Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
English Grammar
Andrea Varga
Academic English and Academic Skills Instructor
Business English Trainer
MA in TEFL & Applied Linguistics
always on Mondays
usually every day
normally once a month
generally twice a week
often every year
frequently in the afternoons
sometimes at nights
occasionally every now and then
seldom nowadays
hardly ever from time to time
rarely
never
7. Instructions
We can use the present simple to give instructions.
We often use following adverbials: today, this week, this year, these days, now, for the
time being, for now, at the moment, etc. to refer to a period around now.
I am working from home these days. (but normally I work in the office)
These days Peter is living in London. (but his home is in York)
She is studying at university. (but she is not studying at this very moment)
We often use the following verbs: get, become, change, rise, increase, grow, fall, improve,
begin, start
5. Repeated actions
We use the present continuous to talk about repeated actions, especially if we are irritated or
want to criticise.
) to talk about things people have done or experienced and the exact time is not important and
the action can be repeated:
He has travelled to several countries. (not important when)
2. With adverbials
We use the present perfect with adverbials which show a connection between the past and the
present:
already, yet, still, just, so far, up to now, ever, never, recently, since, for, ever, before,
etc.
I have already finished the project.
Peter has lived in London and New York so far.
She has just completed her degree.
Have you ever been to New York?
I have never eaten a frog.
7. For or since?
We use for to say how long an activity is (a period of time). We use since to say when an activity
started.
The present perfect emphasizes the duration and continuity of the action.
Simple Continuous
3. Wants
Wants and needs: want, need, wish, depend on, weigh, come from, cost
I wish you good luck.
The room needs cleaning.
She wants to sleep.
Other examples:
She doesn’t understand your words.
I know Peter well.
I doubt he would like your idea
7. Change in meaning
Some verbs can have a dynamic or state form with a change in meaning.
Stative Dynamic
This cake tastes good. (has a good taste) I was just tasting the cake. (testing)
You look good. (seem) What are you looking at? (look with eyes)
2. Past habits
We use the past simple to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past.
I got up at 7am.
She worked from 9am to 5pm.
We met in 1995.
5. With when
We use the past simple to ask questions with when or what time.
6. With adverbials
We can use the past simple with adverbials which refer to the past.
We use:
Last week/month/year
yesterday, earlier today, this week
a year/three days/ a few months ago
at two o’clock, in 2003
We often use all to emphasize continuity: all night, all day, al evening, etc.
While Peter was playing on the computer, Julie was reading a book.
Jack was jogging and Peter was weightlifting.
I was writing emails while the cake was baking in the oven.
When she was young, she was always playing music at night.
He was talking all the time.
Jack was always wearing a scarf.
5. Unfulfilled plans
We use the past continuous to talk about unfulfilled plans.
I was hoping to meet my friends at the weekend but they were too busy.
She was planning to go on holiday but she didn’t have money.
Peter was wanting to phone his mum but he didn’t have time.
6. Polite questions
We can use the past continuous for polite questions.
7. Background information
We can use the past continuous to give background information.
When I arrived at the station, the train had left. (the train left before I arrived)
2. With when
If we want to emphasize that one action happened before another, we can use when + past
simple.
When she arrived at the party, everyone had left. = everyone left before she arrived
(past simple) (past perfect)
We can use: when, before, after, as soon as, by the time, the moment, immediately , till, until,
etc.
When I had finished the project, I called my boss.
As soon as they had arrived to the hotel, they went to bed.
She didn’t know how funny he was, until she had met him.
4. With adverbs
We can use the past perfect with the following adverbs: just, already, never and ever.
Peter had already begun cooked dinner, when his wife arrived.
She had just completed her first book, when the editor contacted her.
After I finished work, I went home. = After I had finished work, I went home.
However, we must always use the past perfect when we talk about unreal past situations
We can also make predictions about the future which are not definite or arranged.
3. Threats
We can use the future simple to express threats.
4. Requests
The future simple can also express requests.
It is used with verbs: expect, hope, think, assume, doubt, suppose, believe, I’m sure, I wonder,
etc. and with adverbs: probably, hopefully, perhaps, possibly, etc.
6. Weather forecasts
We use the future simple in weather forecasts to predict the weather.
8. Use of shall
We don’t use shall very often in modern English. It is usually used to express offers and
suggestions in the first person singular (I) and plural (we) in questions. The negative of shall is
shan’t (= shall not).
3. Routine actions
We can describe routine actions and repeated, regular events.
4. Polite questions
We can use the future continuous in polite questions instead of the future simple (will).
Questions with the future continuous are more polite or casual.
It is common to use by + a time reference: by January, by 2035, by next month, by the time
you arrive.
I will have cleaned the whole house by the time your parents arrive.
We will have arrived by 4pm.
They will have built the bridge by next year.
2. With for
We often use ‘for’ with the future continuous to talk about the duration of a future activity.
3. Assumptions
We can use the future perfect to express assumptions about the past or the present.
As you will have heard, we will be changing office. (I am quite confident that you have
heard it)
He will have woken up by now – it’s 10 o’clock.
She will have been working for this company for 6 years in August.
I will have been studying Spanish for ten years.
2. With for
We usually use ‘for’ to express the duration of a future activity.
She will have been living abroad for 3 years by the end of next months.
They will have been seeing each other for 2 months.
2. Meaning
We use the zero conditional to talk about general truth and facts.
3. Other forms
The zero conditional can also be formed with ‘when’ instead of ‘if’.
2. Meaning
We use the first conditional to talk about events which we feel are possible.
The modal verb can be: may, might, can, could, should, ought to, must.
If you eat your sandwich, you can play with your friends.
If you want a pet, you should be more responsible.
If you can talk to him today, will you give him my regards?
If you are coming to the party, you will have to wear a suit.
If she has received your letter, she will reply soon.
If Jim has been cleaning the house, he will be very tired tonight.
Affirmative sentences:
If you finish early, go home.
Finish early and go home.
Negative sentences:
If you don’t stop shouting, I’ll call the police.
Stop shouting or I’ll call the police.
7. If + should
We can use should in the if clause to make the meaning more polite or less likely to happen.
2. Meaning
We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary or improbable situations.
you would have passed the test. If you hadn’t been partying,
If you hadn’t been partying, you would have passed the test.
2. Meaning
We use the third conditional to talk about a past event which did not happen. With the third
conditional, we express how we would like to change the past.
If I had won the lottery last week, I would have bought that sports car. (But I didn’t win
the lottery so I didn’t buy that sports car.)
4. If clause + could
We can use in the if-clause of the conditional sentence.
If I could have flown to New York yesterday, I would have seen the carnival.
1st 2nd
2nd 3rd
2nd
3rd
If I had studied harder when I was young, I would speak Spanish now.
2. Conjunctions
We can use the following conjunctions instead of ‘if’:
3. Inversions
In conditional sentences, we can use an inverted structure instead of ‘if’.
Should you have any questions…. = If you should have any ….
Were I to meet him…. = If I met him…
Had you studied more…. = If you had studied more…..
by the time
2. Use
If time clauses refer to the future, we usually use the present simple or the present perfect
after the conjunction.
When I see her, I will tell her the news. (at the same time)
As soon as I hear something, I will let you know. (immediately I will inform you)
I will phone you after I have arrived home. (First I arrive home, then I will phone you.)
As soon as I have finished my studies, I will travel round the world. (First I will finish my
studies, then I will travel.)
Active: Passive:
I write the letter. The letter is written.
She brought the cake. The cake was brought.
The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence:
a) In the present simple, the active verb becomes: is/are + past participle (of the same verb).
b) In the past simple, the active verb becomes: was/were + past participle (of the same
verb).
a) In the present continuous, the active verb becomes: is/are + being + past participle (of
the same verb).
b) In the past continuous, the active verb becomes: was/were + being + past participle (of
the same verb).
b) In the past perfect, the active verb becomes: had + been + past participle (of the same
verb).
6. The agent
Usually we omit the subject of the active sentence from the passive sentence. However, if it is
important for the meaning of the sentence, we can include the agent at the end of the passive
sentence:
a) we don’t know who did the action: The motorway was built last year.
b) the action is more important than who did it: The dinner has been prepared.
c) it is obvious who did the action: The bank has been robbed.
d) in scientific texts: Water is heated to 90 degrees.
e) in reports and announcements: The new president has been elected.
1. The structure
When we want to report what people say, believe, think, report, etc., we use an impersonal
passive construction.
2. Reporting verbs
Examples of reporting verbs we can use:
assume, calculate, claim, consider, discover, estimate, expect, feel, hope, know, prove,
report, say, show, think, understand, agree, believe, find, mean, presume, regard,
suppose, etc.
3. Continuous events
Look at the examples:
The neighbours think that Mr. Jack is living in Paris.
Mr. Jack is thought to be living in Paris.
The family believed that Frank was working for the CIA.
Frank was believed to be working for the CIA.
In these sentences ‘is living’ and ‘was working’ are continuous tenses, therefore, their passive
form is ‘to be doing’.
4. Earlier events
Study these examples:
a) The news reports that the president has been re-elected.
b) The president is reported to have been re-elected.
In these examples, ‘has been re-elected’ and ‘had cheated’ are actions which happened before
‘reports’ and ‘reported’ therefore their passive form is ‘to have done’ or ‘to have been done’
5. Double passive
As you can see, this sentence contains two passive parts: ‘was feared’ (this is the reporting part)
and ‘to have been kidnapped’ (this is the original passive part). This often happens when the
original sentence contains a passive part.
1) to have something done: Sue had her hair cut by the hairdresser.
2) to get something done: I got my car repaired yesterday.
3) to get somebody to do something: I will get my brother to fix the printer.
4) to have somebody do something: I will have my brother fix the printer.
2. Have
Sometimes, the structure suggests difficulty or bad luck. ‘Have’ is more common in these
situations
Sometimes it is unclear from the meaning if we asked somebody to do an action for us or if it was
bad luck:
We had the hole garden dug up. (‘dug up’ can mean we asked somebody to dig up the
garden, or perhaps that a dog dug in the garden and destroyed the plants)
3. Get
‘Get’ is more common in spoken English and ‘have’ is more common in formal English.
I’ll get her to type up the document.
I’ll have a meeting arranged for next Tuesday.
4. Needs doing
We often use an idiomatic expression which means that we have to do an action:
need doing or need done
2. Transitive verbs
Transitive verbs require an object. Some words have just a direct object while other verbs have
both a direct and an indirect object. These verbs can also take a prepositional phrase.
Study the following table:
4. Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs cannot take an object. They also cannot use the passive form.
Intransitive verbs can take a prepositional phrase or an adverbial phrase that completes their
meaning.
We waited for the bus for 15 minutes.
The door closed with a huge bang.
He seemed ill.
They became concerned.
The milk turned sour.
The food tastes delicious.
William is an accomplished writer.
A good dictionary will always tell you which category a verb belongs to.
2. Verb + to infinitive
The following verbs are followed by a to infinitive:
afford / aim / appear / ask / attempt / choose / deserve / fail / happen / help / learn
/ manage / neglect / offer / plan / prepare / refuse / seem / tend / wait / want /
wish
4. Adjectives + to infinitive
Adjectives are usually followed by a to infinitive verb. (For exceptions, look at part 2.)
attempt / begin / continue / can’t bear / dread / hate / intend / like / love / prefer /
start
He saw the boy run across the road. (from beginning to end)
He saw the boy running across the road. (part of the action)
I heard him shout. (a short shout probably)
I heard him shouting. (the shouting continued)
a. Verb + gerund
b. Verb + object + to infinitive
13. Expressions
There are some expressions which always use the gerund.
The verbs with a star (*) always follow the verb + object + infinitive pattern.
go
buy do
be Modal verbs
work have
can, could
read may, might
write will, would
eat Semi-modal verbs
shall, should
Speak must
dare (to) ought to
has to
need (to) had better
Auxiliary verbs help the main verbs to form tenses, negative sentences and questions.
Modal verbs can give several extra meanings to the main verb:
a) Ability: Peter can sing well.
b) Obligation: You must pay the bills.
c) Permission: You may sit down.
d) Prohibition: Dogs mustn’t enter.
e) Possibility: He could arrive soon.
3. Characteristics
Modal verbs behave differently from main verbs:
• They never change, they don’t add –s, -ed, -ing.
• They are followed by the verb without ‘to’.
• They always go before the main verb.
• They form the negative by adding ‘not’ or ‘n’t’.
• They are used to form questions and negatives.
Obligation No Obligation
We prefer must:
to give orders and instructions
to show the speaker feels strongly about something
in public notices
You should eat more vegetables. (In my opinion is it good for you but you don’t have to
do it.)
You ought to see the doctor. (My advice is to see the doctor but you have a choice.)
You shouldn’t work so much.
6. Need (to)
In the present, we can use need as a main verb or as a model verb. It means ‘necessary.
I need to call mum. (main verb) - I need call mum. (model)
I don’t need to call her. - I needn’t call her.
Do you need to call? - Need you call?
In the past tense, we use the main verb form with ‘to’:
I needed to call. I didn’t need to call.
If something was necessary but the person didn’t do it, we use: should have done or ought to
have done.
I’m angry with Peter. He should have told me the truth! (Although it was important, he
didn’t tell me the truth)
To express that we are sure something is not possible in the present, we use can’t and couldn’t.
2. Certainty - past
To express that we are very sure about something in the past, we can use must have.
To express that we are sure something is not possible in the past, we use can’t have/couldn’t
have.
3. Possibility - present
To express uncertainty or possibility in the present, we can use may, might or could.
‘Where’s Jane?’ ‘I don’t know. She may be in kitchen. Or she could be in bathroom.’ (The
speaker is not sure.)
‘Don’t buy him that tie. He may not/might not like it.
4. Possibility - past
To express possibility in the past, we can use may have, might have or could have.
‘Why is that child crying?’ ‘He may have lost his toy.’
‘Where are the diamonds?’ ‘They could have been stolen!’
5. Probability - present
To express probability or expectation, we can use will, should (ought to) or to be bound to.
She will arrive soon. (I expect her to arrive soon because she usually arrives at this time.)
She should be in Paris now. (I expect that the plane has landed.)
He’s bound to be promoted. He’s the best. (I expect that he will be promoted.)
6. Probability - past
To express probability in the past, we can use should have or shouldn’t have.
can is used for general situations. to be able to/to be unable to is used for more specific
situations and can be used in all the tenses.
2. Ability - past
To talk about ability in the past, we can use could and was/were able to.
2. Requests
We can make requests using the following modal verbs:
Can I ask you something?
Can you help me with this letter, please?
Will you get me some milk, please?
3. Offers
We can make offers in different ways:
4. Suggestions
Ways of making suggestions:
6. Advice
We can ask for advice the following ways:
Shall I tell him the truth?
Should I talk to him?
Would you buy this car if you were me?
When we report somebody’s sentences which relate to the past, we have to change the
tenses. Usually the reporting verb is in the past.
5. Wh-question
When we report somebody’s wh-question, we have to pay attention to the following changes:
a) Tense change
b) Pronoun change
c) Changing words of time and place
d) Word order change from question to statement
Look at the example sentences, and study how the word order changes:
‘Where are you going?’ asked mum.
Mum asked where I was going.
6. Yes/no questions
When we report somebody’s question, we have to pay attention to the following changes:
a) Tense change
b) Pronoun change
c) Changing words of time and place
d) Word order change from question to statement
e) Add if/whether in reported speech
advise / ask / tell / warn / promise / beg / expect / want / allow / command / tell /
invited / offer, etc (+ pronoun) + the to-infinitive
8. Suggestions
When we report suggestions and recommendations with the word suggest, we can use four
constructions:
9. Tense changes
When we report somebody’s speech and the reporting verb is in the past, we have to move the
tense one step back in time:
admit, advise, agree, answer, tell, suggest, think, demand, ask, report, remind,
believe, imagine, insist, wonder, beg, announce, command, forbid, invite, tell, order,
warn, teach, offer, want to know, enquire, request, command, wonder, recommend,
refuse, threaten, swear, instruct, explain, remind
2. Uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns are usually abstract ideas, liquid or mass forms.
Uncountable nouns:
- cannot be counted: 3 rices but: some rice/a bowl of rice
- have only a singular form and followed by a singular verb: water, rice, sand, air, wine,
cheese. The water is clear.
- cannot use a/an: a music, a blood, a furniture, an advice
- can use some / any / much / a little: some music, any advice a little water, much
damage
3. Nouns ending in -s
Plural nouns are nouns which only have plural forms. They are followed by a plural verb.
Some uncountable nouns end in –s but are uncountable and use a singular verb:
4. Group nouns
Group nouns or collective nouns are nouns which refer to a group of people or things together.
They can take either a singular or a plural verb.
government, army, company, crew, crowd, data family, group, media, press, public,
staff, team, committee, gang, the BBC, the EU, club, audience, class, generation, jury
5. Irregular plurals
Some countable nouns have irregular plural forms:
Change Example
knife – knives
life – lives
wife – wives
half – halves
wolf – wolves
change -f to -v loaf – loaves
leaf – leaves
shelf-shelves
calf – calves
elf - elves
hoof - hooves
cliff – cliffs
chief – chiefs
no change
cuff – cuffs
roof - roofs
potato – potatoes
tomato – tomatoes
volcano – volcanoes
buffalo – buffaloes
ends in -o
embargo – embargoes
hero – heroes
mosquito – mosquitoes
zero - zeroes
alumna – alumnae
change –a to -ae
antenna - antennae
Countable: Uncountable:
a paper = newspaper paper = the material
a wood = a forest wood = the material
an experience = a particular situation experience = in general
a coffee = a cup of coffee coffee = liquid
a help = a helping person help = help in general
a hair = one piece hair = all the hair on the had
a work = a work of art work = in general
an exercise = a task exercise = physical exercise in general
a tea = a cup of tea tea = the liquid
a chicken = the whole chicken to eat chicken = the meat
cheeses = various kinds cheese = the food
Usage Example
For people and animals The cat’s fur, the boy’s book
With names of shops, companies the newsagent’s, the greengrocer’s the vet’s
Usage Example
3. Either ‘s or of
Very often there is no difference in meaning between the ‘s or of:
The book’s cover = the cover of the book
New York’s statues = the statues of New York
The country’s government = the government of the country.
2. Order of adjectives
Sometimes we need to use more than one adjectives. An opinion normally goes before the fact:
3. Adding suffixes
Adjectives can be individual, unique words (nice, small) or can be formed from other words by
using suffixes or prefixes.
- able: manageable, readable
- ible: flexible, edible
- ant: hesitant, distant
- ing: sleeping
- ic: energetic, apologetic
- ish: foolish, blueish
- ous: dangerous, famous
- ly: friendly, weekly
- al: political, musical
- ful: harmful, tactful
- les: harmless, careless
- ive: attractive, passive
5. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are created by using two words. They are usually written with a hyphen.
bullet-proof, duty-free, long-distance, sugar-free, hand-made
The second part is often a present or past participle. These are often used to describe a person:
long-legged, curly-haired, self-centred, absent-minded, ill-fitting, expensive-
looking
6. Adjectives of measurement
We can combine numbers with nouns to make compound adjectives. They are used to measure
different things, ie. age, distance, etc.
a five-minute song (time)
a two-year-old girl (age)
a ten-euro ticket (price)
a one-litre bottle (volume)
a three-kilo parcel (weight)
a fifty-square metre house (area)
an hour-long meeting (duration)
7. Adjectives as nouns
Some adjectives can be used with ‘the’ to refer to a group of people. They function like a noun.
the blind the homeless the young
the accused the old the famous
the bizarre the deceased the poor
Some words are used as both nouns and adjectives without changing their form.
English, Italian, German, Chinese, American, etc.
chemical, musical, right, dear, elder, fun, indoor
Adjectives starting with the letter ‘a’- and adjectives that describe health and feelings, tend to go
after a linking verb. Often these adjectives have a related adjective which we can use before a
noun or after a linking verb.
ablaze, aflame, afloat, afoot, afraid, alight, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, askew,
asleep, awake, aware, fine, glad, ill, poorly, sorry, sure, unsure, upset, well, unwell
Some adjectives which end in –able/-ible can go before or after the noun without change in
their meaning. They usually go after the noun when combined with the words only, first and
last.
Most –ed and –ing adjectives go before the noun they describe:
An interesting movie
The interested party
However, many –ed and –ing adjectives can also go immediately after the noun they describe:
Everyone interested in the discussion was present. (=everyone who was interested…)
The cat lying on the sofa is mine. (the cat which is lying on the sofa…)
Adjective Preposition
nice, kind, good, polite, friendly, cruel, accustomed, used, married, similar,
to
possible, rude, friendly, generous, engaged, different
famous, late, ready sorry, responsible, suitable, eager, desperate, impatient for
good, angry, bad, hopeless, useless, brilliant, amazed, annoyed, awful,
at
terrible
keen, reliant, dependent on
interested, involved in
different, absent, free, safe from
a) Gradable adjectives can show the scale or grade of something (how much?). They can
form comparative and superlative form.
angry, big, busy, clever, common, deep, fast, friendly, happy, popular, rich, strong,
weak, young, cheap, expensive, large, small, unpleasant, exciting, good, upset,
disappointed, shy, intelligent, dizzy, aggressive, long, difficult, interesting
Category examples
2. Forming adverbs
On the one hand, adverbs can be single, independent words or combination of words. On the
other hand, we can form adverbs from other words.
3. Spelling
Spelling of adjectives can change the following ways:
adjective adverb
adjectives: adverbs:
fast = a fast train fast = run fast
still = still water still = stand still
good = a good book well = cook well
early = an early train early = arrive early
daily = the daily news daily = shop daily
Some adverbs have two forms and we can use both without a change in the meaning:
quick/quickly, cheap/cheaply, slow/slowly/ loud/loudly, etc.
hard/hardly
He worked hard. (a lot) He hardly worked. (almost nothing)
late/lately
The taxi arrived late. (not in time) I met Jim lately. (recently)
5. Position of adverbs
Adverbs can go into different positions in the sentence. Study the following table carefully.
6. Comparatives
Usually adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms the same way as adjectives.
In the case of two or more syllables, we use the words more and most to form the
comparative and superlative forms.
2 One syllable words ending in a short vowel plus consonant double the consonant at
the end of the adjective
big – bigger - biggest
sad – sadder – saddest
4 Two syllable adjectives ending in –r, -ly, -ow, -y, and -l can have two forms:
clever – cleverer / more clever – cleverest / most clever
Also: common, handsome, simple, stupid, pleasant
2. Irregular forms
Some comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs are irregular.
Note: ‘elder’ cannot be used in comparative sentences. We cannot say ‘He is elder than Kate.’
3. Comparative sentence
When we compare two or more things, we can say: X is bigger/better/safer/etc. than Y
as + clause + as
As + much/many/little/few + as
7. Emphasis
We can add emphasis to comparative adjectives the following ways:
much / far / a lot / lots / even happier
considerably / significantly happier
substantially / a great deal happier
many / far / a lot more / less / fewer
a bit / a little / a little bit / quite a lot / somewhat bigger
8. clauses
not + adjective/adverb + enough to do something
The time was not enough to complete the exercise.
• too + adjective/adverb + to do something
It was too hot to sit in the garden.
9. Showing result
• so + adjective/adverb + that clause
• so + many / much + noun + that
His car was so fast that the police couldn’t catch him.
10. As / like
Like + noun / gerund / pronoun is used to compare two things which are similar or the same.
Like can also mean ‘for example’ or ‘such as’ or ‘similarly’:
As + nouns / clause means ‘in the same way’ or ‘in the positions of’ when referring to jobs.
2. Short answers
We can give short answers to yes/no questions in two ways:
When we ask a question about the subject, we keep the original word order (affirmative
order) but we replace the subject with ‘who’:
John is in London.
Who is in London?
Sarah went home by bus.
4. Prepositions
It is important to keep the preposition of the verb when we ask a question. Prepositions can go
to two places:
The two solutions are equal. Some people prefer the first option, whereas some people prefer the
second option.
5. What or which?
We use what when there is an unlimited choice:
What car would you like to buy? (out of all the existing types)
What would you like to eat? (you can choose whatever you want)
6. Question tags
We can turn a statement into a question by adding a question tag at the end of the sentence.
9. Short agreements
To agree with positive statement, we use so + auxiliary of the original statement.
We form echo questions using the corresponding auxiliary from the original sentence –
similarly to tag questions. However, a positive sentence requires a positive echo question and a
negative statement requires a negative echo question.
Whereas and while mean ‘on the contrary’. They are usually used in formal speech.
I like tea whereas Frank prefers coffee.
While I understand your point, I totally disagree with your decision.
I went to the shop to buy some fruits. (Why? To buy some fruits.)
Peter studies hard to pass his exam.
She switched off the light not to waste electricity.
Note: The subject of the two verbs is the same: I went and I bought.
Note: In the negative, we use not to.
b) In order to and so as to
If we want to express purpose, we can also use in order (not) to and so as (not) to. They are
the formal version of to.
in order to
He turned the radio on so as to listen to the news
to
She closed the window in order not to hear the noise.
We wrote down the address so as not to forget it.
d) For
We use for to describe how something is used. We have to use for+noun or for+gerund.
They can start the sentence, or they can go in the middle of the sentence. However, only
because can start an answer to a question.
b) So, therefore
So and therefore mean ‘for this reason’. Other expressions we can use: consequently, as a
result, because of that, hence.
due to
as a result of
owing to winning the lottery.
He bought a Ferrari
because of his lottery win.
thanks to
on account of
b) Such
Such is used in the same meaning as so but in the following construction:
such + (adjective) + uncount noun + that
such + a(n) + (adjective) + singular count noun + that
such + (adjective) + plural count noun + that
It was such nice weather that we just wanted to sit in the park.
c) Too
Too means ‘more than needed’. We can use it to express cause and effect.
too + adjective/adverb (+ to infinitive / for someone)
too + many/much
too + many/much + noun (+ to infinitive / for someone)
d) Enough
Enough means ‘sufficient’. We can use it to express cause and effect.
adjective + enough + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
adverb + enough + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
enough + noun + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
1. Subject-auxiliary inversion
After certain negative adverbials, we use question word order.
Hardly … (when)
Hardly ever
Scarcely … (when)
Rarely
Little
Adverbs with negative meaning
Never
Seldom
Barely … (when)
No sooner … then
Nowhere
Only later
Only after
Only when
Only + time expressions
Only then
Only recently
Only in the last few days, etc.
Only if
Only + conjunction Only by
Only in this way
Not only … but …also/too
Not + only / time expressions
Not until
In no way
At no time
Negative expressions
Under no circumstances
On no account
Note: Little is used with verbs of thinking: realise, know, think suspect, etc.
Little did we know we’d never meet again.
Note: With adverbial that refer to a point in time (only when, not until, etc), we invert the
verb in the other clause:
Only when he got to the checkout, did he realise he had left his wallet at home.
2. Subject-verb inversion
In certain adverbial expressions, we use subject-verb inversion. Subject verb inversion means that
we put the verb in front of the subject. We do this in the following cases:
• Expressing direction of movement with along / away / back / down / in / off / out
/ up + verbs of place and movement (come, go, fly, climb, run, stand, sit, sail)
Away from the noisy road stood the beautiful Victorian house.
Out goes our vacation money!
• Here / there / then / next / first / now / finally + verbs of place and movement
Here comes the sun.
There goes the bus!
• After adverbial phrases
In the town centre are the most famous monuments.
• After participle phrases
Waiting at the corner was Helena.
3. Other inversion
• In short answers using neither, nor, and so
So do I! Neither does he.
• After as, than, so + adjective … that, such + be … that
Jack finished the project on time and so did his best friend.
I eat more vegetables than does my brother.
So expensive was the restaurant that we decided to go somewhere else.
Such is his fame that he can get into most private pubs for free.
• In conditional sentences
Were you to win the lottery, what would you do with the money?
Should you have more questions, do not hesitate to call me.
Had you told me the whole story, I would have been able to help.
• As/though +may/might
Impossible as it may seem, I am sure he will win the elections.
Intelligent though he is, he couldn’t answer the question.
• Try as he/she/they might
Try as she might, he couldn’t win the competition.
Try as they might, they were not able to find a solution.
The important information or new information goes either at the front of the sentence or at
the end of the sentence.
d) Giving instructions
What I want you to do is (to) prepare a presentation.
The (first) thing we have to do is (to) check that the passports are valid.
Remember that the noun phrase and the adverbial phrase give us the new information in
cleft sentences.
We can also put a what-clause at the end of the sentence. (However, we cannot put an it-
clause at the end!)
What bothers me is tone of voice. = His tone of voice is what bothers me.
i) All (that) ….
All (that) you discovered you must tell the police.
We can omit:
• nouns
• pronouns
• verbs and verb phrases
• infinitives
• wh-clauses
• adjectives
As a general rule, we can omit the above words in clauses joined by and, or, but.
3. Omitting verbs
We can leave out a repeated subject, auxiliary and/or verb in the second clause if it is
connected to the first clause with and, but, or or.
In present simple and past simple sentences, if we omit the repeated verb in the second
clause, we must replace it with do, does or did:
4. Omitting clauses
We can leave out an infinitive phrase and a wh-clause when the meaning is clear. However,
we usually have to keep the ‘to’ and we always have to keep the wh-questions word.
I’m sure I have seen him before but I don’t remember where (I saw him).
She asked me not to come to the meeting although I would like to (come).
You can eat all the cake if you want to (eat it).
2. Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms differently from regular verbs. They
usually do not use the –ed ending.
5. Ending in –en
Sometimes the past participle can end in –en. The -en can attach to the base form or to the past
form:
go went gone
see saw seen
grow grew grown
blow blew blown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
swim swam swum
2. Adding –s to verbs
Most verbs simply add an –s to form the third person
eat → eats, treat → treats, sleep → sleeps, work → works
The verb has two syllables and the second syllable is stressed
begin → beginning, admit → admitting but differ → differing
- The verb has two syllables and the second syllable is stressed
regret → regretted, admit → admitted but happen → happened
7. Possessive ‘s
Most nouns simply add an ‘s to the noun.
Flat → flat’s, cat → cat’s
8. –ise or -ize
Most words in British English can be spelt with both –ise and –ize. However, American English
prefers –ize.
British: realise, organise, hypothesise
American: realize, organize, hypothesize
Exceptions:
exercise, devise, improvise, surprise, advise, supervise, etc.
Some words are spelt with –yse in British English and -yze in American English:
British: Analyse, paralyse
American: analyse, paralyze
Symbol name
‘ apostrophe
* asterix
@ at
() brackets / parentheses
: colon
, comma
– dash
… ellipsis
! exclamation mark
. full stop/period
- hyphen
? question mark
; semi-colon
[] square brackets
_ underline / underscore
2. Capital letters
We use capital letters at the beginning of the following words:
Names of institutions, places, Europe, The Thames, Sirius, Mars, The New York
stars, planets, newspapers Times
3. Here is a summary that tells you when to use the various punctuation marks.
Question mark
At the end of questions
(?)
Exclamation At the end of a command or
mark (!) exclamation
After ‘yes’ and ‘no’ in No, I’ve never met her.
Comma (,)
answers Yes, I know it.
Hi, how are you?
After greetings
Dear Sir, Yours sincerely,
Between words in a list
(except when we use ‘and’ He likes cars, books, bikes and trains.
or ‘or’)
To emphasize words
Before quotations
To indicate omission or
Ellipses (…)
hesitation in speech
Square To explain words in a
brackets [] sentence
To indicate when a text is
changed slightly
Possessive
Subject pronouns Object pronouns
determiners
I we me us my our
you you you you your your
he they him them his their
she her her
it it its
Subject pronouns replace the subject of the sentence and object pronouns replace the object.
Possessive determiners show us possession and go in front of the noun.
Study carefully this table of the English reflexive and possessive pronouns.
3. Possessives
The possessive determiners always stand before the noun. The possessive determiner +
noun combination can be either the subject or object of the sentence.
4. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject and they usually stand in object
position.
Study the following examples:
I cut myself with a knife. He quickly washed himself.
We can also use reflexive pronouns to emphasise that the subject did an action.
Look at the following examples:
Peter repaired the car himself.
We baked the cakes ourselves.
6. There or it?
Both there and it can be used in several different ways.
2. One, ones
We use one and ones when we do not want to repeat a countable noun.
‘The one’ is used instead of a countable singular noun:
‘Which car would you like?’ ‘The one with 5 seats.’
To talk about a concrete group of things or people, we can say all/most/some of + the +
noun:
All (of) the dogs in this town are dangerous. (note: ‘of’ is optional with ‘all’)
Some of the students in this school want to go to university.
much ✓ ✓
many ✓ ✓ (possible) ✓
little ✓ ✓
few ✓ ✓
lots, a lot, plenty ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
7. All, whole
Whole means the ‘entire’. All can also mean ‘entire’ or ‘the total available’. Note the difference in
the constructions.
the whole day / all day
the whole cake / all the cake
her whole life / all her life
his whole house / all his house
when something has been mentioned ‘Has he got a car?’ ‘Yes. The car he has is
before: expensive.’
when talking about musical instruments: I play the guitar. He plays the piano.
with the dates (only in speech): the twentieth of July, October the fifth
talking about entertainment: the cinema, the theatre, the opera, the
museum
when referring to hotels and restaurants: the Hilton, the Grand Hotel, the Oriental
when we mention something for the first ‘He’s just bought a house.’ ‘Wow. That’s
time: fantastic.’
when we talk about one item of a group: I’d like to buy a car.
I like Ø travelling.
He eats Ø meat every day.
We bought Ø bananas.
with plural nouns when talking in general: Katie likes exotic animals.
when talking about certain places where the in hospital / at work / in prison / in
function of the place is the most important: bed / at school / at university
Months in September
in May
2. Use of ‘on
We use on with:
3. Use of ‘at’
We use at with:
Times at 9am
at half past eleven
at 3 o’clock
5. Use of ‘by
By means ‘no later than’.
th
Applications to be received by Friday the 20 June. (= on or before Friday, not later
th
than Friday the 20 June.)
by the end of the year / by 2pm on Tuesday / by Sunday morning / by now / by the time you
arrive home
6. Use of ‘until
Until (or till) refers to the duration of an activity and show how long something will continue.
It means that something continues until a moment in the future.
I will be in a meeting until four o’clock this afternoon. (=the meeting will continue until
four, it will stop at four o’clock)
8. Expressions
on time = punctual, exact time
in time = ok time, not late but almost late
in the end = finally
at the end (of something) = when something finishes
at In on
in at on
‘next to’
beside
Our house is beside /by the post office.
‘next to’
Our house is beside /by the post office.
above
‘at a higher level (general)’
The sky above/over us is bright at night.
over
‘at a higher place (touching)’
The blanket is over the bed.
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Verbs with Preposition
1. The use of prepositions with verbs
In the English language, verbs are very often followed by a preposition.
Note: When a verb + preposition is followed by another verb, this verb will use the gerund
form.
We are talking about buying a new car.
She insisted on paying for the meal.
2. Verb patterns
4. About and of
Think about = consider, concentrate on something
Think of = have an idea or opinion
What are you thinking about? (=what’s on your mind?)
What do you think of the new boss? (=opinion)
kindness of kind of
success in succeed in
successful in
decision on decide on
objection to object to