FREQUENCY ANALYSIS by R.B. Randall, B. Tech., B.A. Revision September 19873rd edition 1st print ISBN 87 87355 07 8 Pantedn OonmereK.Lateon & Son AVS -OK-2600 GlostrupFOREWORD In the years since the First and Second Editions of this book were published a great many developments have occurred; in particular there has been a huge swing from analog to digital analysis techniques, even for day-to-day analysis. The main reason for this development has been the increase in power and reduction in cost of FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) analyzers, but digital filters have also increasingly taken over some of the application areas formerly covered by analog filters. At the same time it has been realised that the primary distinction is not between digital and analog analysis, but rather between the FFT process, where the signal is analyzed in blocks, and analysis using filters, where the signal is Processed continuously. Digital filters are a special case of the latter, but otherwise have very similar properties to analog filters. For this reason the layout of the book has been modified considerably, with digital filters generally being treated along with analog filters, and FFT techniques treated separately. The basic theory has been expanded to include a discussion of the Hilbert transform, and in particular how a model of frequency analysis, based on an analytic signal, relates to the model promulgated earlier, which is based on a sum of positive and negative frequency phasors. In particular in the case of modulated signals (involving amplitude, phase and frequency modulation) the approach using an analytic signal is useful, because its amplitude represents the amplitude modulation signal (plus DC offset) while its phase represents the phase (or frequency) modulation signal superimposed on the carrier compo- nent. The analysis of stationary signals, using filters and FFT techniques, respec- tively, is treated in Chapters 3 and 4. Despite rearrangement, much of the material is similar to that in the earlier editions, although the discussion of FFT techniques has been expanded somewhat. At the same time, obsolete material on “Time Compression” and “High Speed” analysis has been reduced consid- erably, or dropped.Similarly, Chapter 5, on the analysis of short transients, contains much material from the earlier editions, in particular with respect to analog analysis, but the section on FFT techniques has been expanded considerably, in line with the overwhelming preponderance of these methods today. The subject of Chapter 6, the analysis of more slowly varying non-stationary signals, was treated very briefly in the earlier editions, but the treatment here has been expanded greatly. Only FFT analysis is covered, as this is by far the most practical way of applying the “time windows” involved. This chapter also contains new material on “order tracking” where the sampling frequency of the FFT analyzer is tied directly to machine shaft speed, and the x-axis becomes one of harmonic order, rather than frequency. Chapters 7 and 8 also represent considerable expansions of material treated briefly in the earlier editions. Chapter 7 covers dual channel FFT analysis, while Chapter 8 covers Cepstrum analysis. In the intervening years there have been considerable developments in both fields, and for this reason there is some- what more emphasis on examples of application in these two chapters com- pared with earlier chapters. Overall, it is hoped that the new arrangement will provide more direct access to the somewhat larger body of material. R.B. RandallCONTENTS INTRODUCTION ..... THEORETICAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS ... 2.1. BASIC CONCEPTS Complex Notation Delta Functions .. 2.2. FOURIER ANALYSIS Fourier Series Fourier Transform Sampled Time Functions Discrete Fourier Transform Spectral Density Power vs. Energy . 2.3. BANDWIDTH 2.4, SIGNAL TYPES .. Stationary Deterministic Signals Stationary Random Signais Pseudo-random Signals Transient Signals .. Non-Stationary Signals 2.5. CONVOLUTION .. Convolution with a Delta Function Convolution of Spectral Functions Convolution Theorem .. 2.6. THE HILBERT TRANSFORM. Analytic Signals Modulation3. FILTER ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY SIGNALS ... 3.1. 3.2, 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. . RECORDERS ...... FILTERS Practical Filter Characteristic Filter Response Time DETECTORS .. 87 Squaring .. . 88 Averaging 90 Square Root Extraction . 97 Logarithmic Conversion - 99 Detector Response .. . 99 AC Recording DC Recording ANALOG ANALYZER TYPES Discrete Stepped Filter Analyzers Sweeping Filter Analyzers... Real-time Parallel Analyzers Time Compression Analyzers DIGITAL FILTERING The Z-transform The General Multiple-Pole Filter... The Briel & Kjzer Digital Frequency Analyzer Type 2131 . 1h2-octave Analysis Filter Characteristics . PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY SIGNALS .. Stepped Filter Analysis Averaging Time T, DC or AC Recording 127 Writing Speed 127 Paper Speed 127 Swept Filter Analysis . 130 Constant vs. Constant Percentage Bandwidth Linear vs. Logarithmic Frequency Scale Choice of Bandwidth Averaging Time T, Filter Dwell Time 7) Writing Speed W Paper Speed P .. Summary ... Calibration .. Digital filter analysis Linear vs. Exponential Averaging . Averaging Time T, ...4. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT) .. 4.1. THE FFT ALGORITHM 4.2. THE FFT FOR REAL-VALUED SER 4.3. LIMITATIONS OF FFT PROCESSING Aliasing Window Effects Picket Fence Effect . 4.4. ZOOM FFT .. Real-time Zoom .... Non-destructive Zoom Comparison of Zoom Techniques .. 4.5. PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY SIGNALS Analysis Parameters Calibration and Sc: Averaging Real-Time Analysis . 4.6 HILBERT TRANSFORM TECHNIQUES .. Amplitude Demodulation Phase Demodulation .. 5. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS . 5.1. FFT TECHNIQUES Short transients Longer transients 5.2. FILTER ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES Digital Filter Analysis of Transients Sequential Filter Analysis... Method A .. Method B .. Method C .. Examples 6. NON-STATIONARY SIGNALS .. 6.1. SCAN ANALYSIS .. Choice of analysis parameters . Cyclic signals Spectral Variations with Machine Speed 6.2. ORDER TRACKING ANALYSIS Optimum Choice of Internal Filter Zoom tracking ....7. DUAL CHANNEL ANALYSIS . caer 7.1. CROSS SPECTRUM .. Definitions and Calculation Procedures Applications ......... 7.2. COHERENCE ..... Definition and Properties Applications ... 7.3. FREQUENCY RESPON: ‘UNCTIONS .. Definitions and Calculation Procedures Effects of Noise on H, and Hp . Effects of Leakage on H, and H, ... Applications of Frequency Response Functions 7.4. CORRELATION FUNCTIONS ... Definitions and Calculation Procedures .... Properties and Applications of Correlation Functions Autocorrelation Function... Cross Correlation Function .. 7.5. IMPULSE RESPONSE FUNCTIONS .. Definitions and Calculation Procedures Properties and Applications .. 228 228 230 230 245 250 252 252 256 256 259 263 263 265 8. CEPSTRUM ANALYSIS 8.1. DEFINITIONS AND CALCULATION PROCEDURES .. 272 8.2. PROPERTIES OF THE CEPSTRUM 275 8.3. APPLICATIONS OF THE POWER CEPSTRUM 282 Echo Detection and Removal ... 282 283. 284 Properties of a reflecting surface Speech Analysis . Machine diagnostics . 8.4, PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS WITH THE POWER CEPSTRUM 291 8.5. THE COMPLEX CEPSTRUM . 297 8.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE COMPLEX CEPSTRUM .. 299 Echo Removal . 299 Deconvolution ... - 303 APPENDIX A — Mathematical Details ... APPENDIX B — Mean Square Error for Narrow Band Random Noise. 318 APPENDIX C — Response of Physical Systems REFERENCES1. INTRODUCTION The object of frequency analysis is to break down a complex signal into its components at various frequencies, and it can be shown that this is possible for all practical signals (Ref. 1.1). The word “components” can be interpreted in several different ways, however, and it is important to clarify the differences between them. Mathematicians and theoretically inclined engineers tend to interpret “com- ponents” as the results of a Fourier Analysis, while practical engineers often think in terms of measurements made with filters tuned to different frequencies. It is one of the purposes of this book to clarify the relationships between these two approaches. Another is to give a simple pictorial interpretation of Fourier analysis which greatly facilitates the understanding of fundamental relation- ships, in particular the connection between mathematical theory and practical analysis by both analog and digital means. The approach taken is to consider frequency components as vectors (or phasors) rotating in a complex plane rather than as sums of sines and/or cosines. A typical (co-) sinusoidal component is represented initially as the sum of two contrarotating vectors (representing positive and negative frequency, respectively). This gives a meaning to the mathematically useful concept of negative frequency, and a two-sided frequency domain gives a valuable sym- metry with the time domain. It also allows for the simple pictorial representation of Fourier analysis which is developed and used extensively in this book. Later, in connection with a discussion of the Hilbert transform, an alternative representation is developed, based on the projection on the real axis of a single rotating vector. This gives a one-sided frequency spectrum, but results in a complex time signal (analytic signal), whose real and imaginary components are related by a Hilbert transform. This representation is very useful in the analysis of modulated signals (amplitude, phase, and frequency modulation). In both approaches a considerable simplification of the mathematics arises from the fact that a vector (having two components e.g. amplitude and phase) can be represented as a single complex variable and because differentiation WWand integration of such complex variables are so simple. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the basic relationships between complex exponentials and sinusoids, but a brief résumé of the most important relationships is given at the start of Chapter 2. Chapter 2 continues with a discussion of Fourier analysis, first the various forms taken by the Fourier transform, then the important practical consider- ation of bandwidth. This leads into a discussion of the different types of signal encountered in practice, and how they appear in spectral and other representa- tions. Next, the very important subject of convolution is treated in some detail. It is shown how the output of a linear physical system is obtained by convolving the input signal with the impulse response of the system and how this rather licated operation transforms by the Fourier transform to a multiplication (which in turn becomes an addition in the normal logarithmic representation of spectra). Other applications of this so-called “Convolution Theorem” are also given. The chapter closes with an introduction to the Hilbert transform, how it can be calculated, and its application to the analysis of modulated signals. Chapter 3 is entitled “Filter Analysis of Stationary Signals” and covers both traditional analysis with analog filters and detectors, and analysis with digital filters (and detectors) which have many similarities with their analog counter- parts. The chapter starts with a discussion of the function and properties of the basic elements of an analyzer based on filters, viz., the filter, the detector (for measuring the power in the filter output signal) and the graphic recorder often used to record the spectrum on paper. Any one of these elements can deter- mine the speed with which the analysis can be made. The chapter goes on to describe the various types of analyzers available, encompassing those based on both analog and digital filters. Finally, the practical analysis of stationary signals is discussed in detail, and formulae and procedures developed for the optimum choice of analyzer and analysis parameters such as filter bandwidth, averaging time, and recorder paper speed and writing speed. This is done for stepped filter analysis (e.g. 1/s-octave and ‘/1-octave filters), then sweeping narrow-band filters, and finally for real-time analysis using digital filters. Cali- bration of the results is also clarified. These procedures allow determination of results with a known degree of accuracy in the shortest possible time. Chapter 4 introduces another digital analysis method, the so-called Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which since its introduction in 1965 has revolutionized signal analysis. It is first shown how the FFT procedure greatly speeds up the calculation of the DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) introduced in Chapter 2, and how the results obtained using the DFT differ from those obtained by direct Fourier transform. Precautions have to be taken to avoid problems with the three “pitfalls” of the DFT, viz., “aliasing”, “leakage”, and the “picket fence effect”. The principles of “Zoom” analysis are explained and compared for the two major techniques used to obtain increased resolution in a limited frequency band. Finally, procedures are given for the practical analysis of stationary 12signals, including normal spectrum analysis, and analysis of demodulated sig- nals obtained using Hilbert transform techniques. In Chapter 4 the discussion is limited to simple spectrum analysis of a single channel signal, for direct com- parison with the methods of the previous chapter. It is seen that the FFT is best adapted to constant bandwidth analysis on a linear frequency scale. Chapter 5 discusses the analysis of transient signals, firstly using FFT tech- niques, and then using filters. Analysis using analog filters has now largely been superseded by digital techniques (FFT and digital filters) but is included for the sake of completeness. Even though many analyzers give results in RMS or mean square (i.e. “power”) values, the conversion of the results to “energy spectral density” (ESD), or “band energy \evel” is described for all analysis techniques. Chapter 6 covers the analysis of non-stationary signals such as speech, or machine vibration signals obtained during run-ups and run-downs in speed. The approach used employs time windows which are moved along the signal in overlapping steps so that the signal in each window position is either quasi- stationary, or an isolated event. The results are usually displayed in a 3- dimensional spectral map, with time or shaft RPM as the third axis. For cyclic signals, such as those from reciprocating machines, the third axis may be crank angle (over 360° or 720°) and the possibility of averaging over several cycles is explained. Order analysis (where the frequency axis is changed to one of harmonic order) is also described. Because the analyzer sampling frequency is then variable, being linked to shaft speed, problems may be encountered with aliasing, and a range of measures to avoid this are described. Chapter 7 is a brief introduction to multiple channel FFT analysis, where the signals are analyzed two at a time. These techniques are usually employed to determine the response properties of physical systems (e.g. structural, acousti- cal, electrical systems) rather than from an interest in the signals themselves. Dual channel analysis involves the calculation of a number of functions not previously defined, viz., cross spectrum, coherence, and frequency response functions, in the frequency domain, and autocorrelation, cross correlation, and impulse response functions in the time domain. The definitions, properties, calculation procedures and major applications of these functions are described and illustrated with examples. Chapter 8 is a discussion of Cepstrum analysis, which has been included because it can readily be carried out in modern FFT analyzers, and because it throws light on the material of earlier chapters, both with respect to signal analysis, and system analysis. The cepstrum is the inverse Fourier transform of a logarithmic spectrum and often extracts valuable information from the latter in the same way that normal Fourier analysis extracts information from a time signal. There are two types of cepstrum, the “power cepstrum” and the “com- plex cepstrum”. The former is obtained from the power spectrum, while the 13latter is derived from a complex spectrum and involves both log amplitude and phase information at each frequency. For this reason the process of calculating the complex cepstrum is reversible back to a time signal. Some applications of the cepstrum are based on its simple ability to detect periodic structures in the spectrum (e.g. harmonics, sidebands and echoes); others are based on the fact that source and transmission path effects, convolved together in the time domain, are additive and often separable in the cepstrum, thus allowing decon- volution by selective editing. For the somewhat more novel topics of the later chapters, some examples of applications have been given, but for simple frequency analysis not much has been said about applications; it being assumed that a reader already had a need for frequency analysis, and only required information on how to obtain the results. Even so, it is perhaps desirable to give a brief survey of the major reasons for the widespread use of frequency analysis. Without a doubt the major reason is that many physical and biological systems only respond to a limited range of frequencies. For example, the human ear only perceives sound within the range 20 Hz — 20 kHz, while for estimating the effects of “whole body vibration” the range is rather more restricted (typically 1 — 80 Hz). Quite often physical systems, be they electrical circuits or civil engineering structures, only have strong resonances or excita- tions within a limited frequency range, and hence the study of their behaviour when subjected to an external excitation can be restricted to this frequency range, thus greatly simplifying the problem. As mentioned previously, the calcu- lation of the response of a linear system reduces in the frequency domain to a simple multiplication. An input at a given frequency gives an output only at that same frequency, and thus frequency analysis permits treating each frequency individually without regard to what is happening at other frequencies. Sometimes frequency analysis is used to make a picture clearer. Quite often the “noisiness” of a signal is contained mainly in its phase spectrum, the power spectrum being relatively stable, and quite often it is the power spectrum which gives most information with respect to “average“ effects. The frequency content of a signal can often be used diagnostically; for example in tracing the source of a noise problem to a particular machine, or of a mechanical problem to a particular rotating component. On the other hand it must be kept in mind that frequency analysis is not a universal panacea. In enhancing periodic events it tends to smear out individual ‘ones; for example, one obt information about toothmeshing frequencies i a gearbox but tends to lose information about individual gear teeth.