XXX10.1144/qjegh2015-070A. Niaz et al.

Aquifer mapping, Sub-Himalayas, Pakistan

2016

2015-070 research-articleResearch article10.1144/qjegh2015-070Determination of aquifer properties and vulnerability mapping by using geoelectrical investigation of parts of Sub-Himalayas, Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, PakistanA. Niaz, M. R. Khan, S. Mustafa &, F. Hameed

Research article Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology

Published online December 21, 2015 doi:10.1144/qjegh2015-070 | Vol. 49 | 2016 | pp. 36–46

Determination of aquifer properties and vulnerability mapping

by using geoelectrical investigation of parts of Sub-Himalayas,
Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan
A. Niaz*, M. R. Khan, S. Mustafa & F. Hameed
Institute of Geology, University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, PO Box 13100, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan
* Correspondence: abrarniaz@gmail.com, abrar.niaz@ajku.edu.pk

Abstract:  A resistivity survey has been carried out for the determination of aquifer properties and vulnerability mapping
of part of the Sub-Himalayas in the Bhimber District of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. In the study area 19 vertical
electrical sounding points were established using a Schlumberger configuration. The acquired data were processed using
IPI2WIN software and interpreted in terms of true resistivity and thickness of layers. The underlying lithology is loose soil,
sandy clay, clay and sand. Productive groundwater zones have been identified in the central, southeastern and northwestern
parts of the study area. The aquifer thickness varies considerably (6.4–224 m). On the aquifer vulnerability map, values
>0.2 mhos indicate zones of moderate to good protective capacity, whereas values <0.19 mhos indicate vulnerable zones with
risk of contamination. However, the aquifer is permeable and the central part has a low protective capacity and is vulner-
able to infiltration of polluted fluid. The 2D resistivity inverse model and conductivity mapping delineate the contaminated
plumes in the areas of poor to weak protective capacity. Chemical analysis shows that the central part of the study area is
highly contaminated with magnesium, nitrate and sulphate.

Received 29 July 2015; revised 16 October 2015; accepted 21 October 2015

The Bhimber District of Azad Jammu & Kashmir is located in the c­ omputer software. The VES method was chosen for this study
Sub-Himalayan region of NE Pakistan. The population of the area because of the simplicity of instrumentation, ease of field logistics
is facing a continuous shortage of good quality groundwater. and straightforward data analysis (Zohdy et al. 1974; Stampolidis
Hence, the discovery of new groundwater resources is vital, and et al. 2005; Soupios et al. 2007; Kalisperi et al. 2009). This tech-
scientific investigation in the area is necessary. Geophysical meth- nique is used for measuring the vertical alteration of the electrical
ods have been used to yield information on Quaternary sequences resistivity (Anomohanran, 2013). The analysis of VES data is rela-
elsewhere (El-Qady et al. 2011). The electrical resistivity method tively simple and economical (Ako & Olorunfemi 1989; Madan
is most commonly used for the evaluation of groundwater poten- et al. 2008). It has also the capability to distinguish between satu-
tial, quality variation, differentiation of subsurface strata and aqui- rated and unsaturated layers.
fer vulnerability (Sultan et al. 2009; Kenneth & Edirin 2012). The Schlumberger configuration has greater penetration than
Vertical electrical sounding (VES) and imaging are useful for the Wenner configuration. In the resistivity method, the Wenner
delineation of groundwater contamination (Vereecken et al. 2006; configuration discriminates between resistivities of different geo-
Ogungbe et al. 2012). This method has been recognized to be the electric lateral layers, whereas the Schlumberger configuration is
most suitable approach for hydrogeological survey of sedimentary used for depth sounding (Olowofela et al. 2005). The geoelectrical
basins (Kelly & Stanislav 1993; Todd & Mays 2005). method is often used to delineate the depth, thickness and bound-
The electrical resistivity method involves measurement of the ary of an aquifer (Asfahani 2006 Omosuyi et al. 2007). The thick-
apparent resistivity of soil and rocks as a function of depth or posi- ness and resistivity of an aquifer are used to calculate the transverse
tion. This method is helpful in determining the relationship between unit resistance and longitudinal conductance (Ekwe et al. 2006,
geological structure and groundwater resources (Olorunfema & 2010), to determine the groundwater potential (Oseji et al. 2005),
Meshida 1987; Awni 2010). Current is injected into the earth and to explore a geothermal reservoir and estimate the hydraulic
through a pair of current electrodes, and potential difference is conductivity of an aquifer (El-Qady 2006). Kemna et al. (2002)
measured by a pair of potential electrodes. Current and potential and Vanderborght et al. (2005) delineated contaminated solute
electrodes are generally arranged in a linear array. Arrays that may plumes by using inverse conductivity modelling. In the present
study 2D inverse conductivity modelling has been carried out for
be used include a dipole–dipole array, Schlumberger array, pole–
the study of contaminated solute plumes.
pole array and Wenner array. The apparent resistivity of soil and
rocks influences the current, and is calculated by dividing the meas-
ured potential difference by the input current and multiplying by a Geological setting of the study area
geometric factor specific to the array being used and the electrode The study area is located in the southern part of Azad Jammu and
spacing (Stanley & DeWiest 1996). Kashmir, Pakistan. It lies within the extensive Potwar basin, which
In resistivity sounding, the distance between the current and the extends throughout almost the entire Punjab province of Pakistan.
potential electrodes is symmetrically increased for deeper investi- It is an active sedimentary basin with mainly Himalayan molasse
gation (Adeoti et al. 2012), and the variation of resistivity with deposits. The study area comprises the Dhok Pathan Formation,
depth is modelled by using inverse and forward modelling the Upper Soan and lower Soan Formation of the Siwalik Group,

© 2016 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved. For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions.
Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 Aquifer mapping, Sub-Himalayas, Pakistan 37

Fig. 1. Geological and location map of the study area.

Table 1. Stratigraphy of the study area Materials and methods

Formation Age Lithology The instrument used in this study is an ABEM terrameter SAS
Quaternary alluvium Recent Clay, gravel, pebbles 4000 (Sweden) and its accessories (including hammers, stainless
Mirpur Pliocene Conglomerates with electrodes, cables and measuring tape). In the study area in the
Conglomerates sandstone, clays Bhimber District a total of 19 VES stations were surveyed and
Soan Formation Miocene–Pliocene Sandstone, bentonite clay data were collected using a Schlumberger configuration with a
Dhok Pathan Early to Middle Miocene 50% sandstone, 50% clays maximum spacing of of 350 m (Fig. 1). The current was applied
Formation using two current electrodes and the resulting potential was meas-
Nagri Formation Middle to Late Miocene 60% sandstone, 40% clays ured using two potential electrodes. Spacing of the electrodes was
Chingi Formation Middle to Late Miocene 75% clays, 25% sandstone
symmetrically increased in this configuration for subsurface cov-
erage.
The acquired data were processed using the iteration software
the Mirpur Conglomerates and Quaternary deposits (Fig. 1). The
IPI2WIN. The software analyses data from 1D geoelectric meas-
Siwalik Group as a whole consists of clastic sediments, with alter-
urements at a single point automatically or semi-automatically
nating beds of sandstone and argillaceous material (Shah 1977,
to obtain the smallest error to delineate thickness, true resistivity
2009). The Mirpur Conglomerates and Quaternary units consist of
and depth of the subsurface layers (IPI2WIN computer program
rounded pebbles and boulders of limestone, sandstone, quartzite
2000; Zananiri et al. 2006; Sultan et al. 2009). Geoelectrical
and volcanic material, with some mudstone as well as sandstone
parameters such as transverse resistance, conductance and
(Table 1; Shah 2009).
anisotropy were also calculated. Qualitative interpretation of the
subsurface layers was carried out by observing the field
Hydrogeology of the area
curve shape. In the curve matching technique a field curve is
The area under investigation mainly consists of clastic sedimen- obtained by plotting electrode spacing and apparent resistivity
tary rocks. The subsurface geology reveals two main lithological and is interpreted by matching it with master curves. The
units: clay and sand deposits. These deposits also coexist in vary- curves can be classified as H, K, A and Q type on the basis of
ing proportions from sandy clay to clayey sand. The water-bearing shape. The distribution of the subsurface layers is as follows: H
strata of the area consist of sand, gravel or their admixtures. The type, ρ1 > ρ2 < ρ3; K type: ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3; A type: ρ1 < ρ2 < ρ3; Q
main source of recharge for aquifers is rainfall and seasonal type: ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3; KA, HQ type, and so on, represent the four
­tributaries. The annual rainfall in this area is 1033 mm (climate- layer curves, where ρ is the true resistivity of the layer.
data.org). Isoresistivity maps were prepared at different depths using
38 A. Niaz et al.

Fig. 2. Typical four-layered VES curves.

ArcGIS 10.1 and Surfer version 9. The thicknesses of
various subsurface layers were interpreted and ­modelled using
Rockworks version 2005. Longitudinal conductance and aquifer
thickness maps were prepared on the basis of VES interpretation
results.
Results and discussion
Data interpretation
The iteration software IPI2WIN was used to iterate curves for
VES stations 1–19. The smooth curves taken through the set of
 Aquifer mapping, Sub-Himalayas, Pakistan 39

Table 3. Interpreted subsurface geology

Anisotropy (λ)
Layer Interpreted Resistivity Interpreted lithology

3.236
1.699
0.684
0.084
0.986
1.353
1.182
2.036
0.533
0.516
0.535
0.002
0.523

0.922
0.588

0.262
0.51
1.18
0.75
number thickness (m) range (Ω m)

1 1–17 30–700 Loose dry soil

2 1.17–171 10–796 Clayey sand with sandstone
Apparent resistivity Longitudinal
conductance

3 6.5–38 6.088–1260 Coarse-grained sand and boulder

0.837266
0.191067

0.13578
0.04664
0.19801
0.12135
0.33978

0.71128
0.10755
0.62765

0.02673
7.2657
(mhos)

0.8648
0.0362
0.3452
0.9432

18.133
clay, gravels, with some sandstone
0.386

1.18
4 3.6–224 10–158 Sand and gravel, saturated
5 – 27–166 Fine clayey sand and siltstone
at 150 m (Ω m)

99.32
30.43
43.76
138.9
35.54
148.7
35.64
120.5
104.9
44.56
231.5
125.9
61.48
25.42
27.23
41.24

69.43
39.94

data points were interpreted quantitatively by the method of par-

90.2
tial curve matching. Layer resistivity and thickness were calcu-
lated for VES stations 1–19. The typical electrical resistivity
curves obtained from analysis of the data are shown in Figure 2,
and the true resistivity and thickness of the different layers deline-
100 m (Ω m)
resistivity at
Apparent

102.54
132.81
124.76
108.76

119.91
260.77
129.07
64.734
27.304
37.334

23.967
28.43 ated in the study area are shown in Table 2. The interpretation of
40.43
37.43
37.98
48.76
29.23
40.35

84.66
resistivity data indicates that there are three to five layers under
the study area (Fig. 3). These layers generally consist of topsoil,
sand, gravels, and alternating clay layers and sandstone (Table 3).
resistivity at
50 m (Ω m)
Apparent

The sandstone was found in the second and third layers at various
34.577
57.025
127.46

118.99
34.686
154.36
127.64

118.29
73.313
284.81
127.64
87.235
32.987
39.101
46.414

164.35
117.39

32.18

126

locations, with higher resistivity values ranging from 325 to

1260 Ω m. There is evidence of groundwater accumulation in the
third and fourth layers. The thickness of the aquifer ranges from
thickness (m)

6.4 to 224 m and is greater in the northern and western parts of the
Aquifer

area. The interpreted resistivity model shows close agreement

20.4
37.6
10.4
6.18
9.23
16.3
2.52
44.1
20.5
14.5
6.47
36.4
32.8
38.7
26.2

6.39
224

171
23

with the borehole data for the study area (Fig. 4). The lithological
fence diagram also reflects the subsurface geology along different
profiles (Fig. 5).
(Ω m)

144
166

128
27
36
70
ρ5

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–

Apparent resistivity
16.3
20.5
38.7

3.46
224
(m)

23
h4

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–

Apparent resistivity is an important factor for groundwater indica-

tion with depth. It is possible to delineate areas with different
(Ω m)

groundwater quality by isoresistivity mapping (Pal & Majumdar

52.6
92.3
56.6
23.6
24.1
10.8

24.6
125
158
133
100
123
ρ4

–
–
–
–
–

–
–

2001; Arulprakasam et al. 2014). The apparent resistivity values at

50, 100 and 150 m depth range from 27 to 230 Ω m. The corre-
16.5
(m)

9.2
7.8
6.5
9.2

2.9
20
38
13
36
33
19
h3

–
–
–
–
–

–
–

sponding contour maps are given in Figure 6a–c. The highest

apparent resistivity values are observed in the northwestern and
(Ω m)

1260

central parts of the map. The decrease of resistivity at depth for

6.01
41.2
30.1
54.4
6.88
93.7
8.05
67.6
96.7
60.6
39.5
33.9

674
325
121
220
139

371
ρ3

100 m spacing indicates groundwater accumulation.

11.17
33.71

11.49

21.6
10.4
1.49
6.18
5.67
3.06
2.52
54.1
3.51
14.5
5.99
3.71
9.84
26.6

171
(m)

17
h2

Longitudinal conductance
Longitudinal conductance is defined as conductance in the direc-
(Ω m)

78.2
27.5
80.7
26.9
26.4
81.2
22.2

9.43
107
563
194
509
482
135
796
457
280
355
141
ρ2

tion of the bedding plane through a column of 1 m. It is denoted by

S (in Ω) (Parasnis 1979; Nwanko et al. 2011):
12.35

1.01
1.18
16.7
14.2
4.29
2.36
2.43

11.4
12.5
2.52
3.03

10.4
1.69
(m)

11
h1

S = h1 / ρ1 = h2 / ρ2
1
3
1
1

n
S = ∑ hi / ρi
(Ω m)

53.3
21.3
29.9
56.3
84.9
46.3
47.6
40.6
63.5

255
340
250
412
327
220
102
104

171
700
ρ1

i =1

where h is the thickness of the layer and ρ is the resistivity of the

Longitude VES Curve

KQH
HQA
HQA
station type

HH
HK
KH
KA

KH
KK
KK
HK
KH

Q
K
H
Q
K

H
Q

layer. Higher S values generally indicate a relatively thick succes-

sion and should be given the highest priority in the evaluation of
Table 2. Interpretation of the data

74.279783 VES10

groundwater potential. The current flow is controlled by Ohm’s

18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11

19
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Law whereas groundwater flow is controlled by Darcy’s Law and

a relationship between electric and hydraulic parameters is widely
74.236383
74.239833
74.355667
74.301367
74.288283
74.284217

74.311833
74.174867
74.144233
74.129017
74.079717
74.063583
74.063117

74.26895
74.2338
74.1945

74.2121
74.305

accepted (Slater 2007).

(°E)

Transverse resistance
32.885667
32.851633
32.823283
32.868433
32.868317
32.862733
32.889517
32.930133

32.922967
32.935017

32.911733

The properties of the conducting layers are determined in terms of

32.84415
32.87445
Latitude

32.8624
32.8883
32.8945

32.891
32.904
32.919

longitudinal conductance and those of the resistive layer by trans-

(°N)

verse resistance (Yungul 1996). This is the total resistance through

40 A. Niaz et al.

Fig. 3. Geological model computed on

the basis of resistivity data for the study
area.

Fig. 4. Correlation of resistivity model

and borehole data.

a l m column cut perpendicular to the plane. It is denoted by T (in The total longitudinal conductance values ranges from 0.005 to
Ω m−1) (Parasnis 1979; Nwanko et al. 2011): 16 S. Conductance values increase in the northwestern and south-
eastern portions of the map (Fig. 7). As the conductance increases,
resistivity naturally decreases, pointing towards groundwater
T = hρ + hρ + …hρ potential aquifers (Gowd 2004; Joseph 2012).
N
The resistivity values are used to evaluate the unit longitudinal
T = ∑ hi ρI
i =1 conductance of the clay overburden (Table 4). The vulnerability
N map (Fig. 7) represents the overburden protection of the aquifers
T = ∑ Ti in the study area. Thick clay content, which slows down fluid
i =1
movement, is characterized by low hydraulic conductivities, low
unit longitudinal conductance and low resistivities. The longitu-
where h and ρ are thickness and true resistive respectively and N is dinal conductance values are helpful in evaluating the protective
the number of layers in the section. T is directly related to the trans- capacity or vulnerability of the aquifer because earth is a natural
missivity and higher T values usually reflect higher transmissivity filter for percolating fluids, and its ability to filter and retard per-
values of an aquifer. colating fluids is a measure of its protective capacity (Mogaji
Aquifer mapping, Sub-Himalayas, Pakistan 41

Fig. 5. Lithology fence diagram.

Fig. 6. Apparent resistivity contour maps:

(a) at 50 m spacing; (b) at 100 m spacing;
(c) at 150 m spacing.
42 A. Niaz et al.

Table 4. Modified longitudinal conductance and protective capacity et al. 2007). Greater protective capacity of the overburden
rating (Henriet 1976) reduces the aquifer vulnerability to pollution. The hydraulic con-
Longitudinal conductance (mhos) Protective capacity rating ductivity is proportional to the protective capacity of the over-
burden of an aquifer. The protective capacity ratings are given in
>10 Excellent Table 4. These ratings are very helpful in the protective capacity
5–10 Very good classification of the area under investigation. The area is classi-
0.7–4.9 Good fied into poor, weak and moderate protective capacity zones
0.2–0.69 Moderate (Fig. 7). Areas classified as having weak and poor protective
0.1–0.19 Weak capacity are more susceptible to contamination. The analysis
<0.1 Poor
of the protective overburden above the aquifers shows unit

Fig. 7. Unit longitudinal conductance

map.

Fig 8. Anisotropy map of the study area.

Table 5. Results of chemical analysis of water samples from the study area

Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7 Sample 8 Sample 9 Sample 10 WHO/
PSQCA
limit

EC (µS cm−1) 1098 755 1307 1710 3490 3500 1864 1235 978 1320 NGVS
pH 7.30 7.97 7.65 7.87 7.19 7.22 7.52 7.33 7.13 7.45 6.5–8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 4.63 3.14 3.58 3.66 1.89 bd 0.8 3.73 4.54 4.12 <5 NTU
Alkalinity (mg l−1) 382 282 302 352 302 302 492 365 271 323 NGVS
Bicarbonate (mg l−1) 382 282 302 353 302 302 492 365 271 321 NGVS
Calcium (mg l−1) 121 111 121 161 321 311 121 102 123 117 NGVS
Carbonate mg l−1) bd bd bd bd bd bd bd bd bd bd NGVS
Chloride (mg l−1) 72 40 72 120 400 402 195 65 45 93 250
Hardness (mg l−1) 452 362 552 642 1602 1603 592 485 472 543 500
Magnesium (mg l−1) 36 21 61 58 194 200 70 43 63 51 NGVS
Nitrate (mg l−1) 13 6 13 25 148 173 4 9 7 8 10
Potassium (mg l−1) 0.4 0.7 3.6 1 1.2 1.3 1.2 0.4 0.6 3.1 0.4
Sodium (mg l−1) 54 14 57 100 73 75 180 64 33 51 NGVS
Sulphate mg l−1) 64 52 223 273 400 300 190 47 73 235 NGVS
TDS (mg l−1) 659 415 784 1026 2234 2240 1118 713 524 824 1000
Lead (µg l−1) bd bd bd bd bd bd bd bd bd bd 50
Arsenic (µg l−1) 0.34 0.47 1.10 0.83 2.09 bd bd 0.23 0.57 0.46 50

WHO, World Health Organization; PSQCA, Pakistan Standard Quality Control Authority; bd, below detection limit; NGVS, no guideline value set.
 Aquifer mapping, Sub-Himalayas, Pakistan 43

Fig. 9. Two-dimensional inverse

resistivity model showing contaminated
plumes in central part of the study area.

Fig 10. Total longitudinal conductance map of the study area.

Fig. 11. Map showing the unit aquifer thickness of the study area.
44 A. Niaz et al.
Fig. 12. Dumpsites and sewage lines near water wells.
l­ongitudinal conductance (S) values ranging from 0.01 to
0.2 mhos. On this basis the study area can be classified into zones
of poor (0.01–0.09 mhos), weak (0.1–0.19 mhos) and moderate
protective capacity (0.2 mhos and above). The central portion of
the map with longitudinal conductance values of 0.01–0.08 mhos
is rated as having a poor protective overburden capacity
and is highly vulnerable to contamination by infiltrated fluids.
The rest of the map area is moderately protected against leaching
fluids.
The coefficient of anisotropy (λ) is shown in Figure 8. Its
value ranges from 0.002 to 3.23. High values are observed in
the northern and southeastern part of the study area, whereas the
remaining part of the area is characterized by low values of λ. The
relatively high values suggest the near-surface inhomogeneity of
materials within the subsurface, such as the topsoil and weathered
or partially weathered layers, which could not support groundwa-
ter development (Olasehinde & Bayewu 2011; Bayewu et al.
2014). Low values of λ (0.4–0.8) arise owing to structural features
such as fractures, faults and joints, and are relevant in the ground-
water development of the area. The overburden is weakly pro-
tected against polluting fluids in the central portion of the study
area owing to the low values of anisotropy and high isotropy.
Hence, it is susceptible to contaminated fluids. Polluting fluids are
leaching in this area into the groundwater from dumpsites and sew-
age lines; Figure 12 shows examples of these found near water
wells.
 Aquifer mapping, Sub-Himalayas, Pakistan
Inverse modelling
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) for the characterization
of contaminants is illustrated by Figure 9. Characterization of
transport processes at a field scale based on a few local measure-
ments of contaminant concentrations is highly uncertain. The
studies of Kemna et al. (2002) and Vanderborght et al. (2005) on
transport processes showed promising results for reducing this
uncertainty using ERT. The current 2D study presents inverse
electrical resistivity measurements to characterize contaminants
without costly drilling operations and extensive invasive tech-
niques. The results of 2D resistivity inverse modelling show a
contaminated plume with values of 23–35 Ω m (Fig. 9). The con-
ductive solute plume was also simulated in Figure 10 with total
longitudinal conductance values of 0.07–0.1 S. The solute plume
can migrate through the entire aquifer with the passage of time.
Water samples from 10 wells in the research area were collected
and their chemical analysis was carried out by the Pakistan
Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR). The results
of the chemical analysis are shown in Table 5. They show that the
hardness of water in the central portion of the study area is high,
and the concentration of nitrate, magnesium and sulphate is very
high as compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)
standard. As total dissolved salts (TDS) values are high, water of
this area is not suitable for drinking. The water quality from the
rest of the study area is found satisfactory for drinking.
Conductivity is an easily obtainable and important parameter for
the estimation of solute plume contamination.
Aquifer unit(s) thickness map
The aquifer thickness map can be used in ranking the geological
formations because the volume of water from each VES station is
a function of aquifer thickness. The entire area can be classified as
a zone of good to moderate groundwater potential. The current
research reveals that a zone of good groundwater potential occurs
in the northwestern portion of the study area (Fig. 11) with aquifer
thickness of 100–220 m. The moderate groundwater potential zone
(20–40 m aquifer thickness) lies in the central and southeastern
part of the study area.
Conclusion
Vertical electrical sounding has helped in the better understanding
and identification of aquifer dimensions. It has been observed from
the present study that this method is suitable for estimating the
thickness of different subsurface layers. Most of the study area is
dominated by H type curves that indicate the presence of good
quality groundwater zones, which are delineated on the basis of
interpretation of geoelectrical data. Productive groundwater zones
are identified in the central, southeastern and northwestern parts of
the study area. Resistivity data ranging from 6.88 to 325 Ω m indi-
cate that the water-bearing strata exist in the third and fourth layers
within the area. The VES at points 2, 4, 8, 11, 14 and 18 indicates
a fifth layer of fine saturated sand in the area. It is recommended
that boreholes for water extraction should be drilled in the third
and fourth layers at different locations. The presence of a thick
aquifer zone assures the area of adequate drinking water resources.
Sounding locations with resistivity values between 457 and
1260 Ω m were interpreted as compact sandstone with low ground-
water potential, and borehole data in the vicinity confirm the pres-
ence of sandstone. The overburden protective capacity of the
aquifer is rated as poor to weak in the vicinity of VES points 6, 7,
9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18 and 19. The aquifers of these areas are
highly vulnerable to the infiltration of leachate from leakage of any
buried storage facility or dumps. The contaminated plumes were
characterized by conductivity and inverse resistivity modelling in
45
the central part of the project area and the results were verified by
chemical analysis of well water and anisotropy mapping of the
area. Conductivity and inverse electrical resistivity measurements
are important parameters to characterize contaminants and can be
obtained without costly drilling operations and extensive invasive
techniques.
Acknowledgements and Funding
The authors are thankful to the Director Institute of Geology, University of Azad
Jammu & Kashmir, Muzaffarabad for providing financial assistance to carry out
the field work in the study area.
Scientific editing by Daren Gooddy; Jude Cobbing
References
Adeoti, L., Alile, O.M., Uchegbulam, O. & Adegbol, R.B. 2012. Geoelectrical
investigation of groundwater potential in Mowe, Ogun state, Nigeria. British
Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 2, 58–71.
Ako, A.O. & Olorunfemi, M.O. 1989. Geoelectric survey for groundwater in
the newer basalts of Vom Plateau State, Nigeria. Journal of Mining Geology,
25, 247–450.
Anomohanran, O. 2013. Geoelectrical investigation of groundwater condition
in Oleh, Nigeria. International Journal of Research Reviews in Applied
Science, 15, 145–151.
Arulprakasam, R., Siva, K. & Gowtham, B. 2014. Electrical resistivity tech-
nique for demarcation of groundwater quality zones in parts of Vanur
block, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. International Journal of Geology,
Agriculture and Environmental Science, 2, 28–30.
Asfahani, J. 2006. Neogenee aquifer properties specified through the interpreta-
tion of sounding data, salameyeh region Syeria. Hydrological Processes, 21,
2934–2943.
Awni, T.B. 2010. Mapping Quaternary deposits in the el-Jufr playa (Southeastern
Jordan Plateau) using geoelectrical techniques: Implications for geology and
hydrogeology. Scientific Research and Essays, 5, 3183–3192.
Bayewu, O.O., Oloruntola, M.O. & Mosuro, G. 2014. Evaluation of resistiv-
ity anisotropy of parts of Ijebu Igbo, Southwestern Nigeria using azimuthal
resistivity survey (ARS) method. Journal of Geography and Geology, 6,
140–152.
Ekwe, A.C., Onuoha, K.M. & Onu, N.N. 2006. Estimation of aquifer hydrau-
lic characteristics from electrical sounding data: The case of middle Imo
river basin aquifers, southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Spatial Hydrology, 6,
121–131.
Ekwe, A.C., Onuoha, K.M., Ugwumbah, K.I. & Onwuka, O.S. 2010. Estimation
of aquifer hydraulic characteristics of low permeability formation from geo-
sounding data: The case of Oduma town, Enugu state. Journal of Earth
Science, 4, 19–26.
El-Qady, G. 2006. Exploration of a geothermal reservoir using geoelectrical
resistivity inversion: case study at Hammam Mousa, Sinai, Egypt. Journal of
Geophysics and Engineering, 3, 114–121.
El-Qady, G., Shaaban, H., El-Said, A., Ghazala, H. & El-Shahat, A. 2011.
Tracing of the defunct Canopic Nile branch using geoelectrical resistivity
data around Itay El Baroud area, Nile Delta, Egypt. Journal of Geophysics
and Engineering, 8, 83–91.
Gowd, S.S. 2004. Electrical resistivity survey to delineate the ground water
potential aquifers in Peddavanka watershed, Anantapur District, Andhra
Pradesh. Environmental Geology, 46, 118–131.
Henriet, J.P. 1976. Direct application of the Dar Zarrouk parameters in ground-
water surveys. Geophysical Prospecting, 24, 344–353.
Joseph, O.C. 2012. Vertical electrical sounding (VES) methods to deline-
ate potential groundwater aquifers in Akobo area, Ibadan, South-western
Nigeria. Journal of Geology and Mining Research, 4, 35–42.
Kalisperi, D., Soupios, P., Kouli, M., Barsukov, P., Kershaw, S., Collins, P.
& Vallianatos, F. 2009. Coastal aquifer assessment using geophysical
methods (TEM, VES), case study: Northern Crete, Greece. 3rd IASME/
WSEAS International Conference on Geology and Seismology (GES ’09),
Cambridge, UK, 24–26 February, 158–164.
Kelly, W.E. & Stanislav, M. 1993. Applied Geophysics in Hydrogeological and
Engineering Practice. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Kemna, A., Vanderborght, J., Kulessa, B. & Veereecken, H. 2002. Imaging
and characterization of subsurface solute transport using electrical resistivity
tomography (ERT) and equivalent transport model. Journal of Hydrology,
267, 125–146.
Kenneth, S.O. & Edirin, A. 2012. Determination of aquifer properties and
groundwater vulnerability mapping using geoelectric method in Yenagoa
city and its environs in Bayelsa state, South Nigeria. Journal of Water
Resource and Protection, 4, 354–362.
Madan, K.J., Kumar, S. & Choudry, A. 2008. Vertical electrical sounding sur-
vey and resistivity inversion using genetic algorithm optimization technique.
Journal of Hydrology, 359, 71–87.
Mogaji. K.A., Adiat, K.A.N. & Oladapo, M.I. 2007. Geoelectric investigation
of the Dape Phase 111 Housing Estate FCT Abuja Northcentral Nigeria.
Online Journal of Earth Science, 1, 76–84.
46 A. Niaz et al.
Nwanko, C., Nwasu, L. & Emujakporue, G. 2011. Determination of Dar Zarouk
parameters for assessment of groundwater potential: Case study of Imo State,
southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development,
2, 57–71.
Ogungbe, A.S., Onori, E.O. & Olaoye, M.A. 2012. Application of electrical
resistivity techniques in the investigation of groundwater contamination:
A case study of Ile-Epo dumpsite, Lagos, Nigeria. International Journal of
Geomatics and Geosciences, 3, 117–123.
Olasehinde, P.I. & Bayewu, O. 2011. Evaluation of electrical resistivity anisot-
ropy in geological mapping: A case study of Odo Ara, West Central Nigeria.
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 5, 553–566.
Olorunfemi, M.O. & Meshida, E.A. 1987. Engineering geophysics and its appli-
cation in engineering site investigation. Nigerian Engineer, 22, 57–66.
Olowofela, J.A., Jolaosho, V.O. & Bandmus, B.S. 2005. Measuring the elec-
trical resistivity of the earth using a fabricated resistivity meter. European
Journal of Physics, 26, 501–515.
Omosuyi, G.O., Adeyemo, I.A. & Adegoke, A.O. 2007. Investigation of
groundwater prospect using geoelectric and electromagnetic sounding at
Afunbiowo near Akurea, Southwestern Nigeria. Pacific Journal of Science
and Technology, 8, 172–182.
Oseji, J.O., Atakpo, E.A. & Okolie, E.C. 2005. Geoelectric investigation of the
aquifer characteristics and groundwater potential in Kwale, Delta state, Nigeria.
Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 9, 157–160.
Pal, S.K. & Majumdar, R.K. 2001. Determination for groundwater potential
zones using iso-resistivity map in the alluvial areas of Munger District,
Bihar. Journal of Earth Science, 1–4, 16–26.
Parasnis, D.S. 1979. Principles of Applied Geophysics, 3rd edn. Chapman &
Hall, London.
Shah, S.M.I. 1977. Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Memoir of the Geological Survey
of Pakistan, 12.
Shah, S.M.I. 2009. Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Memoirs of the Geological Survey
of Pakistan, 22, 293–298.
Slater, L. 2007. Near surface electrical characterization of hydraulic con-
ductivity from petrophysical properties to aquifer geometries. Surveys in
Geophysics, 28, 167–169.
Soupios, P., Kouli, M., Vallianatos, F., Vafidis, A. & Stavroulakis, G. 2007.
Estimation of aquifer parameters from surficial geophysical methods. A case
study of Keritis Basin in Crete. Journal of Hydrology, 338, 122–131.
Stampolidis, A., Tsourlos, P., Soupios, P., Mimides, T.H., Tsokas, G.,
Vargemezis, G. & Vafidis, A. 2005. Integrated geophysical investigation
around the brackish spring of Rina, Kalimnos Isl., SW Greece. Journal of
Balkan Geophysical Society, 8, 63–73.
Stanley, N.D. & DeWiest, J.M. 1996. Hydrogeology. Wiley, New York, 280–
286.
Sultan, S.A., Mekhemer, H.M., Santos, F.A.M. & Abd Alla, M. 2009.
Geophysical measurement for subsurface mapping and groundwater explora-
tion at the central part of Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Arabian Journal for Science
and Engineering, 34, 103–119.
Todd, D.K. & Mays, L.W. 2005. Groundwater Hydrology, 3rd edn. Wiley, New
York.
Vanderborght, J., Kemna, A., Hardelauf, H. & Veereecken, H. 2005. Potential
of electrical resistivity tomography to infer aquifer transport characteristics
from tracer studies: A synthetic case study. Water Resources Research, 41,
W06013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003774
Vereecken, H., Binley, A., Cassiani, G. & Konstantin, T. 2006. Applied
Hydrogeophysics. Springer, Dordrecht, 60–65.
Yungul, S.H. 1996. Electrical Methods in Geophysical Exploration of
Sedimentary Basins. Chapman & Hill, London.
Zananiri, I., Memou, T. & Lachanas, G. 2006. Vertical electrical sounding
survey at the central part of the Kos Island, Aegean, Greece. Geoscience,
411–413.
Zohdy, A., Eaton, G. & Mabey, D. 1974. Application of surface geophysics to
groundwater investigations. Techniques of Water-Resources Investigation,
US Geological Survey, 2, 116–119.