupling gives ex-
tool forces. Low clamping torque and cellent repeatability. When the same
cutting unit is clamped and unclamped,
it will repeat within +/- .00008 inch in
the x-axis and +/- .0002 inch in the z-
axis. When changing from one unit to
another the cutting unit tolerance of
+/- .006 inch and the insert tolerance
must be taken into account.
The manual clamping unit program

covers a variety of applications. The
units are adapted for common turret
designs, such as VDI, square and round
shanks. The Block Tool coupling

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 22
G
IC± M
Z U
± .0002 inch ± .006 inch
BTS
X
± .00008 inch
Modular tooling accuracy factors
incorporates a number of features BTS units have excellent repeatability.

that make manual clamping and tool Measuring cuts can be eliminated by
changing easy. A short drawbar stroke pre-measuring the cutting units off the
from the unclamped to clamped posi- machine. Measured deviations from
tion allows for easy manual operation, the programmed setting length are
with only one to one and a half turns used as compensators in the CNC tool
of a screw to lock or unlock. Low offset. When using measuring probes
tightening torque enables simple and in the machine the tool offset can be
easy clamping/unclamping, with no measured and fed directly into the ma-
difficult fittings or time consuming chine control. A repeatable accuracy
checks. The BTS unit is dropped into of +/- .0008 inch on the workpiece can
position, locked and ready for ma- be maintained with a corresponding
chining. The coupling is easily cleaned value in a pre-measuring fixture.
because of straight, flat surfaces, and
because all internal parts are sealed to The Block Tool coupling has a constant
keep out chips and coolant. drawbar force that ensures repeata-

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 23
bility and stability of the tool. In the enclosed by two pistons. The result is
unclamped position the two expanding a system with total flexibility, where
lips in the coupling give the necessary the number of internal and external
play for tool change. In the clamped clamping units can be chosen as
position, this gives a connection free required. Because many of today’s
of play. lathes are equipped with the VDI sy-
stem, the adapters fit existing VDI 40,
Changing cutting units is very easy: 50 and 60 tool posts. Since the clamping
- the cutting unit is released by unit, hydraulic piston, nipple and pump
loosening the clamp bolt one to one unit are built into the adapter, the only
and a half turns part that has to be added to the
- the cutting unit is lifted off the machine is a hydraulic cylinder. This
clamping unit can be placed behind the turret to
- the coupling is cleaned of chips activate the release mechanism.
and dust with an air blast
- a new cutting unit is fit into the The positioning of the drawbar has its
clamping unit, firmly pressed down center of gravity over the center line of
onto the support before being locked the cutting unit to effectively absorb
into position. Only one key is the cutting forces and give maximum
required for a complete tool change. support. These two factors contribute
greatly to the stability of the coupling.
Various turret mounting options have
been provided for, so that Block Tool
System clamping units can be built-in.
The clamping units can be mounted
directly onto the turret, internal tools
can be mounted axially, on the front
of the turret, and external tools ra-
dially, on the periphery of the turret.
If all tools have to be mounted on the
front of the turret, there are standard
housings for holding the clamping unit
to the face at 90°. The same principle
is used for adapting VDI toolholders
onto the turret. When using VDI adap-
ters, the release mechanism is built into
the adapter.
When built onto the front of the turret,

the release mechanism, such as pump
unit, piston and nipple, are incorpora-
ted into the turret itself. The adapter
for this application is provided with its
own hydraulic system, where the oil is Quick release with turret hydraulics

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 24
Automatically operated clamping units

make it possible to release cutting units
in the machine at the push of a button.
These utilize spring clamping and
hydraulic release and are built into the
machine turret or tool position. The
force of a plunger acting at the back
of the clamping unit releases the cutting
unit in the coupling. Turrets with
closed circuit hydraulics offering tool
release in any position are available
for certain lathes.
Clamping units with automatic clamping

and release are used in semi-automatic
installations with manual handling or
press-button mechanisms to release
the unit, and also in fully automatic
installations. The design is based on
mechanical clamping and hydraulic
release. Clamping units are compact, released by means of a hydraulic piston
with the drawbar spring operated at the back, which compresses the
through a series of Belleville washers. Belleville washers. Advantages of this
The clamping force is transmitted system are a positive clamping force,
through a link to the front drawbar even if the machine power drops, and
which clamps the unit. The unit is constant drawbar force. The hydraulic
closed circuit system offers flexibility
as it finds a common releasing point
for all positions in a turret disc.
To release the cutting unit, a piston,

positioned behind the Belleville washers,
is actuated through an independant
closed circuit hydraulic system by a
pump unit mounted in the rear face of
the turret. The actuating force to
depress the pump unit is provided by
a hydraulic cylinder mounted on the
machine carriage, behind the turret.
To change a cutting unit, the turret is
indexed to position the unit in line
with the hydraulic cylinder. The
change can then be made either
Semi-automatic quick change manually or automatically.

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Block Tools will improve the utilization of any lathe dramatically

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 26
THE COROMANT
CAPTO TOOLING SYSTEM
Coromant Capto is a new concept in in the clamping unit with a pre-load
modular tooling systems, the first to be force of several tons, produces an ex-
equally effective for turning, milling tremely stable joint. However, the tool
and drilling, regardless of the machining can be quickly and easily removed,
operation or type of machine. The either manually or automatically. The
unique feature of this system is the large contact surface on the three
tapered polygonal-shaped coupling. A flanks of the taper provides non-slip
distinguishing feature of the Coromant transmission of the torque. The self-
Capto system is its capacity to transmit centering and self-aligning effect of the
considerable torque without losing its coupling ensures that the constituent
high precision and repetitive accuracy. parts are never displaced in the radial
It does not require keys, driving pins, direction. Also, the polygon coupling
balls or interlocking teeth, which have functions equally well in both directions
inherent disadvantages, for demanding of rotation. The length of the taper
turning at high speeds or in milling and the precision contact surfaces
with high torque and radial forces. counteract bending of the cutting tool-
Parallel polygonal couplings have long holder, and at the same time contribute
been used in the motor industry for to the coupling’s capacity to handle
transferring large forces, such as in large torques.
transmissions. Coromant Capto works
equally well in lathes with rotating The high precision of the coupling en-
spindles, in mill-turn centers, machining sures a repeatable accuracy of +/- .00008
centers and in flexible manufacturing inch in the x and z axes. This repeatable
systems. accuracy applies when using the same
external cutting unit and the same edge
The tapered polygon, which is tensioned of an insert in the same clamping unit.
The polygon-coupling fixes the cutting tool firmly in place

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 27
2 3
Clamped and unclamped, the cutting unit released, (1) pulled into position and (2) locked
firmly (3)
When different cutting units are used, The versatility of Coromant Capto
the tolerance of the insert seat in allows the system to be used on most
relation to the coupling, plus the machine tools and for many types of
tolerance of the insert, must also be machining. It forms the cornerstone
taken into consideration. for Just-in-Time production. It is the
viable solution for turning centers and
For tool changes, pre-measuring can be FMS, but can also be used advan-
carried out to measure deviations from tageously on conventional machines.
nominal values. These deviations can It permits tool system standardization
be compensated for via the tool offset and reduces inventory costs as well as
function of the machine control system. simplifying administration and handling
Stability, torque and bending strength of coupling

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 28
Modular tools provide a new, efficient way to machine, as well as an easier method for
handling, applying and storing tools

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 29
The right modular tool system can be a common factor throughout the machine shop,
creating universality
of tools. Tools are prepared for Careful planning of the turret layout
through-tool coolant supply as a is essential when integrating driven
standard feature. It is equally suitable tool holders into a turret, especially to
for manual or automatic installations. avoid any risk of collision. The driven
tool holders can be integrated into
Driven tools for rotating tool applica-
most turret layouts based on the
tions transform the scope and the effi-
following factors and considerations:
ciency of workpiece production in
turning machines. Turning, milling, - All main dimensions
tapping, reaming and drilling ope- - Maximum lengths of the tools and
rations are combined in a single set- adapters
up. The Coromant Capto adaptable - Maximum allowed swing diameter of
range of driven toolholders can be turret with tools fitted
fitted in almost any type of standard - Center point of turret disc
or special turning machine. The system - No risk of collision between adjacent
has two basic types of driven tool holders, tools or with tools on
holders: axial and radial. Each unit another turret
consists of standard modules for easy - Coolant supply requirements
adaptation to different machines and - Type of drive coupling needed
turrets. To extend their application - Maximum torque permissable on
range, each one can be modified. drive coupling during machining.

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 30
Driven toolholders can be integrated into most lathe turrets. Axial and radial axes are used
Touch-trigger measuring probes and - Grippers for tool changing

adapters with couplings can be used - Various types of tool storage systems
for in-process workpiece measurement for installation in the machine
in turning and machining centers. The - Tool monitoring including sensors
integration of touch-trigger probes and electronic controllers
into the tooling system increases in- - Tool identification systems for
process measuring efficiency by en- transfer of tool data between the
abling the machine to conduct work- CNC and the tool.
piece measurement during the ma-
Grippers can be installed in tool
chining cycle. The probe and adapter
changing and transportation systems
assemblies have standard couplings for
using any number of axes with the
applications in machine turrets and
following features:
spindles.
- Pneumatically activated
- Tool presence sensing
Automated modular tooling installa-
- Gripper status signal
tions on turning centers, lathes and
- Various gripper designs for axial or
special purpose machines can signi-
radial approach
ficantly increase machine utilization
and flexibility, as well as reduce man- Tool storage magazines allow a con-
power requirements. Automated tooling tinuous supply of tools to be available
enables the machines to continuously in the machine. Storage magazines, as
operate at high cutting data, with the complete assemblies, can be integrated
reliability ensured by constant moni- into most types of machines. These
toring of the cutting operation. The include disc, drum and chain storage
range of automatic tool changing and systems as well as pallets for storage
storage products includes: of a large range of tools.

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 31
Mechanical changing of modular tools Coded cutting tools are part of tool
management
- Disc magazines can store up to 24 preparation, inspection, assembly, tool-

different tools per disc. This gives life, measurement, machining data and
the machine the ability to quickly offset values can be accurately sent
select stored tools. Assemblies can be with the tool throughout the factory
supplied with either one or two discs, using the CIS tag. This enables tools
including drive motor and controls. to communicate and accurately carry
their own data to the machine,
- Drum magazines are designed for eliminating any intermediate manual
turning machines requiring large capa- reading errors.
city tool storage for production runs
where large quantities of back-up tools
are required.
- Chain magazines are provided in

modular links and adapted to suit a
wide range of machine configurations.
Chain magazines can have up to 60
tool positions as complete systems.
Tools and accessories can be supplied

with identification tags. Tools with
integrated CIS (Coromant Identifica-
tion System) memory tags can carry
their own data and communicate with
machine CNCs, PCs and most data
processing systems. Tool identification, Axial drilling in a lathe

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 32
9 minutes of every hour to change

tools. With modular tools (B), it takes 1
minute. Eight minutes are saved every
hour, meaning that 13% more time is
available for metal cutting.
Modular tools can be incorporated

into most machine tools, old or new,
resulting in considerable savings. Even
existing turret lathes can have modular
tools easily built-in to provide quick
tool changing. Normally, a conventional
lathe tool takes three to five minutes to
change, while a modular tool takes one
minute. Faster, better insert indexing is
also carried out in the tool-room or out-
side the lathe, often in less than half
the time and with better inspection in a
safer location. Measuring cuts, taking
somewhere around 5 minutes, are virtu-
ally eliminated due to the repeatability.
TIME SAVING
Using modular quick change tooling
instead of conventional tools can mean
huge savings in time and costs. A
modular tool system should provide
quick tool changing, stability, strength,
accuracy, a comprehensive program,
flexibility, future development and
tool management facilities. This will
lead to a substantial increase in
productive metal cutting, improved
tool handling and administration and
smaller inventory.
In the example on pages XIII-34 and 35,
there are eleven different operations
needed to machine a block in a manual
milling machine. On an average, ten
tool changes take place every shift. Driven toolholders expand the possibilities
With conventional tooling, (A), it takes of lathes for additional operations

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 33
5
3
6
2
8
A new working environment is created machining process and driven tool-

with modular tools, giving several holders (6) allow additional operations.
advantages in performance, quality, In-process measuring is a reality with
working and economics. Tool Manage- probes (7), and a minimized inventory
ment can be established on any level of modular tools (8) can be completely
whether it concerns one conventional controlled.
machine or a large machine shop full of
CNC machinery. Computerized plan- Modular tools provide considerable
ning, administration, programming and practical and economical advantages
network systems (1) will help to drive for almost any application. The
the organization. Tool identification (2) benefits are greater the more often
keeps track of tools and data. A storage tools are changed. The change to
system (3) will facilitate handling and modular tools involves a modest
mechanical tool handling (4) will lead investment, which is repaid in a few
down the path to automation. Tool months by the economic gains.
monitoring (5) keeps an eye on the

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 34

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 35
A B
TC h 9 min 1 min
- h = 8 min
Time gain with modular system in milling machine

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 36
Coromant Capto

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 37
Coromant Capto

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 38
Modular tooling lend themselves to tool management as well as efficient handling of tools
and minimized inventories

19158 13_Toolhold 07-04-12 10.59 Sida 39
Improved stability is one of the benefits of modular tools
Checklist for Adopting Modular Tools

Make sure that true universality is provided for, today and tomorrow, to
utilize flexibility and rationalizing potential in handling and inventory:
- invest in a system that, without any compromises, can be used for any
type of machining operation
- ensure that the system is suitable for all foreseeable machine tool types
Make sure to choose a system that provides the best stability and
repeatability, so tools are not limited by any operational demands:
- check for the best function in regards to stationary and rotating tools
- establish values for the built-in safety margins, especially for heavy-duty
applications
- test for effect on workpiece quality
- determine elimination of measuring cuts
Have quick changing facility of tools as a high priority for turning operations.
Modular systems vary in speed and complexity, which will affect the practical
utilization of the system and the ability to reap benefits of higher productivity
and rationalization.
Select a system from a supplier who can provide technical support and a
broad program of products, now and in the future.
Choose a system that provides coolant through the tools as the standard
method. This is often a crucial requirement in those operations needing chip
removal and cutting fluid to be directed to the right spot on the tooling.

19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 1
TECHNICAL DATA
METAL CUTTING TERMINOLOGY AND UNITS • METAL CUTTING FORMULAS • SPECI-

FIC CUTTING FORCE (kc) VALUES FOR RANGE OF COMMON MATERIALS • SELECTING
CUTTING SPEED • SURFACE FINISH CONVERSION • HARDNESS CONVERSION •
SURFACE TEXTURE • EXTERNAL CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION • INTERNAL CIRCULAR
INTERPOLATION • ISO-TOLERANCES • INSERT TOLERANCES • CODE KEY - TURNING
TOOLS • INDEXABLE INSERTS - TURNING • INDEXABLE INSERTS - MILLING •
CARTRIDGES • THREADING INSERTS • THREADING TOOLS (THREE-EIGHTS AND
HALF-INCH INSERTS) • TOOLHOLDERS FOR CERAMIC INSERTS • INDEXABLE
CERAMIC INSERTS
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 2
TECHNICAL DATA
METAL CUTTING TERMINOLOGY AND UNITS
1. TURNING 2. MILLING
Machining diameter Tool diameter D (inch)

D (inch)
(workpiece)
Feed per edge ƒz (inch)
Spindle speed n (rev/min)
Feed speed vƒ (in/min)
Cutting speed vc (ft/min)
Number of edges z
Machining time t (min)
Depth of cut, axial ap (inch)
Metal removal rate (in3/min)
V
Depth of cut, radial ae (inch)
Machining distance l (inch)
Specific cutting force
k (lbs/in2)
Power, net P (Hp) (avg. chip thickness .008 in.) s
Specific cutting force kc (lbs/in2)
Specific cutting force 3. DRILLING

k (lbs/in2)
(avg. chip thickness .016 in.) s
Tool diameter D (inch)
Average chip thickness hm (inch)
Depth of cut, radial ap (inch)
Feed per revolution ƒ (in/rev)
Length of cut, axial L (inch)
Depth of cut, radial ap (inch)
Specific cutting force
ks (lbs/in2)
Cutting force F (lbs) (feed per rev of .016 in.)
Coefficient of Elasticity E (lbs/in2)
Moment of Inertia I (in4)
Torque M (ft/lbs)
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 3
TECHNICAL DATA
METAL CUTTING FORMULAS
1. TURNING kc = ks (
.008 0.29
)
(spec. cutting force)
hm
xDxn
vc = (cutting speed)
12 ae (avg. chip thick-
hm = ƒz
D ness, side/face)
Q = vc x ap x ƒ (removal rate)
hm = sin x 180 x ae x ƒz
l (facemilling)
a
t=
ƒxn
(machining time) x D x arcsin ( e )
D
v x ap x ƒr x kc l
P= c (net power) t= (machining time)
33,000 vƒ
.016 0.29 ƒr2 (profile depth, H

kc = ks ( ) (spec. cutting force) H=
hm 4D Round Insert)
(straight edge avg.

hm = ƒ x sin
cutting force) 3. DRILLING
ap (round edge avg. V = vc x ap x ƒ (removal rate)
hm = ƒ x
2xr cutting force)
l
ƒ2 t= (machining time)
H= (profile depth, H) ƒxn
8r
D x ƒr x kc x vc (net power, solid
F x L3 P=
= (tool deflection) 64 drilling without pads)
3xExI
D x ƒr x kc x vc (net power, deep
x D4 P=
48 hole drilling w/pads)
I= (moment of inertia)
64
M=Fxr (torque) .016 0.29

kc = ks ( ) (spec. cutting force)
ƒ
2. MILLING
vƒ
ƒz = (feed per edge)
nxz
vƒ
ƒr = (feed per rev)
n
V = aa x ar x s' (removal rate)
ap x ae x vƒ
P= (net power)
Vp (in3/min. Hp)
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 4
TECHNICAL DATA
SPECIFIC CUTTING FORCE (kc)

VALUES FOR RANGE OF COMMON MATERIALS
Material CMC- Hardness Condition kc .016 Vp
code HB (lbs/in2) (in3/min HP)
01.1 110 C < 0.25% 319,085 1.30
Unalloyed
01.3 150 C < 0.8% 324,800 1.23
steels
01.5 310 C < 1.4% 435,116 0.92
Low Alloy 02.1 125-225 Non-hardened 362,597 1.08

steels 02.2 220-420 Hardened 478,624 0.82
High Alloy 03.11 150-300 Annealed 435,116 0.92

steels 03.21 250-350 Hardened tool steel 652,675 0.59
Extra Hard steel 04.1 >450 Hardened and tempered 652,675 0.59
Malleable 07.1 110-145 Short chipping 174,046 2.24

cast iron 07.2 200-230 Long chipping 188,550 2.10
Grey 08.1 180 Low tensile 188,550 2.10

cast iron 08.2 260 High tensile, alloyed 217,558 1.81
Nodular cast iron 09.1 160 Ferritic 174,046 2.24

SG-iron 09.2 250 Pearlitic 304,581 1.32
06.1 150 Unalloyed 319,085 1.26

Steels
06.2 150-250 Low alloy 362,597 1.08
castings
06.3 160-200 High alloy 435,116 0.92
05.1 150-270 Ferritic, martensitic 13-25% Cr 406,109 0.96

05.2 150-275 Austenitic Ni >8%, 18-25% Cr 355,345 1.09
Stainless steels
Quenched and tempered,
05.3 275-425 406,109 0.96
martensitic >0.12% C
05.4 150-450 Precipitation hardened steels 507,636 0.78
Heat Resistant
20.11 180-230 Annealed or solution treated 536,644 0.73
Super Alloys
20.12 250-320 Aged or solution treated and aged 565,651 0.70
Fe-based
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 5
TECHNICAL DATA
Material CMC- Hardness Condition kc .016 Vp

code HB (lbs/in2) (in3/min HP)
Heat Resistant 20.21 140-300 Annealed or solution treated 507,636 0.78

Super Alloys 20.22 300-475 Aged or solution treated and aged 601,911 0.64
Ni-based 20.24 200-425 Cast or cast and aged 601,911 0.64
Heat Resistant 20.31 180-230 Annealed or solution treated 507,636 0.78

Super Alloys 20.32 270-320 Solution treated and aged 601,911 0.64
Co-based 20.33 220-425 Cast or cast and aged 601,911 0.64
23.1 400 MPa Commercially pure, 99.5% Ti 221,909 1.77

, near and alloys in
Titanium Alloys 23.21 950 MPa 242,940 1.63
annealed condition
+ alloys in aged condition,
23.22 1050 MPa alloys in annealed or aged 245,115 1.62
condition
30.11 30-80 Wrought and cold drawn 116,031 3.54

30.12 75-150 Wrought & solution treated & aged 116,031 3.54
Aluminum
30.21 40-100 Cast 130,535 3.18
Alloys
30.22 70-125 Cast, solution treated and aged 130,535 3.18
30.3 80 Unalloyed, Al ≥99% 58,015 8.70
Aluminum with 10-14% SI 130,535 3.18

30.4
high SI content 14-16% SI 217,558 1.81
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 6
TECHNICAL DATA
SELECTING CUTTING SPEED

Cutting speeds are given for specific material hardness and for a certain lead angle. If the
material being machined differs in hardness from those values, the recommended cutting
speed must be multiplied by a factor obtained from the right hand table. If the lead angle is
greater than 0°, the cutting speed may be increased while still maintaining tool life.
HB variation
CMC -80 -60 -40 -20 0 +20 +40 +60 +80
01 - - - 1.07 1.0 0.95 0.90 - -
02 1.26 1.18 1.12 1.05 1.0 0.94 0.91 0.86 0.83
03 - - 1.21 1.10 1.0 0.91 0.84 0.79 -
05 - - 1.21 1.10 1.0 0.91 0.85 0.79 0.75
06 - - 1.31 1.13 1.0 0.87 0.80 0.73 -
07 - 1.14 1.08 1.03 1.0 0.96 0.92 - -
08 - - 1.25 1.10 1.0 0.92 0.86 0.80 -
09 - - 1.07 1.03 1.0 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91
20 1.26 - 1.11 - 1.0 - 0.90 - 0.82
HRC variation
CMC -6 -3 0 +3 +6 +9
04 1.10 1.02 1.0 0.96 0.93 0.90
SURFACE FINISH CONVERSION

Rt Ra=CLA=AA RMS
m m in m in
1,6 0,30 11.8 0,33 13.1
1,8 0,35 13.8 0,39 15.3
2,0 0,40 15.7 0,44 17.4
2,2 0,44 17.5 0,49 19.4
2,4 0,49 19.2 0,54 21.3
2,6 0,53 20.8 0,59 23.1
2,8 0,58 22.7 0,64 25.2
3,0 0,63 24.6 0,70 27.3
3,5 0,71 27.8 0,79 30.9
4,0 0,80 31.4 0,89 34.8
4,5 0,90 35.2 1,0 39.1
5,0 0,99 38.8 1,1 43.1
6,0 1,2 47.2 1,3 52.4
7,0 1,4 55.1 1,5 61.2
8,0 1,6 63.0 1,8 70.0
9,0 1,8 71 2,0 78.8
10,0 2,0 79 2,2 87.7
15,0 3,2 126 3,10 140
20,0 4,4 173 4,9 192
25,0 5,8 238 6,4 264
27,0 6,3 247 7,0 274
30,0 7,4 292 8,2 324
35,0 8,8 346 9,8 384
40,0 10,7 422 11,9 468
45,0 12,5 485 13,9 538
50,0 14,0 552 15,5 613
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 7
TECHNICAL DATA
HARDNESS CONVERSION
Tensile Vickers Brinell Rockwell Shore Tensile Vickers Brinell Rockwell Shore
strength strength
lbs/in2 HV HB HRC “C” lbs/in2 HV HB HRC “C”
101527 200 - 28 294426 580 527 53,3 68

107328 210 - 29 300228 590 533 53,8 69
111679 220 - 30 304579 600 533 54,4 70
117481 230 19,2 31 310380 610 543 54,9 71
121832 240 21,2 33 314731 620 549 55,4 72
127634 250 23,0 34 320533 630 555 55,9 73

131985 260 24,7 35 324884 640 561 56,4 74
137787 270 26,1 36 330685 650 568 56,9 75
142138 280 27,6 37 335037 660 574 57,4 75
147939 290 29,0 39 340838 670 581 57,9 76
152290 300 30,3 40 345189 680 588 58,7 77

158092 310 31,5 41 349540 690 595 58,9 78
162443 320 32,9 42 355342 700 602 59,3 79
166794 330 33,8 43 359693 710 609 59,8 80
172596 340 34,9 44 365495 720 616 60,2 81
178397 350 36,0 45
369846 730 622 60,7 82
182749 360 359 37,0 46 375647 740 627 61,1 83
188550 370 368 38,0 47 381449 750 633 61,5 83
192901 380 373 38,9 48 385800 760 639 61,9 84
198703 390 385 39,8 49 391601 770 644 62,3 85
203054 400 393 40,7 50
395952 780 650 62,7 86
208856 410 400 41,5 51 401754 790 656 63,1 86
213207 420 407 42,3 52 406105 800 661 63,5 87
219008 430 416 43,2 53 411907 810 666 63,9 87
223359 440 423 44,0 54 416258 820 670 64,3 88
229161 450 429 44,8 55
422059 830 677 64,6 89
233512 460 435 45,5 56 426410 840 682 65,0 89
239314 470 441 46,3 57 432212 850 - 65,3 90
243665 480 450 47,0 58 436563 860 - 65,7 90
249466 490 457 47,7 59 442364 870 - 66,0 91
253818 500 465 48,3 60
446716 880 - 66,3 91
259619 510 474 49,0 61 452517 890 - 66,6 92
263970 520 482 49,6 62 456868 900 - 66,9 92
269772 530 489 50,3 63 462670 910 - 67,2 -
274123 540 496 50,9 64 467021 920 - 67,5 -
279925 550 503 51,5 65 472822 930 - 67,7 -
284276 560 511 52,1 66 477174 940 - 68,0 -
290077 570 520 52,7 67
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 8
TECHNICAL DATA
SURFACE TEXTURE
1 =
2
3
1 Surface may be produced by any
method.
X
2 Machining is required. Allowance
required.
3 Material removal prohibited. M
a roughness value Ra in micro-
inches µinch.
b production method or surface
C
treatment
c sampling length in inch
d direction of lay R
e machining allowance
f parameter other than Ra inch
and value in micro-inches (in
brackets) Ra inch Ra inch
b 2000
1000
32
16
a c(f) 500 8
250 4
e d 125 2
64 1
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 9
TECHNICAL DATA
EXTERNAL INTERNAL
CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION
Calculation of using the cosine theorem Calculation of using the cosine theorem
r2 + (R + r - ar)2 - R2 r2 + (R + ar - r)2 - R2
Cos = Cos (180 - = (180°-°)
2r (R + r - ar) 2r (R + ar -r)
. 2r . 2r . .
L= (inch) chip length L= (inch) chip length
360 360
Az = L . hm (in2) chip area Az = L . hm (in2) chip area
total area to total area to

AT = [R2 - (R - ar)2] (in2) AT = [(R + ar)2 - R2] (in2)
be removed be removed
AT time to remove AT time to remove

t= (min) t= (min)
n . z . Az area AT n . z . Az area AT
Note. The total cutting time = t + feed-in time. Note. The total cutting time = t + feed-in time.
When needed, feed-in time has to be calculated. When needed, feed-in time has to be calculated.
. 2 (R + r - ar) . 2 (R + ar - r)
s'1 = (in/min) s'1 = (in/min)
t t
feed at tool center1 feed at tool center1
AT . aa AT . aa
V= (in3/min) stock removal rate V= (in3/min) stock removal rate
t t
R - ar R + ar
1)S'
2 = 1)S'1 . R + r- a (in/min) 1)S'
2 = 1)S'1 . R + a - r (in/min)
r r
peripheral feed at contour peripheral feed at contour
r

°
S´1
Az
ar L Az
Ar L ar S´2
Ar
R+r-a r
R S´2 r

°
R
180°-
r = cutter radius R+a r -r

R = workpiece radius S´1
= angle of cutter engagement
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 10
TECHNICAL DATA
ISO-TOLERANCES (Metric values)

The most frequent ISO-tolerances for hole limit deviation in m.
Basic meas. G6 H6 J6 K6 M6 N6
more up to upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower
than
3 + 8 + 2 + 6 0 + 2 -4 0 - 6 - 2 - 8 - 4 -10
(3) 6 +12 + 4 + 8 0 + 5 -3 +2 - 6 - 1 - 9 - 5 -13
(6) 10 +14 + 5 + 9 0 + 5 -4 +2 - 7 - 3 -12 - 7 -16
(10) 18 +17 + 6 +11 0 + 6 -5 +2 - 9 - 4 -15 - 9 -20
(18) 30 +20 + 7 +13 0 + 8 -5 +2 -11 - 4 -17 -11 -24
(30) 50 +25 + 9 +16 0 +10 -6 +3 -13 - 4 -20 -12 -28
(50) 80 +29 +10 +19 0 +13 -6 +4 -15 - 5 -24 -14 -33
(80) 120 +34 +12 +22 0 +16 -6 +4 -18 - 6 -28 -16 -38
(120) 180 +39 +14 +25 0 +18 -7 +4 -21 - 8 -33 -20 -45
(180) 250 +44 +15 +29 0 +22 -7 +5 -24 - 8 -37 -22 -51
(250) 315 +49 +17 +32 0 +25 -7 +5 -27 - 9 -41 -25 -57
(315) 400 +54 +18 +36 0 +29 -7 +7 -29 -10 -46 -26 -62
(400) 500 +60 +20 +40 0 +33 -7 +8 -32 -10 -50 -27 -67
Basic meas. F7 G7 H7 J7 K7
more up to upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower
than
3 + 16 + 6 +12 + 2 +10 0 + 4 - 6 0 -10
(3) 6 + 22 +10 +16 + 4 +12 0 + 3 - 9
(6) 10 + 28 +13 +20 + 5 +15 0 + 8 - 7 + 5 -10
(10) 18 + 34 +16 +24 + 6 +18 0 +10 - 8 + 6 -12
(18) 30 + 41 +20 +28 + 7 +21 0 +12 - 9 + 6 -15
(30) 50 + 50 +25 +34 + 9 +25 0 +14 -11 + 7 -18
(50) 80 + 60 +30 +40 +10 +30 0 +18 -12 + 9 -21
(80) 120 + 71 +36 +47 +12 +35 0 +22 -13 +10 -25
(120) 180 + 83 +43 +54 +14 +40 0 +26 -14 +12 -28
(180) 250 + 96 +50 +61 +15 +46 0 +30 -16 +13 -33
(250) 315 +108 +56 +69 +17 +52 0 +36 -16 +16 -36
(315) 400 +119 +62 +75 +18 +57 0 +39 -18 +17 -40
(400) 500 +131 +68 +83 +20 +63 0 +43 -20 +18 -45
Basic meas. M7 N7 P7 E8 F8
than
3 -2 -12 - 4 -14 - 6 - 16 + 28 + 14 + 20 + 6
(3) 6 0 -12 - 4 -16 - 8 - 20 + 38 + 20 + 28 +10
(6) 10 0 -15 - 4 -19 - 9 - 24 + 47 + 25 + 35 +13
(10) 18 0 -18 - 5 -23 -11 - 29 + 59 + 32 + 43 +16
(18) 30 0 -21 - 7 -28 -14 - 35 + 73 + 40 + 53 +20
(30) 50 0 -25 - 8 -33 -17 - 42 + 89 + 50 + 64 +25
(50) 80 0 -30 - 9 -39 -21 - 51 +106 + 60 + 76 +30
(80) 120 0 -35 -10 -45 -24 - 59 +126 + 72 + 90 +36
(120) 180 0 -40 -12 -52 -28 - 68 +148 + 85 +106 +43
(180) 250 0 -46 -14 -60 -33 - 79 +172 +100 +122 +50
(250) 315 0 -52 -14 -66 -36 - 88 +191 +110 +137 +56
(315) 400 0 -57 -16 -73 -41 - 98 +214 +125 +151 +62
(400) 500 0 -63 -17 -80 -45 -108 +232 +135 +165 +68
Above mentioned tolerances are nominal values and not the same as the dimensions of the hole gauge.
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 11
TECHNICAL DATA
Basic meas. H8 J8 K8 M8 N8
than
3 +14 0 + 6 - 8 0 -14 - 2 -16 -4 - 18
(3) 6 +18 0 +10 - 8 + 5 -13 + 2 -16 -2 - 20
(6) 10 +22 0 +12 -10 + 6 -16 + 1 -21 -3 - 25
(10) 18 +27 0 +15 -12 + 8 -19 + 2 -25 -3 - 30
(18) 30 +33 0 +20 -13 +10 -23 + 4 -29 -3 - 36
(30) 50 +39 0 +24 -15 +12 -27 + 5 -34 -3 - 42
(50) 80 +46 0 +28 -18 +14 -32 + 5 -41 -4 - 50
(80) 120 +54 0 +34 -20 +16 -38 + 6 -48 -4 - 58
(120) 180 +63 0 +41 -22 +20 -43 + 8 -55 -4 - 67
(180) 250 +72 0 +47 -25 +22 -50 + 9 -63 -5 - 77
(250) 315 +81 0 +55 -26 +25 -56 + 9 -72 -5 - 86
(315) 400 +89 0 +60 -29 +28 -61 +11 -78 -5 - 94
(400) 500 +97 0 +66 -31 +29 -68 +11 -86 -6 -103
Basic meas. D9 E9 H9 N9
more up to upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower
than
3 + 45 + 20 + 39 + 14 + 25 0 -4 - 29
(3) 6 + 60 + 30 + 50 + 20 + 30 0 0 - 30
(6) 10 + 76 + 40 + 61 + 25 + 36 0 0 - 36
(10) 18 + 93 + 50 + 75 + 32 + 43 0 0 - 43
(18) 30 +117 + 65 + 92 + 40 + 52 0 0 - 52
(30) 50 +142 + 80 +112 + 50 + 62 0 0 - 62
(50) 80 +174 +100 +134 + 60 + 74 0 0 - 74
(80) 120 +207 +120 +159 + 72 + 87 0 0 - 87
(120) 180 +245 +145 +185 + 85 +100 0 0 -100
(180) 250 +285 +170 +215 +100 +115 0 0 -115
(250) 315 +320 +190 +240 +110 +130 0 0 -130
(315) 400 +350 +210 +265 +125 +140 0 0 -140
(400) 500 +383 +230 +290 +135 +155 0 0 -155
Basic meas. D 10 H 10 N 10 D 11
more up to upper lower upper lower upper lower upper lower
than
3 - 60 + 20 + 40 0 -4 - 44 + 80 + 20
(3) 6 + 78 + 30 + 48 0 0 - 48 +105 + 30
(6) 10 + 98 + 40 + 58 0 0 - 58 +130 + 40
(10) 18 +120 + 50 + 70 0 0 - 70 +160 + 50
(18) 30 +149 + 65 + 84 0 0 - 84 +195 + 65
(30) 50 +180 + 80 +100 0 0 -100 +240 + 80
(50) 80 +220 +100 +120 0 0 -120 +290 +100
(80) 120 +260 +120 +140 0 0 -140 +340 +120
(120) 180 +305 +145 +160 0 0 -160 +395 +145
(180) 250 +355 +170 +185 0 0 -185 +460 +170
(250) 315 +400 +190 +210 0 0 -210 +510 +190
(315) 400 +440 +210 +230 0 0 -230 +570 +210
(400) 500 +480 +230 +250 0 0 -250 +630 +230
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 12
TECHNICAL DATA
ISO-TOLERANCES (Metric values)

The most frequent ISO-tolerances for hole limit deviation in m.
Basic meas. H 11 N 11
more up to upper lower upper lower
than
3 + 60 0 -4 - 64
(3) 6 + 75 0 0 - 75
(6) 10 + 90 0 0 - 90
(10) 18 +110 0 0 -110
(18) 30 +130 0 0 -130
(30) 50 +160 0 0 -160
(50) 80 +190 0 0 -190
(80) 120 +220 0 0 -220
(120) 180 +250 0 0 -250
(180) 250 +290 0 0 -290
(250) 315 +320 0 0 -320
(315) 400 +360 0 0 -360
(400) 500 +400 0 0 -400
Basic meas. A 11 B 11 C 11
more up to upper lower upper lower upper lower
than
3 + 330 + 270 + 200 + 140 + 140 +120
(3) 6 + 345 + 270 + 215 + 215 + 140 +145
(6) 10 + 370 + 280 + 240 + 150 + 170 + 80
(10) 18 + 400 + 290 + 260 + 150 + 205 + 95
(18) 30 + 430 + 300 + 290 + 160 + 240 +110
(30) 50 + 470 + 310 + 330 + 170 + 280 +120
(50) 80 + 480 + 320 + 340 + 180 + 290 +130
(65) 80 + 550 + 360 + 390 + 390 + 200 +340
(80) 100 + 600 + 380 + 440 + 220 + 390 +170
(100) 120 + 630 + 410 + 460 + 240 + 400 +180
(120) 140 + 710 + 460 + 510 + 260 + 450 +200
(140) 160 + 770 + 520 + 530 + 280 + 460 +210
(160) 180 + 830 + 580 + 560 + 310 + 480 +230
(180) 200 + 950 + 660 + 630 + 340 + 530 +240
(200) 225 +1030 + 740 + 670 + 380 + 550 +260
(225) 250 +1110 + 820 + 710 + 420 + 570 +280
(250) 280 +1240 + 920 + 800 + 480 + 620 +300
(280) 315 +1370 +1050 + 860 + 540 + 650 +330
(315) 355 +1560 +1200 + 960 + 600 + 720 +360
(355) 400 +1710 +1350 +1040 + 680 + 760 +400
(400) 450 +1900 +1500 +1160 + 760 + 840 +440
(450) 500 +2050 +1650 +1240 + 840 + 880 +480
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 13
TECHNICAL DATA
INSERT TOLERANCES (Inch)
s IC
G ± .001
M } ± .005 + .002 - ± .006
U ± .003 - ± .010
IC IC s
IC M U
5/32"
7/32"
± .002 ± .003
1/4"
3/8"
1/2" ± .003 ± .005
5/8"
± .004 ± .007
3/4"
1.000" ± .005 ± .010
1.250" ± .006 ± .010

19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 14
TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-18 13.06 Sida 17
TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 22
TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
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TECHNICAL DATA
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 31
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 32
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 33
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 32
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 33
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 32
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 33
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 32
NOTES
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NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 32
NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 33
NOTES
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NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 33
NOTES
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NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 33
NOTES
19158 14_TechnData 07-04-12 11.15 Sida 32
NOTES
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 2
INDEX
A Basic holder, XIII-2

Abrasion wear, IV-5 Basic profile, IX-23
Abrasion, I-6 Beta-phase, III-10
Accessibility, VI-42 Better machining methods, V-29
Accuracy, I-19 Block Tool System, 35, XIII-20
Adhesion wear, IV-5
Boring bar types, VII-23
Adhesion, I-6 Boring of asymmetrical components,
Alignment of drill, XI-59 VII-34
Alloy cast-iron, II-27, II-28 Boring tool choice, VII-26
Alloy steel, II-96, II-11 Boring, VII-2
Alloying element, II-7, II-10, II-12 Brazed carbide endmill, X-98
Alpha-phase, III-10 Brazed tip drill, XII-56
Aluminum machining, II-37 Brazed tools, 15
Aluminum, II-3, II-35, II-36 Brinell, VI-16
Aluminum-oxide based ceramics, Build-in tools, VI-85
III-37 Built-up edge (BUE), I-7,
Angle of exit in milling, X-41 II-3, IV-11, IV-20
Angle of inclination, VI-24
Annealing, II-8, II-68
C
Asymmetry, XI-29
Capital tied up in stock, V-20
Austenite, II-91
Carbide phases, 18
Austenitic stainless steel,
Carbide properties, III-26
II-13, II-14, II-20
Carbon steel, II-11
Auto, 41 Carburizing, II-81, II-84
Automated installation, XIII-30
Case-hardened steel, II-59
Average chip thickness, X-18,
Case-hardening, II-68, II-81
X-30, X-115, X-128
Cast alloys, 8
Axial angle, X-46
Cast-iron, II-3, II-27
Axial cutting force in drilling, I-29
Cemented carbide classification,
Axial feed, X-103 III-21
Axial force, I-26
Cemented carbide manufacture,
Axial run-out, X-54
III-14
Axially fed milling, X-4
Cemented carbide, III-9, 12
Cementite, II-7, II-89, II-91
Centering, XII-17, XII-36, XII-37
Ceramic applications, III-40, VI-92, VI-97
B
Ball nose endmill, X-59, X-109 Ceramics, II-61, II-62, III-36, III-39
Ball-bearing steel, II-59 Cermet insert application, VI-102
Band type tool, 20 Cermet insert milling, X-144
Basic grade, VI-54 Cermet, III-8, III-33
Basic height of thread, IX-23 Chamfer, VI-31, X-51, X-59, X-121
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 3
INDEX
Chamfering endmill, X-59 Cold drawn, II-8

Chemical Vapor Deposition Cold working, II-9
(CVD), III-30 Columbium (Niobium), II-33
Chilled white cast-iron, II-30 Combination tool, IIX-22
Chip breaking against tool, I-12
Comma chip, I-9
Chip breaking against workpiece, I-12
Compacted-graphite cast-iron, II-27
Chip breaking diagram, I-19 Compensation for boring tool deflection,
Chip control, I-13, I-19, V-4, VII-20, VII-39
IIX-9, IX-4 Composite machining, II-41
Chip cross-section, I-10, VI-9 Composites, II-39
Chip face, 36
Computerized planning, XIII-33
Chip formation, I-3, I-8, I-13, II-3, XI-8
Concave surface, XI-28
Chip shape, I-14 Connectors, XII-55
Chip strands, I-16 Contact length, I-5
Chip thickness in threading, IX-18 Continuous chipping, I-3
Chip thickness, VI-9, X-10
Contours, X-59, X-108
Chip width, VI-9
Conventional milling, X-9
Chipbreaker, 36, XII-10 Conventional tooling, XIII-5
Chipbreaking capacity, VI-56 Convex surface, XI-28
Chipbreaking, VII-24, XII-36, XII-59 Cooling curves, II-75
Chipping, IV-11, IV-18
Cooling power, XII-32
Choice of parting tool, IIX-30
Copper, II-38
Clamping of boring tool, VII-16 Copy turning, I-22, VI-66
Clamping of parting insert, IIX-26 Copying, 25, VI-3, VI-66, VI-75
Clamping on insert, VI-83 Corner radius, IIX-35
Clamping unit, XIII-2, XIII-24
Coromant Capto System, 35, XIII-26
Classification of tool-wear types, IV-11
Coromant, 17
Clearance angle, VI-24 Coronite, III-2, III-8, III-41, X-98
Clearance side, I-31 Cost picture, V-3
Climb milling, X-9 Costs, V-12
Close pitch, X-22
Counter boring, XI-29, XII-4, XII-50
CMC, II-4
Countering vibrations with tuned tools,
Coarse pitch, X-22 VII-36
Coarse thread, IX-10 Coupled boring tool, VII-30
Coated cemented carbide Coupling precision, XIII-21, XIII-26
(GC), III-8, III-25 Coupling, XIII-2
Coated cemented carbide manufacture,
Craftsmanship, 2
III-30
Crater wear, IV-11, IV-13, IV-23
Coating, III-14
Creep strength, VI-12
Cobalt based, HRSA alloys, Crest truncation, IX-23
II-31, II-32 Cross axis drilling, XI-32
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 4
INDEX
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN), Diameter adjustment with drill, XI-52

II-61, II-62, III-8, III-45 Diameter tolerance, XII-56, XII-60
Cutting data in threading, IX-17 Die steel, II-12
Cutting data, I-22, V-4, V-8,
Different diameters in drilling, XI-29
VI-38, IIX-25
Differential pitch, X-22
Cutting depth, I-9, VI-6, IX-3
Diffusion wear, IV-5
Cutting depth/feed diagram, I-14
Diffusion, I-6
Cutting edge position, X-45 Dimensional tolerance, XI-22,
Cutting edge strength, I-19 XII-36
Cutting fluid choice, XII-34
Double negative geometry, X-48
Cutting fluid in milling, X-1
Double positive geometry, X-48
Cutting fluid pressure, XII-31
Downmilling, X-9, X-90
Cutting fluid re-use, XII-38 Drill bushing wear, XII-35
Cutting fluid storage etc, XII-41 Drill bushing, XII-13
Cutting fluid volume, XII-31 Drill center, XI-11
Cutting fluid, XI-61, XII-8, Drill diameter, XII-61
XII-24, XII-29, XII-58 Drill nomenclature, XI-60
Cutting force, I-9, I-24, II-3, Drill selection, XI-43, XI-61
VII-4, XI-15, XII-25 Drill set-up, XII-28
Cutting geometry, X-68 Drilling ability, endmill, X-102
Cutting off, X-59 Drilling analysis, V-35
Cutting oil, water-soluble, XII-26 Drilling endmill, X-59
Cutting oil, XII-22 Drilling method, XII-48
Cutting power, XII-25 Drilling parameters, XI-42
Cutting process, I-2, I-4 Drilling power, XI-19
Cutting speed, X-5, XI-5 Drilling system choice, XII-43
Cutting time, I-22, V-7 Drilling system, XII-7
Cutting unit, XIII-2, XIII-23 Drilling time, XI-6
Cutting width, X-7, XI-5 Drilling tool application,
Cutting zone temperature, I-33 XI-20, XI-41, XII-49
Drilling, XI-2
Driven tool, XIII-29
D Ductile material, II-4
De-burring, X-123 Ductility, II-4, VI-22
Deep hole drilling application, Duplex stainless steel, II-13, II-20
XII-42, XII-64
Dynamic stiffness, VII-12
Deep hole drilling, XII-2
Deflection of tool, VII-13
Deformed chip, I-4
E
Depth of cut, X-7 Eccentric position of drill, XI-26
Desirable inclusions, II-6 Eccentric sleeve, XI-52
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 5
INDEX
Economic justification of Facing, VI-3, VI-39

modular tool, V-38 Fatigue strength, VI-33
Economic performance of tool, V-4
Economical tool-life, V-10, V-12 Fatigue wear, IV-5
Feed in parting, IIX-26
Edge clamping system, VI-38 Feed length, XI-6
Edge length, VI-43 Feed per edge, XI-5
Edge rounding, VI-31, VII-10 Feed per minute, X-5
Edge strength, VI-42
Edges, X-59 Feed per rev., VI-6, X-6, XI-5
Feed per tooth, X-6, X-19,
Edging, X-94 X-58, X-113, X-115
Effective lead angle, VI-39 Feed rate adjustment, X-104
Effective rake, X-45 Feed rate reduction of ceramics,
Ejector drill, 28 VI-90
Ejector system, XII-5, XII-50, Feed rate, I-22
XII-53, XII-55
Feed speed, VI-6, X-5, XI-5
Electro-plating, II-84
Feed, VI-19
Elongation, II-4
Ferrite, II-7, II-89, II-91
End result, VI-37
Ferritic stainless steel, II-13, II-14
Endmill efficiency, X-1
Ferritic steel, II-8
Endmill, X-59
Endmills in CNC machines, Ferrous alloys, II-11
X-146 Filter in drilling, XII-28
Environment, XII-12 Fine thread, IX-10
Equilibrium and structure Finishing, I-19, VI-27, VI-50
of steel, II-89 Flame hardening, II-84
Equilibrium, IIX-8 Flank angle, IX-23
ER treatment, 25 Flank clearance in threading,
Eutectoid, II-90 IX-6
Examples of ceramic grades, VI-88 Flank infeed, IX-4
Excessive temperature, I-31 Flank wear, IV-11, IV-12, IV-22
Extra-close pitch, X-22 Flat and square shoulder faces, X-61
Flat surfaces, X-59

F Flaws, X-17
Face grooving, IIX-25 Flow zone, I-4, I-6, I-33
Face mill, X-59 Flywheel, X-115
Facemill application, X-62, X-72, X-74 Force component, I-26
Facemill diameter, X-70
Forced oscillation, VII-14
Facemill feed values, X-67
Forces, I-19, IIX-6, IIX-10, IIX-20
Facemill insert, X-76 Forging scale, I-22
Facemilling geometry, X-48 Forging, II-69
Facemilling, X-4 Fracture, IV-11, IV-19
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 6
INDEX
Free cutting angle, VI-67 Heating power, XII-32

Free cutting austenitic Height of fundamental triangle,
stainless steel, II-18 IX-23
Free machining additive, II-6 Helical chip, I-9
Free machining stainless steel, II-14
Helix angle, IX-5, X-37
Frequency of boring vibrations, VII-40
High alloy steel, II-12
Friction, I-5 High carbon steel, II-11
Full slotting, X-91 High pressure chipping, I-3
Full-profile, IX-13 High speed steel, 6, II-12, II-59
High temperature super alloys, II-31
G High temperature super alloy
Gamma coating, 29 machining, I-17, II-33
Gamma-phase, III-11 High-carbon steel, 5
GAMMAX, 22 History, 2
GC development, 30, III-27 Hole straightness, XII-31
GC double layers, III-29 Hot hardness, III-6
Geometry in boring, VII-38 Hot rolled, II-8
Geometry, VI-33, VI-36, VI-56, VII-6 HPT examples, II-66
Grain size, III-11, III-13 Hypereutectoid steel, II-71
Gray cast-iron, II-27, II-28 Hypereutectoid, II-90
Grinding, 15
Gripper, XIII-30 I
Groove milling, X-117 Impact resistance, VI-18
Grooves, X-59 Impact strength, II-4
Grooving cutter, X-59 Improved machining economics, V-26
Gundrilling, XII-5, XII-15, Improved return on investment, V-14
XII-46, XII-62 In-process measurement, XIII-30
Inch threads, IX-30
H Inclination angle, X-45
Hard facing, II-84 Inclination of threading insert, IX-9
Hard Part Turning (HPT), II-58, II-64 Inclined surface, XI-28
Hard steel, II-3 Included angle, IX-23
Hard-cut drill, XI-55
Included plan angle, VI-13
Hardening, II-8, II-68, II-73, II-95
Included thread angle, IX-8
Hardness, I-22, II-4, II-9, II-20, VI-16 Inclusions, II-5
Heat distribution, I-32 Incopying angle, VI-39, VI-68
Heat in metal cutting, I-31 Incopying, VI-39
Heat resistant alloy, II-3
Incremental infeed, IX-4
Heat source, I-33
Indexable inserts, 22
Heat treatable steel, II-59 Indexable insert drill, XI-47,
Heat treatment of metals, II-68 XI-48, XII-60
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 7
INDEX
Induction hardening, II-84 Lead, IX-5, IX-23

Industrial revolution, 2 Left hand thread, IX-10, IX-16
Infeed methods in threading, IX-4 Length/diameter ratio, I-22
Insert application, I-22 Light roughing, I-19
Insert clamping method, VI-36 Limitations, VI-37
Insert cross section, VI-27 Limited axial feed , X-105
Insert drill, 41 Limited power, VI-51
Insert facemill, 27 Load factors, IV-3
Insert shape, VI-38, VI-42, VI-44, VII-38, Long chipping, I-3
X-50, X-76 Long edge milling cutter, X-59, X-92
Insert size, VI-38, X-80
Insert treatment, III-14
Insert type and geometry, VI-36, VI-38 M
Machinability, II-2, II-46
Insert width in parting, IIX-35 Machinability evaluation, II-43
Interacting oscillation, VII-11 Machinability improved, II-6, II-19
Interchangeability, XIII-21 Machinability of cast-iron, II-29
Interface, I-6 Machinability of tool, die and mold
Intermittent machining, I-22, VI-51 materials, II-48, II-50
Internal grooving, IIX-23 Machinability rating, II-4
Internal threading, IX-5, IX-43 Machine equipment, XII-27, XII-45
Inventory, V-4, V-24 Machine hourly rate calculation, V-36
Iron based, high temperature alloys, II-31 Machine source of forced vibration,
ISO classification, III-21, III-23 VII-19
Machine tool efficiency, X-28
J Machine utilization, XIII-5,
Just-In-Time, XIII-27 XIII-8, XIII-18
Machining center, 34, XIII-6, XIII-12
Machining method - Surface texture,
K X-40
KNUX, 26 Machining test, II-44
Machining time evolvement, III-3
L Machining tubes, IIX-20
Lamellar chipping, I-3 Machining economics, XIII-8
Land, VI-31 Macro inclusions, II-5
Large diameter holes,XI-46 Magnesium, II-38
Large thread profiles, IX-43 Major diameter, IX-8, IX-23
Lathe, XIII-7
Malleable cast-iron, II-27, II-28
Lead angle, I-9, VI-6, VI-14, VII-6, IIX-35, Maraging steel, II-13
X-11, X-21, X-28, X-30, X-65, XI-18 Martempering, II-79
Lead angle, VI-6 Martensitic stainless steel, II-13, II-14
Lead angle, IX-5 Martensitic, II-8
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 8
INDEX
Material cross reference list, II-57 N

Material structure, II-7 Negative land, X-51
Maximum production rate, Negative rake, I-11
tool-life, V-12 New generation, 45
Measurement adjustment, XI-27 Nickel alloys, II-37
Measuring pitch diameter and Nickel based, HRSA alloys,
flank angle, IX-36 II-31, II-32
Measuring probes, XIII-30 Nickel, II-37
Mechanical fatigue cracking, Nitriding, II-83, II-84
IV-11, IV-17 Nodular cast-iron, II-27, II-28
Medium carbon steel, II-11 Non-rotating drill, XII-17
Medium sized hole diameters, XI-45 Normalizing, II-8, II-69
Metal cutting economics, V-2
Nose radius in boring, VII-38
Metal cutting process, I-3 Nose radius, I-9, VI-18, VI-20,
Metal removal rate, I-19, II-3, X-28XI-6 VI-38, VI-63
Metal spraying, II-84 Notch wear, IV-11, IV-15
Metric threads, IX-27 Number of teeth, X-22
Micro inclusions, II-5 Numerical control, 33
Mild steel, II-11
Milling analysis, V-23, V-34 O
Milling cutter off-center, X-44 Oblique, I-9, VI-26
Milling cutter positioning, X-37 Orthogonal, I-9, VI-25
Milling cutting forces, X-32 Outcopying angle, VI-70
Milling direction, X-9 Outcopying, VI-39
Milling machine, XIII-10 Outfacing, VI-39
Milling machining factors, X-35 Over compressed chip, I-16
Milling operations, X-59 Over-eutectoid, II-11
Milling power, X-27, X-28 Oversize hole, XI-28
Milling tool, X-58, X-59 Oxidation wear, IV-5
Milling, X-2
Minor diameter, IX-8, IX-23
P
Mixed ceramic, III-8, III-37
P-type tool, 29
Modular tool adoption
Parallel land, X-50
checklist, XIII-39
Parameters describing spacing
Modular tool, 44, V-39, XIII-2, XIII-32 and bearing, X-42
Modular tooling, XIII-9, XIII-13, Parsons, J, 33
XIII-15, XIII-18 Parting and grooving tool
Molybdenum, II-33 application, IIX-32
Multi-point insert, IX-13
Parting and grooving, IIX-2
Multi-start threads, IX-15
Parting geometry, IIX-7, IIX-31
Mushet steel, 5 Parting tool, 40
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 9
INDEX
Pay-off time for investments, V-32 Profile cutting, X-95

Pearlite, II-7, II-89, II-91 Profile height, VI-19, VI-48, X-12
Profiling, I-22, VI-3, VI-66, X-108
Penetration rate, XI-5
Properties of main alloying
Performance, VI-37
elements, II-51
Peripheral milling, X-4
Properties of materials, VI-7
Phase diagram, II-93
Physical Vapor Deposition Properties of tool, die and
(PVD), III-31 mold materials, II-49
Property tolerances, XI-13
Pilot hole, XII-20
Pull boring, XII-4
Pip in parting, IIX-19
Pull threading, IX-5
Pipe threads, IX-33
Pure ceramics, III-8, III-37
Pitch, IX-5, IX-23, IX-43, X-22, X-71
Plastic deformation, I-5, IV-11, IV-14 Push threading, IX-5
Plunging depth in parting, IIX-30
Pockets, X-59, X-102
Q
Polycrystalline diamond
Quality, VI-37
(PCD), III-8, III-47
Quick change tool system, XIII-3
Positioning of parting tool, IIX-12
Quick change tool time
Positioning of threading tool, IX-6
saving, XIII-32
Positive - Negative geometry, X-49 Quick change tooling, V-16, V-26
Positive milling, X-1, X-81
Positive rake, I-11, I-29
Powder metallurgical product, III-9 R
Powder production, III-14 Radial adjustment of boring
tool, VII-35
Power requirement, I-22
Radial cutting depth, X-7, XI-5
Power, I-24, II-3, VI-42,
Radial force, I-26
IIX-16, XI-15
Radial infeed, IX-4
Pre-chamfering in threading,
Radial rake angle, X-46
IX-44
Pre-chamfering, VI-90 Radius, VI-31
Pre-diameter in threading, IX-44 Rake angle, I-4, VI-25, X-26, X-30
Rake face, I-25, I-31
Pre-measuring, XIII-22
Ramping, X-103, X-105, X-110
Pre-setting, XIII-27
Recrystallization, II-72
Predictability of tool-life, I-19, V-4
Premium grades, 24 Reference element, XI-16
Pressing of compacts, III-14 Reference surface, XI-9
Refractory metals, II-12, II-33
Pressure, XI-14
Regrindable drills, XI-50, XI-53
Preventing errors in threading, IX-43
Reinforced, III-37
Priority factors for machining, I-19
Production time, V-14 Reliability, V-4
Productivity, I-19 Repeatability, XIII-22, XIII-26
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 10
INDEX
Return on investment, V-2 Shear zone, I-31

Right hand thread, IX-10, IX-16 Shear, I-6
Rill, 40 Shock edge entry, VI-90
Short chipping, I-3
Rockwell, VI-16
Short hole drilling, XI-3
Rolling, II-69
Root truncation, IX-23 Shoulder machining, VI-70, X-1
Rotary burs, X-123 Shoulder, grooves and edges, X-88
Rotating and bending moments, Side and face milling, X-59, X-112
IIX-13 Side rake angle, VI-26
Silicon nitride based ceramics,
Rotating tool, XIII-29
III-8, III-37
Rotating workpiece, XII-17
Rotating drill, XI-24 Single tube system, XII-5
Rough machining, I-19, VI-27 Sintering, III-14
Rough turning, VI-47 Slitting cutter, X-59, X-114
Roughness, X-17, X-57 Slots and cutting off, X-112
Round insert milling, X-59, X-126 Slots, X-59
Round insert, VI-42 Small diameter holes, XI-43
Roundness, XI-30 Small endmill, X-98
Routing aluminum, X-1 Soft annealing, II-9, II-92
Soft chipping, I-3
Softening, II-72
S
S-type tool, 29 Solid drilling, XI-4, XII-3
Safety devices, XII-28 Solid endmill, X-97
SANMAC, II-19 Solid tooling, XIII-14
Savings of inventory, V-37 Special application grade, VI-54
Screw clamp, VI-81 Specific cutting force, I-22,
I-27, X-26
Screw thread tolerances, IX-23
Screw thread, IX-5 Spheroidal-graphite, II-27
Security, I-19 Spheroidizing, II-70, II-92
Segmental chipping, I-3 Spindle overhang, X-58
Seizing, I-6 Spindle speed, X-5, XI-5
Square shoulder facemill, X-59
Selection process, VI-38
Self-breaking chip, I-12 Square shoulders, X-59
Self-aligning, XIII-26 Stability in parting, IIX-14
Self-centering, XIII-26 Stability, VI-37, IIX-4,X-60,
Semi-finishing, I-19 XI-32,XI-35, XIII-21
Stack drilling, XI-52
Set-up, VI-37
Stagnation zone, I-4
Shape tolerance, XI-40
Shaping, 3 Stainless steel chip formation, I-17
Shear plane, I-4 Stainless steel turning, VI-98
Shear strain/stress, I-5 Stainless steel, II-3, II-13
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 11
INDEX
Stainless steel, machining, II-23 Taylor formula, V-7

Standardization and inventory, V-19 Taylor’s principle, XI-25
Taylor, F, 6
Standardization, XIII-27
Static stiffness in boring, VII-38 Temperature control, I-32
Stationary drill, XI-21, XI-24, XI-28 Tempering, II-8, II-68, II-76
Steady rest, XII-30 Tensile strength, II-4
Steel, II-3, II-11 Tension, VI-28
Theoretical chip thickness, XI-9
Stellite, 8
Stepped cutters, 19 Thermal conductivity, II-4
Sticking, I-6 Thermal cracking, IV-11, IV-16
Stoppages, V-16 Thread forms, IX-20
Straightness, XI-40, XII-40 Thread inspection, IX-35
Thread nomenclature, IX-23
Stress-relief, II-9, II-72
STS, XII-50, XII-59 Thread outlet, IX-19
Style-61, 38 Thread profile, IX-8
Style-71, 36 Thread turning, IX-2
Successful boring, VII-40 Threading against shoulders,
IX-43
Supplementary grade, VI-54
Threading insert setting, IX-42
Support for workpiece, IIX-18
Support-pad wear, XII-35 Threading problems, IX-46
Support pad, XII-10, XII-60 Threading tool application,
Surface-hardening methods, II-84 IX-13, IX-38
Threading tool, IX-21, IX-24
Surface integrity, II-7, II-10
Threading with PVD coated
Surface lay, X-17
inserts, IX-48
Surface measuring, X-39
Through-hole, XII-21
Surface-texture parameter connection,
X-29 Through-tool coolant, XIII-29
Surface-texture terminology, X-31 Tilting spindle, X-56
Time reduction, 42
Surface texture, I-19, II-3, X-8,
Titanium machining, II-35
X-17, X-51, XI-39, XII-37
Titanium, II-3, II-34
Surface-hardening, II-68
Tolerance class in threading, IX-26
Tolerance coordination, XI-36
T Tolerance field, XI-16
T-Max automatic, 35 Tolerance, X-23, XI-7, XI-35
T-Max Universal, 41 Tool back clearance, VI-13
T-Max, 22
Tool changing, V-4
Table feed, X-55
Tool cost, V-31
Tangential force, I-26, XI-18
Tool diameter, X-24
Tantalum, II-33 Tool factors, III-4
Tapered polygon, XIII-26 Tool identification tag, XIII-31
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 12
INDEX
Tool material consumption, III-7 Turnmill planning, X-1

Tool material properties, IV-7 Turnmilling, X-1
Tool material, III-1, VI-36, Turret layout, XIII-29
VI-38, VI-52
Tool overhang in threading, IX-7
Tool overhang, VII-3 U
Un-alloyed steel, II-11
Tool path, VI-75 Uncoated cemented carbide, III-8
Tool program, VI-37 Undeformed chip thickness, I-26
Tool properties for hard machining, Undeformed chip, I-4
II-59 Under-eutectoid, II-11
Tool rationalization, V-19
Tool steel, II-12, II-59 Undersize hole, XI-28
Up milling, X-9
Tool storage magazine, XIII-30 Uranium, II-39
Tool wear cause/remedy, IV-25 Use of available time, V-14
Tool wear in parting, IIX-27 Utilization level, 34
Tool wear in threading, IX-22
Tool wear, IV-1, V-5, X-30, XI-32
Tool-life, 43, I-19, I-22, II-3, V
IV-21, V-4, VI-33 V-profile, IX-13
Toolholder size and type, VI-38 Variant, XIII-10
Toolholder size, VI-41 Varilock front clamping, XIII-17
Toolholding, XIII-2 Varilock, 35, XIII-12
Tooling list, V-40 Varying chipping, I-3
Tooling survey, V-25 Versatility, XIII-27

Tools for parting and grooving, Vibration in threading, IX-44
IIX-28 Vibration, I-30, VI-23, VI-42,
Torque, I-26, XI-18 VI-51, X-57
Toughening, II-78 Vibrations in boring, VII-41
Toughness, I-19, III-5, VI-22 Vibrations, nature of, VII-8
Transformation of energy/heat, I-33 Vickers, VI-17

Trepanning core, XI-33 Volume of metal removed, X-7
Trepanning, XI-4, XII-3, XII-48
Tuned toolholder, X-58
W
Tungsten carbide, 12
Watch spring chip, I-9
Tungsten, II-33 Wave-height/profile depth, X-55
Tuned boring bars, VII-27 Waviness, X-17, X-54, X-57
Turnbroaching, X-1 Wavy edge, 36
Turning analysis, V-33 Wear relative cutting data, IV-9
Turning center, XIII-8
Wear resistance, III-5
Turning tool application, VI-36, VI-64 Wedge angle, VI-24
Turning, VI-2, VI-3, VI-39 Wedge clamp, VI-80
INDEX USA 07-04-12 11.18 Sida 13
INDEX
Wedge design, VI-80

White/chilled cast-iron, II-59
Whitworth threads, IX-32
Wiper finishing, X-71
Wiper insert, X-51
Wiper insert, X-71
Wirfelt, S, 23
Work hardening, I-5, II-5
Working area of geometry, VI-50
Workpiece condition, II-7, II-8
Workpiece design, VI-37
Workpiece material properties, II-4
Workpiece material, II-11, VI-37,
VI-51, X-64
Workpiece materials - Classification, II-53
Workpiece support, X-58
Y
Yield strength, II-20
Z
Zinc, II-39
Zirconium, II-39

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19158_SandvikUSA_om 07-03-19 15.

Modern Metal Cutting

Modern Metal Cutting

First North American edition published 1996

Modern Metal Cutting

Sandvik Coromant, Technical Editorial dept.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

HISTORICAL METAL CUTTING

2 MODERN METAL CUTTING

Early hand-held turning and boring

Belt-driven lathe and hand-driven shaper

MODERN METAL CUTTING 3

Nineteenth century machine shop with belt-driven machines

4 MODERN METAL CUTTING

The development of workshops and developed, to produce tool steels.

Turning steel, soft metal and a finishing operation

MODERN METAL CUTTING 5

around 32 ft/min were attained and

The big event at the turn of the century,

High speed steel

6 MODERN METAL CUTTING

ORIGINAL TAYLOR DATA FOR HSS, 1906. (Note tool-life!)

MODERN METAL CUTTING 7

8 MODERN METAL CUTTING

Beginning with experiments using

MODERN METAL CUTTING 9

10 MODERN METAL CUTTING

Pride of the plant - large planer mill from the 1930s.

Demonstrating capacity of the boring mill

MODERN METAL CUTTING 11

Brazed tungsten carbide turning tool

12 MODERN METAL CUTTING

200 600 1000 C°

MODERN METAL CUTTING 13

Earliest turning and milling with tungsten carbide

14 MODERN METAL CUTTING

Research into cemented carbide as a ufacturing productivity was there, as it

Mass-production of brazed tools during 1940s.

MODERN METAL CUTTING 15

Brazed tungsten carbide tools for turning and milling

16 MODERN METAL CUTTING

Various tungsten carbide grades optimized performance

MODERN METAL CUTTING 17

18 MODERN METAL CUTTING

and distances from the cutter center.

MODERN METAL CUTTING 19

In the middle of the 1950s, yet another

The band-type toolholder was one of

The band-type, tangential tools were

20 MODERN METAL CUTTING

MODERN METAL CUTTING 21

Cemented carbide tools revolutionized machining

22 MODERN METAL CUTTING

idea gave birth to another, as the case

One of the driving forces behind this

There was another very important as-

MODERN METAL CUTTING 23

FO2 S4 S6 SIP HIP T 164 328 490 Vc ft/min

The effect of premium grades

24 MODERN METAL CUTTING

With the advent of indexable insert

MODERN METAL CUTTING 25

Copy milling Spherical turning arrangement

The continued development of index- The high performance of the premium