CHAPTER 8

Materials of Construction

Material properties are of great importance in all aspects of pressure

equipment design and manufacture. It is essential to check the up-to-date
version of the relevant British Standards, or equivalent, when choosing or
assessing a material. The most common steels used for pressure equipment
are divided into the generic categories of carbon, alloy, stainless steel, and
non-ferrous.

8.1 Plain carbon steels – basic data

Typical properties of plain carbon steels are shown in Table 8.1
Table 8.1 Plain carbon steel: properties
Type %C %Mn Yield, Re UTS, Rm
(MN/m2) (MN/m2)
Low C steel 0.1 0.35 220 320
General structural steel 0.2 1.4 350 515
Steel castings 0.3 – 270 490

8.2 Alloy steels

Alloy steels have various amounts of Ni, Cr, Mn, or Mo added to improve
properties. Typical properties are shown in Table 8.2.
186 Engineers’ Guide to Pressure Equipment

Table 8.2 Alloy steels: properties

Type %C Others (%) Re (MN/m2) Rm (MN/m2)
Ni/Mn steel 0.4 0.85 Mn 480 680
1.00 Ni
Ni/Cr Steel 0.3 0.5 Mn 800 910
2.8 Ni
1.0Cr
Ni/Cr/Mo steel 0.4 0.5 Mn 950 1050
1.5 Ni
1.1 Cr
0.3 Mo

8.3 Stainless steels – basic data

Stainless steel is a generic term used to describe a family of steel alloys
containing more than about 11 per cent chromium. The family consists of
four main classes, subdivided into approximately 100 grades and variants.
The main classes are austenitic and duplex; the other two classes, ferritic
and martensitic, tend to have more specialized application and so are not as
commonly found in general pressure equipment use. The basic
characteristics of each class are given below.
• Austenitic The most commonly used basic grades of stainless steel are
usually austenitic. They have 17–25% Cr, combined with 8–20% Ni, Mn,
and other trace alloying elements that encourage the formation of
austenite. They have low carbon content, which makes them weldable.
They have the highest general corrosion resistance of the family of
stainless steels.
• Ferritic Ferritic stainless steels have high chromium content (>17% Cr)
coupled with medium carbon, which gives them good corrosion resistance
properties rather than high strength. They normally have some Mo and Si,
which encourage the ferrite to form. They are generally non-hardenable.
• Martensitic This is a high-carbon (up to 2% C), low-chromium (12% Cr)
variant. The high carbon content can make it difficult to weld.
• Duplex Duplex stainless steels have a structure containing both austenitic
and ferritic phases. They can have a tensile strength of up to twice that of
straight austenitic stainless steels, and are alloyed with various trace
elements to aid corrosion resistance. In general, they are as weldable as
austenitic grades, but have a maximum temperature limit, because of the
characteristic of their microstructure.
Table 8.3 gives basic stainless steel data.
 Table 8.3 Stainless steels basic data
Stainless steels are commonly referred to by their AISI equivalent classification (where applicable).
AISI Other Type + Yield [(R e) Ultimate [(R m) E(%) HRB %C %Cr % others + Properties
classifications Fty MPa] Ftu (ksi) MPa] 50
(ksi) mm
302 ASTM A296 Austenitic 40 [275.8] 90 [620.6] 55 85 0.15 17–19 8–10 Ni A general
(cast), Wk purpose
1.4300, 18/8, stainless steel.

Materials of Construction
SIS 2331
304 ASTM A296, Austenitic 42 [289.6] 84 [579.2] 55 80 0.08 18–20 8–12 Ni An economy
Wk 1.4301, grade.
18/8/LC, SIS
2333, 304S18
304L ASTM A351, Austenitic 39 [268.9] 80 [551.6] 55 79 0.03 18–20 8–12 Ni Low C to avoid
Wk 1.4306 intercrystalline
18/8/ELC, corrosion after
SIS 2352, welding.
304S14
316 ASTM A296, Austenitic 42 [289.6] 84 [579.2] 50 79 0.08 16–18 10–14 Ni Addition of Mo
Wk 1.4436 increases
18/8/Mo, SIS corrosion
2243, 316S18 resistance.
316L ASTM A351, Austenitic 42 [289.6] 81 [558.5] 50 79 0.03 16–18 10–14 Ni Low C
Wk 1.4435, weldable
18/8/Mo/ELC, variant of 316.

187
316S14, SIS
2353
 Table 8.3 Cont.

321 ASTM A240, Austenitic 35 [241.3] 90 [620.6] 45 80 0.08 17–19 9–12 Ni Variation of 304

188
Wk 1.4541, with Ti added to
18/8/Ti, SIS improve
2337, temperature
321S18 resistance.
405 ASTM A240/ Ferritic 40 [275.8] 70 [482.7] 30 81 0.08 11.5–14.5 1 Mn A general-
A276/ A351, purpose ferritic
UNS 40500 stainless steel.

Engineers’ Guide to Pressure Equipment

430 ASTM A176/ Ferritic 50 [344.7] 75 [517.1] 30 83 0.12 14–18 1 Mn Non-hardening
A240/A276, grade with
UNS 43000, good acid-
Wk 1.4016 resistance.
403 UNS S40300, Martensitic 40 [275.8] 75 [517.1] 35 82 0.15 11.5–13 0.5 Si Turbine grade
ASTM of stainless
A176/A276 steel.
410 UNS S40300, Martensitic 40 [275.8] 75 [517.1] 35 82 0.15 11.5–13.5 4.5–6.5 Ni Used for
ASTM machine parts,
A176/A240, pump shafts,
Wk 1.4006 etc.
– 255 Duplex 94 [648.1] 115 [793] 25 280 0.04 24–27 4.5–6.5 Ni Better
(Ferralium) HV resistance to
SCC than 316.
– Avesta SAF 'Super' 99 [682.6] 116 [799.8] ~ 25 300 0.02 25 7Ni, 4Mo, High strength.
2507 §, UNS duplex 40% HV 0.3N Max 575 °F
S32750 ferrite (301 °C) due to
embrittlement.
* Main constituents only shown.
+ All austenitic grades are non-magnetic, ferritic and martensitic grades are magnetic.
§ Avesta trade mark.
 Materials of Construction 189

8.4 Non-ferrous alloys – basic data

The term ‘non-ferrous alloys’ is used for those alloy materials that do not
have iron as their base element. The main ones used for mechanical
engineering applications, with their ultimate tensile strength ranges, are:
• nickel alloys 400–1200 MN/m2
• zinc alloys 200–360 MN/m2
• copper alloys 200–1100 MN/m2
• aluminium alloys 100–500 MN/m2
• magnesium alloys 150–340 MN/m2
• titanium alloys 400–1500 MN/m2
The main non-ferrous alloy materials in use are nickel alloys, in which
nickel is frequently alloyed with copper or chromium and iron to produce
material with high temperature and corrosion resistance. Typical types and
properties are shown in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Nickel alloys: properties

Alloy type Designation Constituents (%) UTS

(MN/m2)
Ni–Cu UNS N04400 66Ni, 31Cu, 1Fe, 1Mn 415
('Monel')
Ni–Fe 'Ni lo 36' 36Ni, 64Fe 490

Ni–Cr 'Inconel 600' 76Ni, 15Cr, 8Fe 600

Ni–Cr 'Inconel 625' 61Ni, 21Cr, 2Fe, 9Mo, 3Nb 800

Ni–Cr 'Hastelloy C276' 57Ni, 15Cr, 6Fe, 1Co, 16Mo, 750

4W
Ni–Cr (age 'Nimonic 80A' 76Ni 20Cr 800–1200
hardenable)
Ni–Cr (age 'Inco Waspalloy' 58Ni, 19Cr, 13Co, 4Mo, 3Ti, 800–1000
hardenable) 1Al
190 Engineers’ Guide to Pressure Equipment

8.5 Material traceability

The issue of ‘material traceability’ is an important aspect of the manufacture
of pressure equipment. Most technical codes and standards make provision
for quality assurance activities designed to ensure that materials of
construction used in the pressure envelope are traceable.
Figure 8.1 shows the ‘chain of traceability’ that operates for pressure
equipment materials. Note that, although all the activities shown are
available for use, (i.e. to be specified and then implemented) this does not
represent a unique system of traceability suitable for all materials. In
practice there are several 'levels' in use, depending both on the type of

Fig. 8.1 Materials – the chain of traceability

 Materials of Construction 191

material and the nature of its final application. The most common document
referenced in the material sections of pressure equipment specifications is
the European Standard EN 10 204: Metallic products – types of inspection
documents. It provides for two main ‘levels’ of certification: Class ‘3’ and
Class ‘2’ (see Table 8.5).
Table 8.5 Material traceability: EN10 204 classes

EN 10 204 Document Compliance with: Test Test basis

Certificate validation results
type by The 'Technical included Specific Non-
order rules' * specific
3.1A I • • Yes •
3.1B M(Q) • • Yes • –
3.1C P • Yes •
3.2 P + M(Q) • Yes • –
2.3 M Yes • –
2.2 M Yes – •
2.1 M • – No – •
I An independent (third party) inspection organization.
P The purchaser.
M(Q) An 'independent' (normally QA) part of the material manufacturer's
organization.
M An involved part of the material manufacturer's organization.
* Normally the 'technical rules' on material properties given in the relevant
material standard (and any applicable pressure vessel code).

EN 10 204 and the PED

Although there is no formal link between EN 10 204 and the PED, the PED
requires that most pressure equipment materials be provided with a
certificate of ‘specific product control’. Practically, this coincides with EN
10 204 class 3.1 certificates.
192 Engineers’ Guide to Pressure Equipment

8.6 Materials standards – references*

BS 1503: 1989 Specification for steel forgings for pressure
purposes. A related standard is ISO 2604/1.
ASTM A273/A273M: 1994 Specification for alloy steel forgings for
high-strength, pressure component application.
BS 1504: 1984 Specification for steel castings for pressure
purposes.
ASTM A487/A487M: 1993 Steel castings suitable for pressure service.
ASTM A703/A703M: 1994 Steel castings: general requirements for
pressure containing parts.
BS EN 10130: 1991 Specification for cold-rolled, low carbon steel
flat products for cold forming: technical
delivery conditions.
BS 1501: Part 3: 1990 Specification for corrosion and heat-resisting
steels, plate, sheet, and strip.
BS 5996: 1993 Specification for acceptance levels for
internal imperfections in steel plate, strip and
wide flats, based on ultrasonic testing. A
related standard is EN 160.
BS 3059: Part 1: 1993 Specification for low tensile carbon steel
tubes without specified elevated temperature
properties.
BS 3059: Part 2: 1990 Specification for carbon, alloy, and austenitic
stainless steel tubes with specified elevated
temperature properties. Related standards are
ISO 1129, ISO 2604/2, and ISO 2604/3.
DIN 17 245: 1987 Ferritic steel castings with elevated
temperature properties: technical delivery
conditions.
ASTM A356/A356M: 1992 Specification for steel castings, (carbon low
alloy and stainless steel, heavy wall) for
steam turbines.
DIN 17 155: 1989 Steel plates and strips for pressure purposes.
BS 3604 Part 1: 1990 Specification for seamless and electric
resistance welded tubes.
BS 3605: 1992 Austenitic stainless steel pipes and tubes for
pressure purposes.
ASTM A487/A487M Specification for steel castings suitable for
pressure service.
ASTM A430/A430M: 1991 Austenitic steel forged and bored pipe for
high-temperature service.
 Materials of Construction 193

* Note Many British Standards are in the process of being replaced by

European harmonized standards and so may have been recently withdrawn.
Currently, however, many of the superseded British Standards are still in
regular use in the pressure equipment industry. Appendix 3 of this databook
shows the recent status of relevant Directives and harmonized standards.
The CEN TC/xxx references may be used to find the current state of
development. In all cases it is essential to use the current issue of published
technical standards.