Thermal Recovery of Oil - Butler (1991)

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GALIAGIIERLIBRARY
Uf,lNEnSrfY
- OFCALGARV
THERI$AL CALGARY,ALBERTA
cEnnoa T2N1N4
RECOVERY
OF OIL
AND
BITUNIEN
ROGERM. BUTLER
Departmentof Chemical
and PetroleumEngineering
Universityof Calgary
Calgary,Alberta, Canada
= PrenticeHall,EnglewoodCliffs,New Jersey07632
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PREFACE xii
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTIONTO THERMAL RECOVERY
Enhanced Oil RecoveryMethods z
SteamStimulation z
Steamflooding 3
Hot Waterflooding 4
In Situ Combustion 4
World Fuel Resources 5
The Oil Sand Resource 7
VenezuelanHeavv Oil 8
Canadian Heavy Oil and Bitumen g
Correlation of Canadian Tar Sand Deposits Il
Size of Alberta Oil Sand Deposits 11
Comparisonof Heavy Oil and ConventionalCXIResources 12
Deposits of Heavy Oil and Bitumen in the United States 12
The Nature of Heavy Oil and Bitumen Deposits 14
Solid Mineral Matter 16
gn: Bruce Kenselaar
Kaolinite 16
rring buyer: Kelly Behr and Sue Brunke
Montmorillonite 17
Illite 17
Chlorites 18
O 1991by Prentice-Hall,Inc.
Water 18
A Division of Simon & Schuster
Englewood Cliffs, New lerseY01632 Oil and Bitumen 19
Gas 19
Units of Measurement Z0
Use of ProgrammableCalculatorsand Microcomputers 22
eserved.No part of this book maYbe
d, in any form or by anYmeans, Radial Flow to a Vertical Well 22
:rmissionin writing from the publisher. The Problem of Economic Exploitation 25
Bitumen Transportation 25
Bibliography 27
thc United Statesof America General References 29
7 65432r
Chapter 2. CONDUCTIONOF HEAT WtTHtN SOLTDS 30
Introduction 30
Thermal Conductivity 30
n - 1 , 3 -3 1q, 1 53 - A Fourier's Equation 3L
Flow of Heat into a Semi-Infinite Solid 32
Significanceof Solution 36
{rlf lntcrnational (UK) Limited, I'ondon
Heat Transfer from a Spreading Hot Zone 37
[all of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
Hall Canada lnc., Tbronto Constant Heat Injection Rate into a Fracture 3g
flall Hispanoamericana,S.A-, Mexico conduction from a Spreadingchamber That Advances to a Limit and
Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Then Stops 39
Hall of Japan,lnc,,TbkYo Numerical problem 40
SchusterAsia Pte. Ltd., SingaPore Conduction Ahead of an Advancing Front 43
rcnticc-Hatl do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro
Tnmll lil TII[8 AlLr ot a[ rtovlnc|lu rtull ql Ly:glg ixlEu
llort Ab.d of Rilt In Ttanrlont Foriod 47 Stcrmlloodlng 105
Cctlnurllon of tho Prsvlous Numcrical Example 48 Suitability of Spccific Rcscrvoirufor Stcamflooding 107
Elfcst of Ctarylng Ffont Vclocity 50 The Propcrtiesof Stcam 110
Tho Situation Whcrc the Front Advance Velocity Is Inversely TemperatureDistributioninSteamflooding 122
Proportional to the SquareRoot of Time 51 Fingering 124
Radial Heat Flow from a Well 52 Gravity Override 124
Cumulative Heat Flow from Well Bore 55 SteamfloodingMechanisms t26
FactorsAffecting Well Bore Heat Loss 56 Reduction of Oil Viscosity 126
Insulation of Wells to Reduce Heat Loss 56 Changesin Relative Permeability 127
The Equivalent Well Radius with Multiple Resistances 58 Myhill and Stegemeier'sApproach to Steamflooding L29
Direct Injection of SteamDown the Well Casing 59
Injection of Steamin the Tirbing with the Annulus Full of Gas
ConvectiveHeat Transfer Between Two Concentric Vertical
tri Summary of Myhill and Stegemeier's
Outline of Method
Limitations 131
130
Assumptions 130
Cylinders 60 Comparisonsof Theoretical Predictionswith Data L33

Background Material on Well Bore Heat Loss 63 Ten-Pattern Steamflood at Kern River 135
Numerical Example of Well Bore Heat Loss Calculation 63 San Ardo Steamflood and Infill Drilling 137
Radial Conductive Heat Loss from a Buried Heated Cylinder 68 Comparisonof Steamflood and_SteamSoak 139
Bibliography 71. SteamfloodingMulti-LayerReservoirs 140
Jones'SteamDrive Model L4L
rr 3. CONVECTIVE HEATINGWITHIN RESERVOIRS 72 Jones Empirical Adjustment Factors i+Z
Introduction 72 Injectivity t44
Simple Convective Heat Transfer Without Conductive Heat Loss 73 Steady-stateDisplacementBetweenan Isolated Pair of Vertical
Overall Heat Balance Approach 74 Wells L45
Steam Injection 75 Time for Breakthrough 147
Lauwerier's Equation 75 Isolated Injection Well Surrounded by a Circle of Equally Spaced
Numerical Example 78 Producefs 148
Thermal Efficiency for Constant-Displacement Rate Steam-Drive Confined Patterns 149
Fraction of Heat in Steam-SaturatedChamberAfter the Critical Confined Horizontal Well Pair 150
Time 85 RepeatedFive-Spot 151
Asymptote for As/A if tp : o 86 Repeated Seven-Spot 152
Thermal Efficiency for Constant Steam-Injection Rate: Marx and SteamZone Shape:van Lookeren'sEquations t52
Langenheim'sTheory 86 Numerical Example of the Use of van Lookeren's Theory t57
Numerical Problem Using Marx-Langenheim's Equation 90 FiarouqAli's Unified Approach I57
Simple Formulasfor Estimation of the Oil-Steam Ratio 93 Gomaa's Correlations for Predicting Oil Recovery 158
Convective Transfer of Heat Beyond the Condensation Front 95 Vogelb Simplified Heat Calculation for Steamfloods 162
Size of Steam Zone for Time Greater than the Mandl and Volek's Comparison of Vogel's Predictions with Myhill-Stegemeier 165
Critical Time 96 Numerical Example 166
Effect of Non-Vertical Front 98 The Fast Process 167
Steam Injection into a Thin Channel or Fracture 99 Other Mechanismsin Steamflooding 168
Comparison of Fracture Filled with Steam for Constant Injection Rate Conversion of Mature Steamfloods to Hot Waterflooding 173
and for.ConstantArea Areal Growth Rate 100 Qualitative Review of Steamflooding t74
Calculation of Mandl-Volek Critical Time for a Numerical Bibliography 175
Example 100
chapter 5. THE DTSPLACEMENT OF HEAVY OtL 179
Extension of Numerical Example to Injection into a Very Thin '
Horizontal Layer or Fracture 101 Introduction 179
Bibliography 103 FiactorsAffectingDisplacement 179
Displacement Concepts 180
rr 4. STEAMFLOODING 104 Piston Displacgqt.ent-,..180
Introduction 104 '- Breakthroush 180-
-."Ili-."-
A Qualitative Discussionof Steam-injectionProcesses t04 o-ue.t--iae
lv Contents Contents
, ntlrqr aF
fttont.l sl.blllty lgl
Thc Thoorctlcal Approrcho to Displaccmcnt l8l Bobcrl and Llntzb Modcl 244
Flood Intcrfacc Stability-Muskat's Model 182 Effect of ProcessVariables 246
Darcy's Law and Interfacial Stability 182 Scaling of Thermal Models 248
Effect of Interfacial Tension 184 Niko and Troost'sCyclic Steam Stimulation Model Experiments 250
A Simple Theory for Stabilizationby Interfacial Tension 185 Effect of ProcessVariables 250
Effect of Condensation upon Interfacial Stability 188 Simplified Analysis of Production Rate Decline During Reservoir
Miller'sTemperatureGradientStabilization L9l Cooling 259
Darcy's Law for Two-PhaseFlow 192 The Problem of the First Cycle in the Cyclic SteamStimulation of Tar
Relative PermeabilityCurves 192 Sands 266
The Fractional Flow Equation t93 Cyclic Steamingof Vacca Tar, Oxnard, California TIl
Effect of the Gravity Term on Fractional Flow 196 Compaction Drive in Conventional Heavy Oil Reservoirs 272
Effect of SegregatedFlow on Apparent Relative Permeability Fracturing and Reservoir Expansion During Steam Injection 274
and Fractional Flow 197 StressDue to Gravity in a Semi-Infinite Strain-Free Solid 275
The Buckley-Leverett Displacement Theory 200 In Situ Reservoir Stresses 276
The Velocity ofthe Shock Front 200 Fracturing Pressure 277
The SaturationBehind the Front 201 Ground Heave 277
The Upper Shock Front 203 Effect of Fracture Orientation on Productivity from Stimulation 279
Conditions at Breakthrough 205 Possible Production of Orthogonal Vertical Fractures
Recovery at and After Breakthrough 205 from the Fracturing of a Line of Wells 280
Effect of Viscosity Ratio 207 Bibliography 281
PressureGradients During Displacement 208 285
Chapter 7. STEAM-ASSISTEDGRAVITY DRAINAGE
Numerical Problem on Buckley-Leverett Theory 210
Introduction 285
Comparisonof Displacementwith Diffuse and Segregated
Concept 285
Flows 2I3
Relationship to Convention Steamflooding 286
Conditions at Breakthrough 213
Gravity Drainage Theory 287
Conditions When Oil-Water Ratio Falls to 0.025 214
Darcy's Law 289
Comparison of Oil Recoveries 2L4
Integrated Flow 291
Water Saturation Profiles 214
Material Balance 291
C.W. Nutt's Capillary Bundle Model 216
Velocity of the Interface 292
Analysis of Steamflood Using the Buckley-Leverett Theory 220
Position of the Interface 293
Buckley-Leverett Theory Applied to the Steam Chamber 222
The Exponent m-An Extended Definition 294
Calculation of Volume of Steam Within the Reservoir 222
Change of Variable of Integration 295
Heat Balance. 223
Original Scaled Visual Model 296
Numerical Example 224
Dimensional Similarity 297
Heat Balance, Saturations, and Recovery 225
Original Scaled,PressurizedModels 300
Displacement of Oil Ahead of the Condensation Front 227
Calculated Drain4ge Rates for Field Conditions 300
Effect of Shapeof Relative Permeability Curves 228
TANDRAIN-An Extension to the Original SAGD Theory 302
PressureDrop'forSteamflooding 229
Effect of No Flow Boundary 303
SteamOverride 232
Further Experimental Data 305
Effect of SteamQuality 234
Extrapolation of the Model Experiment to the Field 307
Effect of Vertical Heat Loss 238
The Rising Steam Chamber 307
Effect of Increasing Steam Viscosity 238
Value of Proportionality Constant in Height Equation 309
General Conclusions on Displacement 238
The Oil-Production Rate 310
Bibliography 239
Shapeof SteamChamber 311
tr 0. CYCLIC STEAM STIMULATION 24r Available Head 312
Introduction 241 Finger Rise Theory 312
The Stimulation of Wells with AppreciableCold Flow 242 Effect of Steam Temperature, Reservoir Temperature, and Oil
Well Bore Skin 243 Properties on Drainage Rates 313
Near-Well Bore Region 243 Steam and Reservoir Temperatures 313
vl Contents Contents
vlpol tnsm
Nuncrlcrl Problomo Stoem-Arldcd Orrvlty Dnln4o 316
Thc ZlmPm'AEC Stcam Ccncntor 410
Stoam-InJoctionWclls 321
BibliograPhY 411
Horizontal Injection Wells 321
Vcrtical lnjcctors 325 Chaptcr 9. lN SITU COMBUSTION 41s
Avoiding the Steady-StateHeat-Distribution Assumption 328 Introduction 415
Valuesof the ParameterBg 330 DrY Combustion 418
Heat Penetrationas a Function of Distance Along Interface 331 bescriPtion of Phenomena 418
Predicted Oil-SteamRatios 333 Combustion Tirbes 4t9
Effect of Steam Pressure 335 Alexander's Fireflood Pot 423
SAGD Results from Scaled Laboratory Reservoir Models Operating at Calculation otHlC Ratio for Fuel 424
High and Low Pressures 336 Example of Stoichiometric Calculation for Combustion
Oil Production After Stopping Steam Injection 343 Process 425
Recovery of Heavy Oil Above Water 344 Fuel DePosition- 426
Effects of Reservoir Heterogeneities 3,+8 LowjTemPerature Oxidation 428
430
Fbrmation of WO EmulsionsWithin the Reservoir 353 In Situ CombustionExperiments Using Oil Sands
Well Bore Flow Resistance 356 Ignition 432
Conclusions 357 Temperature at the Combustion Front 435
Bibliography 358 Effect of Conductive Cooling upon the Combustion
TemPerature 436
rpter 8. STEAM RECOVERYEOUIPMENTAND FACILITIES 360 440
Examples o1 the Use of Ramey's Solutions
Introduction 3ffi Produced Oil 442
ProPerties of
Steam Generation 360 442
Wet Combustion
Effect of Water Impurities 364 445
LaboratorY Results
Deaeration and Oxygen Control 366 448
Water'to-Air Ratio
Oil Field Steam Generators 368 in Tar Sands 450
In Situ Combustion
SteamQuality 371 452
Use of OxYgenor Enriched Air
Convection Section 371 411
Potential Advantages for the Use of Oxygen .
Radiant Section 373 of the Use of Oxygen 454
Possible Disadvantages
Vertical Steam Generators 373 455
The Cost of OxYgen
SteamDistribution System 373
The Effect of Pressureon Combustion Performance
Cluster6d Deviated Wells 375
with OxYgen 457
Thermal Well-Completions 375 458
Design of In Situ Combustion Projects
Temperature Logging 378 Fuel Load 459
Total
Control of Heat Loss in Steam-InjectionWells 380 459
Air Requirement
SelectiveSteamInjection 381 4ffi
Air Rate and Pressure
Artificial Lift 381 461
Oil DisPlaced
Improving Well Performance 387 per Volume
Effect of Water-Air Ratio on Oil Recovery
Treating ProducedFluids 388
Burned 464
Production Treatmentwith High Sand Production 393 466
Field Project Results
Makeup Water Supply 393 Golden Lake 466
LloYdminster,
Recycling ProducedWater 394 47L
Ceityt Bellevue Field in Louisiana
Produced Water Analyses 395 473
Field ExPansionsat Bellevue
Treating Recycled Water 396 474
In Situ CombustionProjectsin Rumania
WastewaterManagement 402 477
BibliograPhY i
Esso'sThermal Softening Process 443
ReducingTotal DissolvedSolids 4.03 Appendix 1. SYMBOLS 481
Alternate Steam Generators 404 Lower Case 481
Coal-fired Steam Generators 404 UPPer Case 482
Downhole SteamGeneration 405 EnthalPies 484
Fluidized Bed CombustionBoilers 447 Greek 484
vlll Contents
Contents
Unltr and Convcnlon Fhcttm 4116 Apprndlx !. THERMAT IN8ULATION 610
dlx 2. D€NSITIESOF OtL RESERVOTR MATERTALS q7 Bibliography 520
Watcr at Boiling Point 487 Appendlx 9. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 521
SaturatedSteam 487
Saturation Pressureand Temperature 521
Brine Solutions 48i
Enthalpies of SaturatedLiquid and Vapor
ReservoirOil 488
Bibliography 523
Rocks 490
ConversionFactors 490 TNDEX 524
Bibliography 490
dlx3. THERMAL
coNDucflvrry oF orL REsERvorR
MATERTALS 49l
UnconsolidatedOil Sands 49L
Comparisonof MeasuredThermal Conductivity of Tar Sand
with Prediction from Somerton'sFormula 4g3
ConsolidatedPorousRocks 494
Comparisonof Thermal Conductivities of Consolidated
and UnconsolidatedSandstones 495
Thermal Conductivity of Hydrocarbon Liquids 4g5
Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Water 495
Thermal Conductivity of Over- and UnderburdenMaterials 4gs
Thermal Conductivitiesof MiscellaneousMaterials 4g7
ConversionFactors 497
Bibliography 497
llx 4. HEAT CAPACTTTES AND ENTHALPTES 499
Sandstones 499
Carbonate 499
Clays 499
Oils 500
Water 501
Heat Capacitiesof Common Gases 502
Average Heat Capacities Betweeen T1 and T2 S0Z
Changein Enthalpy Between T1 and T2 SW
Volumetric Heat Capacitiesof Reservoir Materials 503
Bibliography 503
ix 5. VISCOSITIES 504
Viscosity of Crude Oil 504
Viscosity of Water and Steam 511
Bibliography 514
x 6. HEATS OF COMBUSTTON 51s
Hydrocarbon Liquids 515
Fuel Gases 516
Solid Fuels 5I7
ConversionFactors 5L7
Bibliography 517
x Contents
Contents
Prefsce
This book describesthe recovery of heavy oils and bitumen by in situ thermal
methods.It is basedon the lecture notes,which have been developedby the author
for an annual thirteen-weekgraduatecourseat the University of Calgary,to classes
drawn from full-time graduate students and to a greater extent from engineers
whose work is directly related to the oil industry. The author has presentedthe
courseeachyear since 1982and the book has been written during this period.
The first chapter is an introduction to the subject.The heavy oil and, more
importantly, the bitumen depositsin Canadaare an enormousresourcewhich will
become of great economic importance. Production from these sourcesis already
equivalentto a very significant fraction of the Canadianrequirementfor crude oil.
Other countries as well as Canadahave vast depositsof these crude oils. The de-
positsin the Canadianprovince of Alberta and thosein Venezuelaare eachapproxi-
mately equalin quantity to thoseof conventionalcrudesin placein the Middle East
reservoirs.The purposeof this book is to discussthe technicalfactorsand problems
which are involved in their production by those in situ methodswhich involve the
heating of the reservoir.
Although the book discusses,in a logical development,the theory and much
of the practice in this area,it is not intendedto be an encyclopediaon the subject.
It describesthe main ideasof the subjectwith the purpose of providing the reader
with tools which can be usedto make further advances.In places,the book summa-
rizes well establishedthinking whereasin others,it describesoriginal ideasand ap-
proaches;some of these have been publishedpreviously in paperswritten by the
author and his collehgueswhile others appearhere for the first time.
Chapter2 dealswith the transfer of heatwithin the reservoirbulk and within
the adjacentregionsby thermal conduction.Equationsare presented,and many are
derived,which allow the analysisand prediction of quantities such as the heat loss
from the boundariesof a heatedreservoir.Numerical examplesin this chapter,like
those in other chapters,provide the readerwith the meansfor the practical under-
standingand applicationof the theoreticalmaterial. The interspersingof numerical
exampleswithin the book and, in some cases,the use of the results from the ex-
amplesfor the further developmentof concepts,are intended to make this book
interestingand useful to the practical engineer.The approachemployedis practical
and fundamentalwith a minimum of academicsophistication.The author'saddress
is now in an invory tower but he camewith tar on his boots.
xii
One of the conclusionsto be drawn from Chapter 2 is that simple thermal
conductionis, in most instances,an inadequatemeansfor heating substantialreser-
voir volumesfrom small diameterwells. It is too slow. The third chapterdiscusses
convective heating achieved by the injection of hot fluids such as steam or hot
water. This allows heat to be introduced much faster and over substantialvolumes.
Again a practical approachinvolving the use of illustrative numerical examplesis
employed.One of the conclusionswhich the readerwill draw from this chapter is
that a very substantialquantity of heat is required simply to raise a volume of reser-
voir to the steam temperature and that this quantity has to be augmented,fre-
quently several-fold,in order to also supply the lossesof heat from the reservoir
boundaries.The material in the third chapterprovidesthe readerwith tools which
allow the estimation of these quantities and with a grasp of how the heat is dis-
tributed in steamrecoveryprocesses.
Steamflooding and results from steamflooding field projects are discussed
further in the fourth chapter. The chapter also extendsthe theoretical ideas de-
velopedpreviously.For examplethe tendencyfor steamto override the oil during
lateral steamflooding and the contribution of steam distillation to recovery are
discussed.
Chapter 5 is concernedwith the mechanismby which oil is displacedby in-
jectedfluids. A factor of major importancehere is that the displacingfluid is usually
much lessviscousthan the oil. This causesinterfacial instabilitiesand the fingering
of the displacingfluid-particularly if it is water. The situation can be different
with steamsince it condenseswhen it intrudes into colder oil and it is the resulting
aqueouscondensaterather than the steamwhich fingers.Also steamtends to float
abovethe adjacentoil and override becauseof its low density. One of the subjects
which is discussedwith practically-orientednumerical examplesis the displacement
of oil by steam within a steam-saturatedregion using the Buckley-Leverett ap-
proach. This mechanismis surprisingly effective despite the sharp contrast be-
tween the viscosity of the steamand the oil. It is shown that the reasonfor this is
that the flow of steamin suchsituationsis, on a volumetric basis,much higher than
that of the oil. Steamcontainsmuch lessheat per unit volume than doeshot water
and much larger volumes are required to heat a volume of reservoir. These much
larger volumesare much more effective in displacingoil from the heatedzone even
though the dynamicviscosity of steamis lessthan that of water.
The cyclic steamstimulation processis describedin Chapter 6. This process
was discoveredby accidentin 1959and it provided the main thrust for the early de-
velopmentof thermal recoveryin California, although most of those projectshave
now been convertedto steamflooding.Steamstimulation is still the major process
for the in situ recoveryof Alberta bitumen although it is likely that it too will be
surpassedeventuallyby steamdisplacementprocessesbecauseof their potential to
achievehigher oil recoveries.
The Steam-AssistedGravity Drainageprocessis describedin Chapter7. This
involves steamfloodingto horizontal production wells which are located near the
baseof the reservoir. Steamis injected from wells which are higher in the forma-
tion. Steam-saturated zonesform and grow abovethe productionwells. The growth
of these steam chambers can be both vertical and sideways.The oil near the
Preface xIl
boundary of eachchamberis heatedand it flows by gravity downwardsto the pro-
duction well. An important feature of the processis that the displacedoil remains
heatedasit flows to the productionwells.The processhasbeentestedin field pilots,
particularly in AOSTRAs Underground Test Facility in the Athabasca tar sands
near Mclvturray.The performanceof this pilot is promising and recent reviewsby
AOSTRA concludethit the processshouldbe economicallycompetitivewith steam
stimulation even for projectJrecoveringthe extremelyviscouscrude of Athabasca.
The facilities which are usedfor thermal recoveryincluding steamgenerators,
wells, lifting practices,treating, and recyclingwater are discussedand analyzedin
Chapter 8.
Heavy oil and bitumen recoveryusing in situ combustionis reviewedin Chap-
ter 9. The main attraction to this process,as comparedto steaming,lies in the
much lower cost of the heat for the reservoir.This advantagecontinuesto generate
interest in the processalthough developmentactivity appearsto be declining. The
chapter includesa discussionof the principles involved and describesseveralsuc-
cessfuland economicfield applications.
The final chaptersin the book are Appendiceswhich contain data and corre-
lations useful in the analysisof thermal recoveryprojects'
The author is grateful to many peoplefor the help and advice'theyhave given
to him in developingthis work to its presentstate:Chi Tak Yee, Viera Oballa, and
philip Bakesaswelias many other students,made important contributions in iden-
tifying inconsistencies,and errors, both substantialand typographical, in earlier
veisionsof the text. Riza Konak of EssoResourcesCanadaand Ken Porter of Gulf
ResourcesCanadareviewed the material of Chapter 8 and suggestedvaluableim-
provementsand additions. Gordon Moore and Matthew Ursenbachof the Univer-
iity of Ca[ary reviewed the material on in situ combustionand made important
and useful-suggestions. The author is also indebtedto his former colleaguesof the
Heavy Oil ReiearchDivision of EssoResourcesCanadawho contributed ideas,ad-
vice, and enthusiasmwhich became embeddedin his experience.He has clear,
vivid memoriesof many stimulating and productive disussionswith G. S. McNab,
H.Y. Lo, D. J. Stephens,M. weiss, F. Greebe,D.A. Best, S. Bharatha,P. N. Troffi-
menkoff, p. J. Griffin, R. Leaute, and many others. For him they were exciting
yearsand exciting people.The encouragementand supportwhich the author hasre-
ceived from the- Alberta Oil Sands Technology and ResearchAuthority (AOS-
TRA), and particularly from its first Chairman Dr. C.W. Bowman and its first
Vice-ChairrnanDr. M. A. Carrigy, is also acknowledged.The Authority employed
the author as Director of Technical Programsduring 1983and it was in this period
that its plans for the UndergroundTest Facility were finalized. In March 1984the
author's proposal for the Sleam Assisted Gravity Drainage process as the first
processio be demonstratedin the UTF was presentedat a review organizedby
AOSTRA for potential industry participants. The successof the subsequenttest
and the enthusiasmwhich this has generatedin industry has done much to bolster
his confidencein presentingthe material of Chapter 7. The author is also indebted
to the Calgary Seition of itre PetroleumSociety of CIM and to the industries of
calgary lor ttreir endowmentof the chair of PetroleumEngineeringwhich he has
o""ipi"a since 1983.This support has made the writing of this book possible'
Preface
xrv
I wish to thank the following for permission to use and copy material for
which they hold the copyright; in eachcase,credit is also give to the author where
the material appears:
(1982)'
Alberta Energy provided the data for Fig. 1.3 from their publication EnergyHeritage
The American PetroleumInstitute granted permission to print Fig' A'2'1'
The Alberta Oil SandsResearchand Technology Authority (AOSTRA) for works published
in theAostra Journalof Researcft,the proceedingsof the UNITAR/UNDP International con-
ferences of Heavy Ciude and Tar Sands, and proceedings of the AOSTRA and CANPET
seminars:rigs. 1.4,7.30thru 7.32,7.45thru 7.54,7.67,7.70,8.14, thru 8.19,8'29,8'30'
8.1,7
8 . 3 3 ,9 . 5 ,9 . 2 2 , 9 . 2 3 a, n d9 . 4 4 .
Babcock& wilcox, Barberton,ohio, for Figures8.1 thru 8.3 reproducedfrom their publica-
tion Steam.
Business Information Services (BIS), copyright holders for PetroleumEngineerInternational
magazine,for permissionto use Fig. 9.64.
The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, publishers of the Journal of Canadian
Petroleum Technolagy .34,7.39,7.44,7.54thru
for the following:Figs.4.7,7.I2, 7.15,7.16,7
7.56,7.68,7.69,and8.2'1 '
The canadian Journal of chemical Engineering(cichE) for the following: Figs. 1.8, 7'1 thru
7 . 3 , 7 . 5 ,a n d7 . 7 .
The CanadianSocietyof PetroleumGeologistsfor Figs. 1.2 and 1'5'
Corod ManufacturingLtd. provided the original drawing for Fig' 8'21'
Editions Technip, Paris,Francegrantedpermissionto reproduceFigs. 9'2 and 9.34.
EssoResourcesCanadaLimited for permissionto useFigures8.23,8.24,8.25,8.35'and 8.38.
Mr. W. H. Fairfield and Mr. P. D. White for permissionto publish Figures9.60 to 9.63 and
Tables9.7 to 9.10.
Foster Wheeler Fired HeatersLtd., Calgary,Alberta provided us with the illustrationsfor
Figs. 8.10(a)and 8.10(b)'
Dr. G.W. Govier for permissionto use his data in Table 1.2.
McGraw-Hill, N.y., publishers of the 1st UNITAR/UNDP International Conferenceon
Heavy crude and Tai sands.for the following: Fig. 1.1,Table 1.9, and Figs. 8.31and 8.32.
Natco canada, calgary, Alberta provided the drawingsfor Figs. 8.7, 8.28' and 8.34.
The National Research Council, publishers of. the Canadian Journal of Earth Science,for
Fig.6.29.
Professorc.w. Nutt, granted permission to publish Figs. 5.32 thru 5.35 and Figs. 5'40
and 5.41.
Oxford University Press,Oxford, U.K., for Fig.2.l2. Used by permissionof the Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
The petroleum Societyof the CanadianInstitute of Mining and Metallurgy (CIM)' Calgary
Section,for Figs. ?.58 thru 7.66 published in the preprints of the 40th Annual Technical
Meeting of the Petroleum Society of CIM.
The society of Petfoleum Engineers holds the copyright for all material published in their
SpE papers, theJournalof PetioleurnEngineering,the Societyof PetroleumEngineeringlournal,
and transcripts of ttre Spb,of AIME. Permissionhas been received and acknowledgedfor the
following:Figs. 1.9,4.g,4.11thru 4.1,4,4.17thru 4.2L,4.29thru 4.40,4.43thru 4.5t'5.1,
5.7,5.g,6.2thru6.13,6.I5,6.21,6.23,6.24,8'39,8.43thru8'45,9'6thru9'21,9'25thru9'32'
9.35thru g.3g,g.45thru 9.47,9.50thru 9.55,and 9.65;Tables3'3, 4.1thru 4.5,4'8,6.2'8'4'
and 9.6.
Dr. P. G. Saffmangrantedpermissionto reproduceFigs' 5'3 and 5'4'
TOTRAN ServicesLimited, calgary, Alberta provided the photograph for Fig. 8.8.
Eugene F. Traverse supplied Figs. 4.15 and 4.16'
The first draft of the book was typed by Mrs. Margaret McAuslan in 1'984and
the author is grateful to her for her hard work and interest. Since then the annual
revisionsand ixtensions of the lecture notesand the manuscriptfor this book have
been typed in a world-classmanner by Mn. Patricia Stuart-Bakes.The author
wishes-tothank her for her perseverance,moral support, and enthusiasm.
Finally, the authorwishesto recognizethe encouragementand patienceof his
wife Joyce*ho hur understoodand supportedhim. Writing books is an interesting
and worthwhile endeavorbut it is time consumingand hard on one'sfamily. Thank
you, Joyce.
Roger M. Butler
Calgary,Alberta
Preface
)orl
1
Introduction to Thermsl
Recovery
The efficient and economicrecovery of heavy oil and bitumen from reservoirsin
Canada,Venezuela,and elsewhereis a majortechnicalchallengeand taskl As will
be seenlater in this chapter,the quantitiesof heavyoil and, p-articularly,bitumen
in place are as large as and probablyfar larger than thoseof conventionaicrude oil.
The challengeis twofold: recovering the oils from the reservoir and converting
them to useful petroleumproducts. Heavy oils and bitumen contain much largei
proportions of nondistillableresidualmaterial than do conventionaloils. The resi-
duescontain larger proportionsof asphaltenes, and this makesthem particularly
viscous.It is their high naturalviscositythat makesthe recoveryof heivy oils ani
bitumen difficult.
The samefactors that determine the viscosity of theseoils also greatly affect
their conversioninto conventional petroleum products. The high contents of as-
phaltic residue make them particularly suitable for asphalt maiufacture but also
greatly reducetheir suitability for most other purposes.Their conversionto distil-
late boiling-rangematerial involvesresidualcrackingprocessessuchas coking and/
or hydrocracking.The high contentsof sulphur and niirogen in the distillatesireate
the need for extensivehydrotreating.The aromaticcontent of the middle distillates
obtained reducestheir value as dieseland aviation jet fuels. Improvementof these
propertiesrequiresfurther extensivehydrotreating.
The productionand utilization of heavyoils and bitumensasbasicraw materi-
als for the manufactureof the conventionalproductsof petroleumthus involvesex-
tensivetechnology;there are great incentivesfor the extensionand improvementof
this technology.This book concentrateson the first of the two areasdescribed.the
recoveryphase.Although it may appearthat this phaseis the more straightforward
of the two, neverthelessit aboundsin interestingfacetsand opportunitiesfor devel-
opment and invention.
ENHANCEDOIL RECOVERYMETHODS
As the availability of conventionalcrude oil has declined, there has developedan
increasedincentive for the improvementof the recovery from known reservoirs,
and methodsfor "enhancedoil recovery" have been developed.The most impor-
tant of these are as follows:
THERMAL RECOVERY
. Steamstimulation
r Steamflooding
. Hot waterflooding
. In situ combustion
CHEMICALPROCESSES
o Surfactantfloods
o Polymerfloods
r Alkaline floods
MISCIBLEDISPLACEMENT
o Light hydrocarbonfloods
r Carbondioxidefloods
This book is concernedwith the first of these, thermal recovery, a subject
areathat includesthe techniqueswhich havefound the most extensiveuse.Most of
the applicationsof thermal methodsare for the recoveryof heavyoils that are too
viscois at the original reservoirconditions to flow with economicrates and recov-
eries.The effectivenessof thesetechniquesdependslargely upon the reduction in
oil viscosity that accompaniesheating. Although heating the oil requires energy,
this is, in lconomic applications,considerablyless than the energy that the pro-
ducedoil is capableof providing. A flctor which promotesthe useof thermal recov-
ery processesis that miny of the depositsof heavycrudesare large,rich, and often
*"ti kno*n. Thermal recovery projects are usually profitable and are frequently
quite
' large.
Th; fo[owing introduces the sgliqnt characteristicsof the common thermal
recovery approaches.
Steam Stimulation
Shell discoveredthe processof steamstimulation by accidentin Venezuelawhen it

was producingheavycrude by steamfloodingthe Mene Grande field near the east-
ern shoreof Lake Maracaibo'
During the flood, a breakthroughof steamto the surface of the ground oc-
curred and, in order to reducethe steampressurein the reservoir,the injectionwell
lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

wasallowedto flow back. Copiousquantitiesof oil were produced;from this acci-
dental discoveryin 1959(reported by de Haan and van Lookeren 1969)came the
steamstimulationprocess,which also goesby the nameof steamsoak andhuff and
puff' There was a very rapid growth in the use of steam stimulation in the next
decade,particularlyin California.By 1967there were 408 steamgeneratorsin use
in Californiaproducingabout 120kB/d of oit (Burns 1969).
In the steamstimulationprocess,steamis injectedinto the reservoirat rates
of the order of 1000B/dl for a period of weeks;the well is then allowed to flow back
and is later pumped.In suitableapplications,the productionof oil is rapid and the
processis efficient, at leastin the early cycles.The processis usedexiensivelyin
California and Venezuela;if the steampressureis high enoughto fracture the reser-
voir and thus allow injection,it can alsobe usedto producethe very viscousoil of
the oil sands.For this operation,a steampressureofibout 1 psi per ioot of depthis
requiredto overcomethe in situ rock stresses to causefracturing.
Imperial oil-and later its productionwing, Esso Resourcescanada-has
been the leadingdeveloperof the cyclic steamstimulation processfor the produc-
tion of bitumen from the oil sandsat Cold Lake. This developmentstartedwith
small-scalepilot experimentsin the early 1960s.With -ote-or-lesscontinuousde-
velopmenton an ever-increasingscale,Esso'sCold Lake field is now producingover
80'000B/d'of bitumen and this, togetherwith its proportionateshareof the produc-
tion from the Syncrude operation, has now converted tmperial oil, which is
Canada'slargestoil producer,to one that is dependentfor about half of its produc-
tion on Canadianbitumen.It is reasonable to expectthat thesetrendswill continue.
The main drawbackof the cyclicsteamstimulationprocessis that it often al-
lows only about l5Vo of the oil to be recoveredbefore ihe oil-to-steamratio be-
comesprohibitivelylow.
Steamflooding
In this processsteamis forced'continuously into specificinjectionwells and oil is
driven to separateproduction wells. The zonesaround the injection wells become
heatedto the saturationtemperatureof the steam,and thesezonesexpand toward
the production wells.
oil and water from the condensationof steamare removedfrom the produc-
ers. With viscousoil there is a considerabletendencyfor the steamto override the
reservoir,and this tends to limit the downward penetrationof the heat and hence
the recovery. Steamflooding can allow higher steam injection rates than steam
stiinulation; this advantageoften offsetsthe rather lower thermal efficiency.Steam
stimulationusuallyrequiresless(and in favorablecasesfar less)steamthan llooding
initially but is lessefficient as depletionproceeds.Often it is economicto switch to
steamfloodingafter initial operation of a field by steamstimulation. The recovery
from steamfloodingcan approach50Voor even more.
lln
the oil fields steamquantitiesare normally measuredas the volume of water at standard
conditionscontainedin the steam;a barrel of steamis thus 350 lb and a cubic meter is 1 tonne.
Burning bitumenasfuel in a conventionaloil field steamgeneratorwould produceabout 14 to
"
15 m3of 70% quality steam per cubic meter of fuel burned (or 14 to 15 B/B).
EnhancedOil RecoveryMethods
It is usualand desirableto produceoil first by steamstimulationfrom both the
injectorsand producersin a steamflood project. This providesrapid initial produc-
tion and better economicsand also allows effective steamfloodingto be achieved
more rapidly.
Hot Waterflooding
Hot waterfloodingis usuallylesseffectivethan steamfloodingbecauseof the lower
heatcontentof hot water comparedwith steam.Also, it is found that the residual
oil level that can be achievedwith a hot waterflood is markedlyhigher than that
found with steam-even at the sametemperature.
It is thoughtthat steamis more effectivethan hot water in displacingoil be-
causeof the following:
l. The extra pressuredifferentialresultingfrom the higher kinematicviscosity
of steam.A comparablemassflow of steamresultsin much hieher fluid veloc_
ities and pressuredifferentials
2. A relatively low tendencyfor steamto finger comparedwith water.
3. Steam distillation effects, which allow volatile fractions of the crude oil to
evaporateinto the steam and be carried by it. There are, thus, some of the
characteristicsof a miscible flood in displacementby steam.
These factors are discussedin subsequentchaprers.
There is some application of hot waterflooding as a follow-up rreatment to
steamflooding;this is practicedin severalareas.
In a later chapterit will be shownthat, during a steamflood,oil is largely,and
effectively,displacedfrom the steam-saturated zone (the steamchamber)und irunr-
ferred through the condensationfront. As the oil proceedsthrough the condensa-
tion front, it cools rapidly and its viscosityincreases.In tar sani reservoirswith
high initial oil viscosity,this displacedoil can rapidly sealoff any communication
passagesthat may exist (see,for example,sufi 19gg).In this reference,sufi shows
that the injection of steaminto a permeablewater-saturatedzoneat the baseof a
model reservoir containing tar sandsresulted in rapid blockage;bitumen carried
into the fracture plugged it as it cooled. on the other hand, ihe injection of hot
waterresultedin the gradualheatingof the tar sandmasswithout blockage;aswill
be seenlater, the reasonfor this is that hot water effectsrelatively little transport of
bitumenascomparedto steam.This differencemay be usefulif it is desiredio heat
tar sandsby the injectionof heat-carryingfluids into a relativelythin permeable
zone or fracture. Under thesecircumstances,hot water is superiorto steambecause
the permeablezone doesnot becomeblocked.
In Situ Combustion
In situ combustioninvolvesthe generationof heat by combustionwithin the reser-
voir. Air or (in somerecent tests)oxygenis suppliedto the combustionzone by in-
jection into wells drilled from the surface.fhe main attraction of theseprocessesis
Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

that heat is producedmore cheaplythan by surfacesteamgenerators.Although the
fuel for heating comes from the reservoir itself, there is a substantialenergy re-
quirementfor driving the compressors and-if oxygenis used-for operatingthe
oxygenseparationplant. I
As the combustion2oneadvancesthrough the reservoir,the oil aheadof the
front becomesheated.Volatilefractionsare distilledfrom the oil and then. as the
temperaturerises,thermal crackingreactionsoccur. The residualoil eventuallv
forms a coke residue
In the successfulapplicationsof this process,it is, for the mostpart, this coke
that burnsand suppliesthe fuel; becauseof the distillationand crackingthat occur,
the producedcrudetendsto be lighter and somewhatmorevaluablethan the origi-
nal crude oil. Emulsionsproducedby in situ combustionare often very difficult to
. separate.
In situ combustiontends to be lessstable2than steamprocesses,and prema-
ture arrival of the combustionfront at the productionwells is common. Thii often
causeswell failure. Problemsare alsocreatedsometimesby the bypassingof oxygen
containinggasaround the front into coolerparts ofthe reservoir.This resultsin low
temperatureoxidation (LTO) reactionsin which the oxygenis addedchemicallyto
the oil. The oxygenated productshavehigherviscosities,and this makesthe oil jess
easily recovered.Also, valuableoxygenis consumedwastefullyby IIIO reactions.
The inherent thermal advantageof in situ combustionas comparedwith
steamshouldbe greatestwhereheat lossesfor steamprocessesare greatest-in thin
reservoirsand in deeplyburied reservoirs.In in situ combustion,only the reservoir
at and beyondthe fire front needsto be at high temperature,particularlyif wateris
injectedaswell as air (wet combustion).Waterinjectiongenerates steambehindthe
combustionfront. This steampassesthrough the front and condenses aheadof it.
In this way, heat that would otherwisebe left behind is utilized in steamflooding
the oil aheadof the front. The verticalsegregation, due to gravity,of the water and
airloxygenbehind the front can be a problem.
WORLD FUELRESOURCES
Table1.1comparesestimatesof the world'sreservesof oil, gas,shaleoil, and heavy

oil and tar sandsexpressedin exajoules(1 EJ : 1018
J = 169 x 106B of oil or 0.95 x
1012 SCFof gas).The columnsin the tableare not comparablebecausethe first two
are for recoverablereserves,whereasthe secondtwo representthe resourcein place.
Howeverit is very clear that the oil sandand shaleoil resourcesare enormous.
TableI.2 comparesCanadianenergyresourcesof differenttypesusingboth a
proven, recoverablereservebasis and also an "ultimate" (recoverable)resource
basis.The productionin the year 1982is also shownfor comparison.
2The
reasons for the greater stability of steam fronts are discussed in later chapters. Here it is
sufficient to note that if a finger of steam tends to advance before a broadly moving front, the steam
will tend to condense, leaving only water to advance, and this will become rapidly cooled. Thus a
stable advancing steam front can have in froirt of it fingers of cold condensate running toward the
well. It is the water that fingers, not the steam.
World FuelResources
in Exajoules
TABLE1.1 WorldFuelResources
Established Resource in
Reserves Place
oil(t) 3970
Gas(t) 3189
100,000
Shaleoil(2)
Heavy oil and
22,000to 36,000
oil sands(3)
of abovein Canada)
(16000
(1)R. Enright (1982)
J.
(2)F. Hart'iey,J. M. Hopkins and H' C' Huffman (1980)
L.
(3)J.
Janisch(1979)
comparison of the upper and lower parts of the table showsthat opportunities
relatively limited'
for findinj conventionatoii in Canadamay be consideredto be
be more potential for discovering gas'
On the oiher hand, there appearsto
oil are much higher than for conventional
The presentreservesior synthetic
potential includesoil
oil, and the potential is very -oth high".. This is becausethe
from in situ recoveryas well as that from open-pit mining'
Resourcesin Exaioulesand Exajoules Year

TABLE 1.2 Canadian
FRONTIERS
1982
NONFRONTIER ARCTIC OFFSHORE TOTAL
RESOURCE PRODUCTION
Proved Resources
2.4 29 1 7 )t
Conventional oil 150
0.3 150 0 0
Syntheticoil from tar sands 82
Natural gas 3.0 82
1.0 430 0 430
Coal 139
4.8 131 8
Uranium (CANDU eff.) 89
Hydro (30 yr)(l) 2.7 89
911 9 927
Total L4.2
Ultimate Resources
60 2r7
Conventional oil 2.4
0.3 1,170 1,170
Synthetic oil from tar sands 475
3.0 147 252
Natural gas 16,270
1.0 16,000 2'70
Coal
Uranium 4.8
201 50 257
Hydro 2.7
11,5'78 661 144 18,383
Total 14.2
(r)Hvdroelectricpower is a renewable,"*.rra", and the reservesare, in principle, infinite' To achieve a
y
comparison,the quantitiesshown here t#;;;;1 trt" q"antitv of energy thai woul-dbe produced from 30 of
opefation.
(from Govier 1983)
lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap' 1

- The potential coal resourceis now seento be enormousand much higher than
that for oil sands.The data indicate that there is sufficient coal to supplyCanada's
presentproduction of energy resourcesfor over 1000years at the present rate of
consumption-assumingthat the coal can be convertedinto the requiredforms.
THE OIL SAND RESOURCE
Table 1.3 lists estimatesof the volume of oil in place within the major known de-
positsof oil sand.There is considerable uncertaintyin thesefigures-particularly
thosefor Venezuelaand for Alberta's CarbonateTriangle. Nevertheless,it is appar-
ent that the heavy oil resourceis, for the major part, divided betweenCanadaand
Venezuela.
Canadais not endowedwith much "conventional"crude oil (at leastwith easily
accessibleconventionalcrude oil that can be found) but it does have tremendous
TABLE 1.3 Major Heavy Oil and Oil Sands Deposits
Volume in Place
(Billion Barrels) GeologicalAge
Venezuela
Orinoco heavyoil belt 700-3000 Tertiary and Lower CretaceousSands
Canada
Athabasca 869 Lower CretaceousSands
Cold Lake 270 Lower CretaceousSands
Wabasca 119 Lower CretaceousSands
PeaceRiver 92 Lower CretaceousSands
Lloydminster 32 Lower CretaceousSands
CarbonateTriangle 1350 PaleozoicCarbonates
Subtotal 2732
U.S.S,R
Melekess r23 PermianSands
Siligir 13 CambrianCarbonates
Olenek 8 PermianSands
Subtotal r44
U.S.A
Tar Triangle 16 PermianSands
Circle Cliffs 1 PermianSands
Sunnyside 4 EoceneSands
P.R. Springs 4 EoceneSands
Hill Creek I EoceneSands
Asphalt Ridge I EoceneSands
Variousheavyoils 110 Tertiary, Mesozoic
Subtotal 137
Four-countrytotal 37134013
(from Janisch1979)
The Oil Sand Resource

T
Caribbean Sea
Venezuela
Legend
i il,y;j*" cotombia
C Eastl-ake
D Barinas
E Apure
F SouthGuarico
G SouthAnzoategui& Monogas
H Delta
I Guanoco
J Gutfol Paria
K N.W.Trinidad
Figure 1.1 Heavy Oil and Bitumen in Venezuelaand Trinidad (after Gutierrez
1979)
quantitiesof oil sandsand very substantialamountsof conventionalheavy oil.

Canadacontainsabout one-sixthof the world'sdiscoveredoil in place,but about
95%of it is bitumen.The recoveryand utilizationof this bitumenis a challensefor
engineersand scientists.
VENEZUELANHEAVYOIL
The Venezuelan heavyoil fieldsand the extensionsto them lie in a band acrossthe
northern end of South America, as may be seenfrom Figure 1.1 (Gutierrez 1979).
The easternend of this band lies in Trinidad (K), where asphalthas been a
productfor manyyears.To the west lies the Gulf of Paria (J) and Guanoco(I).
To the southand west lies the orinoco tar belt (E, F, G, and H), which con-
tains the bulk of the materialshownin the previoustable.Up until now it has not
beendeveloped,althoughthereare significantplansto do so.Area D is the Barinas
subbasin.
The reservoirsaroundLake Maracaibo(A, B, and C) are the mosthighly de-
veloped.It is here that Shellfirst experimentedwith steamfloodingand discovered
steamstimulation.Productionfrom the Bolivar coastis discussedin Chapter6.
CANADIAN HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN
Although the origin of the Alberta oil sand depositsis speculative,the following
seemsto be a likely description.
Figure 1.2(Jardine1974)showsAlberta asit is thoughtto havebeenin Creta-
ceoustime (120million yearsago).The climatewastropicaland giant rivers,fed by
water from the Canadian Shield in the east and from mountains to the west.
Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

%w'\"--
8ASK.
LT S.
too Mil,E5
- 11,::rr..r.;l
i lonox
\:i1i;'.1^' \-5t','
\$
'''i
EI MATN.Y
sANosToNE
\."'t'il)..ir.
% MATN.Y
sHArE \,liil".i.x"'\r'..i,
ffi H€AVY OII SANOS
E <too' ot t. MANNvil.tE
+ sED,MENT
souRcE_ \ilii:iiiii,,r L*
+
Figure 1.2 Lower Mannville SedimentDeposition in WesternCanada (after
Jardine 1974)
drainedinto what is now centralAlberta and then northwardto a sea.During the

period this seatransgressed southwardas the land sank.
One large delta formed the McMurray Sandsof Athabasca,and the other
sand depositsformed similarly. Eventuallythe sea transgressed further, and the
Upper Mannville period endedwith the depositionof the partly marine Grand
RapidsSands.The depositionalenvironmentsunderwhich differentpartsof the oil
sandswere laid down had a strongeffecton the natureof the sand.Depositsin the
relatively still water of the seatended to be much finer than those in the channels
where water motion kept the fine material suspended.Beach sand is finer than
channelsand.Variationsin the seadepthwith time resultedin most depositshav-
ing a layeredstructure.
Mannville time endedwith the subsidence of the entire area.The seafrom
the north joined the seafrom the south, and the Upper Cretaceoussedimentsand
shaleswere deposited.The locationsof the major oil sandsdepositsare shownin
Figure 1.3.
The preceedingparagraphsdescribe how the large deposits of sand were
formed from the sedimentscarried by the rivers from the mountains and high
CanadianHeavy Oil and Bitumen

Figure 1.3 Heavy Oil and Bitumen in
'Vestern
Canada (Courtesy Alberta En-
ergy 1,982)
ground.How the oil was depositedin thesesedimentsand why it is so viscousare

rather more obscure.
. Somehave argued that the tar sand oils have never been subjectedto suffi-
ciently high temperatures and pressuresand that, becauseof this, the oils are im-
mature.However,the view that the oil wasoriginallya conventionalcrudeoil that
migratedto its presentposition and then becameoxidizedby bacteriathat con-
sumedthe aliphaticchainsof the oil while utilizing oxygendissolvedin surfacewa-
ter percolatingthroughthe depositnow seemsmore likely.
It is possible that the oil originated at a greater depth-possibly paleozoic
limestonesourcebedsbeneaththe Mannville Sands.High vanadiumand sulphur
contentshavebeensaid to indicate carbonatesourcerock rather than shale(Breger
1977)'Others(Demaison1977)think the sourcewas in downdip Lower Cretaceous
shalesas far as 240 mi away.
It is thought that the thermally mature crude could then have migrated up-
wards in the Late Cretaceousperiod until it was trappedin the Cretaceoussand
under the shale cap. Support for this idea is found in the fact that oil is found in
every.permeablezonewithin the reservoir.This oil becamebiodegradedby contact
with oxygen-containingwater percolatingfrom the surfaceand through the shallow
deposit. The flow of undergroundwater driven by gravity forces is well known.
In supportof this conceptJardine (1974)points out that the densityof the
Cretaceousoils in Alberta showsa definite correlationwith the salinity of the
reservoirwater.Where there is high salinity,the densityof the oil is low. In Atha-
basca,wherethe water is of low salinity (indicatingthat the original seawaterhas
10 Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

r-------------- -1 0.92
|t - ---'' tl
|
-1000
M
N ormalchromatogram
Figure 1.4 Origin of Heavy Oil from the West Slope in the SongliaoBasin,
China (after Hu Jianyi 1986)
beenhighly diluted),the densityof the oil is relativelyhigh. Parallelingthis effect

are the compositionsof the oils, asshownby a seriesof chromatograms. The heavi-
estoils havethe leastparaffin chainsand vice versa.This is consistentwith the idea
that biodegradationattacksparaffinic materialspreferentially.
A very interesting seriesof oil pools in the SongliaoBasin in northeastern
China hasbeendescribedby Hu Jianyi (1986).Figure 1.4,which is taken from his
paper,showsa seriesof oil poolscontainingoil of increasingspecificgravity and, as
shownby the chromatograms, lessand lessaliphaticsidechainsin the hydrocarbon
molecules.It is thought that the oil migratedupwardsthrough this seriesof traps
and becamemore and more biodegradedas it encounteredmigrating surfacewaters
containingoxygen.
Correlation of CanadianTar Sand Deposits

Figure 1.5 is Jardine's(1974)correlationchart of the CanadianTar Sanddeposits.
The names of the reservoir structures employedin the various Canadian Lower
Cretaceousheavyoil depositsare compared.Thus, for example,the D unit at Cold
Lake, the McMurray Sandsin Athabascaand Wabasca,and the Gething and Bull-
head Sandsat PeaceRiver were all depositedover the sameperiod. However,of
these,only the Athabascaand PeaceRiver Sandscontainlargeoil saturations;the
othersare water-saturated.
SIZE OF ALBERTAOIL SAND DEPOSITS

Table 1.4 (Strom and Dunbar 1979)showsan estimateof the bitumen in place in
the major oil sand depositsshown in Figure 1.5; Figure 1.6 showsa comparison
from anothersource(Allen 1979)of the volumesof oil in thesedepositswith those
of conventionaloil in SaudiArabia.
Size of Alberta Oil Sand Deposits 11

o
o
o
o
o
(D
C)
o
3
-3
[]-l tuaintysano
I HeavyOilsaturation
Figure 1.5 CorrelationChart of Lower CretaceousHeavy Oil and Bitumen

oositsin WesternCanada(after Jardine 1974)
COMPARISONOF HEAVY OIL AND CONVENTIONALOII- RESOURCES

Figure 1.7,which is basedupon a paperby A. Janisch(1979)comparesestimatesof
the quantitiesof heavyoil plus tar sandswith thosefor conventionaloil. The quan-
The Venezuelanand Canadian
titieJ are shownas trillions of barrels(terabarrels).
depositsare eachcomparablein quantityto the total of all of the known depositsof
conventionalcrudeoils.
The quantitiesshownin Figure1..7areestimatesthat haveconsiderable uncer-
tainty associatedwith them. However,it is believedthat they are of the correct
orderof magnitude.It shouldalsobe notedthat it is the oil in placethat is depicted-
not the recoverableoil. Little of the heavyoil and tar sandsbitumen is recoverable
without thermal recoveryprocesses;even with these,much of the potential re-
sourceis uneconomic.There is a tremendouschallengeto developimproved means
for the production of heavy oil and bitumen.
DEPOSITSOF HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN IN THE UNITED STATES

Although accumulationsof heavy petroleumare much smaller in total than the
Venezuelanand Canadiandeposits,they are very substantialin the United States.
Thesehavebeen classifiedas either
1. Heavy oil: petroleum heavier than 25'API but sufficiently fluid at reservoir
conditionsto be producedcommerciallyby natural flow.
2. Tar sands:sandscontainingbitumen,asphalt,or oil that is too viscousto flow
in commercialquantitiesat reservoirconditions.
Table 1.5 showsestimatesof the sizeof the U.S. depositsusingthesedefinitions.
12 lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap' 1

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13
of CubicMetres
Billions
50 100
lr,r,l,,"l
s Oll In Place
Lloydminster r RecoverableOll
Gold Lake
Athabasca(Mining)
Athabasca(in Situ)
SaudiArabia
0 200 400 600 800
of Barrels
Billions
Sourca EnorgyMlnat lnd Rrtouril, Cmldt
Figure 1.6 Comparisonof CanadianBitumen & Heavy Oil with Conventional

Reservesin SaudiArabia (after Allen 1979)
HeavyOil and Oil Sands i

Vonszuela
Canada
u.s.s.R.
!!
i !l
Othe|si tl
!
I ConventionalOil in Place
I
iMiddleEasti
NorlhAmerica
iu.s.s.R.
I
i Others
12
Oil in PlaceTrilllonsof Barrels
Figure 1.7 Comparisonof Quantitiesof Heavy Oil and Tar Sandsto those for
ConventionalCrude Oil in Place(order of magnitudeestimates)(after Janisch
r979)
There is a total volume of heavyoil in placeof about 107billion barrels.About half

of this occursin California,and most of the remainderis in Texas.
Most of the tar sandsin the United Statesare in Utah; the total volume in
place is about 24-30 billion barrels.
THE NATUREOF HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN DEPOSITS

Although this sectionis written with the Cretaceousdepositsof heavyoil and bitu-
men in Alberta in mind, most of the conceptsare applicableto other deposits'Qll
sand as it occurs in a reservoir is a multiphasemixture with a very definite struc-
lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

TABLE 1.5 Heavy Crudesand Tar Sandsin the U.S.A.
Billions of
HEAVY CRUDE OIL Barrelsin Place
Alabama and Mississippi J
Arkansas 5
California 54
Louisiana 6
Oklahoma z
Texas JI
Utah I
Wyoming 5
Total r07
TAR SANDS
Utah 23-29
Other 1
Total 24-30
(basedon Whiting 1979)
ture. It consistslargelyof unconsolidated

',-----..fr or sometimesweakly cqnsoUqglgd salq
containingfluids-oil, waterandsomdtimE3Sas within the pore spacebetweenthe
gitini. In addition to the sandgrains, other finer solids are present:silt and clays.
'-**A characteristicfeature of many of the tar sanddepositsis that most or all of
the solid-fitfAiiai;is1ygtgkd-A layer of water is spreadover the solid surface,
Whre!319-y9nts th6 bitumiffi the pore spacefrom contractingthe sag$,913i;r_s, .
Figure 1.8 (Takamura 1982)shows the structure of typical Athabasca tar
sand.Waterwithin the sandis shownas occurringin three forms:
1. At the grain-to-graincontacts,water is presentas pendular rings, which
derive their shapefrom interfacial tension.
2. Along the surfaceof the solid materials,there is a thin (about 10 nm, or
0.01lcm) film of water. Although this is only a few tens of moleculesthick4,it
is sufficient to protect the solid surfacefrom contact with the bitumen.
3. Water is associatedwith clay and other fine material. These solids occur as
clustersof fine particleswithin the pore spaceand are often distributed as a
layer on the main sand particles.
3Sometar sandssuchasthosein Utah are oil-wet rather than water-wet;the hot-waterprocess

is not effectivein separatingthese.The solid matrix in someheavyoil and bitumen reservoirsis car-
'Alberta carbonatetriangle"
bonate rather than sand.The Grosmont and other formations in the
contain important Canadiandeposits.Theseformationsare frequentlykarstic and contain fractures
and voidsthat can provide important flow passages and reservoirvolume.The RospoMare reservoir
in the Adriatic Seais a very largeEuropeandepositthat-even thoughit containsa very heavyoil-
can be producedby nonthermalmethods.The productivity is greatlyinfluencedby the fracturesand
void volumes.
uThe averagedistancebetweenmoleculesin liquid water is of the order of 0.3 nm.

7
Figure 1.8 Diagram showing the Structure of AthabascaOil Sand (Courtesv

Takamura1982)
Solid Mineral Matter
Solid mineral matter is often a very complexmixture in itself. Usuallyit is uncon-

solidated.lhg large grains are called sand. In some cases,particularly in the
Mc_\41rrBy format-ionof Athabasca,the sandgrains are almostentirely quartz.ln ,J
other cases,such as the Clearwaterand Grand Rapids sandsof{tbeita (see
Figure 1.5) the grains are a complexmixture of various mineral types: quartz,
av7l-
chert, feldspars,and volcanicfragments.
In additionthere are fine particles(lessthan 300mesh),which vary from less
than 5 wtVoin high-gradesamplesto over 20 wtVoin low-grademateriaiThe fines
containsubstantialproportionsof clays(e.g.,30-60 wtVo).The claysincludekaolin-
ite, smectiteor montmorillonite,illite, and chlorite.The particlesizeof the claysis
generallylessthan 2 pm.
Clay mineralsare hydratedaluminum silicatesthat frequentlycontain other
cations.They have a sheetstructuresimilar to that of mica. On an atomic scale,
there are two kinds of layersthat occur in eachof the precedingclay minerals.
l. Silica tetrahedra.Theseare tetrahedraof oxygenions with central silicon ions.

Theseunits are linked togetherto form a hexagonalsheetof indefinite size.
2. Alumina or aluminum hydroxide layers. In these, oxygen ions or hydroxyl
ions form two parallel sheetswith aluminum ions arrangedbetweenthe oxy-
gen octahedra that constitute the structure; only two-thirds of the possibie
aluminum sites are occupied, and the averagearea occupiedper aluminum
ion is the sameas the area per silicon ion in the silica tetrahedrallayer.
The main differencebetweenthe structure of the different clay mineralsarises

from the relative proportions of the two types of layers.
raoiinite
Kaoliniteis basedon a 1:1 combinationof the two typesof layer.Its compositionis
(oH)8Al4si4o1o
16 Introduction
to ThermalRecovery Chap.1
Stoichiometrically,this may be looked on as follows:
Hydrated
Silica layer aluminalayer
4 SiOz 2 AlrO(OH)4
It shouldbe realizedthat eachsilicon ion is, in fact, at the centerof an oxygentetra-
hedron, and the aluminum ions are each betweensix oxygenor hydroxyl ions (an
octahedronhas six corners).
When water is addedto kaolinite, the lattice doesnot expand(i.e., the dis-
tancebetweenadjacentlayersdoesnot increase).Another characteristicof kaolinite
is that substitutionof iron or magnesiumfor aluminum is not observed;kaolinite is
usuallywhite in color. It was named in 1867after a hill near JauchauFu in China
(reportedin Grim 1968).
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite (named after Montmorillon in France) is frequently used inter-

changeablywith the mineral name smectite.Someauthorsimply the broad class
of expanding lattice clays by the term smectite and reservethe term montmoril-
lonite for clay minerals of this type having only a small replacementof Al by Mg
(Grim 1968).
The mineral is basedupon a layer structure having one layer of alumina/
aluminum hydroxide sandwichedbetween two silica tetrahedrallayers. In the
idealizedcasewith no substitutionof Al it has the composition
(OH)4Al4Si8O2s.
nH2O
The Si/Al atomic ratio is now 2, as comparedto 1 for kaolinite. The structure may
be visualizedas follows:
Silica Hydrated Silica Water
layer Alumina layer layer
4 SiO2 2 AI2O2(OH)2 4 SiO2 nH2O
The water is presentas a layer of water that penetratesthe lattice, between
the silica layer of one threeJayer,silica-alumina-silica
unit and the silica layer of
the adjacentone.This quantityof water is variable.The additionof water to mont-
morillonitecausesthe lattice to expandand the clay to swell.This is an important
characteristicof smectiteclays.
The swellingof montmorilloniteclay is greatlyreducedif potassiumor mag-
nesiumions are presentin the water layer,sincetheseare ableto bind the triple-
layer sandwichestogetherand preventthe intrusion of water. This sensitivityof
smectite clays to fresh water is of practical importance in petroleum engineering,
since swollenclayscan plug reservoirs.
lllite
Illite (the "clay mica," namedafter lllinois (Grim 1968))is of a similar structureto
montmorillonite except that some of the silicon ions are replaced by aluminum
ions, and the resultingdeficiencyin charge(Al3* is trivalent, whereasSi4* is te-
The Natureof HeavyOil and BitumenDeposits 17
F -
travalent)is made upby the presenceof potassiumatoms.Theseappear

at the out_
side flat surfaceof the three larger units and bind them together.This prevents
swelling when water is added. Other substitutionsof metal]on, ur"
found com-
monly within illites.
Chlorites
Chlorites have a threeJayerstructure similar to montmorillonite but are
magnesia-
rich. The three-layerunits are held togetherby a magnesiumhydroxide
layerl Chlo-
rite claysare nonswelling.
For more information on clays,the readeris referred to F. J. pettijohn (1957)
and R. E. Grim (1963).
Effect of clays on permeability
clays, and particularlyswellingclaysof the smectitetype, can influence
the per_
meabilityof a porous-solid.Swellingclayscan expandto utoct pores
and particu-
larly pore throats,and claysin generalcan alsobecomedetachedfrom
the surfaces
to which they adhere.They can then be carriedby the movingfluid
and deposited
so that they block the throats of pores.This is often not a ierious problem
with
high-permeability sands.
In a recentstudy(M. Kwan 19gg)it wasshownthat repacked,extracted
cores
from Cold Lake had a muchlower permeabilityif they*"r"'L"fo*d
to freshwater.
Presumably
-clays migrated and swelled and pluggei the coie. However, it was
found that if extractedpreservedcoreswereemptoyed(i.e.,cores
that had not been
broken up and repackedbut were used in their originar mechanical
form), then
fresh water had little effect on the permeability.The iiff"r"n.. between
the behav-
ior of.repackedand preservedcoreswasvery large, and this shouldbe a
concernto
experimenters wishingto test permeabilityana ines migrationphenomenain core
material.
Water
The sandgrainsin oil sandsusuallyhavefine clay materialadheringto them;

this
clay is wetted with the connatewater.sThis water is salineand often also contains
calciumand magnesiumsalts,which make it hard. As has been mentionedprevi_
ously,the salinity of the watervariesconsiderably from areato area.
The wetting of the mineral matter by water rather than by bitumen is a very
importantcharacteristicof someoil sands,particularlythe deplsits in Athabasca;
this makespossiblethe separationof mined tar sandby the blark hot-waterpro_
cess,which is usedby Suncorand by Syncrude.In this processthe tar sandis
mixed
with hot water and a little causticsoda.Most of the sandseparates cleanly,leaving
the liberatedoil to rise to the surfaceas dropletsadheringio bubblesof gas.
rhJ
cleanseparationis possiblebecausethe bitumen doesnot wet the solid ini-tially.
It
is becomingapparentthat the natureof the wetting of the matrix alsoplaysan
im-
portant role in the recoveryof heavy oils by steaminjection. In pariicular,
it is
5Connate
water is relatedto the residualwater left in the reservoirmatrix after the bulk
of the
original water was displacedby oil during the filling of the reservoir.

found that a matrix that is wetted initially with connatewater greatly reducesthe
water in oil emulsificationthat occurs on steamins.
Oil and Bitumen

The most important physicalproperty of crude oil in recoveryprocessesis its vis-
cosity.Figure 1.9showsthe viscositiesof severaltypical heavycrudesas a function
of temperature(Buckles1979).
The viscosity of heavy crude oils correlates,at least approximately,with the
density of the oil. Figure 1.10shows a correlation preparedby Farouq Ali (1983),
which can be used to estimate the viscosity as a function of temperatureand the
densityof the oil. However,becausesignificant anomaliesare found when the gravi-
ties and viscositiesof heavyoils are compared,Figure 1.10shouldbe usedonly for
rough estimates.
Gas
Heavy oil reservoirsoften contain pocketswith gas saturationand most heavy oils
and bitumenscontain dissolvednatural gas.Also, during heating,a gaqpt!As-g_qel-d"q*
{gb" fqrmed.The mechanismsinvolvedin ihfulnclutle the-evolutionof dissolved
naturalgas,the decompositionof inorganiccarbonatesto form carbondioxide,and
the decarboxylationof organic acids.
RCO2H -+ RH + CO2
Decarboxylationof acids
The gas produced from the steam recovery of bitumen frequently contains about
50Vocarbondioxide, with the remainderbeing mostly methane.Most of the carbon
dioxide probably comes from the chemical transformation of carbonaterocks. It
has been suggestedthat carbon dioxide comesfrom the thermal decompositionof
siderite(ferrouscarbonate),which is lessstablethan other carbonates.
FeCOg-+ FeO + CO2
Carbonatedecomposition
11 i i
1,m0,q!0 - - r - - - \
l^\iril
- - - - i - - - - - - - .r - - - - i - - - - - - f- - -
100,q)0 i -- -\x- -- - -- - - - -----i-----

10,(n0 --'i- - -\\lAtnaoacca--i--
i
10(x) i -r-\q. L i I -
&1m
6
8ro ., , PiLon\j i
p
in"""roi, ' Kernj River'A' \ i
iconditions, i^cld
3 jU=.*- ':Y: Lake -i
---
i tReawdter i i
r!!!
'100 150 200 250 Figure 1.9 Viscosity of Heavy Crudes

0 50 as a Function of Temperature(Courtesy
Temperatureo C Buckles1979)

Temperature
ln degreesCelslus
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
ttttlttl ll
io7
106
10-
o to4
o
.9,
o 3000
CL
1000
tr
(,
o 300
.E 100
.e
o en
0
o
lt,
10
3
2 Figure 1.10 ApproximateRelationship
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 5oO between Oil Viscosity, Gravity, and
TemperatureIn degrees Fahrenhelt Temperature(after FarouqAli 1983)
However,a more important sourceof carbon dioxide is probablythe reactionof in-

organiccarbonateswith quartz (SiO) to yield silicatesand carbondioxide.Gunter
and Bird (1989),in a review, describeseveralhydrothermalreactionsin which
quartz reactswith carbonatesto liberatecarbondioxide.For example,
calcite + quartz + kaolinite = Ca-smectite+ CO2 + H2O
dolomite + quartz + kaolinite + H2o = ca-Mg-smectite+ calcite + co2
One way of interpreting these reactionsis to look on the SiOz as an acid which is
displacingCO2 from the carbonate.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurements in the field of petroleumproduction-as in other areas-are in some

confusionbecausemany countrieshaveswitchedfrom a hodgepodge of old, tradi-
tional units to the new,more consistentSI (SystdmeInternational)units. However,
the United Statescontinues,for the mostpart, to use customaryunits; as a result,
mostof the literaturecontinuesto be written in theseunits. Evenin Canada.where
the SI systemhas been adopted,the old units still prevail in many cases.For ex-
ample,the Canadiangovernmentcontinuesto discussthe price of oil in dollars
(US$)per barrel rather than per cubic meter.Even beforethe presenttrend to SI,
there was confusionin the ranks of the reservoirengineers.Someauthorspresent
equationsthat are dimensionallyconsistentand into which one may substitute
numericalvaluesdrawn from any dimensionallyconsistentset of units of measure-
ment, whereasothers write equationsthat involve dimensionedconstants.This
latter classof equationrequiresthe use of specifiedunits in order to provide the
correctresult.
For example,Darcy'slaw for the flow of a fluid in a porousmediummay be
written as the dimensionallyconsistentequation1.1.6
6,{ll symbolsare listed
in Appendix 1.
20 lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

q=
T(E) (1.1)
where ft is permeabilityI7
A is area #
P is pressure MLlT-2
l.L is viscosityMrlT-1
x is distanceL
q is flow fT-1 + AX--.->
This equationwill give the correct answerproviding that any consistentset of units
is employed.For example,it will work with SI units, with cgs.units, with fps units,
and with any other setof units havinga consistentbasisfor mass,length,and time.
In reservoir engineeringliterature, it has been (and still is in the United States)
usualto measuretime in days,length in feet,viscositiesin centipoise,permeabili-
ties in millidarcys, and volumes in barrels or sometimesin acre-feet.It has also
beencustomaryto rewrite equationssuchas 1.1into forms in which the so-called
field units can be substituteddirectly.
Equation 1.2 is a frequently used dimensionalform of Darcy's equation. It is
correct provided that the variablesare measuredin the particular units shown.
q = -0'0011'z|a(+\
p
(1.2)
\AxI
q,Bld A, ft2; k, mD p, cp; P, psi; x, ft
The numerical coefficient in equation 1.2 has the dimensions of (B cp ft)/

(daymD psi).
Although lacking eleganceand sophistication,the field-unit systemhasproba-
bly reducednumerical error by allowing the use of familiar and easily visualized
quantities.However,the traditional field-unit systemhas the disadvantageof intro-
ducing awkward factors such as the 0.Nll27 of equation 1.2. It also requires that
physicalpropertiesbe convertedto a rather rigid set of specific units. Conversion
factors for various frequently employedquantities are shown in Tablesr.6 and 1.7.
In this book, dimensionallyconsistentequationsare normally employed.In some
cases,where dimensionalequationsare given, specificunits must be used.These
are specifiedat the point wherethe equationis introduced.In descriptivematerial
the authorhas employedthe units that are most familiar (to the author!).
TABLE 1.6 ConsistentMeasurementUnits
SI cgs fps Engineers

Mass kg gm lb slug
Length m cm ft ft
Time s s s
TABLE1.7 Oil Reservoir
Units
VOLUME
1 ac-ft : 7757.8B
1B = 5.615ft3 : 0.159m3
PRESSURE
I MPa = 145 psi = 106 Nm-2 where N : Newton
I psi = 6.895kPa
PERMEABILITY
I D : 1(cm3/s)(cp)(cm)(cm2)-'1atm;-'
= 0.9869x 10-6cm2: 0.9869x 10-12m2
= 0.9869 r.r.m2
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
1p : 1 g c m - l s - 1= 0 ' 1 k g m - r s - r o r 0 . 1P a ' s O : poise

lcP :0.01P:lmPa's
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
1st I cm2 s-l : 0.0001 m2 s-t
I cst I mm2 s-l
USE OF PROGRAMMABLECALCULATORSAND MICROCOMPUTERS

Programmablecalculatorsand particularly microcomputersmake calculationsin
this field much simpler.To usecomputerseffectively,it is important to have avail-
ablesimpleequationsthat allow the calculationof physicaland mathematicalquan-
tities occurringin the problemat hand.
For example,a microcomputercannotreadilyusea steamtable,but it can easily
calculatethe desiredvaluefrom correlationequations.Justas engineersusedto use
slide rules, so the modern engineerusescalculatorsand microcomputers.Often
simplecorrelationsare sufficientlyaccurateto estimatephysicalquantitiesin view
of the other uncertaintiesinvolvedin the problem.Slide-ruleaccuracyis sufficient
for most engineeringcalculations.
The practicing engineershould searchfor and collect equationsthat are of a
suitableform to be includedin computercalculations.A selectionof usefulcorrela-
tion equationsis given in the appendices.
RADIAL FLOW TO A VERTICALWELL

Figure 1.11showsthe plan view of a fully-perforatedwell that is producing oil in
radial,steady-state flow in a reservoirof height/2.It is assumedthat the boundary,
at radiusR", is at a constantpressureP, and that the well, of radiusR,, is at a con-
stant lower pressureP,. The effective area for flow diminishesas the fluid ap-
proachesthe well; becauseof this, the absolutepressuregradientincreases.

Figure 1.11
At someintermediateradiusR the pressuregradientto maintain the flow q is

givenby substitutingthe area2rRh into Darcy'sequation(1.1).In this example,4 is
consideredpositivefor flow to the well (i.e., in the oppositedirectionto R), so the
minus sign in (1.1)is omitted. The resultis
dP- qp
(1.3)
dR k(ZtrRh)
This equationmay be integratedto calculatethe flow arising from the pressuredif-
ferenceA,P : P" - P-.
D - D '-*[ * '-q P d R
'e
J^.2trkh R
Zrkh A'P (1.4)

q:
t,ln(R.lR.)
Equation1.4 is written for dimensionallyconsistentunits. If the dimensionalform
of Darcy'sequation(equation1.2)is employed,the resultis equation1.5.This is the
form found in many texts on reservoirengineering.
4=o.oo7o8;#h
q,B/d; P, cP
k, mD; R", ft (1.s)
h, ft; R,, ft
AP, psi
It is instructiveto substitutenumericalvaluesinto theseequationsto obtain an idea
of the effect of viscosity on oil production rate. Table 1.8 showsvaluesof the pro-
duction rate that havebeencalculatedfor a high-quality, thick reservoirthat is satu-
rated with oils having viscositiesvarying from 1 cp (a low-viscosityconventional
crude oil) up to 1,000,000cp, which correspondsto a material such as Athabasca
bitumen.
For a typical well bore radius of 0.3 ft, the production falls from 44,000B/d
for the light crude to only 0.4B./dfor the bitumen.The first casecorresponds to a
well of remarkableproductivity and the latter, to a well of little value.
RadialFlow to a VerticalWell
TABLE 1.8 CalculatedWell Flow Rates
Assumek = 1000mD (excellentsand);lr = 100ft; AP : 599 psi;
R, : 1000ft.
CALCULATED WELL FLOW RATES
Oil viscosity(cP) I 100 10,000 100,000

R,,: 0.3fr
Flow (B/d) 4.4 x 104 440 4.4 0.4
R, = 100ft
Flow (B/d) 1.5 x 105 1,500 15.0 l.)
using a largerwell bore will increasethe productivity.The lower line in the

Al-
table showsthe iffect of using an imaginarywell having a radius of 100ft.
at leastin principle,by
thoughsucha deviceis impractical,it maybe approximated'
the reservoirurorrnda well of normal dimensions. A similar effect might be
heati."ng
obtain;d by using a horizontalwell severalhundred feet in length.
Sucha strategymight, in the exampleshown,producea useful effect for the
oil having a viscosityotLO,gOO cp, but the productionwith the bitumenwould still
be too .-"ug", to be effective.A flow of 15 B/d is closeto the lower limit at which
economicpioductioncould be anticipatedfor a practicalwell'
Comparingthe resultsof calculationssuchasthis with the very sharpchanges
of viscositywith temperature,which are shownby Figure 1.9,illustratesthe impor-
tancewhich reservoirtemperatureplaysin the recoveryof heavyoils.
Figure 1.12showsthe oil recoveryachievablefor a number of Venezuelan
(1979)'
heavyoi fields as a function of the in situ viscosity,as given by Borregales
Also shown on the figure are points correspondingto the oil viscositiesfor the
Athabascaand Cold Lake fields'
A majorreasonfor the higherviscosityof Canadianbitumensas comparedto
Atha-
thosein Venezuelais the loweireservoirtemperature'(Seedatafor Joboand
25
from'Physical Principles ol Oil Production" by Muskal
Fro .a'
'so- ^)
o \. .ra _o
()
o
c15
=
o
*10
t
Figure 1.12 APProximate Effect of
"o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Viscosity on Oil Recoveryby Solution
L;glO(Oil Viscosity in cp at Reservoir Conditions) Gas Drive (after Borregales1979)
lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap' 1

24
bascacrudesin Figure 1.12.)The climateof Venezuelamakesthe ground surface
temperaturemuchhigherthan in Canada,and this differenceis exaggerated by the
deeperburial of the Venezuelanreservoirs.It is this differencein reservoirtemper-
ature rather than intrinsic differencesbetweenthe crude oils that causesmuch of
the differencebetweenthe productivityof the Venezuelanheavyoil wells and the
Canadianones.
Although the Canadianbitumensmust be heatedsomewhatmore than the
Venezuelan onesfor satisfactoryproduction,the largestdifficulty that the high ini-
tial viscositypresentsis that of gaininginitial accessto the reservoirin order to be
ableto contactthe materialwith heatingmedia.In many respects,the problemof
the productionof bitumenin Canadais that of trying to heata remote,very thick,
impermeable,immobile,asphalticconcrete!
THE PROBLEMOF ECONOMICEXPLOITATION
There are other practicalproblemswhich are encounteredin the exploitationof

heavyoil resourcessuchas thosein Canada.So far we havediscussed the problem
of recoveringthe crude-i.e., the problem of movingit to the surfaceof the ground.
The concernof this book is moving it to the surfaceby the use of in situ heating.
Another approachto the sameproblemis to removethe tar sandby mining
methodsand then to separateit using processessuch as the hot-waterprocess.
Large operationsof this type are carried out in Athabascaby Suncor (formerly
Great CanadianOil Sands)and by Syncrudenear Fort McMurray,Alberta. These
plants are successful.However,the approachis very demanding;it dependson
brute force and is suitableonly for thosedepositsin Alberta that are relativelyshal-
low. Ninety percentof the bitumen in Alberta and most elsewhereis too deeply
buried for this to be a practicalapproach.
The publishedeconomicsof the large Cold Lake commercialplant that was
onceproposedby Essoshowthat recoveryusingthe cyclicsteamprocessis competi-
tive with mining (McMillan 1979).An EssoCold Lake commercialplant wasorigi-
nally proposedin the late 1970sthat involvedthe large-scale productionof bitumen
by cyclic steamingfollowedby the upgradingof the bitumen to syntheticcrudeby
fluid bed coking and hydrotreating.The projectwas shelvedbecauseof the ques-
tionableeconomicsand the enormouscapital outlay which would have been re-
quired. However,since then, Esso has realizedthat the productionof bitumen
without upgradingcan be economic.This approachinvolvesthe productionof bitu-
men and pipelinetransportationof the bitumendiluted with condensate in quanti-
ties that will soonbe far above100kB/d.
BITUMEN TRANSPORTATION
Transportationof the product is a major problemfor the bitumen producersince it
cannotbe pumpedthrough a conventionalpipeline.Possiblesolutionsare shown
next. All havebeenput into practice.
o Move the bitumen in trucks or trains
e Convert the bitumen to a more fluid material bv chemical transformation
o Dilute the bitumenwith a solventsuchas condensate and transportit by
pipeline
o Pump the bitumenwith water through a pipelineunder conditionsthat al-
low the water to flow as an annulussurroundinga bitumen core
o Emulsify the bitumenin water and transportthe mixture by pipeline
For a number of yearsbitumen was moved from Cold Lake in road trucks as hot
cargoes.
Suncorand Syncrudeboth convertthe bitumento an overheadproductusing
coking. Hydrogenationprocessesprovide an alternative method of conversionbe-
ing developedby severalgroups.Syncrude's recentexpansioninvolvesthe addition
of an LC-fining process to their plant; Husky plans an H-oil Unit for their upgrader
in Lloydminster. These processes also find use for the conversionof the residual
material from the distillation of conventionalcrude oils.
Table1.9showsa comparisonbetweenthe propertiesof bitumenand thoseof
a typical conventionallight crudeand the upgradedcrudeproductthat wasto have
beenproducedby the Cold Lake commercialproject.The upgradingcracksthe bi-
tumen, and the crackedproductsare treatedwith hydrogento removesulphurand
nitrogenand to saturatesomeof the aromatics.
The dilution of bitumen with a solvent such as condensateto make it
pumpablehas been practicedfor yearsin the Lloydminster area and more recently,
and on a much larger scale,at Cold Lake. The main problem is the availability of a
suitable diluent; about 30 LY% (basedon bitumen volume) of a material such as
condensateis required. In somecasesdoublepipelineshave been constructed,with
the diluent being returned to the field from the remote refinery by a secondline.
The shipmentof heavyoils by pipelinehasbeendiscussed by Sloan,Ingham,
and Mann (1981).They concludethat the crude oil viscosityshouldbe lessthan
150cst and that the temperatureshould be maintained lessthan 200'F in order to
TABLE 1.9 Cold Lake Project-YieldComparisons(LV%)

Typical Upgraded
Cold Lake Alberta Crude
Bitumen Light Crude Objective
Butane(Cn) 3-4
Naphtha(C5-180"C)
(c5-350"F) 30 1,5-20
Distillate (180-345"C)
(350-6so'F) t7 30 45-50
Gas oil (345-565"C)
(650-1050"F+) 40 30 28-30
Residuum(565"C+)
(1050"F+) /1 7 0
Total sulphur-wt7o 4.5 0.5 <0.5
Gravity-kg/m3 992 834 885-834
-.API 11 38 34-38
(from Skrabec 1979)

TABLE 1.10 Crude Oil Shipmentby Pipeline
. Needsoil viscositylessthan about 150cst
. Temperatureshouldbe lessthan about 200"Fto preventwater boiling under insulation
Approximate Barrels of
Crude Condensateper barrel of Crude
Temperature("F)(r) Viscosity (cst) to reduceviscosityto 150cst
100 15,000 0.3

150 1,100 0.15
200 180 0.02
(t)Approximatetemperatureto give indicatedviscosityfor Cold Lake crude oil.
(from Sloan,Ingham, and Mann 1981)
prevent the boiling of trapped water beneaththe pipe insulation. Table 1.10shows
how the viscosityof Cold Lake crude can be reducedto 150cst by variouscombina-
tions of heating and dilution with condensate.
Under some conditions it is possible to pump very viscous oils through a
pipeline as a central core surroundedby an annularcylinder of water. The water
actsas a lubricant,which facilitatesthe movementof the oil. A pipelineusingthis
principle is being operatedby Shell in the United States,but the schemehas not
found extensiveuse.
The transportationof bitumen as an emulsionhas been studiedby several
groups.Lagovenhas emulsifiedCerro Negrocrude (8.5'API) in laboratoryand pilot
tests and by December 1986had produced more than 3 x 106B of emulsion that
contained about30Vowater. The technicalwork hasbeencarried out in conjunction
with British PetroleumCanada(BP).
Extensiveplanshavebeenannouncedby Lagovento sell an emulsionof bitu-
men in water as a product ("Orimulsion") suitable for transportation in ocean
tankers and for combustionas a substitutefor heavyfuel oil or coal. Technologyis
also availableto producean emulsionthat is suitablefor breakingat the destination
for use as a refinery feedstock.
BP and Intervephavedevelopeda meansof emulsifyingbitumenin waterfor
pipeline transportation.The emulsifiedbitumen is known as TRANSOIL, and a
field trial involving the movementof 79 m3/d has been reported(Hardy, Sit, and
Stockwell.1988).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ence,Edmonton,Alberta (Jwe 4-12,1979),reportedin TheFutureof HeavyOils and Tar
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BonneceLes,C.J., "ProductionCharacteristics
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of HeavyOils and Tar Sands,New York: McGraw-Hill, (1981),498-509.
Bnecen, I.A., "Geochemical ConsiderationsRegarding the Origin of Heavy Crude Oils:
Suggestionsfor Exploration," 1.stUNITAR Conference,Edmonton, Alberta (June 4-12,
Biblioqraphv 27
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New york: McGraw-
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Bucrles, R.S., "Steam.Stimrlation Heavy oil Recovery at cold Lake,
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BunNs,J., 'A Review of SteamSoakoperations in californ ia,,,r. pet. Tech.,
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opHaau,H.J. and vaNLooxenEN,J.,"Early Resultsof the First Large-Scale
SteamSoak
Project in the Tia Juana Field, western venezuela," J. pet. kch. (J"anuary
1969),Trans.
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1961(November1977\.
DEnoo,G., Trssor,B., McGnossaN,R.G., eNo DeR,F,, "Geochemistry
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Memoir 3, 14g-167
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city, okla: Inter-
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Fanoue Ar-r, S.M., secondaryand rertiary oil Recovery processes, chapter 6, r27-rgz,
oklahoma city, okla: Interstateoil compact commission, (Lglq;2d printing (197g).
Fanoue Au, S.M., "SteamInjection Theories-A Unified Approach,,'
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GuurER, w.D. and Brnr, G.w., "Inorganicchemistry',,chapter 9 otAosrRA
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Alberta oil SandsTechnologyand ResearchAuthority, Edmonton, Alberta (19g9).
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1stUNI-
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of Heavy
Crude Oils and Tar Sands,New york: McGraw_Hill (19g1),107_117.
HeRoy, w. A., Srr, S.p. and Srocrwnlr-, A., "Field rrials of rransoil rechnology
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sion Pipeliningof Bitumen," 4th UNITAR/UNDP Conferenceon Heavy
Crude and Tar
Sands,Edmonton,Alberta (July 1988).
JaNrscH,A., "oil Sandsand Heavy oil: can They Easethe Energy Shortage?"lst
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JtaNvl, H., "Heavy Oil Asphalt and Oil SandResourcesand Their Distributionin
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Advancesin PetroleumRecoveryand upgrading Technology19g6,AosrRA (June
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PErrrroHN,F.J., SedimentaryRocks,2dEd., New York: Harper and Row, (1957).
PsrzecrsRlev, P. H. and Scorr, L. O., "Occurrenceand Prospectsof Tar Sands," 7th World
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Srnaeec, J., "ProcessSelectionConsiderationsin the Upgrading of Cold Lake Bitumen,"
1stUNITAR Conference,Edmonton, Alberta (June 4-I2, 1.979),reported in The Future
of HeavyCrude Oils and Tar Sands,New York: McGraw-Hill (1981),612-617.
Sloen, A., INcualr, R., and MeNN, W.L., "Pipeline Transportationof Heavy Oils,"
lst UNITAR Conference,Edmonton, Alberta (June 4-!2, 1979),reported in The Future
of Heavy Crude Oils and Tar Sands,New York: McGraw-Hill (1981),719-726.
Srnou, N. A., and DuNneR,R. B., "Bitumen Resourcesof Alberta: ConvertingResourcesto
Reserves,"1stUNITAR Conference,Edmonton, Alberta (June 4-t2, 1979), reported in
The Future of Heavy Oils and Tar Sands,New York: McGraw Hill (1981),47-60.
Sunr,A.H., "Injectivity Enhancementin Tar Sands-A PhysicalModel Study," PaperNo.
88-39-61presentedat the 39th Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of
C.I.M., Calgary,Alberta (June12-16,1988).
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538-545(1982).
WnrrrNc, R. L., "Heavy Crude Oil and Tar Sand Resourcesand Reservesof the United
States.Emphasison Texas," 1st UNITAR Conference,Edmonton, Alberta (June 4-12,
1979)reported in The Future of Heavy Crude Oils and Tar Sands,"New York: McGraw-
Hill (1981),90-96.
G E N E R A LR E F E R E N C E S
'1.C.,
Bonrnc, Thermal Methodsof Oil Recovery,New York: John Wiley (1988).
Ceur, F.W., The Tar Sandsof Alberta,Canada,2dEd. Denver,Colo.: CameronEngineers,
Inc. (1974).
Cennrcy, M. A., Historical Highlights of Major Events in the History of the AthabascaOil
Sands,Alberta ResearchCouncil ContributionNo. 631(1973).
Energy Heritage-Oil Sandsand Heavy Oils of Alberta, ENR ll19-1,p. 14, Alberta Energy
(1e82).
FrrzcEnaLo, J. J., Black Gold with Grit-The Alberta Oil Sands,Sidney,B. C.: Gray'sPub-
lishing Co., (1978).
Improved Oil Recovery,InterstateOil CompactCommission,Oklahoma City, Okla. (1983).
Lanrl-,M., Enhanced Oil Recovery,Houston, Tex.: Gulf PublishingCo. (1980).
OrRNoeN, E. (Ed.), Heavy Crude Oil Recovery,The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff (1984).
Pners, M.,'A Current Appraisalof Thermal Recovery,"J. Pet. kch., 1129-1136 (August
re78).
Pnats, M., "Thermal recovery," SPE MonographVolume 7, Dallas, Tex: SPE (1982).
Srolnooo, A. H., et al., "Pioneersof the AthabascaOil Sands".Edmonton,Alberta: Syn-
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Thermal RecoveryProcesses, SPE Reprint SeriesNo. 7, Dallas, Tex.: SPE (1985).
VeN Poor-r-eN,H.K., Fundamentalsof Enhanced Oil Recovery,Tulsa, Okla.: PennWell
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WurrE, P.D. and Moss, J.T., Thermal RecoveryMethods, Tulsa, Okla.: PennWellBooks
(1983).
GeneralReferences 29
Conductionof Hest
within Sofids
INTRODUCTION
The quantitative analysisof the transfer and movementof heatwithin the reservoir
plays a central role in the subjectof thermal recovery.There are two major mecha-
nismsby which heat is transferred:thermal conductionthrough relatively stationary
materialsand convectivetransport by moving fluids. This chapteris concerned
with the first of thesemechanisms, thermal conduction'
The reservoir,.or adjoining strata, are consideredas a homogeneoussolid in
which the transfer of heat is by conduction.Although this processis very important
in thermal recovery,it is very slow.By itself, thermal conductionis an inadequate
meansof transferring heat within large reservoirvolumes.However, it is effective
in transferring heat over relatively short distances,as, for example,in the transfer
of heat from a steam-saturatedregion to the adjacentcolder reservoir. It plays a
particularly important (and undesirable)role by causingthe unwanted loss of heat
io the overburdenand underburdenduring reservoir heating'
When thermal recovery processesextend over large areas' the loss of heat
from the reservoircan becomeintolerablylarge.This loss is relatively more impor-
tant when the reservoiris thin. For example,a given vertical heat lossfrom a reser-
voir 10 ft thick might be intolerable,whereasthe same heat loss from a 150-ft
reservoircould be aiceptablebecausea larger volume of oil would be recovered.
THERMALCONDUCTIVITY
The theory of heat conductionassumesthat the heat flux is in the direction of the
temperaturegradient and is proportional to the magnitude of the gradient't The
'This statementis true only if the thermal conductivity is the samein each direction. The
problemof variablethermal conductivityis not consideredhere'
30
proportionality constantis defined as the thermal conductivity of the material. For
the one-dimensionalflow of heat by conduction, the heat flow is given by
equation 2.1.,where Q is the flow, A is the cross-sectionalarea for flow, I is the
temperature,andx is the distance.
dT
O = -KA: (2.1)
dx
The negativesign arisesbecausethe heatflow is assumedto be positivein the di-

rection of the x axis. For a positive flow of heat, a negativetemperaturegradient is
required.
Although in this chapterthe analysisis limited to one-dimensionalproblems,
it is usefulto note the form of equation2.1,which arisesin the three-dimensional
case.
rt = -K grad(T) (2.2)
grad(r)=vr:t#*;#.i# (2.3)
In equation2.2, i is the heat flux vector (i.e., the heat flow per unit area) and
grad(T) is the temperaturegradientvector.
FOURIER'SEOUATION
heat conduction,the flow of heat is associ-
Except in the specialcaseof steady-state
ated with a changein temperature.In a small element,such as that shown in
Figure 2.1, the heat flow away from the elementwill usually not be equal to that
flowing in.
The differencein theseflows will be accommodated by a changinginventory
of the heat within the element.The heat balanceis representedby equation2.4,
and this may be reducedto (2.5),wherep is the densityand C is the heatcapacity;
the group KlpC hasbeen combinedinto a singlevariable,a, which is known as the
thermal diffusivitv with dimensionsof L2T-1.
#=-*n(#)=-*"(#) (2.4)
(#)=*(#) (2.s)
Equation2.5 is the one-dimensional form of the more generalequation2.6' which

was first derived by Fourier in 1822.
. (Yr)=*(#)
(#).(#) (2.6)
Fourier'sEquation 31
o 'lI
F**
I I 2'r
Figure
classes:2
Solutionsto this equationfall into two general
is zero
1. Steady-statesolutions,where the term @flAt)
changewith time-i'e'' where
2. unsteady-statesolutions,where tempelatures
the term @Tlat)is generally not zero
such a.sthe steady-state loss of
The first classof solutionsis of interest in problems of most in-
that is usually
heat through insulation. It is the secondclais of solutions
terestinthermalrecoveryproblems.Atypicalcaseisthatoftheheatlossfromthe
which is initially at some
upper surface of a heated'reservoirto lhe overburden,
problem is consideredin the
more-or-lessuniform low temperature.This particular
next section.
FLOW OF HEAT INTO A SEMI'INFINITESOLID

solid body shown in Figure 2'?' k-
consider the flow of heat into the semi-infinite
?h, that at time 1 = 0' tl"
sumethat initially the solid is at a uniform temperature
this temperatureis then main-
surfacex : 0 is raisedto a temperatureG; andihat
within the solid is controlled by the one-
tained at the surface.The temperature
dimensionalFourier heat-conduction equation2'S' ^. ,----L^- ^c.,^ '
first reduce the number of vart-
e simpremeirrodfor solvingthis problemis to
is-useful to transform the temperature
ablesby ,,,.unr of almensionalanalysis.[t
substitution
variable to a dimensionlessform by making the
,.=(H)
,solutionsof equation2.6 are also of interestin studyingthe transientflow around oil wells'
(see'for
analyzetraniieni pressuretestsof oil wells is
The basicpartial differentiut equationusedto
example,Matthews and Russell 1967)
a2P $p.c dP
. . - + , azP
.azP -+---
6x' dy" 0z' kat
w h e r e P i s t h e f l u i d p r e s s u f e a t t h e l o c a t i o n w i t h c o o r d i n a t e s . I , y , a n d z ,has
$ i sthe
- t h esame
p o r oform
s i t y ,as
pisthe
permeability.This equation
viscosity,c is the compressibility,andk is the equated to the thermal
tn" hydroili, diffusivity,
equation2.6 if ther"r^ *1$pr,inrch is known_ai .is
of solutionsof this equation'Solutionsof Fourier's
diffusity, a. Well-testingtriiry i. rurg"ly a study For example'
equation in this chapter *n itrr, "[ot" uppii.d to reservoirfluid-flow problems'
distribution around a fracture maintained
Figure 2.3 can be looked upon as describingihe.pressure
kept
the pressurearound a vertical well that is
at a constantpressureuno'rigur" 2.!2, aso-erclltine
the initial reservoir pressure'
ai a constantpr"rrur" aboveor below
Conductionof Heat within Solids Chap' 2

32
within
T=TR everYwhere
solidat t=0
Surfacex=0 is mainain€d
atT=TS aftert=0
Figure 2.2 One Dimensional

ConductiveHeating of
x
Coordinate
Semi-infiniteSlab
The desiredfinal solution will give the dimensionlesstemperatureZ* as a function

of x, t, and a. Supposethis may be written as a power series,such as
T* =.-. * B;xotba'+..' (2.7)
For sucha solution to be correct, it is necessaryfor the dimensionsof eachterm to
be the sameas for 7*; in this example,7* is dimensionless. The dimensionsof the
terms on the right-hand side are as follows:
Bi dimensionless
x length 8
I time E
d length2/time,i.e., L2T-1
For the right-hand side to be dimensionless,the exponentsin eachterm must satisfy
c= 8 dimension
2
,-a
and D=c=-; ;LOlmenston
L
Hence, in general,the solution must be of the form:

'l x \
z*isafunction
"t \v;/
or, without loss of generality,3
x
T* = T*(x,La)= f*1r1, wherez (2.8)
2\/ at
The factor 2 is included for later convenience.

Equation 2.8 enablesthe number of independentvariablesto be reducedby
one and the partial differential equationto be convertedinto an ordinary one. The
substitutionof z from (2.8) into equation2.5 results in equation2.9, with the
boundaryconditionsthat Z* : L for z :0 and 7* : 0 for z : a.
3This approachis known as Boltzman'stransformation;seeCarslawand Jaeger(1959),p. 89.
Flow of Heat into a Semi-infiniteSolid 33

d2T* ^ dr*
---7-T = -zz---:- (2.e
clz' clz
Equation2.9 may be integratedin two stages.First, letp = dT*/dz,with the result

(2.r0):
4 = -zrp (2.10
dz
This is integratedto give equation2.LL,whereCr is an integrationconstant.
P = CG-" (2.r1)
Substitutionof dT*ldz for p in (2.11)gives equation2.12, which when inte-
gratedyieldsequation2.13.
dr* _,2
-
---- = Lt€ (2.12)
az
T*=Cz*Ct
I -"2
e-dz
,
The first boundary condition leads to Cz - I and the second resultsin

(2.13)
equation2.14.
o=1+ crfo-r-,'d, (2.1.4
The value of the definite integralin equation2.14 can be determinedas follows;

this derivationis basedon that given by Jensonand Jeffreys(1963).
The volume of the solid of revolutionthat is formed by rotating the curve
z : e " aboutthe z axis is given by
. r-
v: | 2 r r R e - R ' d R = r r l e - o ' d ( R ' )= z r l - e - R ' | f f = n (2.I5)
J6 Jo
The samevolume can also be found from the double inteeral
v :41- [- r--'a = q [ - a' r l - r - t , ' * , ' , 4 ,

' rdx
Jg Jo Js Jo
(2.16)
4 l - r - , ' d' J, s[ * r - , ' 4 * = 4 1 ,
J6
where1 is the integralof equation2.14.Hence
V=n=412 and I=! (2.r7)

2
Substitutionof this value into equation2.I4leadsto C, : -Zl{; and the desired

solution,equation2.18,whereerfc is the complementaryerror function.
T* = 1.- erf(z)= erfc(z)= ertu(:+) 1r.ta;

\2Y at I
34 Conduction
of HeatwithinSolids Chap.2
The error function and the complementaryerror function are defined by the fol-
lowing equations:
erf(z)=+r _,2,
e-dz (2,1e)
erfc(z)=I-erf(z) =+L- e-t'dz (2.20)
A graphof the complementary error function is given in Figure2.3. Numericalval-

ues of the error function and the complementaryerror function are given in
Table2.1.
TABLE 2.1 NumericalValuesof the ComplementaryError Function
erlc(z) erfc(z) erfc(z)

0.00 1.000000 1.00 0.157299 2.00 0.004678
0.05 0.943628 1.05 0.r37564 2.05 0.003742
0.10 0.887537 1.10 0.1t9'795 2.r0 0.002980
0.15 0.832004 1.15 0.103876 2.L5 0.002362
0.20 0.777298 1.20 0.089686 2.20 0.001863
0.25 0.723674 1.25 0.077100 2.25 0.001463
0.30 0.67t373 1.30 0.065992 2.30 0.001143
0.35 0.620618 1.35 0.056238 2.35 0.000889
0.40 0.571608 1.40 0.047715 2.40 0.000689
0.45 0.52451,8 t.45 0.040305 2.45 0.000531
0.50 0.479500 1.50 0.033895 2.50 0.000407
0.55 oltseot 1.55 0.028377 2.55 0.000311
0.60 0.396144 1.60 0.023652 2.60 0.000236
0.65 0.35797r 1.65 0.0t9624 2.65 0.000179
0.70 0.322199 1.70 0.016210 2.70 0.000134
0.75 0.288844 r.75 0.013328 2.75 0.000101
0.80 0.257899 1.80 0.010910 2.80 0.000075
0.85 0.229332 1.85 0.008889 2.85 0.000056
0.90 0.203092 1.90 0.007210 2.90 0.000041
0.95 0.r79t09 r.95 0.005821 2.95 0.000030
Forz > 3. erfc(d:4.___Le-,,

\/tr z+Yz'+2
Useful approximateformulasfor calculatingthis function usingmicrocomput-
ers follow.
RationalApproximationsfor the ComplementaryError Function
Approximation1:
erfc(x) = (ai + azt2+ a3t3'1e-"+ e1x!
t = U0 + px) le(x)l< 2.5 x l0-5
p = 0.47047 ar = 0.3480242 az = -0.0958798 az = 0.7478556
Flow of Heat into a Semi-infinite Solid 35
Rational for the ComplementaryError Function (continued)
Approximation2:
erfc(x) = (a1 + a2t2+ a3t3+ aata+ a5ts)e-" + .1t;
t = t/(1 + px) le(x)ls 1.5 x t0-?
D = 0.327591L at = 0.254829592 az = -0.284496736
A 3 = 1.42t413741 aq = -1.453152027 as = L.061405429
Approximation3:
erfc(x) = (L + ag + azx2+ a3x3+ a4x4)-4+ e(x)
l e ( x )<l 5 x 1 0 - a
ar = 0.278393 az = 0.230389 az = 0.000972 a+ = 0.078108
Approximation4:
erfc(x) = (l + at I a2x2+ a3x3'f aaxa* a 5 x s + a 6 x 6 ) - 1 6 + e ( x )
l e ( x )<l 3 x 1 0 - ?
at = 0.0705230784 az = 0.0422820123 az = 0.00927052'12
ar 0.0001520143 as = 0.0002765672 ce : 0.0000430638
=
(from Hastings1955)
nq
^ 0.6
N
o
't-
n 0.4
o.2
'
O 0.5 1 1.5 2 Fig,rre Error
2.3 TheComplementary
ArgumentZ
Volueof Dimensionless Function
Significanceof Solution
The singlecurve in Figure 2.3 containswithin it all the informationrequiredto
calculatetemperaturegradientcurveswithin the solid for varioustimes. It is a di-
mensionless plot of temperatureagainstdimensionless distance.At later times heat
penetratesfarther into the solid. For a given temperature,the distanceis propor-
iional to the squareroot of the time. It takesfour times as longfor the heatto pen-
etratetwice as far.
The heat flux into the surfaceof the infinite solid is given by equation2.21'
* =-*(#)*, (2.21)
36 Conductionof Heatwithin Solids Chap.2

Substituting(T - TillQs - zn) for z* in equation2.18givesequation2.22;where
zs is the temperatureof the hot surfaceand zn is the reservoirtemperature.
r=Tn+(rs-nl ' ..r.f-t ) (2.22)

\2Vatl
The temperaturegradient at x : 0 may be calculatedfrom equation2.23.
/q\ - r, - r^(4!:\ (2.23)

\dx/,=o 2\/at \ dz l,=o
Substitutionof dT*/dz from equation2.12and using the value that was calculated
previouslyfor c1 resultsin equation2.24 for the heatflux at the surfaco.
ft : rr,- r-)i};=(rs
- ,^rrlff (2.24)
Equation2.24 showsthat the heatflux is inverselyproportionalto the squareroot

-gftime-.'Thisdecrease of heat flux with time is an importantconsiderationin heat
ffi;6 within solids such as the overburdenuuou" ,Lr"ruoi* ii ir interesting to
note that the heat flux is equallydependenton the thermal conductivity,K, and,
upon the volumetric heaLcapacity,pC.
The cumulativeheatflux at time / maybe found by integratingequation2.24,
to give equation2.25:
t
= 2(Ts- rfifkpA1,
1,1*=*=z(rs-rR)K llu
Q.25)
HEATTRANSFERFROMA SPREADINGHOT ZONE
An important applicationof the theory developedin the previoussectionis to the

caseof a flat h-e*atedareathat is increasingwith time. This conceptplaysan impor-
tant role in theoriesdealingwith steamflooding.The heat loss to the overburden
abovea spreadingsteamzone is an exampleof this situation.
In the solution,it will be assumedthat the problemremainsone-dimensional.
Heat is assumedto be transferredin a directionnormal to the surface:i.e.. transfer
parallelto the surfaceis ignored.For the first casewhich will be considered,it is
assumedthat the heatedareaincreaseslinearlywith time.
A small elementof area dA = Adto is heated from Zn to fs between time /e
and /o + dto;it is then maintainedat Zs.No restrictionsare placedon the shapeof
the heated area.A.Also, althoughit is considereda constantfor the present,the
spreadingrateA may vary with ro.
At somelater time /, the cumulativeamountof heat,Q,, that hasbeentrans-
ferred through a particular area elementAdts may be found using equation2.25.
The resultis given by:
- r^rrft-:-!!Aato
de, = zK(Ts (2.26)
Y 7fd
HeatTransferfrom a SpreadingHot Zone 37

TABLE 2.2 Values of Factor 'y'
*(n)
0 1.0000
0.1000 0.9436
0.2000 0.8955
0.3000 0.8540
0.4000 0.8176
0.s000 0.7854= r/4
0.6000 0.'7567
0.7000 0.7309
0.8000 0.7075
0.9000 0.6862
1.0000 0.6667
The total heat that has been transferredmay be found by integrating2.26 from
/o = 0 to /6 = t. Equation2.27 is the result.
t
- T^)A
e" = 1. 2K(Ts ,ffd.
(2.27)
Expandingthe heatedarea at a steadyrate rather than immediatelyexposingthe

sametotal areato the high temperaturereducesthe cumulativeheat flux in time r
by a factor of two-thirds(compareequation2.27 with2.25).
The precedingderivationmay be made more generalby assumingthat the
areaincreases with the nth power of /s rather than linearly.An examplefor which
this is of interestoccurswhen a steamchamberriseswith the two-third power of
time. The parametern is 0 for the casewhereA is constantand is 1 when the area
increases at a constantrate.
Using the sameapproach,it is found that the cumulativeflow is given by
equation2.28, where the factor r/ is the function of the exponentn as defined
below;atabulatedvaluesof.tlt aregiven in Table2.2.
Q,--zK(rs
- rilA,f
fifo (2.28)
where
*(n)=ryi?r6
CONSTANT HEAT INJECTIONRATE INTO A FRACTURE
A particularlyinterestingand useful applicationof equation2.28 occurswhen the
exponentn is equalto 0.5. If ,4 is proportionalto the squareroot of time, then it is
apparentfrom equation2.28that, for this specialcase,the rate of heatlosswill be
constant.
4f(n) is the qammafunction of n.

A practicalcasein which this occursis wheresteamis injectedat a constant
flow rate into a fractureinitially at reservoirtemperature.The heat-lossratesunder
this conditionto the materialeither side of the fracturewill eachbe equalto half
the heat-injectionrate,and the heatedareaof the fracturewill grow proportionally
to the squareroot of time.s
Startingwith equation2.28,it is easyto showthat undertheseconditionsthe
heatedarea of the fracture will be given by
^' = lQ,,\ l; /(tr,l- z^) (2.29)

\T )V;
where Q,i is the total cumulative heat injected into the fracture, becauseheat is lost
from both sides of the fracture, Q"i = 2Q,.
This equation is derived in ariother manner in Chapter 3 (see equation 3.59).
CONDUCTION FROMA SPREADING

CHAMBER
THATADVANCES
TO A LIMITAND THENSTOPS
In recoveryproblemsconnectedwith wells confined in a repeatedpattern, the
heatedregionsof the reservoircan spreadlaterallyuntil they interferewith the hot
regionsof neighboringwells. When this confinementtakes place, the hot zones
ceaseto expand,and heat is lost to the overburdenat a decreasingrate.
During the expansionthe hot zone is continually encounteringfresh cold
overburden, and this requires considerableheat. Once confinement takes place,
this drain stopsand the rate of heat lossstartsto decrease.
Considerthe casewherethe heatedareais definedby
A=)t for0</<rr
A=)t, fort>tt
In theseequationsr is looked uponas a variableand /1,the time requiredto reach
the outer boundary,is a constant.,4is assumedconstant.
Using (2.27)the cumulativeheat transferfor the period t < tl ma! be writ-
ten as
^ 4 _-._ lT = -4 K(rs -
r^)A ,,:
Q, = ; KlTt - TilA t/- ----:----:::-t: (2.30)
J Y itd. J VTd
lf t were greaterthan /1,then the value of Q. calculatedfrom the precedingequa-

tion would be too high becausethe heatedareastopsgrowingat time /1.The value
of O. would be too high by the amountof heatthat would havebeensuppliedto the
areagreaterthanAtt if the growth had carried on unchecked.
The heatwhich would havebeensuppliedto the areabeyond)t1may be cal-
culatedby settingt in (2.27)equalto the time after tt-i.e., to (t - rr). The resultis
4 K(Ts- rilA. \1',
- tr)t,,
Q,= J.-:(t (heatbeyond-4rr) (2.31)
VTTu
tThis exampleis also discussedin Chapter3, where it is shownthat the temperatureZs does
,
not prevail right to the end of the heatedzone.
Conduction from a Spreading Chamber that Advances to a Limit and then Stops 39
The cumulative amount of heat supplied to the areaAt1 alone, for times greater
than /1, can be calculatedfrom the differencebetweenthe heat for the total area
calculatedfrom (2.30)and the heat for the excessareafrom (2.31).The resultis
4 K(Ts- TilA.
().== l . t 3 t -2 ( t - tr)t,'f fort> t1 (2.32)
3 \./ra
The rate at which heatflows to the overburden,for / > /1,is found by differentiat-
ing (2.32),giving (2.33).
lz.JJ )
Confinementreducesthe heat lost to the overburden;for this reasonconfined

wells,particularlyin gravity drainageschemes,can be much more thermally effi-
cient than isolatedones.
Figure 2.4 showsthe effect on the heat-lossrate found when a spreadingzone
encountersits neighbor.One reasonfor this is simplythat whenthe increasein area
stops,it is no longernecessaryto continueheatingcold overburden.Another factor
is that as the overburdenbecomeshot, the heat flux per unit areadecreases. The
overall effect is dramaticand sisnificant.
NumericalProblem
In a plannedsteamflooding project,it is estimatedthat the steamheatedzonewill,
for eachinjection well, cover an areaof 4 ha after 10y of steaming(the spacingper
injectionwell is 4 ha).
Calculatethe quantityof steamin tonnesrequiredto supplythe heatlossesto
the overburdenfor eachyear for the following three cases:
i. The steam-heatedzoneincreasesat a steadyrate of 0.4haly.
ii. The steam-heatedzone grows at a rate of I ha/y for 4 y and then stops as it
meetsits neighboringzones.
iii. The steam-heatedzone spreadsimmediatelyover the pattern.
t.c
q)
o
u
.n1 Unconfined
th,
(x
o Areo proportionol-/ l'\ Confinement
J to time
o
o
!
n q
v's
0,
o Areo
T
E
1 Figure 2.4 Effect of Confinement on

DimensionlessTime Heat Loss to Overburden
40 Conductionof Heat within Solids Chap.2

Assume the following
Steampressure : 5 MPa; Quality :70Vo

Overburdenconductivity = 1.7Wlm"C
Overburdenheat capacity : 850/kg'C
Overburdendensitv : z4N kg/m3
Initial overburdentemperature: 15'C
Steamcondensateis produced at an averagetemperatureof
7n+O.zs1zi-z;1
For case (iii) plot the temperature,in degreesCelsius, as a function of distance
abovethe top of the reservoirin metersat 2, 5 and L0years.
Solution The problem will be solvedusing SI units. From steamtables:
Ts : 264'C for 5 MPa
Hs : 2794.3kJlkg enthalpy of saturatedvapor
H*: 1154.2kUk9 enthalpyof boiling liquid
Zn: 15'C
Tp= - 15)= 202"C
15 + 0.75(264 production temperature
Hp : 861.5kVkg enthalpy of water at 202"C
Net heat per
I : (U.t x 2794.3+ 0.3 x 1154.2- 861.5)x 106
tonne oI steam
: 1.44tx I}e Jlt
i. Steamrequiredassuming
the steamzoneadvances
at a steadyrateof 0.4ha/y.
Useequation2.27:
t
e"=lx1rr-rilA 7fd
(2,27)
K _ 1.7W/m'C
A _ 4000,8000,.
. . m2
l= 1 , 2 , . . . Y : 1 x ( 3 . 1 5 3x 61 0 7 ) . s. .
11
*fu:8'333x10-7m2/s
T_e cumulative heat to the overburdenafter 1 year is
e"= + x r.7(264-
trl*oo(#t#*)', = r,rrux1012
r
Tonnes
of steam for firstyear=
required = 5438
ffi
The cumulative quantitiesof steamfor successiveyearsare calculatedin the same
manner,and the yearly quantitiesare found by subtraction.The resultsare given in
the secondcolumn of the following table. The annual heat requirementrises con-
tinuously as the heatedregion expands.
from a Spreading
Conduction that Advancesto a LimitandthenStops
Chamber 4a
ANNUAL STEAM REQUIREMENT IN TONNES PER YEAR
YEAR cAsE(i) CASE (ii)
I 5,438 13,596 81,,576
2 9,944 24,858 33,790
J 1,2,876 32,t91, 25,928
+ 1,5,248 38,120 21,858
\ t7,296 29,643 19,257
6 19,r24 )) q<) t7,4rr
7 )n 10) 19,790 16,010
8 22,336 1,7,719 t4,90t
9 23,779 t6,zLr 13,997
10 25,140 15,038 13,238
TOTAL I7t,973 230,rLg 257,966

YEARLY AVERAGE
kt/v 17.2 23.0 25.8
ii. Steamrequired assumingthat the zone grows u, tG/u una rhenstops.

For the first 4 years,the steamrequirementis calculatedin the samemanner as in
(i), using:
A = 10900,20,000,30,000 and 40.000m2
The results are shown in the first four rows of the third column of the preced-
ing table.
For the remaining years, the cumulative quantities of steam are calculated
usingequation2.32:
(2.32)
For year 5:
a =5x3.1536x107s
a1 =4x3.1536x107s
10,000 m,
A
(3.1536x 10') s
- 15)10,000
Q,=+. 1,.7(264
(rr8.333xl0-t1tr4.tt36 x 10-7
't(sx 3.1536x 10-\3t2- (3.1536x I0-\3t21
= 1.994 x 1014J
Cumulative
steam =
requirement = 88,408t
ffi
Net steamfor 5 y = 138,408- 108,765= 2\643 t
Annual steamrequirementscalculatedin this mannerare given in rows 5 through
10 of the third column of the preceding table. The steam requirement rises to a
maximum and then declinesafter the heatedarea stopsgrowing.
iii. Steamrequired assumingheatedzone spreadsimmediately.
The steamrequiredis calculatedusing equation2.25withA: 40,000m2and the
remainingparametersas in (i). The resultsare given in the fourth column of the
table. The steamrequirementstarts out very high (infinite at / : 0) and declines
with time.
The resultsof the three calculationsare shown in Figure 2.5. The average
ratesare comparedin the followingtable.Theseresultsmay be put into a practical
perspectiveby consideringthe relativecosts,with steamcostingsomewherein the
range of $5 to $20 per tonne.
Average Steam Requirement
SPREADING TIME AVERAGE STEAM RATE

(y) (kt/y)
0 25.8
4 23.0
10 17.2
The temperatureabovethe top of the reservoiris calculatedusing equation2,22.
r = rn+(r, - ril *f"(*a) (2.22\
In SI units.r is the distancein metersabovethe reservoir,/ is the time from the

start of heatingin seconds,and a is the thermal diffusivity in squaremetersper
second.6
The calculatedtemperaturesare shown as a function of depth for eachof the
three times in Fisure 2.6.
CONDUCTIONAHEAD OF AN ADVANCING FRONT

ln previous sections,the unsteadystate conductionof heat into a solid from a sta-
tionary hot surfacewas considered.This was extendedto the casewhere the hot
surfacewas expandingin area.
Another one-dimensionalheat conductionsituation that is of interest in ther-
mal recovery is that where a hot surface or front is advancingtlroug! the solid
reservoir in a direction approximatelynormal to its surface. One situation where
oForcalculationsof this type, it will often be more convenientto use the day as the unit of
time rather than the secondofthe SI system.To do this it is necessaryto alsouse the day as the unit
of time in eachof the other variables.In the presentexampleit would be necessaryto convert a to
squaremetersper day; this is also a much more convenientunit.
a = 8.333x 10-?m2/s= 0.072m2ld

Conduction Ahead of an Advancing Front 43
40
-20
;oo
c
c
.o Steamzonespreadsfor 4
!40
E20
fo
.g
J
cr
t 1oo
100
e 8 o 80
E 6 060
6 4 0 40
20
0
Figure 2.5 SteamRequirementskt/y
o
,6
o
o, zoo
(,
o
o,
o
t,
qi
E 100
(g
o
CL
E
o
10 20 Figure 2.6 Temperaturein

DistanceaboveReservoir.
m OverburdenaboveReservoir
this can occur is at a more-or-less

verticalsteamfront which is advancingas flood-
ing steamis injected behind it. The steamcondensesat the front and the conden-
sate.runswith the displacedoil through the front and aheadof it wherethey rapidly
attain the temperatureof the reservoirmatrix. Heat is conductedaheadof theion-
densationsurface and the heat for this preheatingmust also be supplied by the
steam.If the processcontinueswith a steadystate of advancethe cumulative heat
buildup aheadof the front reachesa steadyvalue.
Another exampleof conductionaheadof an advancingfront occurs when oil
drains downward acrossa steam front which is advancinghorizontally through a
reservoir.This mechanismis important in thermal recoveryusinggravity drainage.
Here the heatedoil and condensateare removedcontinuouslyby drainage,and the
steam-saturatedchamber advancesinto the reservoir. I{ggt*is- g_o.-n-dlJclgd_-ahe
of the advancingfront, and this mobilizes the oil. The situation is depicted in
Figve 2.7.

o
L
:t
o
L
o
o-
E
|l,
F
Distonce
/\
Front
ot T5
i Velocity U
t D r o i n o g eo f o i l Figure 2.7 Lateral Advance of
downwords SteamFront
The one-dimensionalFourier equation2.34 is applicable.
=+(#
(-tt) (2.34)'
The distance.r is measured norma-l..to.

the advancingfro'4_t.In the analysisof this
: '--*-'
process,it is convenientto transform the distancevariable so that it is measured
from the front rather than from a fixed origin. This is done by defining the new
variablef as in equation2.35.
t=x-f,ro,
or, if U is constant,
t=x-Ut (2.3s)
In this equation,U is the velocity of the advancingfront. The elimination of x from
the left-hand side of (2.34) may be accomplishedsimply by replacingxby t.
=(.u'
e*) (2.36) v,
Since T is a function of x and /, a generaldifferential may be written as follows:
or=({*),*.(#)"0, (2.37)
If f is maintained constant duling the differential change representedby (2.37),

then dx = IJ dt1, and (2.37)may be rearrangedto give equation2.38.
t,q)
\dtlt
=ue\
\drl,
*E
\dt
(238) j
tThis is true evenif U is not constant.
ConductionAhead of an Advancing Front 45

Combining(2.36),(2.38),and (2.34)resultsin equation2.39. This representsthe
temperatureZ as a function of the distancef aheadof a front advancingat a veloc-
ity U in a reservoir of thermal diffusivity a. It may be made dimensionlessby the
use of the variablesdefined by equation2.40.
(2.3e)
?*-
T -Tn
l -
Ts-T^
c1
.ut
-:
(2.40)
s-
d.
Utt
,* -
d.
equation2.4l results.
When thesesubstitutionsare made,the dimensionless
(#). (#)=(#) (2.4r)
Imagine a constanttemperatureheat front of temperatureZs being formed at time

/ : 0 and advancingat a constantvelocity U. The reservoir is initially at tempera-
ture ?n. Heat conductedaheadof the front warms the reservoir material. Initially
there is no heat aheadof the front, but as the front advancesand time progresses,
heat accumulatesaheadof the front.
The processcan be imaginedin two parts.The first is the transientstage,in
which the heat aheadof the front builds up asymptoticallyto reach an equilibrium
level. After this there is a steadystate, in which heat ahead of the front is "run
over" by the advanceof the front; a steady-state,dynamic equilibrium is achieved.
In this steadystatethe temperatureat any distancef from the front is constantwith
time.
For this situation the right-hand side of equation2.4'J.canbe set equal to zero
and the equationbecomes(2.42):
(#).(#)=' (2.42)
The boundary conditions are

Z* = 0 forf = oo
and
T*=l forf =g
The solution that satisfiesthese boundary conditions is given by equation2.43 or,
after substitutingthe original dimensionalvariables,by equation2.44.
T* = e-E- (2.43)
T - Tn
= o-tJ{a - p-(utd)(x-(Jt) (2.44)
Ts-T*
The total heat stored aheadof the front per unit area can be found by integrating
equation2.44, givingequation2.45:
Q" = -
A Io cc{r r^)dt
^ (Ts - T^)
= pto---U- (2.4s)
- Ta)
= Y(Ts
tu
Equation 2.45, since it is derived for the steadystate,representsthe asymptoteto

the quantity of heat which can be storedaheadof the front. In many cases,the ac-
tual conditions are not far from this steadystate.
The amount of heat storedaheadof the front varies inverselywith the veloc-
ity. Large quantities of heat can be stored aheadof slow-movingfronts and little
heat aheadof fast-movingones.In gravity drainageprocessesthere is equilibrium.
Heat storedaheadof the front mobilizesthe oil and allows it to drain away,and the
oil draining awayallows the front to move.The drainageof oil controlsthe velocity
of advance.
TRANSIENTHEAT TRANSFERAHEAD OF AN ADVANCING FRONT
The transientconditions that occur before the steadystateis reachedcan be calcu-

lated by solving equation2.41without neglectingthe time-dependentterm. The so-
lution that correspondsto the boundary :onditions
I*=0 when/=0 forallf
and
T*=l whenf*=[ and />0
is given by equation2.46 (Carslawand Jaeger1959).
r.=+f"""(ffi)
*"-"**( €*-t*
-----------
2 V t * )]
(2 46)
An alternateform of (2.46)is
#)l
(Note: T* -- e-€' as /* --+ oofor finite f*). The complementaryerror function em-
ployed in (2.46)hasbeen describedpreviously.Temperaturedistribution curvescal-
culatedfrom this equationare given in Figure 2.8 and in Table2.3.
Heat Ahead of Front in Transient Period
The integral of dimensionlesstemperaturewith respectto dimensionlessdistanceis
given by equation2.47. Tabilated valuesof this integral are alsogiven in Table2.3,
where it is referred to as the heat integral.
Transient HeatTransferAheadof an AdvancingFront 47
ol
5
E
o
o.e
g
g 0.6
o
o
E 0.4
.9
o
6 o.z
E
o
oo'
Dimensionless
distancefromfront
Figure 2.8 Transient Temperaturesbefore an Advancing Front
(,*i)*(Y)-;
I,- yfi,-,',,*
T*d{* = (2.47)
The value of this integral rangesfrom 0 at time zero to 1 at time infinity. Multiply-
ing the value of this integral by the heat accumulationfor the steadystategiven by
equation2.45 givesthe net heat accumulationfor the transientcondition.
Although the heatintegralcan be evaluatedaccuratelyfrom equation2.47,it
is a cumbersomerelation and, for approximatedesign calculations,a simpler ex-
pressionis convenient.Equation 2.48 gives estimatesthat are within 0.03 of the
quantitiescalculatedfrom equation2.47.
,.0r. - 1' - (2.48)

[o- "-.zz+t/F
Continuationof the PreviousNumericalExample
Upon carrying out the steamflood describedin the earliernumericalexample,it
is found that the steamspreadsrapidly over the reservoir,as in case(iii) of that
example.
It is thought that the production processthat occurs involves the downward
growth of the steamchamber.Measurements indicatethat this occursdurine the
10-yperiod at an averagerate of 1.5 mly.
iv. calculate how much steam,in tonnes, is required for eachyear to supply the
heat that is stored ahead of the advancingfront, assumingthat this is the
sameas if the front were stationary.8
v. Calculatethe cumulative tonnesof steamrequired to build up the heat ahead
of the front in the steadystate.
vi. Repeatthe calculationin case(iv), but this time allow for the forward move-
ment of the front usingequation2.47.
\his assumptionhasbeenproposedby Vogel(1982)as a basisfor the conservativedesignand
analysisof steamfloodingprojects.
TABLE 2.3 Dimensionless
TemperaturesBeyondan AdvancingFront
DIMENSIONLESS DISTANCE 4+
DIM. HEAT
TIME 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 INTEGRAL
0.01 .456 .142 .029 .004 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.108
0.02 .586 .286 .115 .037 .010 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.150
0.03 .648 .373 .189 .083 .032 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.181
0.04 .687 .432 .247 .r28 .060 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.206
0.05 .7r3 .475 .293 .167 .088 .001 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.228
0.10 .780 .588 .428 .300 .202 .015 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.310
0.20 .82t .673 .538 .423 .327 .06'7 .001 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.413
0.30 .847 .1tl .590 .484 .392 .rr4 .003 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.483
0.40 .859 .733 .620 .52r .433 .151 .009 .000 .000 .000 .000 0.537
0.50 .867 .748 .641 .546 .462 .180 .015 .001 .000 .000 .000 0.581
1.00 .886 .783 .690 .606 .531 .263 .049 .006 .001 .000 .000 0.720
1.50 .893 .796 .709 .63t .560 .300 .074 .014 .002 .000 .000 0.799
2.00 .897 .804 .7t9 .643 .s75 .32r .090 .022 .004 .001 .000 0.849
2.50 .899 .808 .726 .651 .584 .334 .t02 .027 .006 .001 .000 0.884
3.00 .901 .811 .730 .656 .590 .343 .110 .032 .008 .002 .000 0.910
3.50 .902 .813 .732 .660 .594 .349 .116 .036 .010 .003 .001 0.929
4.00 .902 .814 .734 .662 .597 .353 .120 .038 .012 .003 .001 0.943
4.50 .903 .815 .'.136 .664 .599 .357 .123 .041 .013 .004 .001 0.954
5.00 .903 .816 .737 .665 .601 .359 .126 .042 .014 .004 .001 0.963
5.50 .904 .8r7 .738 .666 .602 .361 .127 .044 .014 .005 .001 0.970
6.00 .904 .8t7 .738 .667 .603 .362 .t29 .045 .015 .005 .001 0.975
6.50 .904 .817 .739 .668 .603 .363 .130 .046 .016 .005 .002 0.980
7.00 .904 .818 .739 .668 .604 .364 .131 .046 .016 .005 .002 0.983
7.50 .904 .818 .739 .669 .605 .365 .132 .047 .016 .006 .002 0.986
8.00 .904 .818 .'140 .669 .605 .365 .r32 .048 .017 .006 .002 0.988
8.50 .905 .818 .740 .669 .605 .366 .r33 .048 .017 .006 .002 0.991
9.00 .905 .818 .740 .669 .605 .366 .133 .048 .017 .006 .002 0.992
9.50 .90s .818 .740 .670 .606 .366 .t34 .048 .0I7 .006 .002 0.993
10.00 .905 .818 .740 .670 .606 .367 .r34 .049 .018 .006 .002 0.99s
905 .819 .74r .670 .607 .368 .135 .050 .018 .007 .002 1.000
For the purposesof this exampleassumethat the physicalpropertiesof the oil sand
are the sameas thoseof the overburden.
Solution Steamrequirementfor the reservoirbelow the steamchamber:
iv. The quantitiesof steamrequiredfor this caseare the sameasthosecalculated
in (iii).
v. The heataheadofa steadilyadvancingfront is calculatingusingequation2.45.
In the presentcasethe frontal advancerate is
U = 1..5m/y = 4.76 x 10-om/s
Transient
HeatTransfer
Aheadof an AdvancingFront 49
The storedheat is thus
KA(TS - TR) 1.7x40,000(264-15)
= 3.56x 1014
J
U 4.76x l0-8
and the corresponding
quantity of steamis
3.56x 1014
= 247 kt
1/4lt 1oq
vi. The buildup of heat aheadof the advancingfront can be calculatedby multi-
plying the equilibriumvalue obtainedin (v) by the heat integralfactor calcu-
lated from equation 2.47 or read directly from Table 2.3. The yearly
incrementsin theseheat requirementsare shown in the following table;the
heat requirementdrops off toward zero as the heat accumulates.
Steam Requiredto ProvideHeat Stored Beyondthe Front
CASE (iv) CASE (vi)

YEAR Fixed Front Moving Front
I
81,576 71,583
2 33,'790 24,268
J 25,928 16,714
21,858 12,89L
5 19,257 10,502
6 17,4tl 8,840
7 16,010 7,608
I 14,901 6,654
9 13,997 5,890
10 13,238 5,265
Total 257,966 r70,2t5

AverageRate, kt/y 25.8 r7.0
EFFECTOF CHANGINGFRONTVELOCITY
In the precedingsection,the temperaturedistributionaheadof a front moving at

constantvelocityUwas determined.It wasshownthat a dynamicsteadystateis ap-
proached.In practice,the front velocityis not constant;frequently,it tendsto de-
creasewith time.
To study this effect, differential equation 2.41 was integrated numerically
using the explicit finite differenceprocedure.The left-hand side of the equation
wasevaluatedfor a giventime at equallyspaceddistancesand then the correspond-
ing temperaturechangeat eachpoint wascalculatedfor a smalltime step,assuming
that the right-handside of the equationdid not changesignificantly.
The resultsof sucha calculation,in which-at a dimensionless time of 2-the
front velocitywas reducedto half of the initial value (and the dimensionless time
using the new value of U becameinstantaneously 0.5), are shown graphicallyin
Figure2.9.
1.0
I
o
o
ril 0.8
D ResponsewhenU changes from
c 200o/o
to 100o/o
at 0.5time
- n- ' A
-
E Asymptot€
o for U=200%
o l-
E
G 0.4
ctl
o
E o.z
o
o
E
0
0 1 2 3 4 S Figure2.9EffectofReduced
Dimensionless
Timebasedon U=100% FrontVelocity
At the point at which the velocitywaschanged,the heat integralhad reached

85% of the initial steady-state value. With the decreasein velocity,the potential
steady-statevalue doubled and the heat integral was then only 42.6Voof the new
steadystate.With the reductionin velocity,the "run over" of heat by the interface
decreased, and accumulationof heat beyondthe interfaceincreased.As a result,
the responsecurve approachedthe new asymptote.
Also shown in Figure 2.9 is the heat integral curve for the casewhere the
interfacestartedout at the lower velocity.This curve is alwaysabovethe other,but
it may be seenthat the differencebecomesquite small soon after the changein
velocity.
The Situation Where the Front Advance Velocity ls Inversely
Proportional to the Square Root of Time
lt happensthat a simplesolutionto equation2.38 canbe obtainedwhen the front

advancevelocityis inverselyproportionalto the squareroot of time. It is of interest
becauseit is a simpleexampleof the casewherethe front velocityfalls with time.e
The variation of the front velocity u with time is assumedto be given by
equation2.49,whereb is a dimensionless constantthat determinesthe rate atwhich
the velocityfalls. The velocitystartsat infinity unlessb : 0.
d.
U=b (2.4e)
The temperaturedistribution for this situation is given by the remarkably
simpleequation2.50;this reducesto equation2.18it b is set equalto zero-i.e., if
the front is stationary.
'A practical
situationwhich correspondsapproximatelyto this condition is that wherea cylin-
drical steamzoneis growing radially about a vertical injectionwell. If the rate ofvolumetric growth
of the chamberis constant,then the radius of the chamberincreasesat a rate proportional to the
reciprocalof the squareroot of time, as is assumedabove.
For this caseb:0.5R(at)-0s whereR is the radiusat time t. However,the situationis not
identical to that describedabove,since the area is also increasins.
Effect of Changing Front Velocity
-
s 0.8
o
ro 0.6
o
o 0.4
!
G
> o.2
0r
0
Parameterb Figure 2.10 Heat Integral Factors
n* erfc(z + b) t
'=-"rf.(b) wnerez=2{^ (2.s0)
The heat integralmay be calculatedfrom either equation2.51,which is similar in
form to equation2.25 for the stationaryfront, or from equation2.53,which relates
the heat integralto equation2.45 for,the steady.tut" foia constantvelocityfront.
o"t
a^ = 2KQ,- ra tlLaall
u1rd
(2.s1)
where
e"
B(b) = - b\f1r (2.s2)
erfc(b)
= oc{r,- riltcfu) where =

G(b) (2.s3)
! #uru,
The factorsB and G are shownasfunctionsof the parameterb in Figure2.10.It is
interestingto note that the situationapproaches thi steady-state
cas-efor largerb;
i.e., G tendsto 1 as b increases.
In many practicalcases,it will be found that the heat aheadof an advancing
front is not very different from the steadystate level. For example,supposethat a
front were advancingat a rate that is inverselyproportional to the .qrrur" root of
time and that it had progresseda distanceof 100ft in 1 year.Then, usingthe for-
mula in footnote9, and issuminga typical value of 0.7 ti'z/dfor a givesivalue of
0.5 x 100x (0.7 x 365;-os:3.73 forb. From Figure2.l0itcan be seenthat, for
this valueof b, the factor G(b) would be nearlv 1..
RADIAL HEAT FLOW FROM A WELL
When a fluid suchas steamor hot wateris injectedthrougha well, there is consid-
erableheat loss from the well bore to the overburden.Fourier'sequationfor radial
flow may be derived from equation2.6 by substitution. Howeve., it is simpler to
start from first principles.The developmentis similar to that for linear flow eiven
on page31.

Consideran elementalcylinder about a vertical well such as that shown in
Figure 2.11;the height of the cylinder measurednormal to the paper is L.
Assumethat heat is flowing at a rate Q radially from the center. Then
e =-KAffi=-znnt*# (2.s4)
and
_ a Q = zrnLpc#= zotK# + 2,RLK# (2.ss)

AR
A2T I AT laT
(2.s6)
dR' R AR a0t
We are interestedin the solution of this radial form of Fourier's equation for the
casewherethe temperatureat the well bore (i.e.,whereR : R,) is suddenlyraised
to the steamtemperature15 and the surroundingground is initially at zp.
The temperaturedistributionwill be a function of time and radius.It will de-
pend upon the radiusof the well bore,R,, and the thermal diffusivity, o.'It i, ,"u-
son_ableto expect that the smaller the radius of the well-bo1,e,the les_s
udfb.e lhe
penetrationof heat into the surroundings.Also, the heat lossfrom a unit area of
the well surfacewill be grgater than for a plane surface becauseof the divergent
radial heat flow.
The solution for these boundary conditions is developedby carslaw and
Jaegerusingthe Laplacetransformationmethod.The resultis
I t R\ / p\ I
r - rn_,, 2 ilr:::l
^r,-,1r,\, urr]
rr-7;='-;J--" [-,,", @ &)t
:l:\! dtn(w)
(2.s7\
where,16and % are Besselfunctions of zero.ord,erand of the first and second
kinds, respectively,and w is a dummyvariablethat dropsout when the integralis
evaluated.
Equation2.57 is of the form
#='(#,'*) (2.s8)
Figure 2.11
RadialHeat Flow from a Well 53

The first parametermay be consideredto be the dimensionless time and the sec-
ond, the dimensionless radius.
Although the expressionfor F (the right-handside of equation2.57) is com-
plex, it may be evaluatedreadilyusinga computer.A plot of F versuslog,o(R/R,)
is given in Figure 2.12.
For largevaluesof dimensionless time, the initial linear part of the curvesin
Figure2.12is givenby a straightline drawn from (0, 1) to the point on the horizon-
tal axiswhere
o.rlr"s,,(*)
+ o1u]
,.r,,(*) = (2.s8A)
'"t"(^+)- o'1so
This equationis basedupon an asymptoticexpansiongiven by carslaw and Jaeger
(1959). -i!\
The rate of heat lossfrom the well at time I is given by
e = -2trR*t.(+\
dR
(z.ss)
\ /o=*-
The temperature gradient at the well may be obtained by differentiating
equation2.57 with respectto R, with the result
Q= (2,rR,
L'(g#) -"^r'*, (2.60)
f-_" wllSw)+ Y\w)l
T-TR1.0
ffi 0.8
afterCarslawand Jaeger1g5g
0.6 Parametsr
is dimensionless
timedtl*
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 5 10 2030 so 100
R/Rw
Figure 2.12 TemperatureDistribution around a Circular Well Bore as a Func-
tion of Time

The heat flow may be written in a dimensionless
form as
= dW
Q * = (2rrR,L) (Zr -
f^) * # ['-'-a''ott*'
wlr\w) + Y?,(w)l
o.=;vfu^="(#) (2.61)
values of the integralin equation2.61 are tabulatedby Jaegerand clarke (Jaeger

and Clarke 1942), and a plot of Q* versus the dimensionlesstime is given in
Figure 2.13.The curve in Figure 2.13maybe represented by the following empiri-
cal cubic equation.
ln(O*)= -0.000629x3 - 0.308x- 0.0150

+ 0.0203x2
where
'=t"(#)
(2.62)
0 1. ( R q .) 1 0 '
Also shownin Figure2.13is the asymptotethat corresponds
to the heatlossfrom a
portion of a largeflat surfacehavingthe sameheatedareaas the cylinder.
Cumulative Heat Flow from Well Bore
The total heat lost from the well bore after time / may be found by integrating
equation2.61.
f' I' - & ) - rR ? ,If " F , d t *

e,: I edt =2rKL(Ts-rill JgFtdt=2rKL(75
Js-
"' q
Jo
(2.63)
Solldcurveis theorelicalcurve.
Az Triangularpointsare from correlallon.
o
o
tr1
o
6
E 0'5
,9
E o'3
o)
.E 0.2 Heatloss trom tlat
Figure 2.13 Heat Loss from Well
o surfacefor comDarison, Bore. The Value ofR* usedin
0.1 calculatingthe dimensionless time is
0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 the equivalentradius of the well bore
Dimensionless
Time after allowing for insulationeffects.
RadialHeatFlow from a Well 55

where
. d- t-
t4
R'*
This may be rewritten to give a dimensionless
cumulativequantityof heatQ!:
QT 2rrKL(Ts- T^)R', = o'o*

Q,O
(2.64)
fo.
A plot of pi versus/* is given in Figure2.14.The curve may be representedby the
empiricalcubic equation
ln(Q!) = -0.000629x3+ 0.0235x2+ 0.621x+ 0.472 (2.6s)
where
'"(*t)
Factors Affecting Well Bore Heat Loss
TLe_fateof heat loss from a well bore is proportional to the length of the well, to
th,ethermalconductivityof the ground,and to the temperaturedifferencebetween
the 1v_ell bore and the surroundings.The rate decreases with time, as shown in
Figure 2.13.The decreasewith time is causedby the decreaseof the temperature
gradientas the ground around the well bicomesheated.
Although the heat loss falls initially at a rate inverselyproportionalto the
squareroot of time, as it did for linear flow (seeequation2.24),the rate decreases
more slowlyafter the initial periodbecauseof the divergingradial flow. A circular
well is better cooledby the surroundingsthan is a portion of a largeflat planehav-
ing the samearea.
It is important to notice the effect of the well radiuson the rate of heat loss.
For a given value of time in Figure 2.13,the rate of heat lossis lessfor a smaller
radiusthan for a largerone;this is becauseits surfaceareais smaller.A well of zerc
radiuslosesno heat!
Insulation of Wells to ReduceHeat Loss
Considerthe caseof a well havingan externalradiusR2 and supposethat the well

is partly filled with an annulusof materialhavingan insideradiusof R r and an out-
side radiusof R2, aSin the crosssectionshownin Figure 2.15.
If the insulationhas the samethermal propertiesl0as the surroundings,then
the effect of the insulationis the sameas that of reducingthe radius of the well
from Rz to Rr. The heatflow can be determinedby usingFigure2.13if Rr is substi-
tuted for the equivalentwell bore radiusR,.
toonly the thermal conductivityis of importance,sincethe amountof heat storedin the insu-
lation will be negligiblecomparedto the total quantitiesof heat involved.This is equivalentto say-
ing that the transferof heat through the annulusis equivalentto a steady-statetransfer.This is the
reasonthat the plots of temperatureversuslogro(R/R,) becomestraightin the vicinity of the well in
Fis.ure2.12.

rO
o
o
o 105
3 Solld curve ls lheoretlcal llne.
6 104 Trlangular polnts are from correlatlon.
o
I
o to3
g
l02
E
o 101
ll
o Brok€ncurve ls for flat surface,
-9
100
.9
o
o t o'1
E
1o'1 1oo 1ol ft2 103 104 1os
i5
Dimensionless
Time
Figure 2.14 CumulativeHeat Loss from Well Bore
lf the insulatingmaterial has a thermal conductivitydifferent from the sur-

roundings,then an equivalentwell bore radiuscan be determinedby making the
thermalresistance of the insulatingannulusequalto that of a hypotheticalannulus
havingan internal radiusR, and the sameconductivityas the ground.
The steady-state thermal resistanceof an annularinsulatoris given by
Tt-Tz_ln(Rz/Rr)
(2.66)
O 2rLKr
whereKr is the thermal conductivityof the insulator.Let this be equivalentto the
thermal resistanceof an annulushaving an internal radiusR, (the equivalentwell
radius)and externalradiusof Rz and composedof materiallike the surroundings.
Then
ln(RzlRr)_ ln(RzlR,)
(2.67)
2trLKr 2rLK
which may be reducedto
R*= o,(fr)"'' (2.68)
WellBoreRadiusR 2
InsulationRadiusR ,
Figure 2.15

substitutionof this valueof R, in the abcissa
of Figure2.13will make a properar-
lowancefor the effect of the annularinsulation.
In mostcasesthe thermalresistanceof the_annurus,
incrudingany insulation,
will be defined by an overall heat-transfer
coefficient rutrr", irrun uy tr," thermal
conductivityof an insulatingmaterial.The
estimationof this t coeffi-
cient is discussedlater. "ut+r"nrr"r
If the transfer from the tubing of radiusR1
to the outer welr perimeter is de-
terminedby a heat-transfer coefficientut (basedon the surfaceur"u
then the heat-transferresistanceis givenby or the tubing),
Tr-Tz I
a 2rRrLUt (2.6e
Equatingthis to the thermarresistanceof
the annulusof internal radiusR, filled
with materialof conductivityK leadsto
ln(Rr/R") I
2rLK 2rRtLUt (2.70)
This reducesto the fo'owing expressionfor
the effectivewell radius,R,:
R. = ftrg-Ktu1a1
e,7t)
substitutionof this value in the dimensionless
time in the abcissaof Figure 2.13
will allow for the barrier to heat-transfer
exertedby the annulus.Note that if
ut = 6, then R. : R2; also,if u1 were zero,
then R, would alsobe zero.
The EquivalentWell Radiuswith Multiple t
Resistances
In most casesthe heat-transfercoefficient
u1 representsthe combined effect of a
numberof individual resistancesto heat flow. A typical case
following diagram.
is rvl
vurv rr represented
by the
Steam Steam Tubing Insulation Annulus Casing Cement Formation

if Wall
T=Ts Film Wall Present
The resistances of the steamfilm and of the metal walrs

are relativelysmal and
may be neglected.The heat-transferacross
the annulus occurs by two parallel
mechanisms-radiationand convection.The
combinationof resistancesfor the
overall situationmay be representedas follows:
Convectlon

In this diagram the resistancesto heat transfer are measuredin degreesCel-
oF
siusper watt,'CW-1 (or in Englishunits, Btu-t h).
ln(R2/R.u'1")
=
lncement
z"LK*
"- (2.72)
1.t
l'conu
h, 2rrRi
where ft. is the convectiveheat-transfercoefficient for the annulus. Methods for

predictingthis are discussedlater;R; is the inner radiusof the annulus.
1l
l-^t = -
lt
(2.73)
h, 2rrR,
ln(R.",1.g/R;) (2.74)
2rrLKinur
The overallresistanceis
1 (2.7s)
l"roral=In."..n,* *finsul
1 I
-;
t*
and the overallheat-transfercoefficient(basedon the tubing radiusR1)is givenby

1 (2.76)
ZrRtUt
/total
1 (2.77)
or u' -
2rRrrro,u,
The equivalentradiusof the well is given by

R. = ftrg-z'K""t^t (2.78)
Direct Injection of Steam Down the Well Casing
Direct injectionof steamdown the well casingis the simplestway to operatean in-
jectionwlll and is frequentlypracticed.For example,Esso,in its extensivecyclic
steamstimulation project at Cold Lake in Alberta, injects steamdirectly down the
annulus.This avoidsthe needfor a high-temperature packerto isolatethe annulus
from the tubing. The use of such a packer presents difficulties in cyclic wells be-
causeof the problem in arrangingfor venting gases up the anulus during the pro-
duction pu-ping period. A major disadvantage of operating with direct steam
injectionin tire annulusis that the casingis raised to the steam temperature, and
mlchanical stressesdue to expansionare 'iery high. High-strength casing (e'g',
N80)is normallyemployed,and eventhen the compressive yield stressis usuallyex-
ceeded,and thi casingdevelopsa residualtensile stress when it is cooled'
Heat lossesut" th" highestpossiblebecause the equivalent well radiusis that
of the casing(i.e.,u1: oo). in
Nevertheless, relatively shallow projects the heatloss
59
RadialHeat Flow from a Well
is acceptable.In the numerical examplethat is developedlater, the well bore heat
lossfor a 17.8cm-diameterwell (7 in.) 460 m long delivering160m3/d of steamis
about 5 to 10Voof the heat injection rate.
Injection of Steam in the Tubing with the Annulus Full of Gas
In this casethere are two mechanismsfor heat transferacrossthe annuluswhich
operatein parallel: radiation and convection.
Radiant heat transfer between two concentriccylinders
The transfer of radiant energymay be calculatedfrom the following equation:
(2.7e)
where i refers to the inner cylinder

o refers to the outer cylinder
T is the absolutetemperature
e is the surfaceemissivity
Ai is the areaof the inner cylinder
o is Stefan-Boltzmannconstant: o = 5.669x 10-8 Wm2 Ka or
1..714x 10-eBtu/h ft2 1.R;4
It is assumedthat the surfacesbehavelike "grey" bodies.
The radiationheat-transfer
coefficientftp,basedon the areaof the inner tube,
is given by
, Q =^ oQ?+ril(r,+r.)
flp
"
-
(2.80)
Ai(Ti - T R ,I I
T.)
* - \
; R,l; t/
The emissivityof typical oxidizedsteelis about0.8.
A plot of /ra against4 from equation2.80is given in Figure 2.16for an emis-
sivity of 0.8 and RifR, : 0.5. Curvesare shownfor a rangeof temperaturediffer-
ences(I - [) and steamtemperature7].
Convective Heat Transfer between Two ConcentricVertical
Cylinders
The convectiveheat transferacrossthe annulusmay be written as
2rrLK*LT
9conu = (2.81)
HR/&)
, = Qronu -- I Keff
" znR,r-LT & r"(R/R,

E
=
Eso
o
:E
t40
o
#c . 0
o
l- 20
a!
o
Iot o
a6-
E
iEl
q
tr SteamTemperature
degreesCelsius
Figure 2.16 Tubing-CasingRadiant Heat Transfer
whereK"11,the ffictiue thermalconductivityof the gascontents,is higherthan the

true thermal conductivity, Kg, of the gas becauseof the fluid motion causedby
thermal convection.The ratio K*IK, has been studied for heat transfer acrossthe
gap betweenvertical flat plates,but no studiesappearto havebeen madefor annuli
betweenvertical cylinders.It is reasonable to assumethat the effectswill be simi-
lar. A mitigating factor is that for most steaminjection systems,the transferby con-
vectionis significantlysmallerthan that for radiation.
For the spacebetweenparallelverticalplates,the ratio K"u/Keis found to be
a function of the Rayleighnumber,
Nnu=
(YP)r,r,-r") (2.82)
whereg is the accelerationdue to gravity

p is the thermal coefficient of thermal expansionof the fluid equal to
'1.f
1,/V@V/AI)(This is T^,",for an ideal gas.)
p is the fluid density
Cp is the fluid specificheat
tt is the fluid viscosity
K is the fluid thermal conductivity
6 is the gap betweenthe vertical surfaces
Tt - T, is the temperaturedifference
In this expressionthe group within the bracketsis dependentupon the fluid and its
temperatureand pressure.It is customaryto evaluatethesepropertiesat the aver-
agetemperaturebetweenthe two surfaces.Numericalvaluesfor the group for air at
pressures of 1, 10,and 100bar are shownin Figure 2.17.
The value of the factor declineswith increasingtemperatureand increases
with pressure.The pressureeffect is largely due to the changein the densityp; this

'to12 Ordinateis the groupwhichis in bracketsin equation2.82
'tott
T
Y,oto
ct
L rot
'l .'o'
o
C'
,[ to'
6
10
300 400 500 600
in degreesKelvin
Temperature
Figure 2.17 Natural ConvectionFactorfor Air
is nearlyproportionalto pressure.Increasingthe pressureby a factorof L0increases

the value of Nnuby a factor of approximately100.However, since the heat transfer
I is proportionalto the J or ] powerof Nn" (seethe following),the heattransferonly
inireises by a factor of approximately1001/a to 1001/3,or 3.2 to 4.6.
At low values of Nru, convectionhas little effect on the transfer of heat. As
Nquis increased,fluid motion increases;
eventually, at values between106and 10i'
the flow becomesturbulent. Holman recommends the following equations(Holman
1981):
K.,'
Nn" < 6000
I\8
= r#(;)'
fi o.rn
6000<Nnu(2x10s (2.83)
2xl}s(Nn"<1.1 x107 =oo',N#(;)

E
Theseequationsalso include the effect of the ratio of the height of the chamberto
the width (L/6). The rangeof this variablecoveredby the correlationis 11to 42. It
does not seemreasonablethat the effect of 6lL would increaseindefinitely up to
the ratiosfound in injectionwells-e.g., valuesof Ll6 of severalthousand.[t is sug-
gestedthat an arbitraryvalueofL/6 : 42be substitutedin the precedingequations
for the prediction of convectiveheat loss in well annuli. That is,
Ketr
6000<Nn"(2xI}s = 0.13Nil1
K8
(2.84)
2 x r o 5 ( N n u < 1 . x1 l o i = 0.048Nil;
Z
Values of Ns" ma] be estimatedby multiplying the values of the ordinate from
Figure2.I7 by 63(Ti- 4), as in equation2.82.

BackgroundMaterial on Well Bore Heat Loss
The classicpapersin this field are thoseof Ramey(1962,1965). As well as develop-

ing equationsfor the heat lossfrom a well at constanttemperature,which are simi-
lar to thosegiven in the previoussection,Rameyalso developedan approximate
solution for the heat loss from a hot-water injection well. This solution allows for
the decreasein temperatureas the injectedwater flows down the well.
Satter(1965)extendedtheseideasto allow the calculationof heatlosseswhen
superheated steamis injectedinto the well. Willwhite (1966)describedmethodsfor
predicting the heat-transfercoefficientbetweenthe tubing and the well casing.
Theseare basicallysimilar to the methodsdescribedhere,althoughthey do not use
the conceptof the equivalentwell bore radius.
FontanillaandAziz (1982)allowedfor the effectof two-phaseflow in the tub-
ing of the injectionwell. FarouqAli (1981)describeda calculationmethodthat com-
bines correlationsfor the two-phaseflow within the well bore and a rigorous
treatment of heat loss to the surroundings.The resulting equationswere solvedby
a numericalmethod.A recentpaper by Durrant and Thambynayagam (1986)de-
scribesa similar approachthat employsa somewhatdifferentcomputationmethod.
NumericalExampleof Well Bore Heat Loss Calculation

Steamis injectedinto a reservoirhaving a depth of 460 m using a well with a
17.8cm (7 in.) diametercasing.The conditionsare as follows:
Reservoirtemperature: 10'C
Steampressure: 10 MPa
Steamquality: 70%
Injectionrate: 160mr d I
-t
Assumethat the thermalconductivityof the overburdenis 1.7W m-t 'C and that
its volumetricheatcapacityis 2410kJ m 3'C-r. Neglectthe effectof the cement
aroundthe casing.
(a) Calculatethe heat injection rate in megawatts.
(b) Assumingthat the steamis injecteddirectly down the casing,calculatethe
heatlossratein megawattsafter 1, 10,100,and 1000daysof injection.Express
this lossas a percentageof the heat input.
(c) Plot the temperatureas a function of distancefrom the casingsurfacefor each
of the times in (b).
(d) Calculatethe heat lqqsrate 14lryg!!qag1_sgg3l9-!Ir€*tgt*fg-{
ggchof the times in
(b) and compare-tcthe heat loss that would be expectedfor a flat surfaceat
the samesteamtemperature.
(e) Assumethat the steamis injectedinto a 7.3 cm (21in.)-outside-diameter tub-
ing and that this is isolatedfrom the casingby a thermalpackerat the bottom
so that the annulusis filled with air at atmosphericpressure.Assumethat the
emissivityof the facingtubing and casingsurfacesis 0.8. The internal diame-
ter of the casingmay be takenas 16.5cm (6.5in.). For theseconditionsrepeat

the calculationsin parts (b) and (d) and comparethe answers
using a
chart. calculate the heat-transfercoefficientr fo, u casing
temperature
250"c and assumethat they do not vary with time. The theimal
conductivit
of air in the annulusmay be taken as 0.014gW m-1 oC-1.
(f) using the heat flows determinedin (e), calculate

the casingtemperaturefor
eachtime and make separateimproved estimatesof the
helt+ranster coeffi_
cient U' Repeat the heat-flow cilculations of (e) and repeat
until consistent
valuesare obtained.Revisethe bar chart producedin (e)
and atsoplot a graph
showingthe casingtemperatureas a funciion of the sieaming
time (use"alog
scalefor time).
Solution
L : 460m; R?: trin. : 0.0gg9m; Zn = 10.C; ?s : 311.C
steamquality : 70vo; injectionrate : 160m3d-1: 160,060kg 6-r
K = 1.7W m-l 'C; vol heat cap : 2410kJ.-3 o6 -1.
(a) Heat-injectionrate
From steamtables: vapor enthalpy : 2724.7kJ kg-1

Liquid enthalpy = 1407.6kJ kg-1
Heat in 70Voquality steam : 2724.7x 0.7 + 1407.6x 0.3
: 2329.57kJ kg-1 above0.C
Heat above Zp 2 3 2 9 . 5 7 - 4 . 2 x I 0 : 2 2 g 7 . 6 k J k g - r
:
Injection rate = 160,000 x 2297.6: 366 x 106kJ d-1
= 366 x 106x 1000/(24x 3600 x
106)
: 4.24MW
(b) Heat losswith injectiondown the casins
Dimensionlesstime (at/ R2*)(t) 7.71 77.I 771, 77I0

ln(dimenionlesstime) 2.04 4.35 6.65 8.95
Heat lossin megawattsfrom (2.62) 0.75 0.44 0.29 0.21
Heat loss as percentof input 77.5 10.4 6.8 5.0
(t)a:
x 1000)= 7.05x ffi
1.7/(2410

(c) Dimensionlesstemperaturesfrom Figure 2.12
DimensionlessTemperatures
Days of injection 10 100 1000

Heat lossW m-2
From well 2919 t726 rl44 810
Flar surface(2.22) 1169 370 lt7 JI
Correspondingradii and temperatures:
Temperaturesin degreesCelsius
Radius
in meters 1d r0d 100d
0.09 311 311 311
0.16 209 251, 266
0.28 109 188 22r
0.50 37 127 r76
0.89 10 64 127
1.58 10 25 85
2.81 10 10 52
s.00 10 10 22
8.89 t0 10 10
Theseresultsare plotted in Figure 2.18.

(d) Calculation of heat-lossrate
External areaof well casing= 2rR*L = 256.9m2
Days of injection 10 100 1000

Heat lossW m-2
From well 2919 1726 1144 810
Flat surface(2.22) 1,169 370 1,1,7 37

o
t
'6
300
o
f;o zso
q)
E,200
(,
! ,so
o
= loo
G
Euo
E
Po
Distancefrom Centre,m
Figure 2.18 TemperaturesAround InjectionWell
(e) Use equation2.80 to calculateftn.

o = 5.669x 10-8W m-r K-a
Ti=273+311=584K
To=273*250:523K
Emissivityfor both surfacesequals0.8.
4-' :':1t = 0.442; Ri = 0.442x 3.25 x 0.0254= 0.0365m

Ro 6.5
hn: 28.41Y--2 og-t
Use equations2.84 to calculateftc.

- 2.87s\2.54
0.5(6.s
$= = 0.0460m
Averagegas temperature= 553.5L.

Nnufactor from Figure 2.17 : 7.5 x 106
Nnu : 44,600; : 1.89
K"rrlKr: 0.13NR.25
, =_ 1.89K
,, : n u'
q '
RRRJ&) :
(J = hn * h6 : 29.3W --2 og-1
R- : 0.01812
m
Calculationof Loss Rate
Time in days 1 10 100 1,000
Dimensionlesstime 186 1,860 18,600 186,000
In(dimensionless
time) 5.22 t.J3 9.83 12.13
Heat lossin megawatts 0.38 0.26 0.18 0.13
(f) The precedingsolutionassumesa constantvalue for the casingtemperature.
In practicethe casingtemperaturemust start initially at Zp and then increase
asymptoticallytoward 7s. As it increases,the value of U also increasesand
the value of R, increases.The problem can be approachedmore exactly by
estimating the casing temperaturefor each time from the heat flows calcu-
lated earlier togetherwith the value of U. These temperaturesare then used
to estimatenew valuesof U, and the calculationis repeated.
Time in days 10 100 1,000

First iteration
Heat flow (MW) 0.375 0.256 0.184 0.t32
Casingtemperature("C) 190 228 252 268
Averageannual temperature('C) 250 270 281 290
ar ('c) 61, 4I 30 2l
ftr (W m-2'C-1) )A) 26.8 28.5 29.7
Np" factor x 10-7 r.4 1 0.65 0.62
Nn" 82,925 40,4'71 18,864 1,2,922
hs 2.2 1.8 1.5 t.4
N e wU ( W m t ' C t ) 26.4 28.6 30.0 31.1
R, (m) 0.0152 0.0175 0.0188 0.0199
dimensionlesstime 263 2,001 17,245 154,030
ln(dimensionless time) 5.570 7.601 9.755 11.945
Seconditeration
New Heat flow (MW) 0.352 0.253 0.186 0.136
Casingtemperature('C) 184 22'1 252 270
Averageannual temperature("C) 248 )AO 282 290
ar ("c) 63 42 29 2L
l,R(W m-2 "C-t) 23.9 26.7 28.5 29.8
Nn" factor x L0 7 1.4 1 0.65 0.62
Nn" 86,406 40,957 18,619 12,507
hc 2.2 1.8 1.5 t.4
u (w m-2 "C-1) 26.1 28.6 30.0 31,.2
R, (rn) 0.0149 0.0174 0.0189 0.0200
dimensionlesstime zt5 2,016 r7,151 t52,638
ln(dimensionless time) 5.611 7.609 9.750 tL.936
New heat flow (MW) 0.350 0.253 0.186 0.136
The heat flows just calculatedare essentiallythe sameas thoseat the start of the
seconditeration.
Summaryof Calculations
Heat Loss in MW
No tubing 0.75 0.44 0.29 0.21
With tubing last iteration 0.350 0.253 0.186 0.136
With tubing first iteration 0.375 0.256 0.184 0.132
Flat surface 0.300 0.095 0.030 0.010
Casingtemperature(with tube) ('C) 184 227 252 270

Casingtemperature(no tube) ('C) 311 311 Jll 3tl
The heat lossessummarizedin the upper part of the precedingtable are compared
in Figure 2.19.
The changeof casing temperaturewith time is shown in Figure 2.20. Note
that the scalein this figure is logarithmic and that the linear rate of changeof tem-
peraturebecomesvery small at the right-hand limit of the figure.
//,/'\
(t-)
\**,RADIALCONDUCTIVE
HEATLOSSFROMA BURIEDHEATEDCYLINDER
Another thermalconductionproblernof practicalsignificanceis the radialheatloss
from a verticalcylinderthat is initially at 7s and that is buriedwithin a mediumat
a lower temperatureZn. For example,when steamis injectedinto a vertical steam
stimulationwell, a vertical eylindrical region of the reservoir(radiusR7,)can be-
come heated.The pioneeringpaper by Bobergand Lantz (1966)on cyclic steam
stimulationassumesthat at the end of steaminjection,this situationprevailsand
that during the steamsoakingperiod that follows,heat is conductedradially into
the surroundingcolder reservoir.The temperatureof the surroundingreservoiris
assumedto be uniform at 7n at the end of injection.
The conditionsat the start of the soakingperiod (/ = 0) are thus
T=Ts for0<R<Rr
and T=Tn forR>R,
also, for
t)0, T=Tn atR=o.
= 0.6
z
E
E o.+
o
J
6
f o.z
1 10 100 1000
Steaming Time in days
ffi natsurtace
m Iniectintocasingffi tnpalntotubeffi tsriteration
Well
Figure 2.19 Heat Loss from Steam-Iniection

.!
at,
I 35ol SteaminsideCasing
I *01
9*,1 Steaminsidetube
E,*l
g{
F'*l
sl
I
'6 roo!
1 3 10 30 100 300 1,000 Figure2.20 Temperature
of Well
I SteamlngTlme In Days Casing
Two solutionsof the radial Fourier equation2.56 are availablewhich satisfy

theseconditions.
L. Volumetricheatcapacitiesand thermalconductivitiesof the cylinderand sur-
roundingsare equal.
T - r^ - t [- --r,,nltuz[t\lJ)d'[J
'Jo' (2'85)
rr - k= u
where7 is the volumeaveragetemperaturewithin the cylinder, is the first order
"I1
Besselfunction of the first kind, and u is a dummy variable (Boberg and,Lantz
1e66).
The precedingsolutionis basedupon an analysisgivenby carslaw and Jaeger
(1959,346).The solutiongivenby theseauthorsis moregeneraland alsoallowssiiu-
ationswherethe thermal propertiesof the cylinderand surroundingsdiffer.
2. The thermalconductivityof the cylinderis infinite.
This casemay provide a more realisticrepresentation of a coolingsteamchamber.

The reasonfor this is that the interior of a steamchambertendsto remainisother-
mal asit coolsbecauseof the transport of heat from hotter regionsto cooler onesby
the evaporationand condensationof water.
The solutionfor this casegiven by Carslawand Jaeger(L959,342)is
T - To d[J
= ! f* .-,ounl,pz (2.86)
Tt-T^ r'Jn- ULU
where
6 = 2@e)tz
-
(pC)^=^^
and 6s : IUJ"(U)- bJlU)1, + luyl(U) - by(U)12
where,16,
Jb Ys,andY1are Besselfunctions.
RadialConductiveHeat Loss from a Buried HeatedCylinder 69

T-t* 1.0
Ts TR - Qylin6lsphas same properties
as surroundings (Equation 2.85)
0.8 - -lo.s
{ . ---- Infinite conductivity cylinder
Parameteris b in eq. 2.86
b=2 for equal vol. h. cap.
0.6
0.4
o.2
0
-1 2
.ln.,o
(d/Rfr
;
Figure 2.21 Radial Heat Loss from Hot Cylinder
Valuesof the dimensionless temperaturecalculatedfrom equations2.85 and

2.86 are given in Figure 2.21.The broken line is from equationi.ss for the case
RadialHeat Loss from Hot Cylinder
Equal thermal conductivitiesand heat capacities(equation2.85)

d.t
Rl
'"r,,(#) T -T^
Ts-Tn
0.0316 - 1.50 0.'7979
0.0562 -1.25 0.7363
0.1000 * 1.00 0.6525
0.r778 -0.75 0.5473
0.3162 -0.50 0.425r
0.5623 *0.25 0.3023
1.0000 0.00 0.1985
1,.7783 0.25 0.1229
3.1623 0.50 0.0732
5.6234 0.75 0.0426
10.0000 1.00 0.0244
17.7828 t.25 0.0139
31.6228 1.50 0.0078
56.234t 1.75 0.0044
100.0000 2.00 0.0025

where the thermal properties of the buried cylinder are the same as those of the
surroundings.As would be expected,the heat lossfor this caseis lessthan that for
the cylinder having the sameheat capacityas the surroundingsbut an infinite ther-
mal conductivity(solidline with b : 2).
The table on page 70 gives values of the dimensionlesstemperaturecalcula-
tions for a wider rangeof times than shownin Figure 2.21for equation2.85.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bonenc, T. C. and LaNtz, R. B., "Calculation of the Productionof a Thermally Stimulated

Well," JPT, 1613-1623(December1966).
CarsLew, H.S. and Jaecen, J.C.: Conductionof Heat in Solids, Oxford: ClarendonPress
(19s9).
CLosueN,P.J. and SurrH, R.A., "TemperatureObservations and Steam-ZoneRise in the
Vicinity of a Steam-HeatedFracture," SPEJ,575-586(August 1983).
DunReNt, A. J. and THalrasvNavacau,R. K. M., "Wellbore Heat Transmissionand Pressure
Drop for Steam/WaterInjection and Geothermal Production: A Simple Solution Tech-
nique," SPEReservoirEngineering, 148-t62 (March 1986).
Fanouo Au, S.M., 'A ComprehensiveWellboreSteam/WaterFlow Model for SteamInjec-
tion and GeothermalApplications," SPEJ,527-534(October 1981).
FoNtaNILLa,J. P. and Aztz, K.: "Prediction of Bottom-Hole Conditions for Wet SteamIn-
jection Wells," JCPT, 8l-88 (March-April 1982).
flasrtNcs, C., Jn., quoted by Annar"rowrrz,M. and SrecuN, l. A., Handbookof Mathemati-
cal Functions,National Bureau of Standardsrep. Dover (1965).
Hor-laaN,J.P., Heat Transfer,5th Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, (1981),286-292.
Jarcen, J.C. and CLanKe,M.,A ShortTable...,Proc. Roy. Soc.Edinburgh,A6l,(1942)
229-230.
JnNsott,V.G. and Jerrnevs, G.Y., MathematicalMethods in Chemical Engineering, New
York: AcademicPress(1963),I49-15I.
Manruews, C.S. and RusseLq D.G., "PressureBuildup and Flow Testsin Wells," SpE
Monograph | (L967).
RalaEy, H.J.: "Wellbore Heat Transmission,"IPT, 427-435(April 1962).
Rauev, H. J., "How to CalculateHeat Transmissionin Hot Fluid Injection" in Fundamen-
tals of Thermal Oil Recovery,Dallas, Tex.: PetroleumEngineeringPublishingCo. (1965).
Serrrn, A., "Heat LossesDuring Flow of SteamDown a Wellbore,",IPl 845-851(July
1e6s).
VocEL, J.V., "Simplified Heat Calculationsfor Steamfloods,"SPE lI2l9, (1982);JPT, lI27-
1136(July 1984).
WtLLwuItE, G.P., "Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Steam and Hot Water Injection'
Wells," SPE 1449(1966).
Bibliography 71
Convective Heating
Wilhin Reservoirs
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 discussedthe transfer of heat by conduction;this is a slow process,and

many yearsare required for heat to move only a few tens of feet. Approachessuch
as the heatingof reservoirsusingwells containing electric or other heatersare inef-
fective for heating substantialvolumesof reservoirbecausethey, too, dependupon
conduction.The transfer of significant quantities of heat to the reservoir by con-
duction through relatively small heating surfacesis simply too slow.
i In this chapterthe much more practical alternativeof heatingby the injection
! of hot fluids (i.e., by forcedconvectiveheating)is discussed. For practicalreasons
f
the choiceof fluid is limited to water:either hot water or steam.Of these.steamis
I
t more popular becausemore heat can be transportedper pound and also because
steamcan produce a much more stableand completedisplacementof the oil. Rea-
sonsfor this secondadvantageare discussedin a later chapter.
In the processesconsideredin this chapter,heat is movedinto the reservoiras
sensiblg_and latqrltreat in the injected fluid, and, as the fluid passesthrough the
reservoir,heat is given to the cooler surroundings.This transfer of heat produces
temperaturegradientsin the surroundings,and these gradientscausethe conduc-
tion of heat from the boundariesof the flowing fluid. Thus, wh,i_le !!9 heat is trans-
pg{tqd to the reservoir by fluid convection, thermif CbnduCti6naiso plays-a
significant role..Qneimportant mechanismis the conductionof heat awayfrom the
heatedreservoirinto the overburdenand underburden.Although conductiontends
to be slow, the mechanismis of great importancqbecauseof the vast heatedareas
that developas a resultof hot-fluid injection. ''
72
Most of this chapteris concernedwith the processof forced convectivetrans-
port of heat to the reservoir coupled to the dissipationof this heat by conduction
through the large heatedareasthat develop.
SIMPLECONVECTIVEHEATTRANSFERWITHOUT CONDUCTIVE
HEAT LOSS
Considerthe simple,one-dimensionalflow of hot water within the reservoirshown

in Figure 3.1.It is assumed,in this section,that there is no heat lossfrom the upper
and lower horizontal bounds of the reservoir and that temperatureis a function
only of the distance,x, and time, /.
It is assumedthat the fluid saturationsdo not changeduring the process;e.g.,
the oil saturation is at the residual oil level and the water saturation is constant.
The fluid flowing out of the differential element,6x, shown in the figure will, in
general,be at a different temperaturefrom that entering. The changein the heat
flux will come from or go to the inventory of heatwithin the element.A balanceof
the heat rates about the differential elementyields
-hnp,C,({ = hrrrr({),* (3.1)

\dx ,6J
Heat in - Heat out = accumulation
This may be rearrangedas
(q) .v.p._c,/{\ =o (3.2)

\ a tl , p r c r \ o xl ,
where
p r C r = $ - 6 ) p ^ C p+ $ p " C , S , * 6 p . C o S o
The term p1C1has the dimensionsof heatper unit volumeper degreeof tempera-
ture; it is the volumetric heat capacityof the reservoirand is nol equal to the aver-
age density multiplied by the averageheat capacity.
Equation 3.2 showsthat for constantpositive valuesof the flow rate, the rate
of rise of the temperatureat any particular point is of the oppositesign to the tem-
peraturegradient if the volumetric heat capacityis constant,and is proportional to
the temperaturegradient.
Equation 3.3, which is the generalsolution of 3.2, describesa heat front that
movesalongthe bed at a velocity given by V1.The solution is suchthat any existing
temperatureprofile is moved unchangedalong the bed.
T=F(x:Vrt) (3.3)
whereF is anyfunctionand
V.P.Cn
't
PtCr
Simple ConvectiveHeat Transferwithout ConductiveHeat Loss 73

'w Figure 3.1 In this Figure Z. is equal
i > I I + to the total volumetricflow dividedby
V I the cross-seciionalarea
Figure 3.2 depicts the movementof a heat front along the bed such as would be
caised by suddenly raising the temperature of the incoming fluid--to a higher
temperature.
There are many simplificationsin the precedingderivation which will not be
realistic in actual operations.The assumptionof neglectingthe vertical heat losses
will be considerediater. Another assumptionis that the solid and fluid are at the
sametemperatureat a particular location. This assumptionis sometimesreferredto
as thermostaticequilibiium. It is realistic in reservoirscaleoperations,but it is of-
ten not realisticin small process-type packedbeds.If heat-transferresistances be-
tween the fluid and the bid and/or within the solids of the bed are included in the
theory, sharp fronts tend to become spreadout with time' Another phenomenon
that ciuseslongitudinaldispersionof heatis that of thermalc,onduction in the direc-
tion of the fluid flow. This becomes important for slow moving fronts (seepage47
for example).Despitethesevariousassumptions, the situationshown in Figures3.1
and3.2 haswithin it the basicconceptof a heat front moving through a reservoir at
a rate which is lessthan the fluid velocity.
Overall Heat BalanceAPProach
Another insight into the precedingproblemcan be gainedby consideringan overall

heatbalancefor the processdepictedby Figure3.2.In this processa quantityof hot
fluid at In1 has passedinto the heat front from the left and has left to the right at
temperature7n. The heat given up by this hot fluid has heatedthe reservoirin the
distince intervalxt - xo.Thesetwo quantitiesof heat maybe equatedas follows:
hV.p.C.(Ti':- Z^)(rr- /o) = hpvCl(Ti,1-Zp)(x1- xo) (3.4)
Equation 3.4 may be rearrangedto give

(xt - .ro) V*p.C,
vr= (3.5)
ur-tr)= prc.
This is the sameexpressionfor the velocity that was derived previously.

Another way of writing equation3.5 is
v,=m=Tffi= Ho
p1C1(Tî- Tp)
(3.6)
xo x1 x Figure3.2
74 Convective Heating within RBservoirs Chap' 3

In equation 3.6 the numerator, F10,iq the rate of heat iqjection pglurr,it" eloss-
sectional area and the denominator is the heat content of a unit volume of the
heatedreservoir above the initial temperatureZn.
Steam lnjection
Assumethat in Figure 3.1 wet steamhaving a qualityfi and a temperature7s is in-
troduced into the reservoirrather than water. The steamflow rate is I{zskilograms
per squaremeter per secondand the latent heat is ,\ kilojoules per kilogram. The
water saturation in the steam-saturatedzone may be and probably will be lower
than in the original reservoir.We will determine the velocity at which the conden-
sation front will advance.
As in the previoussectiona heat balancemay be written that equatesthe in-
jected heat to that stored in the reservoir.As before, this heat balanceusesZn as
the basistemperature.
l41h(f,I + (7t - TR)C*)(I'- lo) = h(xt - xoX(prCrXZs- Z*) +,\dp"s")
(xt - xo) wu,I+(Ts-Tn)C,) Ho
' (3.7)
(tt - to) (ptCt),(Tt - fo) + ,\dp,S" (A'Cr;,14 - fo) + ,\dp,S"
In the right-handside of equation3.7,the numeratoris the total rate of heat inje_g-
tion per unit area and the denominatoris the heat per unit volume of hot, steam-
saturatedreservoir.This is similar to equation3.6. The term idpJ, is the latent
heat of the steamremainingwithin a unit volume of steam-sweptreservoir;it is
normally very small comparedto the sensibleheat term and can be neglectedwith
little error.
-For a given massrate of injection,,FIowill be larger for steaminjection than for
hot-waterinjection. Consequentlythe rate of advanceof a steamcondensationfront
be greaterthan that of a thermal front producedby the injection of hot water at
ry!_l_l
the sametemperature.The effect may be evenlarger if the volumetric heat capacity
of the steamfloodedreservoir(prC,),is lessthan that of the waterfloodedreservoir
becauseof the lower water saturation.
An important conclusionwhich may be drawn from this analysisis that be-
causethe steamfront movesfaster than _awater front producedby the sa-mg*!q6s
floy of water, heat is not carried beyond the condensationfront by the.conde4-safe
from the steam;the steamcondensationfront catchesand keepspacewith the con-
densatehot-water front, and the two advancetogether. This phenomenonis dis-
cussedfurther later on.
LAUWERIER'SEOUATION
In many casesin thermal recoverywe are interestedin the lateral conduction of
heat awayfrom a flowing streamof heatingfluid. One of the earliestrelationsthat
was derived to describea processof this sort is due to H. A. Lauwerier. He consid-
ered the situationshownin Figure 3.3.
Lauwerier considereda situation in which hot water is flowing in a layer of
thickness /r within an oil sand reservoir. As the water flews through the water-
Lauwerier'sEquation
saturatedzone, heat is lost to the oil sand above and below. The derivation is also
applicableto a permeablesand layer which is being heated by flowing water or
other fluid and which is boundedaboveand below by impermeablerock. Figure 3.3
showsthe situation modeledby Lauwerier. The flowing water layer has a height ft.
Vertical distancesare measuredfrom the centerline.It is assumedthat there is no
vertical temperaturegradientwithin the water layer. Water is injected at a constant
rate and temperature.
A heatbalanceabout the regionof thickness6x gives equation3.8. This is the
sameas equation 3.1 with the addition of the last term, which representsthe heat
loss to the oil sand aboveand below.
-hnp-c,(#)*= h^r,(#)u'- ,*,(#),=^,,* (3.8

The term pr Cr representsthe volumetric heat capacityof the water layer, as given
by
prCr = (I - 6)p^C^ +?p*CnS, * Qp.C"So (3.e)
The conductionof heatwithin the oil sandis determinedby Fourier'sequation3.10,
wherepzCz is the volumetric heat capacityof the oil sand determinedby an equa-
tion similar to (3.9).
"(#)=o,r,(#)
(3.10)
Substitutingthe dimensionlessvariablesof (3.11),

I
4Kzx
'o =
I
t hrp.c*v.
Yo = 2Y/h
t
I
T 4Kzt (3.11)
to =
a
T
I If P'c'
I
I
I
^ PrCt
I a=
I prc,
resultsin the following systemof equations
Figure 33 Lauwerier's Problem

Initial Boundary Conditions
rf=Ti=0att=0
Ti : 1 forx = 0 at t > 0
ConvectiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap.3
For lypl > 1:
Forlyrl = 1'
4#)=(#) (3.r2)
-(#)='
(#).(#) (3.13)
andTf = 7;
For rp = 6; rr =rt =roll;;:3 (3.14)
These equationswere solved by Lauwerier to give equation 3.15,which expresses

the temperaturewithin the oil sand layer as a function of time and location'
zi' = *"(ffi^
rrxo< to then .)
(3.1s)
and if xo > to then ?| = g
the temperaturewithin the water layer is found by substitutinglo: I to live

equation3.16.
If xo < to then ?i =
\2Y 0(to- xr)l
"rf.(--+) (3.16)
and if xp 2 tp then ?i = g
Figure 3.4 showsthe temperatureas a function of distancewithin the water layer

for variousvaluesof time plotted using the dimensionlessvariablesjust shown with
0=1.
1
g
E 0.8
G
o
CL
E 0.6
o
o
8E 0.4
o
e o.2
.E
oo
00.5 1 1.5 Figure 3.4 Reservoir Temperatures
Posltion x D
Dlmenslonless Calculatedfrom Lauwerier'sEquation
Equation
Lauwerier's 77
Numerical ExamPle
Hot water at 200'C is injected into a water layer 4 m thick containedwithin an oil
sandreservoirat a rate;f 10 m3/h. The flow from the well is radial.The following
propertiesmaYbe used:
Porosity0.30; Tr : 10'C
Water laYer; S, : 1.0
Oil sand:S, : 0.3; S, : 0'71 K :1'2 Btu/h ft'F
Rock: heat capacity0.2 Btu/lb "F: SG = 2.2
Oil: heat caPacitY0'5; SG : 0.95
Lauwerier'sequation, as derived before, can be employedfor a radial systemif the

a
dimensionaldistanceis redefined.Plot the temperaturewithin the water layer as
function of the radial distance R from the injection well for times of 10, 100, and
if
1000days.Also plot the temperaturedistribution that would have been obtained
there hid been no heat loss to the overburden and underburden. Plot the tempera-
ture distribution that would be expectedin a temperature-observation well located
10 m from the injection well. Include temperatures in the oil sand above and below
the water laYer.
Solution
1. Lauwerier'sequationin radial coordinates
oR=o(nR2)=2nRdR
- o.o,r,(#) oo:, o,r,(#) dA- 2K,(Ty),=,,0n (3.r7)

Heatfrom water Heat stored Heat loss
hv"'
This is similar to equation 3.8. ,4 has been substitutedfor x and Qn teplaced
making these substitutions;i'e''
The solution can thus be written immediatelyby
4Kzx
*o =
6;Ci,
becomes
4KztrR2 (3.18)
=
"o ip,c,e,
andyo, tp, ?nd 0 are unchanged.
Calculation:
The results are given in the following tables'
a. Temperature in the water laYer
ConvectiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap' 3

Column3
4K2rrRz
'o :
(h p *c,e,)
Kz = 1.2Btu/h ft oF = 28.8Btu/d ft .F
h=4m=13.123ft
p.C, = 62.4Bfifft3 'F
Q* = ro m3f h = 847.4ft3ld
Column 4
-
4Kzt
t^ =
h'prC,
p,C, = 62.4x 2.2 x 0.2:27.46 Btuft3 "F
prCr = 6p,C* + (1 - 6)p,C, = 37.94Btu/ft3'F
S, = 0.3; So = 0.7
poCo= 62.4x 0.95x 0.5 :29.64 Btufr3.F
pzCz= 65,p,C, I gS',p,Co+ (1 - 6)p,C, = 31.10Btuft3'F
o=P'l'= 1.221
Pzvz
Xp,
x ='j l 7 (ro _ *d l -',,
Temp (in col.2) = 10 + 190erfc(X)
Radius(ft) Temperature('C) XD
Time:10d to=0.176
0 200.0 0.000 0.000
10 198.8 0.00s 0.006
20 194.9 0.02r 0.024
30 r87.4 0.047 0.059
40 t73.6 0.083 0.r24
50 t42.4 0.130 0.275
60 10.0 0.188
Time= 100d tD -- 1.763

0 200.00 0.000 0.000
10 199.6 0.005 0.002
20 198.5 0.021 0.007
30 196.5 0.047 0.016
Lauwerier'sEquation 79
continued
Radius(ft) rature ('C)
40 193.8 0.083 0.029

50 190.1 0.130 0.046
60 185.5 0.188 0.068
80 l'73.r 0.334 0.126
100 155.3 0.522 0.2r2
L20 130.3 0.751 0.338
140 95.0 1,.022 0.537
160 46.4 1.335 0.923
180 10.0 1.690 2.822
200 10.0 2.086
Time = 1000d tD -- L7.631

0 200.0 0.000 0.000
10 199.9 0.005 0.001
20 199.5 0.021 0.002
30 198.9 0.04'l 0.005
40 198.1 0.083 0.009
50 r97.0 0.130 0.014
60 195.6 0.188 0.020
80 r92.2 0.334 0.036
100 187.8 0.522 0.057
120 t82.3 0.751 0.083
160 t68.2 1.335 0.150
200 r49.6 2.086 0.239
250 r20.6 3.259 0.389
300 86.7 4.694 0.590
350 ) 2.5 6.389 0.862
400 25.2 8.344 1.239
500 10.0 13.038 2.7s2
600 10.0 18.774
The predicted temperaturesin the reservoir are plotted againstthe distancefrom

the injection well in Figure 3.5 for 10, 100,and 1000days'
b. Temperaturein observationwell at R : 32.8ft (10 m)
Golumn 4
Height abovewater sand in feet
Golumn3
height
Vn- -"| = -
h/2
ConvectiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap' 3

80
oo tso
;
J
6 100
o
CI
-
o
t50
Figure 3.5 Predicted Temperaturesin

600 Reservoir as a Function of Distance
from Injection Well
Column2
xD+ yD-l
1= - *df'''
210(tD
The other columns are as before.
TEMP'C to-1 Height(ft)
Tirne= 10d; to = 0.176; xa = 0.056

184.3 0.073 0.000 0
106.0 0.47r 0.305 2
51.6 0.869 0.610 4
23.9 r.267 0.914 6
13.5 1,.664 1.219 8
10.7 2.062 1.524 10
Time = 100d; to = 1.763; ro : 0.056

195.8 0.019 0.000 0
t51.4 0.231 0.610 4
111.1 0.442 t.2t9 8
77.6 0.653 t.829 t2
52.2 0.864 2.438 16
34.4 1.075 3.048 20
23.1 t.286 3.658 .A
16.5 t.497 4.267 28
Time = 1000d; to -- 17.631;xa = 0.056

r98.7 0.006 0.000 0
184.6 0.072 0.610 4
170.'7 0.138 t.219 8
157.0 0.203 1.829, t2
r43.6 0.269 2.438 16
t30.7 0.335 3.048 20
118.5 0.401 3.658 24
106.8 0.467 4.267 28
The calculatedtemperaturesin the observationwell are plotted in Figure 3.6.
Equation
Lauwerier's 81
oo 150
;
E roo
o
c
o
F50
01020 Figure 3.6 Predicted Temperaturesin

Helght abov€ water sand In feet Observation Well
c. Temperaturedistribution for no loss

Heat Balance
Q,p*C,(Ts - Ta)t = nR2hprC t(Ts - Ta)
p = (Q*P'c*t|n
\ rhPrct I
This equationyieldsvaluesofR = 58.1,183.7,and 581.4ft for 10,100and 1000days.
Thesevalueshave been plotted as dotted lines in Figure 3.5. Note that the noloss
radiusoccurswhenxo : 1o.
THERMAL EFFICIENCYFORCONSTANT.DISPLACEMENT
RATE
STEAM.DRIVE
Considerthe steam-drivesituation shown in Figure 3.7. Steamis injectedfrom the

left side at a rate sufficientto causethe heatfront to advanceat a constantrateA.
The shapeof the heatedareaA is not specified.
The specification of the problem requires that the steam-injectionrate be
raisedcontinuouslyto compensatefor the increasingheat losses.It is assumedthat
the temperatureZs in the steamchamberis constantup to the front, where it falls
abruptly to Zn.This assumptionis reasonableuntil the time when all the latent heat
in the steamis consumedby the heat lossesand only sensibleheat is hvailableto
advancethe heated region. The time at *hich this situation occurs is calculated
later on.
Rateof heatloss
Steam
-4_----->
Figure 3.7
82 Conductive Heating within Reservoirs Chap. 3

fhe cqgplafiye-heailossjrom-the-heated
reservoirsurfaceof area2A (A at
the top_gflhe reservoirand,4below)maybe calculated
from equation2.27.
etc=r(! *,nt,-rr/h) (3.1e)
where the subscript2 refers to the over- and underburden.

The cumulative heat required to raise the reservoir and its residual contents
from the initial temperatureZn to Zs is
Qrc= prCthA(Ts-Tn) (3.20)

where pl Cr is the volumetric heat capacityof the steamedreservoir.l
The total cumulative heat injected is thus
lq f'\
Q,c: Qrc* Qn = z\!' x,eC' - ril\,1,*) * ,,cftA(rs - rR) (3.2r)
The instantaneousrate of heat injection may be found by differentiating equa-

tion 3.2I with respectto t.
.l L
Ho=A(Ts-TR)14K, + ercrh) (3.22)

\ ,*
The heat-injectionrate is equal to the sum of the losses(which increasewith the
squareroot of time) plus the constantheat rate to expand the steamchamber.
At the critical time t", when latent heat is no longeravailableat the heal,ftlr{rJ,
the lossesare all suppliedby the lltent heat. When this occurs, the ratio of heat-
lossrate to stored-heatrate will be equal to the ratio of the latent heat injection rate
to the sensibleheat injectionrate; i.e.,
I l-,1
lo*'r,l**) -- H^
[prcrh] Ho- H^
(3.23)
,,=no,(ffi^#)'
For times lessthan t", latent heat is availableat the heat front, and a sharp
temperaturegradient is maintained. The critical time is proportional to the square
of the reservoirthickness,and it is independentof the rate.
The fraction of the injected heat that remainsin the reservoirmay be looked
upon as a thermal efficiency. It is given by
- Qt' PtCth 1,
= __________;_ (3.24)
"o= en x f, 4
1.I ----'=' X
ptCrh+ ;' K, r/-
5 7Td2 3Yzr
\ |
lThe value of prCrused in this equationis for the steamedreservoir-i.e., with fluid satura-
tions correspondingto the depletedreservoir.The displacedfluids are cooledto the reservoirtem-
peratureas they pa$ through the heat front.
Thermal Efficiency for Constant-displacement Rate Steam-drive 83

where
2K, t
nv -- -
,rcrh Qz
Thedimensionlessterr.rXinequation3,2!isthesamevariableusedbyMarxan section'
Langenheim;it also i" the descriptionof their theory in the next
"rir".
Otherwrite,,of,-*-"-ploythedimensionlesstime/o,whichisthesquare
of X.
4KZt 4K2P2Czt (3.25)
to = x-" =
( i- cr n) hr = hr ( pr ci
IfthevolumetricheatcapacityoftheoverburdenandunderburdenarethesameaS
tor tDcan be simplified to equation3'26'
that of the steamzone,then the expression
accurate'
This approximationis often sufficiently
4q.rt (3.26)
lf.prCr = PzCz, then fP =
i
also be expressedas
The simplified dimensionlesstime, tp, rfrz!
ro= -Ftr
4ozA (3.264)
Thethermalefficiency,E;,isplottedagainstthedimensionlesstimeinFigure3.8 de-
area,A,increases)the thermal efficiency
As time increases(o, u, tt" flooded to supply the in-
of tire steamis required
creases;i.e., a larger and larger fraction
creasingheat losses.
Theheightofthereservoirisaparticularlyimportantvariableinthedimen. inherently
sionlesstime becaus" iirl"r"" is squared.rire ttrirmal efficiency is
of '4 corresponding to
ones.Smallervalues
hieher for thick reservoirsthan for thin by
for a givenrateasmeasured
prt"iJ" nign"refficiencies
;r5.;;ffi;"r"g, "r* alsogivebetterthermalefficiencies'
l. Uigh", heatinjectio;;".1i.e.,iigtrer,,i)
ue Jmployedas an approlimationif
If ,,4is not consrant,Figure3.g can stitt ro' The critical
the total steaming riln" i. ruu?itutedinto (r:o in order-tocalculate
0.8
E o.t
.9
E o.o
o.2
Fisure 3.8 Valuesof Thermal
0 0 2 EfficiencYFactorEr, for Constant
Log19(t9) DisPlacementRate
Reservoirs ChaP' 3
Conductive Heating within
84
time, t", from equation 3.23 can also be expressedas an equivalent dimensionless
time toc given by
- arl H, \2
toc=Xi=il:l (3.27)
+ 1Hs- H;l
Fraction of Heat in Steam-Saturated Chamber
After the Critical Time
2K2(Ts- To) fo' dAs 2K2(Ts- 7h) [" -----
)dto
-
Yrraz Jo \/t-tn Yra2 Jg Yt-to
where /6 is the birth time of dA andl is constant. Hence,
'' =!!{{14(\,,
a^ - \/t - r,) (3.28)
lrqz
where/5 is the birth time of the limit of As ar time t.
Ho= )(rs- 7^1(+x,

rlt + p,c,h\ (3.2e)
\ Ytrdz I
H^
(3.30)
Ho T, . Prcth
\ 4K"
"*-
which reducesto
1 - -t
T1 A- - -"- :
Ht V' A
(3.31)
Ho 1, t:
1 +-
2 t;
where
,o=5!44
h'(P' C t)'
If As : A (3.31)becomes(3'27).
In general,if tD > toc then (3.31)can be manipulated to become
(3.32)
2='n-n'
where
n=
'.+c 1 lr
(3.33)
r*z!,*
Rate Steam-drive
Thermal Efficiencyfor Constant-displacement 85
Asymptote lor AslA if fp = o'
The ratio,4sfA approachesa constantvalue for large times. This can be calculated
as follows.
Ht
ft.- : (3.34)
I Ho
1+
t
and
c).=- (*o)' nH^

"H,
(3.3s)
EFFTCTENCY
THERMAL RATE:
FoRcONsTANTSTEAM-lNJEciioN
THEORY
MARXANDLANGENHEIM'S
impor-
Marx and Langenheim(1959)developedtheoretical relations describingthe
of
tant caseof a growing steamzone tirat is limited in its growth rate by the loss
intro-
heat to the ovJrburden and underburdenand by the rate at which steam is
for
duced.Their theory is similar to that describedin the previoussectionexcept
a rate
the assumptionthai the steamis introducedat a constantrate rather than at
frontal advance rate. Marx and Langenheim's equation has
that providesa constant
formed a basisfor many of the subsequent studies in this field, and it is important
to gain an understandingof it.
The situationcons-idered by Marx and Langenheimis shown in Figure 3.9'
Steamis introduced at a constant rate into a steamzone that is spreadinglaterally.
The rate of heat injection, 110, into this zone is specifiedas input to the problem'
The heat goesto intrease the heat stored in the growing steamzone and the losses
to the overburdenand underburden. It is assumed that no heat is transferredahead
of the front. As discussed previously, this assumption is realistic only when the la-
tent heat suppliedin the injected steam is sufficient to supplyall the losses-i.e.'
when there is still latent heit arriving at the heat front. This condition will usually
be satisfiedif a reasonablyhigh oil to steam ratio is being obtained'
The areal shapeof th" it"urn zone is not specified.In the original theory it
can
was assumedthat the condensationfront remainsvertical, but this assumption
Rateof healloss
TH
-. condensate
6A formedat tO to t0 + 6tO Figure 3.9
Conductive Heating within Reservoirs Chap' 3

86
be relaxed;this is discussedlater in this chapter.within the steamzone,the tem-
peratureis assumedconstantat rs. outside it is zn, as shownin Fieure 3.10.
A Figure 3.10
At any intermediate time / the vertical heat loss rate per unit area will be
larger near the front (seeequation2.24). Equation 3.36 gives the rate of heat loss
from the area26A (61 aboveand 64 below),which was initially heatedat time /0.
The time /s can b€ looked upon as the "birth time" of any particular heatedarea.
6- Q r = Z A I E W (3.36)
Vrd2G - to)
The total rate of heat loss,Q1, is found by integrating(3.36)over the whole area,as
in (3.37).The time at which the elementof areawas formed,/6, is a function of ,4;
alternatively,A may be considereda function of /e, and the variable of integration
may be changed,as shown:
dA= (#)",
K2(Ts - TR)
Or:tf ftdr(t -T,;r
Equation 3.38 definesQ,, the rate at which heat is being stored as sensibleheat in
the reservoir.
Qs=PrC&(Ts-ri4 (3.38)
dt
The overall heat balancefor the processis given by equation3.39.It may be solved
by Laplace transformation,solution of the resulting algebraicequation for -4, and
inversionof the transform to give,4(r). The inversionof the transform may be car-
ried out by comparisonwith a table of standardforms.2
Ho= 21,' - ril#

r p1c1h(rs (3.3e)
{ffi4(#)",
Injection= loss + storage
The solutionof (3.39)leadsto'theresultshownin equation3.40.The theoryfor this

problemis similar to that developedby Carter for the growth of a fracture with side
zSeeCRC Standard
MathemnticalTables(22nd Ed.), Transform 45, page 510.
Thermal Efficiency for Constant Steam-injection Rate g7

leakageand a constantinjection rate (Carter 1957),and the mathematicalform of
the problem is identical. '
H o p r Ct h - ')
A(t) = - (".' erfc(X)+ 4 (3.40)
z p z C z ( T s- 7]R) Yr
where
2K'
x= tn
p r C t h Yq z
Equation 3.40 gives the heatedarea as a function of time and differentiation gives
the rate of area growth:
dA Hsex'erfc(X)
(3.41)
dt p(th(Ts - Tn)
The rate at which oil is displacedfrom the steamzone may be calculatedby multi-
plying the rate of increaseof the volumeof the steamchamberby its porosityand
by the changein oil saturation:
q,=hQ(S"-t)# (3.42)
The residualoil saturationSoain the steamzone is usually quite small; typical val-
uesare 0.05-0.2.A valueof 0.1_5isa reasonable estimateif no other data are avail-
able.In equations3.40 and 3.41 the dimensionless variableX is employed.This is
the variable that was used by Marx and Langenheim. It is the samedimensionless
group that was described earlier. FrequentlyX2 is referred to as the dimensionless
time /a.
^ 4K1t (3.43)
to=X-=Trp*=
If the volumetric heat capacityof the overburdenand underburdenare the sameas

that of the steam zone, then the expressionfor to ca;ltbe simplified to equa-
tion 3.44.
. 4azt
tD = --;'- (3.44)
n-
The fraction of the injectedheat that remainsin the reservoircan be determinedas
a function of the dimensionlesstime by meansof equation3.45 or from Figure 3.11.
. ,l-b - tf
u,= Ilr'""rrc{t/-t"l (3.45)
The curve in Figure 3.11showsthat the fraction of the heat lost from the reservoir
varies over a large rangewith the variable /o; this is proportional to time. As time
continues,the fraction of the total heat injectedthat is lost grows. It should also be
noted that there is only a slight differencebetweenthe curve drawn for a constant
88 ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap' 3

1
-
o.B
o
o -'-
E
I!
o u.a
tr
0)
! a a
t-- u.z
Figure 3.11 Comparisonof Thermal

-202 Efficiency.Eafor Constant
Heat-InjectionRate and for Constant
Lo91s (tp ) Displacement Rate
injectionrate (i.e., from equation3.45) and that for a constant displacementrate

from the much simplerequation3.24.
Numericalvaluesof the term e'o erfc(f tp) or e*'erfc(X) in (3.45)can be ob-
tained from Table 3.1. In computerprogramsthe rational approximationsdevel-
oped by Hastingsgiven on page35 may be employed.
A major factor is that as time goeson and more and more steamis introduced
(recallthat it is assumedthat the injectionrate is constant),the steamzonecontin-
TABLE 3.1 Valuesof the Functionex'?erfc(X)
X ex'efic(X) X ex'erfc(X) ex'erfc(X)

0.00 1.000000 1.00 0.427584 2.00 0.255403
0.05 0.945990 1.05 0.4L4299 2.05 0.250L67
0.10 0.896457 1.10 0.40r73L 2.10 0.245130
0.15 0.850936 1.15 0.389826 2.15 0.240281
0.20 0.809020 1.20 0.378537 2.20 0.235610
0.25 0.770347 1.25 0.367822 2.25 0.231108
0.30 0.734599 1.30 0.357642 2.30 0.226766
0.35 0.701496 1.35 0.347960 2.35 0.222576
0.40 0.670788 1.40 0.338743 2.40 0.218532
0.45 0.642252 L.45 0.329960 2.45 0.?r462s
0.50 0.615690 1.50 0.321,s84 2.50 0.210850
0.55 0.590927 1.55 0.313590 2.55 0.207199
0.60 0.s67805 1.60 0.305952 2.60 0.203668
0.65 0.546181 1.65 0.298650 2.65 0.2d02sr
q19 0,5:259i0, L.7g 0.291663 ?.70 0.196943
0.75 0.506938 1,.75 0.284973 2.75 0.193738
0.80 0.489101 1.80 0.278561 2.80 0.190632
0.85 0.472327 1.85 0.272413 2.85 0.187622
0.90 0.456532 1.90 0.266513 2.90 0.184702
0.95 0.441641 1.95 0.260847 2.95 0.181869
Thermal Efficiencyfor ConstantSteam-injectionRate 89

uesto grow, and a larger and larger areaof overburdenis heated.Eventually,nearly
all the injected heat iJ Ueinglost. The thicknessof the reservoir,/r, is the most sig-
nificant iactor involved in the expressionfor /o, since its value is squared'
As an exampleof the useof Figure 3.11,considerthe caseof a reservoir100ft
thick. Assumethit the thermal diffusivity of the reservoirand the overburdenare
both 0.9 ftzfi. fhe horizontal scalein the figure correspondsto valuesof rp varying
from 0.001io 10001 The correspondingvaluesof real time in days,for this rangeare
given by hztpf4a,or 2778to: 2.8 to 2J78,000d. For a reservoir10 ft rather than
IOOft tiri.t, the correspondingtimes are smaller by a factor of 100.
0.001 0.1 1000
r days for h : I00 2.8 2',78 27,780 2,'778,000

I days for /l = 10 0.028 2.8 278 27,780
NumericalProblemUsing Marx'Langenheim'sEquations
: PzCz:33 Btuft3 "F),
For the two differentcases(h = 10 and 100ft and ptCt
assume:
6 = 0'35
Tn: 75"F
S, : 0'7
So,: 0.15 measuredat 75"F
Seventy percent quality steam is injected at a tate of 800 Bld at a pressureof

500 psia. Calculatethe following for eachreservoir thickness:
1. The area of the steamzone is acresas a function of time

2. The radius of the steamzone, assumingthe steamzone is cylindrical
3. The volume of disPlacedoil
4. The ratio of displacedoil rate to steaminjection rate
5. The ratio of cumulative displacedoil to cumulative injected steam
Plot thesevariablesagainsttime for eachof the reservoir thicknesses.
ForX > 3, use
2t
e''- erfqX) : ---F' (3.46)
\/r X+\E+2
Solution The solution to this problem is given in Table 3'2'
ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap' 3

90
TABLE3.2
CUMULAIIVE
RADIUS VOLUME CUMULATIVE
YEARS 'D ACRES (ft) (B) BPD osR OSR
Height= 100ft
0.00 0 0 0 0 694.20, 0.868 0.868
0.50 0.07 0.71 99 105,887 531.54 0.664 0.725
1.00 0.r3 1.33 136 t97,965 48152 0.602 0.678
1.50 0.20 1.89 162 282,630 448.18 0.560 0.645
2.00 0.26 ) a') 183 362,0t1 422.96 0.529 0.620
2.50 0.33 2.93 201 437,267 402.66 0.503 0.599
3.00 0.39 3.41 217 509,139 385.68 0.482 0.581
4.00 0.53 4.32 245 644,675 358.39 0.448 0.552
5.00 0.66 5.t7 268 771,442 336.99 0.421 0.528
6.00 0.79 5.97 288 891,128 319.48 0.399 0.509
7.00 0.92 6.73 305 1,004,989 304.74 0.381 0.492
8.00 1.05 7.46 322 1,1r3,876 292.07 0.365 0.477
9.00 1.18 8.16 JJt) 1,218,450 28r.00 0.351 0.464
10.00 1.31 8.83 350 t,319,229 27r.20 0.339 0.452
Height= 10ft
0.00 0 0 0 0 694.20 0.868 0.868
0.50 6.57 2.7r L94 40,495 144.21 0.180 0.277
1.00 13.r4 4.t9 241 62,547 106.43 0.133 0.214
1.50 t9.71 5.34 272 79,786 88.86 0.111 0.182
2.00 26.28 6.32 296 94,433 78.17 0.098 0.162
2.50 32.85 7.19 3t6 107,393 70.77 0.088 0.t47
3.00 39.42 7.98 333 rt9,t43 65.25 0.082 0.136
4.00 52.56 9.38 361 140,059 57.40 0.072 0.r20
5.00 65.70 10.62 384 158,528 51.97 0.065 0.109
6.00 78.84 tt.74 403 t75,249 47.92 0.060 0.100
7.00 91.98 12.77 ta1
190,640 44.74 0.056 0.093
8.00 r05.t2 t3.73 436 204,97',| 42.t5 0.053 0.088
9.00 1,18.26 14.63 450 2r8,449 39.99 0.050 0.083
10.00 L31,.40 15.48 463 23r,198 38.15 0.048 0.079
Data:
Thermal diffusivity: a : 0.9 ft2ld
Heat capacity: pC : 33 Btuft3 "F
Porosity: d : 0.35
Tn: 75'F
Ts = 467'F from steamtable
S" : 0.7
So.: 0.15
Steamrate : 800 BPD : 800 x 350 : 280,000lb/d
Height h = 100ft and 10 ft two cases
ThermalEfficiency
for ConstantSteam-injection
Rate 91
Enthalpy of vaPor 1205Btu/lb from steamtables
Enthalpy of liquid at T5 450 Btu/lb
Enthalpy of liquid at Tn 43 Btu/lb
Quality = 70Vo
-
Heat-injectionrate : 280,000(0'7x 1205+ 0'3 x 450 43)
= 2.6194x 108Btu/d
Column 1 in table:Time in Years

Column 2: Dimensionlesstiine (equation3'44)
to = 4 x0.9 x Yearsx 3651h2
Column 3: Area in acres(equation3'40)

(43,560ft2 = 1 acre)
Areal(2.6194x 108h)/(4 x 2g.7 x 392 x 43,560)lf(tD)
f(o) = (e*'erfc(X) .'l

- t\ and X = \/G
\Vzrl
Colurnn 4: Radius in feet
Radius = [(Col 3 x 43,560)lrrlos
Column 5: Qumulativebarrelsdisplaced
=
A x 43,560x /t x 0.35 x 0.55/5.615 (5'615ft3 1 B)
equation3'41)
Column 6: Barrelsdisplacedper day (equation3'42 using
Column 7: Oil-steamratio is column 6 divided by 800'
800 x years x 365'
Column 8: Cumulative OSR is column 5 divided by
3.l2and the instanta-

The heatedareasare shown as functionsof time in Figure
3.13.The heatedarea
neousand cumulativeoil-steamratios are shown in Figure
the thicknessis
g.o*. onrv aboutT}Tofasterfor the thinner reservoir,even though
vertical heat lossesare a
ieduced by a factor of 10. For the thinner reservoir the
muchlargerfractionoftheheatinput.ThisisShownclearlybythecurvesi
20
heightin ft'
is reservoir
Parameter
o
3ts
'S
,o
fo; s
Figure 3.12 Heated Area as a
Tlme In Years Function of Time
ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap' 3

92
1
.9
0'8 t -- - - - - . loorl
10ft
.E | |
E 0.6
E
(!
Cumulative
fino
o .r.
o.2 \'...-
, cumutative
Gumulative
\-.:::::::::--=--=----a--y'_-;::::::::::::::
I Instantaneous
od*
46 10 Figure 3.13 DisplacedOilSteam
Tlme In Years Ratios
Figure 3.13.The point on the vertical axis marked "No Loss" correspondsto the
maximum possibleoil-to-steamratio requiredby a heatbalancewith no heat losses.
It can be calculatedby equation 3.47. While both setsof curves start at the same
no-losspoint, the curves for the thinner reservoir drop very much more rapidly.
/{sd(s"- s,,)
OSR."" = (3.47)
p1C{Ts - Tp)
In the equation,F/s is the net heat per unit volume of steammeasuredas water.
SIMPLEFORMULAS FOR ESTIMATIONOF THE OIL.STEAM RATIO
Often the physicalpropertiesof reservoirsare known only approximately,and sim-

pler formulas may suffice to provide initial estirnates.One approachis to basethe
estimate upon equation 3.21,.The cumulative injected heat given by (3.21),corre-
spondsto a cumulativequantity of displacedoil of @AS,hA.^fhe oil-steamratio
is thus
(3.48)
If it is assumedthat the thermal propertiesof the reservoir and of the overburden

are equal,then (3.48)becomes
oSR= or**"( ';l

-\ (3.4e)
8
l*; -l
1 rrh2|
Simple Formulasfor Estimationof the Oil-steamRatio 93

Ifnumericalvaluesforlls,pC,andaequaltothetypicalonesusedinthepreviou
exampleare emPloYed,namelY,
pC = 33 Btuft3'F
Hs = 58,375Btuft3
a = 09 ft2/d
then equation3.49maYbe written

17696LS" (3.50)
oSR=ffi
where { and AS' are fractions
Is and Tnare in degreesFarenheit
t is in daYs
h is in feet
equation3.50with h : 100ft for
The following valueshave been calculatedusing
valuestaken from Table3'2'
the previousnumerical example;they are compalredto
OSR OSR
from (3.42) from Table3.2
Years
0.868 0.868
0
0.590 0.581
J
0.504 0.492
7
0.466 0.452
10
A s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e e f f i c i e ntoc ythose
c u r vfrom
e s s hthe
own
are quite close
Figure 3.11,the resuttstiom the simple formulas
Mirx-Langenheim equation' that heat
In chapter + u ffi'uy vogel.is discussedin which he suggests
that the steamchamber spreads immedi-
lossesshouldbe calculatedby assumrng
atelvacrossthetopofthereservoir.Thisresultsinanequationsimilarto(3.4
wtricir ttre factor B/3 is replacedby 4'
f"t immediatesteamspreading (3'51)
oSR= osn,""/--l--r
\r * + \
rl#,
I
[fthesamenumericalvaluesareusedforthephysicalproperties,thisbecom
I ttog'das, I (3.s2
osR=l-l
L,n-r^)lt+2:41F)l
sameas in equation3'50'
where the units for the variablesmust be the
Chap' 3
94 ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs
CONVECTIVETRANSFEROF HEAT BEYOND
THE CONDENSATIONFRONT
In the Marx-Langenheimtheory and in the previous numerical example,it is as-

sumedthat no heat is transferredbeyond the heat front-i.e., that at the front the
steamgives up all its heat, both latent and sensible.This idea is consistentwith the
ideasdevelopedearlier,whereit wasshownthat the velocity of a condensationfront
is greater than that of a thermal front carried forward by the sensibleheat of the
condensatealone. Thus any heat carried before the condensationfront tends to be
'bverrun," and the two fronts
remain combined.The assumptionof a single front
madeby Marx and Langenheimis reasonableif there is still vapor left to condense
at the front. However, the situation changesas the front becomesmore remote,
since eventually all the steamis condensedby heat lossesbefore the heat front.
Sincethe steamzon'eis at the steam-saturationtemperaturethroughout,3the
only source of heat to supply the vertical lossesabove and below the zone is the
latent heat of the steam.At the point where the latent heat has been completely
consumedto supplylosses,the only remainingheat to be carried forward is the sen-
sibleheat in the liquid water, and the processbecomesrather like that of Lauwerier,
which was discussedearlier.It is not identical,however,becauseas the heatlosses
are transferredto the overburdenand to the underburden,the rate atwhich steam
mustbe condensedto supplytheselossesdecreases and excesssteambecomesavail-
ableto advancethe condensationfront further. Thus eventhough essentiallyall the
latent heat of the steamis being usedto supplythe vertical losses,the condensation
front still advances;at the same time, substantialquantities of heat are carried
beyond the condensationfront by the sensibleheat of the condensateand the heat
front passesbeyond the condensationfront. Figure 3.14is a qualitative representa-
tion of the situation.
Mandl and Volek (1969)and Hearn (1969)were the first to recognize this
phenomenon;they each developedan equationthat predicts the time, /", at which
it occurs.
Let Hl be the rate at which latent heat is injectedinto the reservoir.The total
heat-injectionrate is still taken as.F/0.AJ the critical time the latent heat-injection
rate is just equal to the vertical heatJossrate. If this is so, then the rate at which
heat is being stored must be equal to the rate at which sensibleheat is being in-
jected-i.e., to FIo - I1r. This is shownby equation3.53,which reducesto equa-
tion 3.54.
Ho- H^ = Qs = p(ft(Ts - rf# = ptCth(Ts- Tn)Hyex'zerfc(X) (3.53)

-
prCth(Ts Ta)
| - ex? efic(X") (3.54)

*=
'The steamtemperatureis
assumedconstantin this chapter.In actual practicethere tendsto
be a small reductionin steamsaturationtemperature,which is causedby the pressuredrop as the
. steamflows awayfrom the injectionwell.
ConvectiveTransferof Heat beyondthe CondensationFront 95

_---_> i Cond.i HeatFront
i rtont i (fort > t.)
Latentheatis availableat
AND STEAMOUALITYBEFOREtC
TEMPERATURE
AND STEAMOUALITYAFTERI
TEMPERATURE
Steamcondensesbeforeit
Figure 3.14
The critical time may be found by solvingequation3.54for the value of X" that cor-
respondsto the particular value of.Htf Ho and then obtaining the time by the use of
equation
' (3.43)or (3.44).
Equation 3.54 was derived by Mandl and Volek (1969)and almost simulta-
neouslyby Hearn (1969).For given valuesof I{r and 110,the critical dimensionless
time can be found by interpolation of Table 3'1'
SIZE OF STEAM ZONE FOR TIME GREATERTHAN THE MANDL

AND VOLEK'SCRITICALTIME
Beyond the critical time, the vertical loss from the steamzone is given by equa-
tion 3.55,where-,4srefers to the area of the steamzone'
H", = fJsn " W a l (3.5s)

\/ rrazt - te)
The time L at which the areadA of.the steamzonewas formed is found by calcula-
ting time as a functon of area from equation3.56.
HoptCth (3.s6)
A(tn1= -
4KzpzCz(Ts ^f(x)
96 ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap' 3
where
2K'
x = \/,
p1C1h\/ a2
f(X .)\=\ / (e
r r l*'e rfc( X)
*4 - t\
This time may then be substitutedinto (3.55)and I{ calculatedas a functon of ,45

by evaluatingthe integral. From this the value of,,45may be determinedfor specific
valuesof I4. This procedurewas followed by Hearn, who expressedhis resultsby
equation3.57.
As=
HoprCrh
4K\gs _ ?]R)
'(.,ft) (3.s7)
HsP1Cft
As= '(.,*)
4K2p2C2(Ts- f^)
Hearn'sfunction F is given by Table3.3. For times lessthan the critical, F is identi-

cal to f.
TABLE
3.3 Values
of flXl' andrk,L\
'Hol
\
Values ofF for various 111/116
X f(X) 0.6 0.7 0.8

0.2 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035
0.4 0.L22 0.103 0.12L 0.t22 0.122 0.122 0.122 0.122
0.6 0.245 0.r7r 0.22L 0.243 0.245 0.245 0.245 0.245
0.8 0.392 0.240 0.321 0.372 0.392 0.392 0.392 0.392
1.0 0.556 0.309 0.422 0.502 0.546 0.556 0.556 0.556
r.2 0.733 0.378 0.523 0.632 0.702 0.732 0.733 0.733
1,.4 0.918 0.448 0.624 0.762 0.858 0.910 0.918 0.918
1.6 1.111 0.517 0.726 0.894 1.016 1.089 1.111 1.111
1.8 1.310 0.586 0.827 1.025 t.173 t.268 1.308 1.310
2.0 1.512 0.656 0.929 1.156 1.330 1.448 1.506 r.5t2
2.5 2.032 0.829 1.184 1.485 1.726 1.899 2.002 2.032
3.0 2.566 1.003 1.439 1.814 2.122 2.352 2s01 2.563
3.5 3.105 1.t77 1.694 2.1,44 2.518 2.806 2.999 3.094
4.0 3.650 1.351 1.949 2.475 2.915 3.260 3.499 3.628
4.5 4.200 1.525 2.204 2.805 J.JIJ 3.714 3.999 4.1,62
5.0 4.753 1.699 2.460 3.136 3.710 4.169 4.500 4.696
6.0 5.863 2.047 2.971 3.798 4.506 5.079 s.503 s.766
7.0 6.978 2.396 3.483 4.460 5.303 5.990 6.506 6.837
8.0 8.097 11AA
3.995 5.L22 6.099 6.902 7.510 7.908
9.0 9.218 3.092 4.506 5.785 6.896 7.8t4 8.514 8.980
10.0 10.340 3.441 5.018 6.447 7.693 8.726 9.518 10.052
(from Hearn 1969)
Effect of a Nonvertical Front 97

The fraction of the total heat injectedthat remainswithin the steamzone may
be calculatedby equation3.58.
^
un:
AshprC{Ts - TR)
----------jj-l-
ITot
The resultsare shownin Table3'4 and plotted in Figure 3.L5.

-
H')'(.,*) (3.s8)
A similar figure has been derived by Myhill and Stegemeier(1978)basedon

the theory of Mandl and Volek (1969)and modified by unpublishedwork of Prats
and Vogiatzis.It is reproducedin Chapter 4 as Figure 4.10.
EFFECTOF A NONVERTICALFRONT
Myhill and Stegemeier(1978)point out that for the heat-lossequationusedby Marx
and Langenheim(and the extensionsof it) to be applicable,it is not necessaryfor
only that the total volumeof the steam
the heatfront to be vertical.It is necessary
zonecan be represented by the expression(Ahlz), wherer4represents the sum of
the upper and lower surface areas.
Exampleswherethis is true include
1. A sloped,but straight, front that is advancinglinearly,

2. An inclined front that is straight but advancingonly at the top, and
3. Cylindrical fronts.
TABLE 3.4 ReservoirHeatingEfficiencyCalculatedfrom Hearn (1969)

EFFTCIENCY FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF HtlHo
X X2 ^) 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
0.2 0.04 0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875
0.4 0.16 0.644 0.756 0.763 0.763 0.763 0.763 0;763 0.763
0.6 0.36 0.475 0.614 0.675 0.681 0.681 0.681 0.681 0.681
0.8 0.64 0.375 0.502 0.581 0.613 0.613 0.613 0.613 0.613
1.0 1.00 0.309 0.422 0.502 0.s46 0.556 0.556 0.556 0.556
1".2 r.44 0.262 0.363 0.439 0.487 0.508 0.509 0.509 0.s09
t.4 r.96 0.229 0.318 0.389 0.438 0.464 0.468 0.468 0.468
1.6 2.56 0.202 0.284 0.349 0.397 0.425 0.434 0.434 0.434
1.8 3.24 0.181 0.255 0.316 0362 0.391 0.404 0.404 0.404
2.0 4.00 0.164 0.232 0.289 0.333 0.362 0.37',7 0.378 0.378
2.5 6.25 0.133 0.189 0.238 0.276 0.304 0.320 0.325 0.325
3.0 9.00 0.111 0.160 0.202 0.236 0.26r 0.278 0.285 0.285
3.5 12.25 0.096 0.138 0.175 0.206 0.229 0.245 0.253 0.253
4.0 16.00 0.084 0.122 0.155 0.182 0.204 0.219 0.227 0.228
4.5 20.25 0.075 0.109 0.139 0.t64 0.183 0.t97 0.206 0.207
5.0 25.00 0.068 0.098 0.125 0.148 0.167 0.180 0.188 0.190
6.0 36.00 0.057 0.083 0.105 0.125 0.141 0.153 0.160 0.163
7.0 49.00 0.049 0.071 0.091 0.108 0.122 0.133 0.140 0.142
8.0 64.00 0.043 0.062 0.080 0.095 0.108 0.tr'7 0.124 0.127
9.0 81.00 0.038 0.056 0.071 0.085 0.096 0.105 0.111 0.11
10.0 100.00 0.034 0.050 0.064 0.0'17 0.087 0.095 0.101 0.103
98 ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap.3

Parameteris H^/H
o
\-
-g 0.8
UJ
\ \
, A0.6
.9
,9 o.a
o.e\
e\ \ r-0.5
UJ
0.2
\ S -ia
s.'
S
0r-
0.03
0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3 10 30 100
Dimensionless
Time tD
Figure 3.1.5 ReservoirHeating Efficiency (basedon Hearn L969)
For conical fronts the volumevarieswith the degreeof truncation from an extreme
otAhl3 toAhl2 asthe shapeapproachesa cylinder. Even this variation changesthe
dimensionlesstime by a factor of only 4/9. As may be seenfrom the horizontal scale
of Figure 3.15,changingtoby a factor of this magnitudedoesnot have a large effect
on the predicted thermal efficiency.
STEAM INJECTIONINTO A THIN CHANNELOR FRACTURE
In his paper,Hearn (1969)discusses the limiting casewhereft is assumedto ap-

proach zero. His result may be obtained by allowing ft, in the right-hand side of
equation 3.40, to approachzero. If the multiplier & is combined with each of the
terms inside the bracketsof equation3.40, only the central term remains as ft ap-
proacheszero and the equationbecomes
Ho\/ a2t
A(t) = (3.se)
Kz(Ts- T){rr
Substitutingtt for t in equation3.59, solving the resulting equationfar L, substitut-
ing the result into equation3.55, and rearrangingleadsto
oo,=
H^=2Ho ["' , (3.60)
n J6 ll Ho Y or.t .)
V\",rn-al);-"
This may be integratedto give
-zH'l. Kz(Ts- 7h)\l"

Ht= (3.61)
1rl
lsln
H, )1,
which leadsto
. Ho\/drt .lr H^\
,t'= (3'62)
*--o, _ nrrsntit\i'ar:/
This remarkablysimpleexpressionindicatesthat the steamzone remainsa constant
fraction of the total with the fraction being a sine function involving the ratio
SteamInjectioninto a Thin Channel

or Fracture 99
2.29.lts use is dis-
H^lHo.Equation 3.59was also derived in chapter 2 as equation
cussedin a later numerical example'
Comparison of Fracture Filleil with Steam for Constant

Injection Rate and for Gonstant Areal Growth Rate
be seen from equa-
For a constant steam injection rate into a fraction it can
the steam saturated area to the total heated
tions 3.59 and 3.62 that ihe ratio of
area is given bY,
As _,-l n_.H^\
= s''\T' (3.63)
7 HoJ
injection times the same
For a constant injection rate it was shown that, for long
ratio is given bY,
/4\ = - )ryt-
' f4\' (3.64
\e l. uo \H'l
These two valuesare quite similar'
Valuesof 15ft
Ht
Constant Injection Constant DisPlacementf = o
Ho
1
1 I
0.95 0.96
0.8
0.81 0.84
0.6
0.59 0.64
0.4
0.31 0.36
0.2
0 0
0
Example
calculation of the Mandl-volek critical Time for a Numerical
theory ignoredt
The solution to the numerical exampleof the Marx-Langenheim
possibility of the steambeing completelyco_ndensed by the vertical heat losses.
tu, U"r" this occurs after the Mandl-Volek critical time.
"*pfained,
X, andthe dimensionless time, tes, &tQcalculatedlater'
/{i : 800 x 350 x 755 x 0J = 148 x 106Btu/d

Ho: Ht + 800 x 350 x 407 :262 x L06Btu/d
Find X. from Table 3.i.
' - o'435= exP(x3)erfc(X")

*=
ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap'

100
The root is X" : 0.973;this is obtainedby interpolationof Table3.1'
toc:X?=0.947
The correspondingactual times are calculatedas follows:
,"=*=26d forh=roft
t" = 2630d for&=100ft

For the thinner reservoirthe critical time correspondsto only 26 days(0.07years);
for the thicker reservoir the time is 2630 days, or 7.2 years.At times later than
thesethe condensationfront lagsbehind the heat front. This will tend to reducethe
quantity of oil displacedbelow that calculatedpreviouslybecausethe residualoil in
the waterfloodedregionwill be larger than in the steamfloodedzone.The displace-
ment of oil by steamis comparedto that by water in Chapter 5.
The sizeof the steamzone (asdistinct from the larger heatedzone)can be ob-
tained by calculatingthe volume (and hencethe area)of the steamzone that would
be obtained if there were no heat lossesat all and then multiplying this by the effi-
ciency read from Figure 3.15.This is done for the previous numerical examplein
Table3.5.
Extension of Numerical Example to Injection

Into a Very Thin Horizontal Layer or Fracture
In the previouscalculation, it was seenthat the heatedarea increasedmore rapidly
for the thinner reservoir.The reasonfor this is, of course,that lessheat is neededto
heat a given area of reservoirwhen it is not as thick. The limiting casecorresponds
to that of a very thin reservoiror fracture.This casemay be viewed in two ways:
l. The limiting situation for the injection of steam into progressivelythinner

reservoirs,or
2. The injection of steaminto a narrow fracture within a thick reservoir.
In the first casethe injected heat is essentiallylost, whereasin the secondit heats
the adjacenttar sands.The total heatedareaand the steamzone area can be calcu-
lated ior the data of the previous exampleusing Hearn'sequations3.59 and 3'62,
respectively.
Ho:262 x 106Btu/d
t : 365tr"^,
d2 : 0.9 ft2ld
Kz: 29.7Btuft d'F
Ts : 467"F;Tn : 75"F
or Fracture
SteamInjectioninto a Thin Channel 101
TABLE 3.5 Calculationof Steam Zone Area Allowing for Mandl-VolekEffect
Time SteamZone HeatedArea in Acres

Years Dimension Efficiency(2) No Loss(l) With Loss SteamZone
Reservoirthickness: 10 ft:
113 0.20 1a ta
J.+
226 0.L4 34 6.3 4.8
J 39 0.t2 51 8.0 6.1
n 53 0.10 68 9.4 6.8
5 66 0.09 85 10.6 7.6
6 79 0.08 102 11.7 8.2
7 92 o'rt 119 12.8 9.3
8 105 t36 13.7
9 118 153 14.6
10 r3l r70 15.5
thickness= 100ft:
Reservoir
1 0.13 u./o t.t 1.3 1.3
2 0.26 0.71 3.4 2.4 z.+
3 0.39 0.67 ).1 3.4 3.4
4 0.53 0.63 6.8 4.3 4.3
5 0.66 0.61 8.5 5.2 5.2
6 0.79 0.59 10.2 6.0 6.0
7 0.92 0.56 11.9 6.7 6.7
Critical time -- 7.2 y

8 1.05 0.535 t3.6 7.5 t.5
9 1.18 0.515 l).J 8.2 7.9

10 1.31 0.495 r'7.0 8.8 8.4
',t.)!1tt/lorC',h{ft- Tp))convertedto acres.
*''FromFisure 3.1.5.
Ho{drt
Area in acres= = 5.283!G,
43,5601[rKz(Zs- r^)
Ht: 148 x 10"Btu/d
As=A"{(;)e)]
= 0.775of the total heatedarea
The resultsare given in Table3.6. Also shownin Table3.6 are calculatedaverage

valuesfor the total thicknessof the heatedzoneaboveand belowthe heatedzone.
Thesewereobtainedby dividing the total volumeof the heatedzonecorresponding
to the quantityof steaminjectedby the total heatedarea.[t will be noted that the
heat penetratesabout 50 tt (10212)on either side of the heatedzone in 10 years.
With heat-penetration distancesof this order, it is easyto seewhy steamingthin
reservoirsfor long periods is inefficient.
102 ConductiveHeatingwithin Reservoirs Chap.3

TABLE 3.6 CalculatedHeatedArea and Steam Zone Area for Injectioninto a Very Thin Layer
Years 10
Hot zone in acres
).J t -J 9.t 10.6 11.8 12.9 r4.9 15.8 16.7
Steamzone in acres
4.1 5.8 7.r 8.2 9.2 10.8 11.6 t2.3 12.9
Averageheatedzone thicknessin feet(l)

32 45 56 64 72 79 85 91 96 t02
(t)Assuming
that all of the injectedheat remainsin a zoneof uniform thicknesshavingthe samearea
as that calculatedfor the hot zone.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CentEn, R. D., Appendixl of.Optimum Fluid Characteristics for FractureExtensionby G. C.

Howard and G. R. Fast,Drill. and Prod. Prac.,API (1957),267-268.
HernN, C.L., "Effect of Latent Heat Content of Injected Steam in a Steam Drive," JPT,
374-375 (April 1969).o 1969SPE.
I-euweruen, H. A., "The Transport of Heat in an Oil Layer Causedby the Injection of Hot
Fluid," Appl. Scl. Res.A, 5: 145-150(1955).
MeNoq G. and VoLnr, C.W., "Heat and MassTransportin SteamDrive Processes,"SPEI,
59-79 (March 1969).
Menx, J.W., and LeNceuuuu, R. N., "Reservoir Heating by Hot Fluid Injection," Pet.
Trans.AIME, 216:3I2-3I5 (1959).
MvHrLL, N.A., and SrecuraerrR,G.L., "Steam-DriveCorrelationand Prediction,"
"IPI
l7 3 -182 (February 1978).
RAMEv,H. J., "How to CalculateHeat Transmissionin Hot Fluid Injection," in Fundamen-
tals of Thermal Oil Recovery,Dallas, Tex.: Petroleum Engineer Publishing Company.
(1e6s).
VoceL, J. H., "Simplified Heat Calculationsfor Steamfloods," SPE lt2l9, (1982);IPT, tl27-
1136(July 1984).
Bibliography 103
Steqmflooding
INTRODUCTION
In this chapterthe ideasintroducedin Chapter3 are expanded,and it is shown

how they may be used as the basisfor the analysisof field projects.The chapter
also discussesimportant factors that were not included in the developmentof the
ideasin Chapter3. Theseinclude the effect of gravity in causingoverrideof the
steam,the effect of steamingupon the permeabilityof the matrix, depletion,and
steamdistillation.
A OUALITATIVEDISCUSSIONOF STEAM.INJECTIONPROCESSES
i
Steam-injectionprocessesfor the recovery of heavy oils are divided into two

categories:
L. Cyclic stimulation
2. Steamflooding
Cyclic Stimulation
In stimulation,steamis injectedinto the reservoiratafate of up to about1000B/d

(160tld or m3/d)for a period rangingfrom one to severalweeks,and then the well
is producedby allowingfluids to flow back.When the pressureat the bottom of the
well drops, the well is pumped. During the pumping period, the well temperature
continuesto fall.
Over a peiiod that can rangefrom severalmonths to a year or more, the oil-
production rate falls to the point where it is no longer advantageousto continue,
104
and the well is restimulatedby injectingmore steam.This cyclic processis contin-
ued until the quantity of oil recovered is no longer sufficient to justify further
steaming.At this time the recoveryis typically of the order of I5%; the recovery
dependson the natureof the reservoir,the economicvalueof the producedoil, the
well spacing,and other variables.
Steamflooding
In the flooding process,steamis injectedcontinuouslyinto one or more wells and

oil is driven to separateproductionwells. Usually the wells are placedin regular
patterns.The steamfloodingprocessis alsoreferredto assteamdrive. In the exam-
plesdescribedin this chapter,the objectiveis to drive the oil sidewaystoward pro-
ductionwells.If the reservoirdips, it is advantageous to drive the oil downwardin
order to utilize gravity to keep the steamfrom bypassingthe oil.l
Frequentlythe two methodsof steaminjectionarecombinedandwellsarepro-
ducedby stimulationbeforeflooding is started.When it is desiredto producevery
viscousoils suchasfrom oil sands,stimulationbeforeflooding is almostessentialin
order to achieveflow communicationbetweenthe injectionand productionwells.
Communicationcan be establishedbetweenpairs of wells even in cold tar
sandby creatinga fracturebetweenthem. This can be doneby injectingsteamat a
sufficientlyhigh pressure.In tar sandsdeeperthan about1000ft, suchfracturesare
usuallyvertical, and they tend to have a definite azimuthal(compass) orientation.
In much of Alberta this is approximatelySWNE. At shallowerdepths,horizontal
fracturestend to be formed.
lf steamis injectedinto a verticalfracturein cold tar sand,heatingwill occur
and condensate will flow to the connectingproductionwell. There is a tendencyfor
the steamto override,and the fracture can becomeheatedalongthe top without
much heat penetratingto the lower parts. The pressuregradientalong a steamed
communicatingfracturetendsto be smallbecauseof the needto preventexcessive
steambypassing.As a result,while heat is transferredto the adjacentreservoir,oil
productionis slowbecausethere is little driving force availableto movethe heated
oil. Becauseof thesedifficulties and becauseof the attractiveness of early oil pro-
duction, the preheatingof the reservoirbefore steamflooding appearsto be the
preferableroute to achievingconventionalsteamfloodingin bitumen reservoirs.
Although little practicalfield experienceis available,vertical steamflooding
usingthe steam-assisted gravitydrainageapproach,which is describedin Chapter7,
may be preferablein many circumstances-particularly for projectsinvolving thick
reservoirs.In many cases,steamflood projectsthat were startedwith the idea of
driving oil horizontally have endedup with more and more attention being paid to
the importanceof gravity in providingdrive. It is recognizedthat downwardsteam
drive in dippingreservoirsis a practicalmeansof achievinghigh injectionand pro-
ductionrates.In commercialoperations,steamstimulationis often economicallyat-
tlt is being realizedmore and more that downwardsteamfloodingoffers considerableadvan-

tages.One way of accomplishingthis is to use horizontal productionwells locatednear the baseof
the reservoir,with the steamintroducedabove.This approach,which has becomeknown ass/eam-
assistedgravity drainage,is discussedin Chapter 7.
A OualitativeDiscussionof Steam-injectionProcesses 105

tractive becauseit enablesrapid production of oil with acceptableand sometimes
very high oil-to-steamratios.
While the short-term economicsof stimulation are frequently satisfactory,
only about 15 to 20% of the oil can be producedeconomically.After this, the oil-
steamratio becomesrelativelypoor. At this stageit is common,at leastin fields
containingmobileoil (particularlythosein California),to convertthe steamstimu-
lation operationto a steamflood.
Steamfloodscan produce recoveriesof the order of 50Voof the original oil in
placewith oil-steamratios of the order of.0.2. Volumesof steamare traditionally
measuredin terms of the volume of the equivalentwater; a barrel of steamis thus
350lb of steam(includinganyliquid waterassociated with the steam)and 1 m3is 1 t.
The oil-steam ratio is dependent upon the nature of the reservoir.Very deep
reservoirs (deeper than 5000 ft at the very most) are uneconomic for conventional
steamstimulation and flooding because of the very high steam pressures and corre-
spondingly high temperatures required. Heat losses and the quantity of steam re-
quired to raisethe reservoir-to-steam temperature become excessive.Another factor
is the excessiveheat loss that can occur from the well bore to the overburden.
There is an increasein the well bore heat lossesas the depth of the reservoiris in-
creased.As was discussedin Chapter2, this increaseis causedby the extra length
of the well and also by the higher steamtemperatureassociatedwith the higher
pressures. Thermal insulationcan be usedto extendthe practicaldepth for steam
injection,but this tendsto be expensive.
The next most important criterion for a successfulsteamrecovery project is
that the reservoirshouldbe thick-certainly at least10 ft thick and preferablymuch
thicker. The reasonfor this is that the heat lossesto the overburdenand underbur-
den representan excessiveproportion of the total heat requirementfor thin reser-
voirs.This ideawas discussedin the last chapter.
Typical successfulsteam-driveprojectsare in relativelyshallow,fairly thick
reservoirs-e.g.,1000to 2000ft in depth and 100ft thick. Usuallythesereservoirs
consistof unconsolidated or looselyconsolidatedsandhavingreasonablyhigh per-
meability and porosity (e.g., 1 D and 30Voporosity) and high oil saturation. [t is
usual to produceoil by stimulationfrom both the injection and the productionwells
beforethe drive commences. Stimulationis often continued,evenduring the drive,
if the temperatureof the producedfluids tendsto fall. It is alsobecomingcommon,
as steamfloodedfields become depleted,to recover some of the remaining oil by
waterflooding.In this situationit is still desirableto stimulatethe producersperi-
odically if the production tends to fall in temperature.
Very shallowreservoirsare usuallynot suitablefor steamflooding(or for stimu-
lation, either). The reasonfor this is that the steampressurethat can be utilized
would have to be kept low to avoid fracturing to the surface of the ground above
the reservoir. With the lower temperaturesthat correspondto the lower-pressure
steam, the oil (particularly if it is bitumen) may not become sufficiently fluid to
make recoverypracticable.Fracture pressureis, to a first approximation,equal to
1 psift of depth from the surface.
The use of horizontal wells in place of conventionalones makes the use of
steamfloodingprocessesin shallow reservoirsmore practical. Their greatercontact
106 Steamflooding Chap.4

kB/d
--- ---1
,_
M//.4 Sreamsoak1
l-l
lffi SteamfloodI
t-l
II rot"t I
1968 1970 't972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988
Year
Figure 4.1 Heavy Oil Recoverywith Steam in the United States(Sourceof
Data Oil and Gaslournal\
with the reservoirallows more viscousoils to be producedat a useful rate. This ls

discussedin Chapter7.
During recentyearsthe trend in the heavyoil fieldsin Californiahasbeento
switch from steam stimulation to flooding, and most heavy oil from there is now
producedby steamflooding.Ihe main reasonfor this is the economicincentiveto
improve the recovery.Figure 4.1.comparesthe historical recovery of oil by steam
stimulationwith that by steamfloodingin California.
In additionto providing a higher recovery,steamflooding-with its continu-
ous injectionof heat-can produceoil significantlyfasterthan can the cyclicstimu-
lation process.This, too, can have a significant economic impact. The main
disadvantages of steamfloodingcomparedto stimulationare the following:
o There is a lower oil-steamratio. In steamfloodingit is necessaryto heat a
larger part of the reservoir,whereasin stimulation, at least in the early
cycles,the heating is confined to a smaller region around the well.
o There is a longerperiod of time before significant production starts.
o Often flooding is not possibleinitially becauseof the lack of flow
communication.
SUITABILITY OF SPECIFICRESERVOIRS
FORSTEAMFLOODING
The choiceof steamfloodingas a meansfor the recoveryof petroleumhasbeendis-
cussedby a number of authors(including Farouq Ali 1974,FarouqAli and Meldau
1979,Geffen 1973,Matthews 1983,and Chu 1985).Whereas the suitability of a
reservoir for production by steam stimulation can be determined relatively simply
Suitabilityof SpecificReservoirsfor Steamflooding 107

and the nell
ued until th
steaming-Al
dependsm rl
well spriq;
SteanrflooC
In the floodil
oil is driren t
patterns.Tb
Sfeqmflooding ples describa
duction q-ellr
order to utilil
Fregrs
duced bl srir
viscousoib I
order to rhi
Comm
sandbv creti
sufficientl;*hi
usuallvverth
INTRODUCTION In much of A
fracturested
In this chapterthe ideasintroducedin Chapter3 are expanded,and it is shown If sear
how they may be used as the basisfor the analysisof field projects.The chapter and condens
also discussesimportant factorsthat were not includedin the developmentof the the steamto
ideasin Chapter3. Theseincludethe effect of gravity in causingoverrideof the much heat pt
steam,the effect of steamingupon the permeabilityof the matrix, depletion,and communicdil
steamdistillation. steamblpasc
productiut b
oil. Becauscr
A OUALITATIVEDISCUSSIONOF STEAM.INJECTIONPROCESSES
duction.thc 1
Steam-injectionprocessesfor the recoveryof heavy oils are divided into two preferableru
categories: Althqt
usingthe srce
1. Cyclic stimulation may be prcfa
2. Steamflooding reservoirs-lin
driving cil h
Gyclic Stimulation the impotal
In stimulation,steamis injectedinto the reservoiratarate of up to about1000B/d drive in di6i
(160t/d or mt/d) for a period rangingfrom one to severalweeks,and then the well duction ratcs
is producedby allowingfluids to flow back.When the pressureat the bottom of the
well drops,the well is pumped.During the pumpingperiod, the well temperature 'It is tri
continuesto fall. tages.One rryt
Over a period that can range from severalmonths to a year or more, the oil- the reservoir,ri
production rate falls to the point where it is no longer advantageousto continue, assistedgranty I
104 A Oualitatiw I
and the well is restimulatedby injectingmore steam.This cyclic processis contin-
ued until the quantity of oil recoveredis no longer sufficient to justify further
steaming.At this time the recoveryis typically of the order of I5Va;the recovery
dependson the natureof the reservoir,the economicvalueof the producedoil, the
well spacing,and other variables.
Steamflooding
In the flooding process,steamis injectedcontinuouslyinto one or more wells and

oil is driven to s-eparate productionwells. Usually the wells are placedin regular
patterns.The steamfloodingprocessis alsoreferredto assteamdrive. In the exam-
plesdescribedin this chapter,the objectiveis to drive the oil sidewaystoward pro-
ductionwells.If the reservoirdips, it is advantageous to drive the oil downwardin
order to utilize gravity to keep the steamfrom bypassingthe oil.1
Frequentlythe two methodsof steaminjectionare combinedandwellsarepro-
ducedby stimulationbeforeflooding is started.When it is desiredto producevery
viscousoils suchasfrom oil sands,stimulationbeforeflooding is almostessentialin
order to achieveflow communicationbetweenthe injectionand productionwells.
Communicationcan be establishedbetweenpairs of wells even in cold tar
sandby creatinga fracturebetweenthem. This can be doneby injectingsteamat a
sufficientlyhigh pressure.In tar sandsdeeperthan about1000ft, suchfracturesare
usuallyvertical, and they tend to have a definite azimuthal(compass) orientation.
In much of Alberta this is approximatelySWNE. At shallowerdepths,horizontal
fracturestend to be formed.
ded, and it is shown lf steamis injectedinto a verticalfracturein cold tar sand,heatingwill occur
projects.The chapter and condensate will flow to the connectingproductionwell. There is a tendencyfor
l developmentof the the steamto override,and the fracture can becomeheatedalongthe top without
usingoverrideof the much heat penetratingto the lower parts. The pressuregradientalonga steamed
ratrix.depletion,and communicatingfracturetendsto be smallbecauseof the needto preventexcessive
steambypassing.As a result,while heat is transferredto the adjacentreservoir,oil
productionis slowbecausethereis little driving force availableto movethe heated
oil. Becauseof thesedifficulties and becauseof the attractiveness of early oil pro-
ES
duction, the preheatingof the reservoir before steam flooding appearsto be the
.i
re divided into two preferableroute to achievingconventionalsteamfloodingin bitumen reservoirs.
Although little practicalfield experienceis available,vertical steamflooding
usingthe steam-assisted gravitydrainageapproach,which is describedin Chapter7,
may be preferablein many circumstances-particularly for projectsinvolving thick
reservoirs.[n many cases,steamflood projectsthat were startedwith the idea of
driving oil horizontally have endedup with more and more attention being paid to
the importanceof gravity in providingdrive. It is recognizedthat downwardsteam
drive in dippingreservoirsis a practicalmeansof achievinghigh injectionand pro-
up to about 1000B/d
ks, and then the well duction rates.In commercialoperations,steamstimulation is often economicallyat-
3 at the bottomof the
the well temperature tlt is being realizedmore and more that downwardsteamfloodingoffers considerableadvan-
tages.One way of accomplishingthis is to use horizontal productionwells locatednear the baseof
iear or more,the oil- the reservoir,with the steamintroducedabove.This approach,which has becomeknown as srearn-
ltageousto continue, assistedgravity drainage,is discussedin Chapter 7.
A OualitativeDiscussionof Steam-injectionProcesses 105

tractive becauseit enablesrapid production of oil with acceptableand sometimes E'
very high oil-to-steamratios.
50
While the short-term economicsof stimulation are frequently satisfactory,
only about 15 to 20Voof the oil can be producedeconomically.After this, the oil-
steamratio becomesrelativelypoor. At this stageit is common,at leastin fields
containingmobileoil (particularlythosein California),to convertthe steamstimu-
lation operationto a steamflood.
Steamfloodscan produce recoveriesof the order of 50Voof the original oil in 3XD
placewith oil-steamratios of the order of 0.2. Volumesof steamare traditionally
measuredin terms of the volume of the equivalentwater; a barrel of steamis thus
350lb of steam(includinganyliquid waterassociated with the steam)and 1 m3is 1 t.
The oil-steamratio is dependentupon the nature of the reservoir.very deep
reservoirs(deeperthan 5CI0 ft at the very most) are uneconomicfor conventional
steamstimulationand flooding becauseof the very high steampressures and corre-
spondinglyhigh temperaturesrequired. Heat lossesand the quantity of steam re-
quired to raisethe reservoir-to-steam temperaturebecomeexcessive.Another factor
is the excessiveheat loss that can occur from the well bore to the overburden.
There is an increasein the well bore heat lossesas the depth of the reservoiris in-
creased.As was discussedin Chapter2, this increaseis causedby the extra length Fit-
of the well and also by the higher steamtemperatureassociatedwith the higher Date O
pressures. Thermal insulationcan be usedto extendthe practicaldepth for steam
injection,but this tendsto be expensive. with the rescr
The next most important criterion for a successfulsteamrecovery project is discussedin O
that the reservoirshouldbe thick-certainly at least10ft thick and preferablymuch During n
thicker.The reasonfor this is that the heatlossesto the overburdenand underbur- switch from sf
den representan excessiveproportion of the total heat requirementfor thin reser- producedby c
voirs.This idea was discussedin the last chapter. improve the rr
Typical successfulsteam-driveprojectsare in relativelyshallow,fairly thick stimulationwl
reservoirs-e.g.,1000to 2000ft in depth and 100ft thick. Usuallythesereservoirs In additi
consistof unconsolidated or looselyconsolidatedsandhavingreasonablyhigh per- ous injectim d
meability and porosity (e.g., 1 D and 30vo porosity) and high oil saturation. It is lation process
usual to produceoil by stimulationfrom both the injection and the productionwells disadvantager
beforethe drive commences. Stimulationis often continued,evenduring the drive, e There b i
if the temperatureof the producedfluids tendsto fall. It is alsobecomingcommon,
largerpa
as steamfloodedfields become depleted,to recover some of the remaining oil by
cycles.th
waterflooding.In this situationit is still desirableto stimulatethe producersperi-
o Thereis,
odicallyif the productiontendsto fall in temperature.
Very shallowreservoirsare usuallynot suitablefor steamflooding(or for stimu- o Often fh
lation, either). The reasonfor this is that the steampressurethat can be utilized commun
would have to be kept low to avoid fracturing to the surfaceof the ground above
the reservoir. With the lower temperaturesthat correspondto the lower-pressure
SUITABILITY OF SPC
steam,the oil (particularlyif it is bitumen)may not becomesufficientlyfluid to
make recovery practicable.Fracture pressureis, to a first approximation,equal to The choiceof r
1 psift of depth from the surface. cussedby a nu
The use of horizontal wells in place of conventionalones makes the use of 1979, Geffen I
steamfloodingprocessesin shallow reservoirsmore practical. Their greatercontact reservoirfor p
106 Steamflooding Chap.4 Suitabilityof 59

rbleand sometimes kB/d
uently satisfactory, --- --- -1

After this, the oil-
,_
lV////, Steamsoak I
n. at leastin fields
rt the steamstimu-
t_
IKffi Steamflood
l*
f the original oil in II rotut I
m are traditionally
rel of steamis thus
am) and 1 m3is 1 t.
:servoir.Very deep
ic for conventional
rressures and corre-
antity of steamre-
ive.Another factor
lo the overburden. 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 t988
the reservoiris in- Year
b;-the extra length Figure 4.1 Heavy Oil Recovery with Steam in the United States (Source of
rd with the higher Data Oil and Gas lournal)
;al depth for steam

with the reservoirallowsmoreviscousoils to be producedat a usefulrate. This is
recoveryprojectis discussedin Chapter7.
nd preferablymuch During recentyearsthe trend in the heavyoil fieldsin Californiahasbeento
'denand underbur- switch from steamstimulationto flooding, and most heavyoil from there is now
nentfor thin reser- producedby steamflooding.The main reasonfor this is the economicincentiveto
improvethe recovery.Figure 4.1.comparesthe historicalrecoveryof oil by steam
tallow, fairly thick stimulationwith that by steamfloodingin California.
lly'thesereservoirs In addition to providing a higher recovery,steamflooding-with its continu-
rasonably high per- ousinjectionof heat-can produceoil significantlyfasterthan can the cyclicstimu-
oil saturation.It is lation process.This, too, can have a significant economic impact. The main
re productionwells disadvantages of steamfloodingcomparedto stimulation are the following:
n during the drive, o There is a lower oil-steamratio. In steamfloodingit is necessaryto heat a
rccomingcommon,
largerpart of the reservoir,whereasin stimulation,at leastin the early
e remainingoil by
cycles,the heatingis confinedto a smallerregionaroundthe well.
.he producersperi-
r There is a longerperiod of time beforesignificantproductionstarts.
cding (or for stimu- o Often flooding is not possibleinitially becauseof the lack of flow
rat can be utilized communication.
the ground above
the lower-pressure
SUITABILITY OF SPECIFICRESERVOIRS
FORSTEAMFLOODING
ufficiently fluid to
,ximation,equalto The choiceof steamfloodingas a meansfor the recoveryof petroleumhasbeen dis-
cussedby a number of authors(including Farouq Ali 1974,FarouqAli and Meldau
makesthe use of 1979,Geffen 1973,Matthews L983,and Chu 1985).Whereasthe suitability of a
reir greatercontact reservoir for production by steamstimulation can be determined relatively simply
fboding Chap.4 Suitabilityof SpecificReservoirs

for Steamflooding 107
by meansof singlewell tests,field experimentationto determineits suitabilityfor
steamfloodingis much more costly. Even the simplesttest must involve multiple
wells and long periodsof operation.
Severalquantitativeguidelineshave been developedto indicate whether a
reservoirpropertymight respondfavorablyto steamfloods.Table4.1 is a summary
of suchscreeningguides;it is taken from Chu (1985).
Matthewslists the followingfactorsthat are unfavorablefor steamflooding.
1.Oil saturationlessthan 40%

2.Porosity less than 20Vo
3.Oil-zonethicknesslessthan 30 ft
4.Permeabilitylessthan 100mD
5.Ratio of net to grosspay lessthan 50%
6.Layersof very low oil saturationand high permeabilityin the oil zonethat act
as thief zones
7. Extremelyhigh viscosity
8. Fractures2
9. Large permeabilityvariationsin the oil zone
10. Poor reservoircontinuity betweeninjectorsand producers
11. Deep high-pressurereservoirsand shallowreservoirswith insufficientover-
burdento permit steaminjectionwithout fracturing
He points out that steamfloodsmay be successfuleven if one or two of the above

conditionsare not met, providedthat the remainingfactorsare highly favorable.
Chu (1985)describesan empiricalcorrelationthat predictsthe oil-steamratio
(osR) or its reciprocal,the steam-oilratio (soR). His correlationequationsare
givennext; note that the units employedare,in somecases,not the customaryones.
tf soR < 5.0(osR> 0.201:

Englishunits (asdefinedshortly):
SOR = 18.744+ 0.001453D- 0.05088h- 0.0008864k- 0.0005915p.
- 14J95"
- 0.0002%8L!
l.L
Metric units (asdefinedshortly):

SOR = 18.744+0.004767D-0.I6693h - 0.8981k- 0.5915pr
-14.795.
- 0.000s767LL
l.L
2Fractures
may be undesirablebecausethey promote bypassingof the steam.In the steam-
assistedgravity drainageprocess,however,which is operatedbelow the critical steam-coningrate,
fracturesenhancethe processif they are vertical and have little effect if they are not.

nine its suitability for
nust involve multiple
<S OOa
Nqi6
o indicate whether a
Dle 4.1 is a summary
x-
=
I for steamflooding. orQ
o -o
Vo
N
'=
3u.?
trv
o ln
t the oil zone that act
FoP 8883=
A 338s+
\/\/\/on
c.l
ls o
* .s.i o o Clo 9C'.1

o
ith insufficient over- ci ^ i
AA-n
F o
or two of the above 'i ar E ho

i^^Nr^
rJ)
re highly favorable.
@
gt 6S Oni Od)
d/\/\oY
ts the oil-steamratio
C)
lation equations are o
I the customarvones. nv?n
o)
'6'
o-
ON
G
E
o
ot
- 14.795.
Itr59151^c a
N
c.l
a,
o) q
p s -vi oo €O€O6
hi-ii-i
o
oAAAA
.E
9l5p - 14.795, o
o
()
(t)
r
vx€-
=ir\FF-
t <g:jq#
tI|
5-o.= Ov
thc steam. In the steam- @ 9H I* E
itical steam-coningrate,
.s; Y xai
lcy are not.
rflooding Chap. 4 109

tf soR > 5.0(osR< 0.201: where I
Englishunits (asdefinedshortly):
oSR = -0.011253+ 0.0N02779D+ 0.0001579h
- 0.00t3570+ 0.000007232p.
+ o.oo001o4z4
+ o.5t2oos"
l.L
The term FY
Metric units (asdefinedshortly):
done per uni
OSR = -0.011253+ 0.00009117D - 0.077i50+ 0.007232p"
+ 0.0005180h systemopctl
equivalentI
+ 0.0000346tU
+ 0.st20ds, tem operatiq
p
English Metric
D = depth ftm
where the lct
ft : thickness ftm ing the qrlcr
I = permeability mD mD For ert
S, : oil saturationat start fraction of pore volume Wr(Hp - IJrl
Soi= initial oil saturation fraction of pore volume ing formulai
So,= residualoil saturation fraction of pore volume tial energy,t
I = temperature r "c the PV terme
d= dip angle degree rad caseswhercd
p : viscosity cp Pas tional terms i
4 : porosity fraction of bulk volume
At any 1
increaseste{
further heat i
These equationsmay be used quite simply becauseall they require are fairly amount of hc
basicmeasurements or estimatesof the reservoirproperties.Two formsof the equa- is added,thc
tions are given,one for Englishunits and one for metric.Chu'spapercontainssum- water vapor i
mary data for 28 different steamflood field projects, including references.The mation. If fir
equationsjust given were found to correlatewell with the data. Chu recommends The s
that the equationfor SOR < 5 be tried first and that the secondequationbe used plantssucha
only if the answerfrom the first indicatesthe SOR to be greaterthan 5. oil fields,wa
Tables4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 reproducethe field projectdata summariescol- that definest
lected by Chu. Referencesto the sourcesof the data are listed in Chu'spaper. It is the weight fn
interesting to note that of the 28 projects studied by Chu, only 7 gave oil-steam thus liquid. I
ratioshigher than 0.2. numericalfn
The erl
Table 4.6 as
THE PROPERTIES
OF STEAM
The most important properties of steamfor thermal recovery processesare those
involvingenthalpy.Enthalpy is defined as or, since
H:U*PV
110 Steamflooding Chap.4 The Propertie

whereH is the enthalpyin units of energyper unit mass,e.g.,kykg
(or Btu/lb)
U is the internal energy,k/kg (or Btu/lb)
i78 + 0.000007232p. P is the pressure,kPa (or Btuft3)
V is the specificvolume, m'lkg (lbft3)
The term PV hasthe dimensionsof energyper unit mass;it is the work that mustbe
done per unit massof material to introduce it at pressureP into a continuousflow
t7* + 0.007232pt systemoperatedin a steadystate.Similarly, material leaving the systemcan do an
equivalentamount of work. The total heat effect in a continuous-flow,isolatedsys-
tem operatingin a steadystate is thus
Heat added= ) H" Wp- ZHrWr

Metric
m
where the terms Hp and Wprefer to the enthalpiesand massesof the productsleav-
m
ing the systemand Hr and W are the correspondingterms for the feed.
mD For example,the heat addedin a boiler to convert the feedwaterto steamis
: r'olume Wr(Hp - Hr) if the massof steamproductis equalto the massof feed.The preced-
: r'olume ing formulation of the law of conservationof energyneglectsterms such as poten-
: volume tial energy,kinetic energy,electrical energy,and work other than that included in
'c the PV terms;this is justifiablein the calculationsdescribedin this book. In other
rad caseswhere theseother energyterms are significant, they must be included as addi-
Pas tional terms in the energybalance.
; r'olume
At any particular pressure,the temperatureand the enthalpyof liquid water
increasesteadilyas heat is addeduntil the boiling point of the water is reached.If
further heatis added,the waterboils at a constanttemperatureuntil an additional
:heyrequireare fairly amountof heatequalto the latentheatof evaporationhasbeenadded.As this heat
'\r'o
forms of the equa- is added,the liquid is continuouslytransformedinto vapor until eventuallyonly
's
papercontainssum- water vapor is present;a very large increasein volume accompanies this transfor-
rding references.The mation. [f further heat is added,the steambecomessuperheated.
ata. Chu recommends The steamemployedfor processheating and power generationin process
ond equationbe used plantssuchas refineriesand power stationsis usuallydry and superheated. In the
ater than 5. oil fields,wet steam(i.e., a mixture of waterandvapor)is employed.The parameter
t data summariescol- that definesthe conditionof sucha mixture is the steamquality,/5;it is definedas
d in Chu'spaper.It is the weightfractionof the steammixture that is vapor.A weightfraction (1 - /5) is
only 7 gave oil-steam thus liquid. The steamquality is often expressedas a percentagerather than as a
numerical fraction.
The enthalpy of steam of quality /s can be calculatedfrom the data of
Table4.6 as
IIs=(1 -/r)H"*fsH, (4.1)
T DTOCeSSeS
are those
or, since
IIv=Hrl tr
amflooding Chap.4 The Propertiesof Steam 111

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119
TABLE 4.6 Enthalpyof Water and Steam at SaturationConditions Table {-(
Enthalpy kVkg Enthalpyk/kg
of evaporatkr
P T P T temperature.
(MPa) ('c) Water Evap. (MPa) ("c) The ralu
0.006 0.0 0.0 2501,.6 250t.6 1.50 198.3 844.6 t945.32789.9 unitsbv the ft
0.10 99.6 417.5 2257.9 2675.4 1.60 20r.4 858.5 1933.22791.7
0.11 102.3 428.8 2250.8 2679.6 1.70 204.3 871.8 192r.62793.4
0.12 104.8 439.4 2244.L 2683.4 1.80 207.1 884.5 1910.32794.8
0.13 t07.1 449.2 2237.8 2687.0 1.90 209.8 896.8 1899.32796.r
0.14 109.3 458.4 2231,.9 2690.3 2.00 212.4 908.6 1888.72797.2
0.15 rtt.4 467.1 2226.3 2693.4 2.50 223.9 961.9 1839.02800.9
Simplerelatic
0.16 113.3 475.4 2220.8 2696.2 3.00 233.8 1008.3 t794.02802.3
0.r7 rr5.2 483.2 2215.8 2699.0 3.50 242.5 t049.7 1752.22801.9 tions of tempc
0 .l 8 116.9 490.7 22t0.8 270r.5 4.00 250.3 1087.4 t7t2.92800.3 Specific1
0.19 118.6 497.9 2206.t 2704.0 4.50 257.4 Lt22.r 1675.62797.7 The latenthcr
0.20 120.2 504.7 2201.6 2706.3 5.00 263.9 1154.5 1639.72794.2 the criticalpo
0.21 rzr.8 511.3 21,97.2 2708.5 5.50 269.9 1184.9 1605.02789.9 erating pressu
0.22 123.3 5t7.6 2193.0 2710.6 6.00 275.6 r2r3.7 1571.32785.0 706'F), none i
0.23 t24.7 523.7 2188.9 2712.6 6.50 280.8 t241.2 1538.32779.5 2802kl/kg at
o.24 126.1 529.6 2t84.9 27t4.5 7.00 285.8 L267.5 1506.02773.5 In the fr
0.25 127.4 535.4 2181.0 2716.4 7.50 290.5 1292.7 1474.].
2766.8 is usual to ggr
0.26 128.7 540.9 21,77.3 2718.2 8.00 295.0 1317.2 1442.72759.9 Typicallya gl
0.27 130.0 546.2 2173.7 2719.9 8.50 299.2 1340.8 14rr.62752.4
than dry or sr
0.28 13r.2 551.5 2170.0 2721.5 9.00 303.3 1363.8 1380.82744.6
0.29 132.4 556.5 2166.6 2'723.r 9.50 30'7.2 1386.2 1350.22736.4
water for the I
0.30 133.5 561.4 2163.2 2724.7 10.00 311.0 1408.1 1319.72727.8 Oil field
0.35 138.9 584.3 2147.3 2731.6 11.00 318.0 1450.6 1258.82709.4 the combustiq
0.40 143.6 604.7 2132.9 2',737.6 12.00 324.6 149L.7 rr97.52689.2 of about 70 to
0.45 t47.9 623.2 21t9.7 2742.9 13.00 330.8 1531.9 1135.12667.0 containshigh
0.50 151.8 640.1 2107.4 2'747.5 14.00 336.6 r57L.5 1070.92642.4 residualliquid
0.55 155.5 655.8 2095.9 2'75r.7 15.00 342.1 1610.9 1004.22615.1
0.60 158.8 670.4 2085.0 2755,5 16.00 347.3 1650.4 934.52584.9
0.70 165.0 697.1 2064.9 2762.0 17.00 352.3 1691.6 860.0255t.6
170.4 2046.5 2767.5 18.00 357.0 1734.8 '779.0
2513.8
0.80 720.9
0.90 t75.4 742.6 2029.5 27"t2.1 19.00 361.4 1778.7 691.8 2470.5
r.00 179.9 762.6 2013.6 27'/6.2 20.00 365.7 1826.6 591.6 2418.2
1.10 184.1 781.1 1998.6 2779.'7 21.00 369.8 1886.3 461.2 2347.5
r.20 188.0 ',198.4 L984.3 2782.'7 22.00 373.7 2010.3 186.3 2196.6
1.30 191.6 814.7 1970.7 2785.4 22.12 374.2 2107.4 0.0 2101.4
1.40 195.0 830.1 1957.7 278'7.8
Abstractedfrom "U.K. SteamTablesin SI Units 1970",United Kingdom Committeeon Prop-
erties of Steam,Edward Arnold, London 1970.
Hs can also be expressed as
Hs=Hr*/sr\ (4.2)
where i is the latent heat of evaporationand the subscripts,S, L, and V refer to the
steammixture, boiling liquid, and saturatedvapor,respectively.
120 Steamflooding Chap.4 The Propertiesr

Table 4.6 and Figure 4.2 give the enthalpy of boiling water, the latent heat
Enthalpyk/kg of evaporation,and the enthalpy of saturatedsteam as a function of pressureand
temperature.
bter Evap. Steam The valuesin Table4.6 are in S.I. units. They may be convertedto Enelish
'44.6
1945.3 2789.9 units by the followingconversions:
5E.5 1933.2 279t.7
i71.8 1921.6 2793.4
(Pressurein psia) : 145(pressure
in MPa)
i{i4.5 1910.3 2794.8 (Temperaturein "F) = l.8(temperaturein 'C) + 32
iqt-8 1899.3 2796.1
oE.6 1888.7 2797.2 (Enthalpy in Btu/lb) : (enthalpyin kJlkg)/2.326
61.9 1839.0 2800.9
oE.3
Simplerelationsfor calculatingthe enthalpiesof saturatedliquid and vapor as func-
1794.0 2802.3
49.'t t752.2 280I.9
tions of temperatureand pressureare given in Appendix 9.
E7.4 1712.9 2800.3 Specific points that should be noted with respectto Table 4.6 are as follows:
22.r 1675.6 2797.7 The latent heat of evaporationdecreasesas the pressureis raised and disappearsat
54.5 1639.7 2794.2 the critical point. Lesslatent heatis availableper unit massof steamwhen the op-
u.9 1605.0 2789.9 eratingpressureis higher.Above the critical point (22.7MPa,374"C or 3208psia,
r3.7 1571.3 2785.0 706"F), none is available.The enthalpy of saturatedsteamreachesa maximum of
1t.2 1538.3 2779.5 2802kJlkg at 236'C and 3 MPa (1205Btu/lb at 457'F and 435 psia).
'67.5
1506.0 2773.5 ln the field, steamis generatedat pressuresup to about 15 MPa (2200psi). It
92.7 1474.1 2766.8 is usualto generatewet steam-i.e., a mixture of saturatedsteamvapor and water.
t7.2 1442.7 2759.9
if0.E
Typically a quality of 70 to 80Vois employed.The main reasonfor using wet rather
14ll.6 2752.4
than dry or superheatedsteamis to reduce the purity requirementsfor the feed-
63.8 1380.8 2744.6
,t6.2 t350.2 2736.4
water for the steamgenerators.
08.l t3t9.7 2727.8 Oil field steamgeneratorsusually contain a single boiler tube coiled around
50.6 1258.8 2709.4 the combustionzone.Water is pumped at high pressureinto one end and a mixture
9r.7 rr97.5 2689.2 of about 70 to 80% vapor and 20 to 30Voliquid leavesthe other. The water usually
31.9 1135.1 2667.0 containshigh concentrationsof dissolvedsolids.These remain dissolvedin the
71.5 1070.9 2642.4 residual liquid water and are removedcontinuouslywith the steamproduct. More
I0.9 1N4.2 2615.1
50.4 934.5 2s84.9
91.6 860.0 255t.6
34.E 779.0 25t3.8
7E.7 691.8 2470.5
26.6 59L.6 24t8.2
E5.3 46t.2 2347.5
r0.3 186.3 2t96.6 IE
a15 06+
0i.4 0.0 2107.4 -, Quality | o lzs I so I zs \ roo
o
J
dom Committeeon Prop-
810
o
o-
(4.2)
l, andZ referto the 1000 2000 3000 Figure4.2 Pressure-Enthalpy
ly. EnthalpykJ/kg Diagram for Steam-Water
mflooding Chap.4 The Propertiesof Steam 121

informationon water treating,steamgeneration,and steamdistributionis given
in a smallerpod
Chapter8.
heating.The
ited by inrerf
TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTIONIN STEAMFLOODING The spr
mining the u
Figure 4'3 shows,in an idealizedway, one conceptof the conditionsaround and underbu
a
steam-injection well. The temperaturein the vicinity of the well is nearlyconstant it takeslonga
and is equalto the saturationtemperatureof the steam.This temperatuieprevails is greater.
to the point wherethe last of the steamcondenses. The dcs
Beyondthe condensation front thereis a hot-waterzonein which the tempera- mal efficiency
ture falls. The temperaturegradientjust beyond the front may be relatively ubrup, wells involrrcd
or moregentle,dependingupon the conditions.This wasdiscussed in the list chap- the difficultv i
ter in connectionwith the works of Mandl and volek and of Hearn. in maintainiq
Much of the heat introducedwith the steamis lost to the overburdenand to when cold rig
the underburdenby thermal conductionin the mannerdiscussedearlier. fingeringin C
In the situation shown in the figure it is assumedthat the hot zone has Tl.pical r
reachedthe overburdenand underburden.In practice,it is possiblethat conditions of 2to 6 rres
may existin which the steamzonehasnot yet extendedto the upperand lower lim- patternin Fgr
its of the reservoir. seven-spotpea
A particularlycommonand importantsituationis that wherethe steamzone Figure4.5).At
has risen, becauseof gravity effects,to the top of the reservoirbut has extended three prodrrc
only part of the way to the bottom.Under theseconditionsthe oil belowthe steam equal-the'ior
zoneis beingheatedbut is producedslowly,and the potentialthermaladvantageof from the -si&
havinga thick reservoirto heatmay not be realized.lt is a challengeof thermil re- t ha : 10.m
coveryengineeringto devisesystemsby which the maximumavailablethicknessof A featurt
reservoirmaterialis producedin orderto minimize the areaof over-and underbur- the project mr
den to which heat is beinglost. Steamstimulationtendsto do this initially. producersas e
In any case,as time goeson the steamzoneexpands,and the areatfiat is be- the bypassedo
ing heatedaboveand belowincreases. As a resultthe heatlossesalsoincrease,and in this chaper
Whenrh
lnjector producerl downdipin cr
I ment front. Th
i--> warer flowtng lnrough
.--->
Steam zone
slow-moving oil bank___1,-
i->
.9
Water
E Steam
E
o oil
n
Figure 4.3 Diagram showingthe l'!
------\ Distribution of Temperature,Pressure,
$ | ---__..\ and Saturationsin a Hypothetical
i |
One-DimensionalSteamflood
122 Steamflooding Chap.4 TemperatureCIc

listributionis eivenin a smaller portion of the heat in the injected steamis employedin useful reservoir
heating.The heat lossesincreaseup to the point wherearealgrowth becomeslim-
ited by interferencewith the neighboringpatterns(seeFigure 2.4).
The spacingbetweeninjectorsand producersis an important factor in deter-
mining the utilization of heat. Large spacingsresult in large areasof overburden
conditionsaround a and underburdenhaving to be kept hot for longerperiods of time. For a given flow
rell is nearlyconstant it takes longer to drain the oil betweenthe injector and the producer if the spacing
t temperatureprevails is greater.
The designof a steamfloodinvolves an economicbalancebetweenthe ther-
in w'hichthe tempera- mal efficiency of closespacingand the lower well investmentrequired for the fewer
rv be relatively abrupt wells involvedwith larger spacings.Another factor, particularlywith tar sands,is
ussedin the lastchap- the difficulty in establishingcommunication.Sometimesthere is alsothe difficulty
Hearn. in maintainingcommunication,sinceinterconnectingflow pathsmay tend to block
he overburdenand to when cold viscousoil drains into them by gravity drainage.(Seethe discussionon
ssedearlier. fingeringin Chapter5).
hat the hot zone has Typical commercialsteamfloodprojectshave productionwells with spacings
xsible that conditions of 2 to 6 acreswith either one injection well per productionwell (inverted five-spot
: upp€rand lower lim- pattern in Figure 4.4) or one injection well for every two production wells (inverted
seven-spotpattern in Figure 4.5). Line-drive configurationsare also common(see
wherethe steamzone Figure4.5).Another popularconfigurationis the invertednine-spot;this resultsin
yoir but has extended three producersper injector.In this arrangement,the producingwells are not all
te oil belowthe steam equal-the "corner"wells (2, 4,6, and 8 in Figure4.4) havedifferent surroundings
thermaladvantageof from the "side"wells (3,5,7, and 9). (Note:I acre= 43,560ft2 = 0.405ha and
rallengeof thermalre- t ha : 10,000m2.)
availablethicknessof A featurethat is commonin manysteamfloodsis the additionof infill wellsas
rf over-and underbur- the projectmatures.Theseare frequentlyaddedwhen steambreaksthrough to the
o this initially. producersas a resultof gravity override.Infill wells allow the recoveryof someof
nd the areathat is be- the bypassedoil which lies belowthe steamzone.This is discussedfurther later on
;sesalsoincrease,and in this chapter.
When there is a dip in the reservoirit is usuallyadvantageous to drive the oil
downdip in order to make use of the gravitationalforce to stabilizethe displace-
ment front. This is discussedin the next chapter.
Injectionwellsareshownwithdiagonallinesthroughthem
d d d aaooooao
O----------t o aaQaaaS0
d (/ ,g d o e?e9oao o o o
;^
a-,,--------a o a ]"?'a'z o.- o
ii
//,od o i9.-ez.-,a6oo o.
INVERTEDFIVE SPOT PATTERN INVERTED NINESPOTPATTERN
)iagramshowingthe and1 (4quarters)
1 injector producer 1 injectorand3 producers
of Temperature,Pressure,
perpattern (4quarters+4halves)
rnsin a Hypothetical per panern
onal Steamflood Figure 4.4 Inverted Five- and Nine-SpotWell Patterns
amflooding Chap.4 Temperature Distribution in Steamflooding 123

Inloctlonwells ar6 shownwlth dlagonalllnesthroughthem.
fr a
3
q '12
)J
a / i
iz
,at 164
''r
V) ac
6% oil satur.::
i
o a steamf lft.i :l
@ i
i
o this project rcp
STAGGEREDLINE DRME II,IUER TEDSEVENSPOTPATTER N ZOnerepre\':'l:(
1 Inlectorperproducer 1 Injeclor and two producers sure gradien: :r
(slx one-thlrds)per pattern tion rate in o:J
Figure4,5 InvertedSeven-Spot
and Staggered-Line Drive patterns A sien:::
w i l l r e s t r i c t: : e
sure drop :rJ
FINGERING flooded zr.nu
s t e a m ,u h r ; : ; . :
In the displacement processshown in Figure 4.3, the condensedwater runs more 1 9 8 2 ,A l - K ; : : ;
rapidly than the oil to the productionwell becauseit is much lessviscousthan the to be effectire
oil that it is displacing.Frequentlythe water runs as separaterivulets, or fingers, ture and tha: t
through the oil; the flow pattern can be visualizedas oil and water running to- required. Foam
getheralongseparateflow paths,with the water velocitybeing much higherthan meabilitrstr.:.
that of the oil. Thus, rather than dry oil, a mixture containingvery substantial Promisint
quantitiesof water is produced.The fingeringof water through the oil may alsobe the Midu ar-Su
promotedby heterogeneities within the reservoir,including those createdby the the injected rtci
fracturingthat resultsfrom steaminjectionat pressures abovethe minimum in situ that the pro!-c:
stress.Passage of the water mustoccur if steamis to continueto supplyheatto the Friedman
reservoir.If the removalof condensateis not possiblewith the availablepressure flooding of Bcr
drops,then the processwill be slowedgreatly. tant. Thel frrun
Even if therewere no fingeringdue to the formationof unstablewater/oildis- oil saturationrt
placementfronts, the water would still run through the oil layer, with an early formed at high
breakthroughbecauseof the adverseviscosityratio. It is shownin the next chapter terial at lo* r el
that when an attemptis madeto displacea viscousoil with water,breakthroughof s a m el o \ . \ ' e l $ -
the water occursrapidly,becauseof the relativepermeabilityand viscositycharac- Mohamm
teristics-even if the flow is diffuse rather than segregated(i.e., even if the water test involr ine ir
doesnot run as fingers). in California. t
resulted in thc
pounds of AOS
GRAVITYOVERRIDE R e s u l t sl r '
field in Califtrrr
A major difference between the practical situation and the flow depicted in
The test inrtrlr
Figure4.3 is that the differencein densitybetweenthe steamand the liquidsin the
s t e a m .P o s i t i re
reservoircausesthe steamto override-i.e., to flow abovethe oil; the situationis
causeof the un
as depictedin Figure 4.6. Eventuallysteambreaksthrough at the productionwell.
was reported c*
The upper steam-swept regionhas a much lower residualoil saturationthan
The addit
the lowerwater-floodedregion.For example,Blevinsand Billingsley(1975)report a
lated approach
124 Steamflooding Chap.4 GravityOverrrd
1a
lgh them.
Injection Production
Figure 4.6 Gravity Override of Steam
6Vooil saturationin the steam-swept zoneversus23Vofor the water-sweptzonefor

a steamfloodin the Kern River field in California.The upper Steam-swept zonein
this project representedabout one-third of the sweptvolume and the waterfloodetl
CTPATTENN zone representedtwo-thirds.Once steamhas broken through, there is little pres-
0 Pfoducers suregradientto removethe oil, particularlysinceit is necessary to reducethe injec-
Per Pattern tion rate in order to control steambypassing(i.e. steam"coning").
'rvePatterns A significanteffort is being made currently to developsteamadditivesthat
will restrict the flow of steamwithin the steamzone,therebyincreasingthe pres-
sure drop and causingmore rapid encroachmentof the steam into the water-
flooded zpne.A popular approachis the addition of surfactantmaterialsto the
steam,which causethe formationof foamwithin the steamzone(e.g.,Dilgren et al.
enseowater runs more 1982,Al-Kahaafji et al. !982, and Eson and O'Nesky1982).For foamingmaterials
'h lessviscousthan to be effective,it is necessarythat they be chemicallystableat the steamtempera-
the
ate rivulets,or fingers, ture and that their cost be low enoughfor them to be economicin the quantities
and water running to- required)'Foamadditivescan alsoreducethe bypassingof steamthroughhigh per-
eing muchhigherthan meabilitystratain heterogeneous reservoirs.
"
ainingvery substantial Promisingresultswere obtainedby Ploegand Duerksen(1985)in field testsin
rgh the oil may alsobe the Midway-Sunset field in Californiain which sulphonatesolutionswere addedto
I thosecreatedby the the injectedsteam.Theseauthorsconcludedthat incrementaloil wasproducedand
'e the minimum that the processwas economical.
in situ
re to supplyheatto the Friedmann and Jensen(1986)have reported an experimentalstudy of the
the availablepressure flooding of Bereacoreswith foamspreparedusingChevronChaserSD1000surfac-
tant. They found that the surfactantreducedthe relativepermeabilityto gas.High
i unstable water/oildis- oil saturationsreducedthe degreeof foam formationand propagation.Foams,pre-
il layer, with an early formed at high velocitiesin sandpacks, could be propagatedthrough reservoirma-
wn in the next chapter terial at low velocities.However,it wasnot possibleto generatefoamsin situ at the
water,breakthroughof samelow velocities.
r and viscositycharac- Mohammadi,van Slyke,and Ganong(1989)reportedthat in a steamflooding
(r.e.,evenif the water test involving four five-spot patterns in the Potter sand in the Midway-Sunsetfield
in California, the addition of NaCl, alpha olefin sodium sulphonate,and nitrogen
resultedin the incrementalproductionof 207 kB of oil in 2 years.Four million
pounds of AOS were injected.
Resultsfrom a surfactant/steam-injection field test in the Guadalupeheavyoil
field in Californiahavebeenreportedby Mohammadiand McCallumin California.
the flow depicted in
The test involved the addition of alkyl toluene sulphonateand nitrogen to the
t and the liquids in the
steam.Positiveresultswere obtained,althoughthe test was stoppedabruptlybe-
he oil; the situation is
causeof the unavailability of steam.An incrementalproduction of 29,400B of oil
at the production well.
was reportedas the resultof the injectionof 257,0001bof activeAIS.
ual oil saturation than
The addition of thin film spreadingagents(TFSA) to the steamis another re-
lingsley (1975)report a
lated approachin which there is interest.Thesematerialsare madeby treatingphe-
aamflooding Chap.4 GravityOverride 125
nol with formaldehydeand then reactingthe resultingpolyolswith ethyleneoxide fasterrate tct thc
or propyleneoxide. waterfloodednq
Productsof this type are frequentlyusedasdemulsifiersto treat heavycrudes. Even after
In this applicationthey are thought to work by being adsorbedat the water-oilin- mobility ratio. ll
terfaceand displacingthe bulky asphaltene-type materialsthat stabilizethe water tendencvfor gee
in the oil emulsion.With the thinner demulsifiermoleculesat the interface,water the steamcm&
dropletsare thought to approacheachother more closelyand then to coalesce.It is exceptwhenit is
thoughtthat the effect of the TFSA in steamrecoveryis to promotethe waterwet- manner.the co
ting of the rock-i.e., to detachoil from oil-wet portionsof the surface. fingers.
Blair, Scribner,and Stout (1982)describetestsin California in which indica- This mech
tions of significantly improved performancewere obtained for such a chemical in allowsfurther ct
cyclicsteamstimulationoperations.Further results(Stout,Blair, and Scribner1983) movedis largeri
have shown that the effects of the TFSA appear to persist into subsequentcycles volume of rescrr
eventhough additionis stopped. (measuredas rz
The calcu!
STEAMFLOODINGMECHANISMS from a reservtir I
The quantitl of r
Reductionof Oil Viscosity ume of resentir
the table repnesc
The main physicaleffectof steamthat promotesthe recoveryof heavyoil is the re- steamtemp€ratu
versiblereductionin viscositythat resultsfrom increasingthe temperature.This re- losses.In relatir
duction in viscosityis very dramatic;with oil sand bitumen, it is almost of the doublingthe gce
nature of the meltingof a solid to form a fluid liquid.
Figure 1.9showstypicalviscosity-temperature relationshipsfor a varietyof bi-
Changesin R*
tumensand heavyoils and alsofor lighter oils. Figure 4.7 showsthe effect of tem-
peratureon the ratio of the viscosityof variousoils to that of water.The reduction Another phenoo
in the viscosityof the oil makesit easierto push the oil at appreciablerateswith floodsis that th
the pressuregradientsavailable.There are also other effects that promote the mo- thereis not a coo
bility of the oil. temperatureche
The first of theseeffectsis due to the improvementin the ratio of the viscos- tive permeabilit
ity of the oil to that of the water.This makeswaterpercolationableto dragoil at a reduced.Anotha
1,000,000
to be lower und
Parameter in cp at 100o C
is oilviscosity
1O0,000 TABLE 4.7 Ouatl
o
G
TE 10,000
'6
o 1,000
o
o Stcr
100
10
0 100 200 300
in DegreesCelsius
TemPerature
Figure 4.7 The Effect of Temperatureon the Ratio of Oil Viscosity to Water
(t)or
Viscosity in B/B.
126 Steamflooding Chap.4 Steamfloodirg lle

rls with ethyleneoxide fasterrate to the productionwell, which resultsin more effectivedepletionin the
waterfloodedregionfor a givenvolumeof water (condensate).
) to treat heavycrudes. Even after heating,water still fingersthrough the oil becauseof the adverse
led at the water-oilin- mobility ratio. However,aswill be discussed in the next chapter,there is muchless
hat stabilizethe water tendencyfor steamto do so. It seemslikely that in most steamfloodcircumstances,
at the interface,water the steamcondensationfront advancesin a stablemanner (i.e., without fingers)
I then to coalesce.It is exceptwhenit is movingupward.While the condensation front advances in a stable
)romotethe waterwet- manner, the condensatedrains through the oil to the productionwell, often in
the surface. fingers.
ornia in which indica- This mechanismremovesthe relativelylargevolumesof condensate and thus
for sucha chemicalin allows further condensationof the steam.Often the condensatethat must be re-
air. and Scribner1983) movedis largerin volumethan the volumeof the oil produced.In order to heat a
into subsequent cycles volume of reservoir to steam temperature,more than one pore volume of steam
(measuredas water) is required.
The calculatedquantity of steamrequired to raise a high-qualityreservoir
from a reservoirtemperatureof 10'C to the steamtemperatureis given in Table4.7.
The quantityof steamis expressed as the volumeof steamrequiredto heatthat vol-
ume of reservoirwhich containsa unit volumeof oil. The calculatedquantitiesin
i of heavyoil is the re- the table representthe heat required solelyto raise the reservoirand its contentsto
l temperature.This re- steamtemperature.It is necessary, in addition,to provide steamto supplythe heat
rn, it is almost of the losses.In relativelyefficient situations,this will have the effect of approximately
doublingthe steamrequirementsshown.
hipsfor a varietyof bi-
ows the effect of tem- Changesin Relative Permeability
f water.The reduction Another phenomenonthat plays a role in increasingthe effectivenessof steam-
appreciablerateswith floods is that the relativepermeabilityeurveschangewith temper4tqre.Although
that promotethe mo- thereis not a consensus on this, experimenters
havegenerallyfound that raisingthe
temperaturechangesrelativepermeabilitycurves.The main effect is that the rela-
the ratio of the viscos- tive permeabilityfor oil flow tendsto be increased,and the residualoil saturationis
on able to drag oil at a reduced.Another factoris that the relativepermeabilityfor liquid waterflow seems
to be lower under steamfloodingconditionsthan it is with ordinary oils having
TABLE a.7 Otlantityof Steam Requiredto Raisea High-QualityReservoirto Steam Temperature
Basis: Porosity 32%

Oil Saturation 80%
Reservoir Temperature 10'c
SteamQuality 70%
SteamTemperature Ratio of Steam

('c) to oil (m3/m3f1)
100 0.52
150 0.86
us 200 t.2'1
iscosityto Water 250 1.81
(t)orin B7B.
amflooding Chap.4 Steamflooding Mechanisms 127

viscositiesat room temperaturesimilar to that of the heavy oil at steamflood 100
conditions.
A possiblepartial explanationfor theseeffectsis that waterhasa tendencyto -80
form water-oilemulsions,within the reservoir,with bituminousoils under steaming ;
conditions.This can explain the lower residualoil, since the residualoil droplets =
lt
are "diluted" with micron-sizedropletsof water.In a way, a steamfloodcan be vi- (E60
o
sualizedas beingpartially miscible.Another reasonfor a lower residualoil satura- E
tion which is applicablewhen there is steamsaturationis the steamdistillation o
o40
effect;this is consideredlater.Emulsificationalsohasthe effectof reducingthe ap-
o
parentwater-relativepermeabilitybecausesomeof the water is tied up with the
slow movingoil phase.
620
If in situ emulsificationdoesplay a role in the displacementof heavy oils, E
then it seemslikely that the conditionsof the experiment-such as thoseinvolved
in the preconditioningof the core or sandpack-as well as the measuredsatura-
020
tions,will play an important role. For example,changesthat affect the wettability
of the core, the prefloodingconditions,and whether steamhas contactedthe oil
u!
may be expectedto have important influences.Experiments(Chungand Butler
1988,Jamaluddinand Butler 1988)have shown that water in oil emulsificationis .{ paper I
promotedby the direct condensation of steamon colderbitumenand alsoby an oil- relativepcrE
wetted reservoirmatrix. There is less emulsionproduction,if any, when oil and vent and tbeo I
waterflow togetherascondensed phases.The effectof emulsificationupon the rela- them. It appc
tive permeabilityof the oil and wateris thus intertwinedwith the conditionsin the very'deperdc
steam-saturated regionsof the reservoir,particularlyat the condensationinterface. follor*ed furrl
Although oil and water flowing together probably do not emulsify, water in oil Th€ sfr
emulsionformed at the condensationinterfacecan be pushedaheadof the steam complicatedr
chamberand then flow in the absenceof steam. effect an irry
Resultsfrom somepublishedstudiesof the effect of temperatureon relative
permeabilityare given in Figures4.8 and 4.9.
MYHILL AND STB(-
1.O
The paper by
field. It usestl
tr Cetus oil, 22 o API
.9 0.8 Midway Sunset to providera,
a)
(u
r.
*'o Unconsolidated sand The be{
l!
i\ sizeof th€ $a
I o.o ..\ (1959)apprd
lt
o
o
the possitility
E 74 o F \ r r 2osoF Thesemetbod
b o.c
o. The otf,r
(, heatinjectedit
2
to the saturali
6 0.2
IE The rul
Knv ity of usinga t
---.' Figure 4.8 The Effect of Temperature
06 20 40 60 80 on Relative Permeability(Data of
Montgomeryreportedin Wu 1977) isee
Water Saturation, 7o Pore volume aln d
128 Steamflooding Chap.4 Myhill and Stag

rvv oil at steamflood
tH 77 oF
ater hasa tendencyto s.o A--A 340 oF
usoils under steaming
e residual oil droplets
g kro
steamfloodcan be vi- (E60 t

'er residualoil satura- o l\
E
the steamdistillation o \
e+o
:ct of reducingthe ap-
o
:r is tied up with the .E
.|
r,
?620 .^
cementof heavy oils, G kr*
;uch as those involved
the measuredsatura- Figure 4.9 RelativePermeability
20 40 60 80 l(X) Curves for BereaSandstoneCore
, affect the wettability
Water Saturation,"/oPV (from Lo and Mungan 1973)
has contactedthe oil
ts (Chung and Butler
n oil emulsification is A paper by Bennion, Moore, and Thomas(1983)indicatesthat vastly different
ren and alsoby an oil- relative permeabilitycurves are obtainedif heavyoil coresare extractedwith a sol-
if any, when oil and vent and then restoredthan if they are preservedwith the originalreservoirfluid in
fication upon the rela- them. It appearsthat the relativepermeabilitiesof corescontainingheavyoils are
r the conditionsin the very dependentupon the state of wetting of the porous solid. This lead should be
ondensation interface. followedfurther.3
emulsify,water in oil The effect of steam treatment and temperatureon relative permeabilitiesis
d aheadof the steam complicatedand not understood.Overall, however,it appearsthat steamingdoes
effect an improvement.
mperatureon relative
MYHILL AND STEGEMEIER'S

APPROACHTO STEAMFLOODING
The paper by Myhill and Stegemeier(1978)should be read by all workers in this

field. It usesthe heat conductionand heat convectionideasof the previouschapter
to provide an estimateof the efficiency of a steamflood.
The basic idea used by Myhill and Stegemeierinvolvesthe calculationof the
size of the steamzone from a simple energybalance using the Marx-Langenheim
(1959)approachmodified by the ideasof Mandl and Volek (1969)in order to include
the possibility of all the steambeing condensedbefore it reachesthe heat front.
These methodswere discussedin the previouschapter.
The objectiveis to calculatethe volume of the steamzonefrom the amount of
heatinjectedinto the reservoir,the heat neededto raisea unit volume of steamzone
to the saturationtemperature,and the heat lost to the overburdenand underburden.
The method is simpleto use, is rapid, and gives a useful idea of the practical-
'he ity of usinga steamflood in a particular situation.
Effect of Temperature
'ermeability(Data of
reportedin Wu 1977) sSeealso
the discussionof the work by M. Kwan (1988)in Chapter 1, page 18.
rnflooding Chap.4 Myhill and Stegemeier's Approach to Steamflooding 129

Summary of Myhill and Stegemeier'sAssumptions This p
The basicassumptions
for the calculationare as follows:
1. The reservoircontainsa uniform amountof oil per unit bulk volume as de- u'here
fined by the productof porosity,net to grossthickness,and oil saturationin
the net pay. Grossthicknessand areaper injectorare alsoconstantthrough-
out the reservoir- f,
2. Thermal properties,includinginitial formationtemperature,heat capacityof f,.
reservoirrock, and heat capacityand conductivityof cap and baserock are Oncethe th
assumedconstantthroughoutthe zone. culatedfs t
3. Steamis injectedat a constantpressure,quality, and rate per injector. capacitl'of r
4. Verticaltemperaturegradientsin the reservoirare zero.
5. Heat lossesfrom the steamzoneare by conductiononly and occur normal to
the reservoirinto the cap and baserock. Heat is transferredin the reservoir or
by convectiononly, and heatpassesthroughthe condensation front only after
Mandl and Volek'scritical time.
6. The quantity of residualoil remainingin the steamedchambercan be repre-
q'here I
sentedby an average,assumedresidualoil saturation.
I
tpc
Outline of Method
The heart of the methodis Figure4.10.It allowsthe thermalefficiencyof the heat- Myhill and S
ing to be obtainedfrom a knowledgeof the variablesin the dimensionless time displacedfro
numberand the steam-condition parameter,which is calledfi". saturationri
G
U
Li
Z^6
N
u'hercq
=
(
U
'o
L
0.t
,s
L
o
t
o
z
!! 0.4
The rate of <
o
L
rewritten fc
r
lrJ
J
= 0.2
G
U
-
F
The valueof
Limitatkrc
D T M E N S T O N L ETSI M
S E ,t D
Figure 4.10 Fractionof Heat Injectedin Steamfloodthat Remainsin SteamZone (from This approa
Prats 1982) aqueouscood
130 Steamflooding Chap.4 MyhillandSE

This parameteris the ratio of injected latent heat to injected total heat:
- f'i H^
In' = ,1, - 1a,= 110
bulk volume as de- wherefi is the injected steamquality measuredat the bottom of the
rnd oil saturationin injection well
;o constantthrough- I is the latent heat of evaporationof water
H, is the enthalpy of the injected steam
H*, is the enthalpy of liquid water at reservoir temperature
ure,heatcapacityof
p and baserock are Oncethe thermalefficiencyis known, the volumeof the steamchambercan be cal-
culated for the injection of a given amount of steam and a knowledgeof the heat
, per injector. capacityof a unit volumeof the chamber.
Heat in steamchamber= HotEn,= VcbC)c(Ts- Tn)
rnd occur normal to
ned in the reservoir
rtion front only after HotEn,
Vc= (4.3)
(pC)c(Ts - Tn)
amber can be repre-
where Vc is the volume of the steamchamber
Ho is the averageheat injection rate
(pC), is the volumetric heat capacityof the steamchamberafter the oil
has been displaced
lficiencyof the heat- Myhill and Stegemeierrelate the volume of the steamchamberto the volume of oil
dimensionless time displacedfrom the steamzone.To do this, they assumea value for the residualoil
saturationwithin the steamzone:
Q"= Vc0(5" - 5",)
Ho6(5. - So,)E6,t
(4.4)
(pC)c(Ts- Tn)
where 4, is the cumulativevolume of oil displaced
- 6 is the porosity
otS, is the initial oil saturation
{S,, is the residualoil saturation
The rate of oil displacementat time / is obtainedfrom equation3.42, which may be
rewritten for times before /" as
n = ffie'o erfc(\/tp) (4.s)
The value of the function of tp mal be obtained from Table 3.1.

Limitations
This approachneglectsthe oil removed ahead of the steam zone by the flowing
aqueouscondensate.This amount is often quite small, but it can become signifi-
mflooding Chap.4 Approachto Steamflooding

MyhillandStegemeier's 131
cant, particularlywheresignificantheat is carriedpast the condensation front, for flood sirrc
injectiontimes greaterthan the Mandl-Volekcritical time. predicred
Unlessan allowanceis madefor it in choosingthe value of so.,the approach suppll rhc
alsoneglectsthe smalloil bank (seeFigure4.3 and chapter 5) that buildsup behind Artq
the condensate front. The oil saturationin the steamzonetendsto be reducedfur- not predic
ther by the actionof the flowing steambehindthe front. The effect is due both to speciflin r
the sweepingaction of the steamin moving the oil and also to steamdistillation. pracrice.rl
The latter mechanismremovesthe lighter fractionof the oil selectively,leavingbe- impossibl
hind a reducedsaturationof oil which is heavierthan the original crude. the ecorn
Figure 4.11(FarouqAli 1982)showsexperimentalvaluesfor the residualoil Th€
saturationtakenfrom a numberof experimentsand literaturedata.The meanvalue rates are !
appearsto lie in the range70to ISVo.a There is a trend for lower residualoil satura- overburdc
tion to be obtainedwith lower initial oil viscositiesand with highersreamtempera- high rares
tures (pressures). The data are scattered,probablybecauseof the variationof other end of gea
factorssuchas the propertiesof the reservoirmatrix. simpleapg
Myhill and Stegemeierassumethat the volume of the oil displacedis also useful.ft b
equalto that produced.This is a weak part of their method,particularlyif an at- rate of inF
tempt is madeto predictthe oil productionduringthe earlypart of the flood. Also,
9.tlmay be displacedelsewherethan to the production*"it, particularlyin uncon- Comparbo
fined or only partially confinedpilots.It may alsobe left behlnd in the chamberas
bypassedoil. Figure{-l?
The strict applicationof the Myhilr-Stegemeier approachwould predict the numberof r
highestrate of production(for a constantsteaminjectionrate) at the start of the Each of ttr
ment is g€D
Figure 4.11 SteamfloodResidualOit Figun
as a Function of Temperatureand Oil
Viscosity (from FarouqAli 1982).Some
fields.trr'or
of the data (the solid circles)in this ditionalpm
25 figure are from literature references sent the tot
and some(the open circles)from work obtaineds-i
reportedfor the first time in Farouq
>20
o. Ali (1982).The numbersin brackets
* are the steamtemperaturesin degrees
j15 Fahrenheit.The numberswithout
Ff
o bracketsare literature referencesas
Ero follows:
so 31 Blevinset al. (1969)
o
E5 32 Bursellc. c. (1979)
33 Bursell,G. G. and Pitmann,G. M.
100 ro1 fi2 103 104

Oil Viscosityai Tp in cp
105
(Le7s)
34 Ozen,A. S. and FarouqAli, S. M.
(1969)
35 Valleroy,V.V. et al. (1967)
F"
2l-
F"
"The tendencyof the steam to override introducesa difficulty in applying the Myhill and
Stegemeiertheory, particularly in thick reservoirs.At the point of steambreakthrough,the average
steamzonethicknessis lessthan the height of the reservoir.After breakthrough,there is a tendency
for heatedoil to be bypassedbecauseof insufficient pressuregradientto move it to the production
well. In this circumstance,the averageresidualoil saturationwithin the heatedregionis higher than 0
that found in one-dimensionalsteamdisplacement.
132 Steamflooding Chap.4 Myhilland Sre

:nsationfront, for flood sincethe predictedthermal efficiency is highestthen. The rate would then be
predicted to fall with time due to the increasingproportion of the heat neededto
5* the approach supplythe lossesabove and below the growing chamber.
tbuildsup behind Another weaknessin the Myhill-Stegemeierapproachis that the theory does
o be reducedfur- not predict what the experimental conditions will be. For example, one has to
ect is due both to specifyin the calculationboth the steampressureand the injection rate,whereas,in
*eam distillation. practice,the injection pressureis dependentupon the rate. [n many cases,it may be
tively, leavingbe- impossibleto inject steamat the desiredrate without fracturing the reservoir.Often
il crude. the economicswill dependupon the rate at which the processcan be conducted.
lr the residualoil The Myhill-Stegemeiermethod leads to the conclusion that high injection
r. The meanvalue rates are most efficient becausethey allow production with less heat loss to the
esidualoil satura- overburdenand underburden.However there are practical limitations to the use of
er steamtempera- high rates.Nevertheless,the method doesrationalize the resultsfound toward the
variationof other end of steamfloodswhen most of the displacedoil has been recovered;for such a
simple approach,the agreementbetween the predictions and the results make it
displacedis also useful. [t is also useful for prediction if someexperimentaldata are availablefor the
:ticularlyif an at- rate of injection that may be achieved.
rf the flood. Also,
icularly in uncon- Comparisonsof Theoretical Predictionswith Data
in the chamberas
Figure 4.12showsthe oil-to-steamratios predicted by Myhill and Stegemeierfor a
rould predict the number of scaledlaboratory steamfloodscomparedwith the experimentalvalues.
I the start of the Each of these points representsconditions well on into the flood, and the agree-
ment is generallygood.
nflood ResidualOil Figure 4.13showsa similar comparisonfor field steamdrives. For many of the
emp€ratureand Oil fields, two experimentalpoints are shown. The lower circlescorrespondto the ad-
rrouqAli 1982).Some ditional production ascribedto the useof steam,whereasthe upper trianglesrepre-
,lid circles)in this
eraturereferences
sent the total production;i.e., they include the productionthat would have been
n circles)from work obtainedwithout steam.
rst time in Farouq
mbersin brackets tt
peraturesin degrees tr afterMyhlllandStegemeler
1978
o
umberswithout E
ture referencesas o
o.
x
ul
r%9) 6
1979) tt Mt.Poso
o (lowpressure)D,;
and Pitmann,G. M.
; 0.s
o
d FarouqAli, S. M. tr Midway-Sunset
E
o tr SchoonEbeck
et al. (1967) o Mt. Poso
c (highpressure)
.E
rlying the Myhill and (!
.Tatums
Ithrough, the average .z
t Coalinga
(t
3.h.there is a tendency IIJ
rc it to the production Figure 4.12 Comparisonof
0
00.5 1 ExperimentalModel Resultswith
d regionis higher than
CalculatedequivalentOSR CalculatedValues
Myhill and Stegemeier'sApproach to Steamflooding 133

looding Chap. 4
alterMyhlllandSt€gemeler
1978 Overril
Another*av (
tr o AdditionalOiusteamRatio(OSR)
thickness- Th
o A TotalOSR
o loss,eventhd
g
70% ol
is later hearcd
(!
.u
f 6
becauseit hr
cr d{ A availableto r
3G o.s E9br l/ Anolhcr
tr
,9
68,8 age residualo
o
It
ll {EF/y
#;EA"ti -
(!
c
J
spondingto tl
one can cqri
I €.-:Ad u-^Y 5 F
6
lower valued
.9
tt
:^'cY'z'E-E
6
Dl {EP
.6- Ten-Pattrn t
0 0.5 1 Figure 4.13 Comparisonof Field As an exampl

Calculated Addltlonal Equlvalent OSR Steam-DriveResultswith Calculations of the Kern I
Billingslel-tl9'l
In general,the experimentalfield projectdatain Figure4.13tend to fall below
in a patternc(
the solid theoreticalline and lie mostlyin the rangeof 70 to I00% of the theoreti-
spot averaged
cal. The brokenline represents 70Voof the theoreticalprediction.Myhill and Stege-
producenand
meierpoint out that there are severalreasonswhy field data might be expectedto
given in the fr
be below the theoretical,includingthe fact that much of the field data comefrom
patternsthat are unconfined.In suchpatterns,someof the mobilizedoil may be
ReservoirChra
driven outsideof the pattern.Another reasonis that steamoverridemay resultin
the averagethicknessof the steamzonebeinglessthan the reservoirthickness. ry
As was shownin Chapter3, the followingequationpredictsalmostthe same od1
OSR as doesthe more complicatedMarx-Langenheimexpression. :ir '
tt
T,
OSR = osR-",
l---f----- (3.4e) 5,
1' -, 8 -\tll " t o
|.' J 'n' t
r'7696 LS" (Oglesbr et al ll
(3.s0)
( T s- Z ^ ) ( 1+ L $ \ / W )
The resen'cirr
?s and Za in "F, / in d, and h in ft.
3.02x lff Bd
lt predictshigheroil-steamratiosfor the followingconditions: FigureJ.l{.
The cil il
o Higher valuesof ASo-i.e., higher,.S,or lower S,,
o Higher porosity
r More rapid recovery,lower /
o Thicker reservoirs,high h The recoven'r
The lower oil-steamratiosfound in practiceas comparedto thosethat may be ex- oil saturatiqr r
pectedfrom equation3.49 result from the mechanismbeing different from that m a i n i n gu i t h i n
postulated. steam-s\r'epta
134 Steamflooding Chap.4 Myhill and Steg

Override of the steamresultsin undisplacedoil remainingin the reservoir.
Another way of looking at this is to saythat ft (in practice)is lessthan the reservoir
thickness.The heatthat haspenetratedbelowthe steamchamberis equivalentto a
loss,even thoughit resultsin heatingthe oil below.Even if much of this lower oil
is later heatedto the steamtemperature,it tendsto staywithin the steamchamber
becauseit has beenbypassedby the advancingfront and little pressuregradientis
availableto move it.
Another way of looking at the problem of bypassedoil is to saythat the aver-
age residualoil saturationin the steam-heated region is greaterthan that corre-
spondingto the value for a one-dimensional steamflood.From this point of view,
one can considerthe reservoirheightto be the appropriatevalue for ft, but a much
lower value of AS" is requiredto allow for the bypassedoil.
Ten-Pattern Steamflood
mparisonof Field As an exampleof this idea,we will considerthe Chevron"Ten-PatternSteamflood"

sultswith Calculations of the Kern River Field in california, which has been discussedby Blevin and
Billingsley(1975)and by Oglesbyet al. (1982).The projectconsistedof a steamflood
t3 tend to fall below
in a pattern consistingof ten contiguousinvertedseven-spots.The areaper seven-
Wc of the theoreti-
spot averaged6.1 acresto give an averagespacingof 320 ft between injectorsand
r. Myhill and Stege-
producersand alsobetweenadjacentproducers.Characteristics of the reservoirare
ight be expectedto
given in the following table.
eld data come from
obilized oil may be I
ReservoirCharacteristics:
Ten-PatternFlood, Kern River
rrride may resultin
;€rvoirthickness. I Depth 700-797 ft
cts almostthe same Oil gravity 14'API
on. Net sandthickness 97 ft
Tn 90"F
r.s Approx. 310'F
(3.4e) s, 0.52 (after primary production)
q 0.34
4000mD
(Oglesbyet al. 1982)
(3.s0)
The reservoirwassteamedfor 7 y; 18.58x 106B of steamwere injectedto produce
3.02 x 10"B of oil (i.e., OSR = 0.16;SOR : 6.15).Performancedata are shownin
Figure4.14.
The oil in placein the reservoirinitially is given by
6S,Ah=0.34x0.52x61 x 43560x97
= 45.6x 106ft3 or 8.1 x 106B
The recoverywasthus 37Voof the oil at the end of the steamflood,and the average
rosethat may be ex- oil saturationremainingwas 0.52 x 0.63 = 0.328.This oil was madeup of oil re-
different from that mainingwithin the steam-swept zoneand of bypassedoil, suchas that beneaththe
steam-sweDt zone.
nflooding Chap,4 Myhill and Stegemeier'sApproach to Steamflooding 135

10 It is clea
9.n passedin this
FE 6
6 project,and m:
2
o that has beeno
F 20,000 of the producti
= 10,000
'$ S u,ooo tion has beenr
2'ooo 4 by the endd
=q
10,000
1000B/d (abqr
o
5,000 will have beco
*
cE _ 2,000
.EE t,o*
I 5oo Ten-PatternStrr
I
.L 100
| 6 S | 6 6 | 6 Z t 6 8 | 6 9 | Z OI t 1 t Z 2 t Z g t Z q t Z ' t Z 6 t Z t | 7 8 t 7 9 t g g I
Prrmer_
Years Stearofh
Figure 4.14 Performanceof Ten-PatternSteamflood(from Oglesbyet al. 1982) \Aarcrfb
Calculatingthe expectedOSR using equation3.50 and a residualoil satura-

tion of 0.328leadsto
1769x 0.34x (0.52- 0.328)
OSR = San Ardo Str
(310- eo)(1 + r.43fi x 365m
Another largr.
= 0.30
achievedis thc
This value is much higher than the value of 0.16found in the field and, of 1983).Most of t
course,very much higher than would be found if a lower residualoil fraction had characteristict
been substitutedin the equation.Part of the reasonfor the high predictionis that can be injected
someof the injectedheatbypasseddirectlyto the productionwells.[t wasestimated
by_Blevinsand Billingsleythat this would reachl8Vo of the injectedheat.sIf al- Properties of Arri
lowance is made for this bypassedheat, then the expected OSR would be
0.82 x 0.30 = 0.246.This is still significantlyhigher than the value of 0.16 ob-
servedin the field.
It is possiblethat the injectedsteammay have had a lower quality than was
assumedin derivingequation3.50;steamquality data are not availablein the pub-
lished information.Another similar factor is that no allowanceis made for heat
lossesin the well bore in the precedingcalculation.However,it is unlikely that
thesefactorswill accountfor the whole discrepancy.
( T r a v e r s ee t a l l 9
Another possibilityis that the spreadingof the heatedzone acrossthe pat-
terns may have been much more rapid and that the heat lossesare underestimated.
Equation3.52 is similar to equation3.50but is basedon the assumptionthat the The field has b
steamzone spreadsimmediatelyacrossthe flooded area.Using equation3.52 in- pattern areaof
steadof 3.50for the precedingexampleleadsto a calculatedoil-steamratio of 0.225 with this sprin
or 0.184if allowanceis madefor the bypassedheat.This is muchcloserto the ob- ductionrate.a0
servedrates. pattern,as sbor
tlt will be notedfrom Figure 4.14that the steam-injectionrate wasloweredfrom about 10,000 Theseinfi
to 6000B/d during the period 1970to 1975in order to conservesteamafter breakthrough. zone,as shown
136 Steamflooding Chap.4 MyhillandSteg

It is clear from the precedingcalculations that considerablehot oil was by-
passedin this steamflood. This has been recognizedin the Chevron Kern River
project, and muchof the remainingheatedoil hasbeenrecoveredby the waterflood
that has been operatedsince 1975.During this waterflood, cyclic steamstimulation
of the productionwells has beenused.As will be seenfrom Figure 4.14,this opera-
tion has beenvery successful,and the cumulative SOR has fallen from 6 to almost
4 by the end of 1980.During this period, the oil production rate remainedat about
1000B/d (about 50 B/d per production well). It is estimatedthat 78Voof.the OOIP
will have been recoveredbv the end of the flood.
Ten-PatternSteamflood-Oil Recovery
7o Recovery OOIP
Primary Production 10
Steamflood J+
iby et al. 1982) Waterflood 34 (20 by end of 1980)
t residualoil satura- 78
San Ardo Steamflood and lnfill Drilling

Another large, successfulCalifornia steamflood in which a high recovery is being
achievedis the Texacoproject in the SanArdo field (Traverse,Deibert, and Sustek
in the field and, of 1983).Most of the steamfloodrecoveryhas been from the Aurignac zone.This has
lual oil fraction had characteristicssimilar to the Kern River field. Although it is much deeper,steam
gh prediction is that can be injectedwith a bottom hole pressureof only 125 psig at 1300B/d per well.
alls.It wasestimated
injectedheat.sIf al-
Propertiesof AurignacZone-San Ardo
:ed OSR would be
re value of 0.16 ob- Area 1755acres
h 97ft
ver quality than was Depth 2300ft
availablein the pub- a 0.349
K 1000-3000mD
ae is made for heat Tn 100'F
r, it is unlikely that Oil gravity 13'API
(Traverseet al. 1982)
zoneacrossthe pat-
are underestimated.
assumptionthat the The field has been developedusing repeated,inverted nine-spot patterns with a
ng equation3.52 in- pattern area of 20 acres.It has been concludedthat a 50Vorccovery is achievable
-steamratio of 0.225 with this spacing.In order to achievea higher recovery and to maintain the pro-
uchcloserto the ob- duction rate, an infill drilling has been initiated. Four infill wells are addedto each
pattern,as shownin Figure 4.15.
,rered from about 10,000 Theseinfill wells have the objectiveof removing the oil from below the steam
r breakthrough. zone, as shown in the cross-sectionaldrawing at the right of Figure 4.15.
mflooding Chap. 4 Myhill and Stegemeier'sApproach to Steamflooding 137

S A N A R D OF I E L D
9.SPOTSTEAM INTERVAL WITHINFILLS
CURRENTFLOODPATTERN C R O S S- F L O (
o o ao d o o o
INJECTION
O-lNFlLL
o
X - SECTION
+
t'igrrr
With furrl
the use of foas
patesthat a rcc
INFILLS
COMPARISONOF SN
An interestingp
* BOP switchingfrom
;'P;'1 | I I I Figure.l.l'
PRoDUCTION
.IPRIMARY I 2.S-acrespacir
WITHOUT
STEAMFLOOD
70 7t 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 8t 82
Figure 4.15 Addition of Infill Wellsto SanArdo 9-SpotPattern(from Traverse
et al. 1983)
;0.8
In a nine-spotpattern there are three producersper injectionwell. [n the in- o
filled pattern shown in Figure 4.15,there are sevenproducersper injectionwell. o
o
Texacoplans to reduce this ratio and to promote recoveryof additional oil by s-o.s
the conversionof the cornerwells of the original nine-spotpatternfrom producers E
o
to injectors.This idea is shownin Figure 4.16;it hasbeencalledcross-floodingby o
Texaco.Also shownin this figure is the conceptof how this conversionwill recover 6 o.q
o
additionaloil from the bank which has accumulatedaround theseproducers.The
conversionof the cornerwellswill resultin two injectorsper original 20-acre,nine- -g
spotpatternand six producers,or a ratio of three producersper injector.This con- = 0.2
E
vertsthe patternto a repeated10-acreinvertednine-spotpattern.Texacoestimates =
o
that the recoveryfrom their projectwill increasefrom 50Vofor the original pattern
to 60% for the patternwith infill drilling. An important economicconsiderationis 0
that the productionrate is maintained. 1
138 Steamflooding Chap.4 Comparison

of St
SAN ARDO FIELD
g-SPOTSTEAM
INTERVALIYITHINFILLSANDCROSS.FLOODING
C R O S S- F L O O D I N G d o F
CORNER VT,ELL
ORIGINAL INFILL CONVERTED
INJECTOR WELL TO INJECTOR
x-sEcTroN
O . . O O ADDITIONALAREA
TO BE SWEPTBY STEAM
THROUGH CROSS-FLOODING
Figure 4.16 Cross-Floodingat SanArdo Pattern(from Traverseet al. 1983)
With further operationalchangessuch as waterflooding after steamflooding,

the use of foam additives, and the selectiverecompletionof wells, Texaco antici-
patesthat a recoveryof 79Vowill be achievableat San Ardo.
COMPARISONOF STEAMFLOODAND STEAM SOAK
An interestingpart of Myhill and Stegemeier's

paper is concernedwith the effect of
switching from steamstimulation to a steamflood.
Figure 4.17showsthe injection rates,from a scaledmodel,for a steamsoakon
2.S-acrespacingthat was converted to a steam drive after 4.5 years comparedto
82 afier Myhllland Sl€gem€lar1978

| (from Traverse
rtion well. In the in-

t o.s
.9
:rs per injection well. (t
o
of additional oil by s-o.e
ftern from producers E
ffi
IE
lbd cross-flooding by o
nversion will recover 6 o.+
o
these producers.The .=
lriginal 20-acre,nine- -g
rcr injector. This con- ? 0.2
E
I "*"o"*t
Ern.Texacoestimates o o
n the original pattern
omic considerationis
0 Figure 4.17 Cumulative Steam
05101520 Injection-Midway-Sunset
Model
Timein Years Experiments
rnflooding Chap.4 Comparisonof Steamfloodand Steam Soak 139

0.5
afierMyhilland Stegemeior1978
o.
5 0.4
o G
q,
5
g 0.3 ; 0.6
o. .z
g
o 2 0.4
o 0.2 E
f
'F o
s= 0,2
E 0.1
= s,*ry4
o
Figure 4.18 Cumulative Oil
51015 20 Tin!r
Productionin Midway-SunsetModel
Time in Years Experiments
JONES'STEAM
Df,fY
thosefor steamsoakingand to thosefor a soakprojectwith closerspacing.It was
possibleto inject more steamwith the flood than with the steamsoak evenwith Therehasbec
infilling. clude factorsr
Figure4.18showsa comparisonof the cumulativeoil productionfor the same Jonestl9
experiments;the parallelwith the injectioncurvesis very striking. Higher injection Figure 4.10 fro
ratesgive higherproductionrates.The convergence of the cumulativeoil-to-steam field with tha
ratio curves shown in Figure 4.19is also very interesting.One can seefrom this modelis alsosl
studywhy therehasbeena generaltrend to switchfrom steamstimulationto flood- The \trt
ing in Californiaas a field matures.One may presumethat the sametendencywill earlyin the fb
developin the Canadianbitumenfieldsasthe projectsmature,asvirgin high-quality rateswhich are
tar sandreservoirsbecomemore scarce,and as practicalexperienceis obtainedin periodsin a Ee
the recoveryof tar sandoil by flooding. It is probablydesirableto extendthe cyclic from one stag
steamstimulationphasein Alberta becauseof the generallyhigher initial oil vis- Stage 1
cosity.Also, the use of vertical steamfloodingwith horizontalwells (steam-assisted
gravity drainage;seeChapter7) will probablyprove to be a superioralternativeto During this fin
conventionalhorizontalsteamfloodingin many projects. and, in somee
10 0 0
STEAMFLOODING
MULTILAYERRESERVOIRS
o
(L
In somecases,multiple reservoirsseparated by impermeable barriersmaybe steam-
flooded sequentially.In thesecases,someof the heat lost during the flooding of E
,' -n-n
o
one layer may be presentin the layer above(or below)when it is flooded.A study
by Restine(1983)for two such operationsin Getty's Kern River Field shows,as E.
c
might be expected,considerableimprovementsin the oil-steamratio and higher .9
production ratesfor the preheatedoil sand.This effect affords greatereconomyfor O
I
1n
lv
-c,
the production of oil from stackedreservoirsthan from single ones.
One wonders,for example,whether the extensivesteamingof the Clearwater (L
sandsin the Cold Lake field will result in more economicproductionfrom the
higher Grand Rapidsformation,perhapsusing the samewells that were drilled to
exploit the Clearwaterformation.
140 Steamflooding Chap.4 Jones' Steam Dri

1.0
afterMyhilland Stegem6ier1978
tr
o SteamSoak
? o.u
.=
G
E
E
o.+
f
o SteamDrive
0.2
Figure 4.19 Cumulative Oil-Steam

Ratio as a Function of Time from Start
05101s of Steam-Drivefor Midway-Sunset
Cumulative Oil
r Midway-SunsetModel
TlmeInYears,startlngat 4.5y Experiments
JONESSTEAMDRIVEMODEL
closer spacing.It was
seam soak even with There has been progressin modifying the Myhill-Stegemeierapproachso as to in-
clude factorswhich were ignored in the original treatment.
oduction for the same Jones (1981)describesan empirical approach that is simple and realistic.
king. Higher injection Figure 4.20 from his paper comparesthe reported recovery from the Kern River
rmulativeoil-to-steam field with that predicted using the Myhill-Stegemeiertheory. A curve for Joned
)ne can see from this model is also shown.
- The Myhill-Stegemeiermethod gives unrealistically high production rates
t stimulation to flood-
he sametendencywill early in the flood, reasonableonesin the middle,and as the flood reachesits end,
rates which are severaltimes too high. Jonesconsidersthat there are three major
, asvirgin high-quality
erience is obtained in periodsin a steamfloodand that the dominant factorschangeas the processmoves
le to extend the cyclic from one stageto the next.
higher initial oil vis- Stage 1
I wells(steam-assisted
;uperior alternative to During this first stagethe dominant factor is the very high viscosity of the cold oil
and, in somecases,the need to build an oil bank-i.e., to fill gas saturationwith
1000
o
(L
rarriersmay be steam-
rn
luring the flooding of 100 Myhilt-Stegemeier
;
it is flooded.A study o :-j ----- -- ---- --f ___.
E.
River Field shows,as
reamratio and higher o
ls greatereconomyfor 3
-o
10 /
le Ones. o
L
(L
ring of the Clearwater
Figure 4.20 Comparison for Kern
r production from the
River, California, Steamflood Field
tlsthat were drilled to 1' 't970
1968 1969 1971 1972 1973 Data with TheoreticalPredictions
Yeor (after Jones198L)
amflooding Chap.4 Jones' Steam Drive Model 141

oil. During this period, water channelsthrough the oil, and there is little produc-
tion until warm oil can approachthe productionwell. It is during this period that
steamstimulationof the producer(s)can be particularlyvaluableand with heavybi-
tumens,almostessential.(Seelater discussionof tar sandflooding.)
Stage 2
where r{
In the secondstagehot oil is movedto the productionwell relativelyeasily,and the
productionrate is about equal to the rate of growth of the steamchamber.The F'
Myhill-Stegemeier assumptionsare reasonablyvalid. The peak productionoccurs
Equatir
early in this stage.
doesnot l'ani
viscosities.O
Stage 3 flood. A visc
The Myhill-Stegemeiertheory would allow the secondstageto continue indefi- sands;this is
A concc
nitely, with the production rate dropping asymptoticallyto zero as the area for ver-
volumetricba
tical heatlossesgraduallyincreased.In practicethe drainageareais finite, and the
productionrate becomeslimited becauseof the depletionof the reservoir.No al- steamchamh
must imagirr
lowanceis madefor depletionin the Myhill-Stegemeier theory.
bypassed-ut
Voo is tl
Jones' EmpiricalAdjustment Factors tion 4.9.
Jonesallows for the effectsjust describedby multiplying the production rates pre-
dicted from the Myhill-Stegemeiertheory by three empirical factors: Vpo,Aco,
and V6p.
- S::),r,o
q- VpoAcortrm - Z^) erfc({G) (4.6) where .\'1
Vpoallowsfor the effect of the initial gassaturation.It is given by equation4.7. t
,* = ('^"-:tl,ut,=\' s
\43,560Ah"65s1 Jt
0<Vpp<l; orelse Wo-l Equatio
tion, but this r
where-4 is effective pattern area in acres
transactions.
h^ is net zone thicknessin feet
The effq
6 is porosity (4.7)
particular ere
Ss is initial gassaturation
Jones'paper-
4,ini is injectedsteamin barrels
factors,whicb
Zp6,is equal to the squareof the injected steamvolume, measuredas liquid Jonej u
water,dividedby the initial volumeof free gasin the reservoir.When this ratio be- applied to a rl
comesunity, then Zrp is forced to be 1. ,4co allows for the effect of the initial oil oAn extrtt
viscosity.It is calculatedfrom equation4.8. It will be noted that the higher the jection pressurt.I
is heatedeither ri
value of poi, the lower is -,462.As the steamzone increasesin area,the value of A6p
is available.
increases up to the forcedlimit of 1. For an initial oil viscosityof L06cp, the square- Under lcl
root term is just equalto unity. ratedwith los-c
142 Steamflooding Chap.4 Jones'Stean D

there is little produc-
uring this period that (4.8)
rle and with heavybi-
oding.)
0<Aco<1; orelse Aco=1
where-4, is steam zone areain acres
ativelyeasily,and the A is effective pattern area in acres
steam chamber. The poi is initial reservoiroil viscosityin cp
ak production occurs Equation4.8 predictsthat for an initial viscosityof L06cp, the viscosityeffect
doesnot vanish until the steamchamberoccupiesthe entire pattern area.For lower
viscosities,the influence is predicted to disappearpart of the way through the
flood. A viscosityof 106cp is about equalto the value found in the Athabascatar
sands;this is a very high value.
e to continue indefi-
A conceptuaiproblemthat ariseswith Jonesfr4cofactor is that of the overall
ro as the area for ver-
volumetric balancein the reservoir.It is not clear where the displacedoil from the
area is finite. and the
'the steamchamberhas gone, if it has not been pushed to the production well(s). one
reservoir.No al-
must imagine the oil as still remainingwithin the steamchamber-i.e., as being
.
bypassed-until the oil beyondbecomessufficiently fluid to allow it to flow out.6
Voo is the factor that allows for the depletion effect. It is given by equa-
tion 4.9.
production rates pre-
cal factors: Vpo,Aco,
_& s", (4.e)
N AS,
0<V6p<l; orelse Voo=l
rrl 9.6) whereNr is cumulative oil production in barrels
43'56944'6s"t
en by equation4.7. N is equalto ooIP - t
5.62
Sor is initial oil saturation
AS, is equal to ,Soi- S,,
Equation 4.9 appearedwith No in place of Np in the original JPT publica-
tion, but this was changedin the version of the paper which was bound in the SpE
transactions.
The effect of theseempirical factorson the predictedoil production rate for a
(4.7) particular example is shown by the curves of Figure 4.21, which is taken from
Jones'paper. This figure also shows the value of the three individual correction
factors,which were calculatedasjust described.
€, measuredas liquid Jones'method is a very practical one; in his paper,Jonesshowshow it fnay be
ir. When this ratio be- applied to a wide range of field exampleswith considerablesuccess,althoughjudg-
6An extremeexampleof
:ffect of the initial oil this is where the reservoirfracturesas a result of the high steamin-
d that the higher the jection pressure.In this case,condensatefollowed by steampassesdown the fracture.The reservoir
is heatedeither sideof the fracture but the heatedoil remainsbecauseof the low driving forcewhich
area,the value of Aco is available.
ttof 106cp, the square- Under lessextremeconditions,steamfingers.maygrow into the cold reservoirwhich is satu-
rated with low-mobility,viscousoil. In either caseheatedoil is bypassedrather than produced.
nrnflooding Chap,4 Jones' Steam Drive Model 143

150
-stosr 1- stoso2- stog. proved inject
l- f
allowingthc
'c; When r
100 jeetedstearnr
v.
-t5'j":":-";) quantitvof st
c balance:thb
.9
o3u
o
{N
Adjusted using
Jones' foctors
much more d
ume of stean
equalto seru
(L
tanceto the f
0 displacedcil,
12
Timein Yeors than calcula
calculatedinf
the effective
0.8
o
!L
u.o Steady-stat
0.4
of Vertbd t
q)
a
o.2 The radial fk
Figure 4.21 Predictionof Recovery
oo- rate using Jones'Method (after Jones was discusse
1981) lated usingq
ment is requiredin the interpretationof the field conditions.The methodmay be
usedeasilywith programmablecalculatorsor personalcomputers.
INJECTIVITY whereP is thc

a productianr
The rate at which steamcan be injectedinto the reservoiris not predictedby Myhill Consida
and Stegemeier's theorynor by its modifications.Nevertheless, it is of prime impor- are separate
tance.The economicsof a steamfloodingprojectare largelydependentupon the and that the I
ratesat which steamis injected and oil is recovered.Low injection ratesimply slow equationssim
productionratesand low cashflows. Also, aswasdiscussed in Chapter3 and in the producer.
earlierparts of this chapter,the terminal efficiencyof steamfloodingis determined
largelyby the rate at which it can be conducted.Slow injection ratesresult in a large
proportionof the injectedheat beinglost becauseof the longertimes required.
Much of the value of precommercialfield-pilot experimentationlies in the de-
terminationof the practicalsteam-injection ratesthat are achievable. Oncetheseare
known, the Myhill-Stegemeierapproachand its modifications can yield reasonable
estimatesof the performancewhich is to be expected.
The plus sign
In this section,the rate at which injectioncan be achievedin reservoirsis ap-
two equation
proached by considering the steady-stateflow between injection and production
eratingin a st
wells,for variousgeometries,assumingthat the injectedfluid hasthe sameproper-
and vice r.eru
ties as the displacedoil. At the start of the processthis is a reasonablerepresenta-
Eachof
tion, provided that the oil is the only'mobile phase.Assumingthat the injected
fluid is more mobile than the displacedone, one would expectthat the injectivity
would improve as the displacementproceeded.Advantagecan be taken of this im-

Injectivity
proved injectivity by increasingthe injection rate for a given injection pressureor by
allowing the pressureto fall for a given injection rate.
When steamis injected, the volume displacedis related to the volume of in-
jected steamand to the thermal propertiesof the fluids and reservoirmaterial.The
quantity of steamrequired to displacea unit volume of oil is determinedby a heat
balance; this heat balance has been consideredin Chapter 3 and is discussedin
much more detail in Chapter5. For the present,it is sufficient to note that the vol-
ume of steam(measuredasthe equivalentvolume of liquid water) injectedis usually
equal to severaltimes the volume of oil displaced.Sincethere is usually little resis-
tance to the flow of steamin the steamchamberor to the flow of water through the
displacedoil, the injectivity for steam may be expectedto be considerablylarger
than calculatedfor simple oil flow. A reasonableapproximationis to multiply the
calculatedinjectivity by the estimatedSOR and by a factor of about 1.5 to allow for
the effective increaseof the injector well bore radius due to heating.
Steady-state Displacement Between an lsolated Pair

of Vertical Wells
rediction of Recovery
The radial flow of oil to an isolatedvertical producer or from an isolatedinjector
:s' Method (after Jones was discussedin Chapter 1, where it was shown that the pressurecould be calcu-
lated using equationssuch as
The method may be

ters. P=Pq-ffinn (4.10)
whereP is the pressureat a radiusR from a well in which the injection rate is 4. For
a production well, q is negative.
x predictedby Myhill Consider a well pair consistingof an injector and a producer whose centers
, it is of prime impor- are separatedby a distanceL. Assumethat the systemis operatingin a steadystate
dependentupon the and that the flow of injection fluid, q, is equal to the flow of producedfluid. Two
:tion ratesimply slow equationssimilar to 4.10can be written, one for the injector and the secondfor the
Chapter3 and in the producer.
ooding is determined
ratesresult in a large I n j e c t o r P i= P o-i n, (4.11)
er times required. ffin
ntation lies in the de-
vable.Oncetheseare Producer Pp= Pop
+ no (4.r2)
; can yield reasonable
ffin
The plus sign appearsin equation4.12becausethe flow is toward the well. These
ed in reservoirsis ap- two equationsrepresentthe reservoirpressuresfor the caseswherethe wells are op-
ction and production erating in a steadystate and individually (i.e., there is injection without production
has the sameproper- and vice versa).
easonablerepresenta- Each of these equationsis a solution of Laplace'sequation.
ring that the injected
ct that the injectivity a2P
n be taken of this im-
----=
0x'
* 4=o
6y'
(4.13)
rnflooding Chap.4 Injectivity 145

A combinedsolution that representsthe combinedpressuresfor the caseswhere the
ity to refer a
two wells are operating togetheris obtained by adding the two solutions(4.11)and
centipois€.I
(4.12)to give
units are dl
given b1'
P=pi*po=,,-#,^* gJ4)
At the midpoint b_etween
the wells, Ri = Rp and the pressurebecomesp,. At the (ti
injector well bore,7
Equation4.1
Ri = R,i, Rp: L normalizedr
It can t
and
however.thc
T tion. Calcuh
P n=
i P o+ : + l n + (4.1s)
lrrth R,,
At the producerwell bore,
Ro = Rrr, Ri: L
and
P,p= Po- (4.16)

#h*
The differencein pressurebetweenthe injectionandproductionwellsis givenby
AP=P*i_p,P=h^(#,)
Most of the
If R,, : R,,, this becomes:
bores,and tf,
this meanstl
AP=P-i-P,p=#,^* (4.r7) the invasion
creaseconsi<
If R,; + R,o, then the geometricmean,R* : \/R.,R.', can be usedin (4.17). tive radiusol
This maybe rearrangedto give the normalizedinjectivity(in consistentunits). L/R" willchr
6.91to-1.61
injectivity=
Normalized = (4.18) of the prodr
#O, :h
'n\n--i this too r.ill r
Equationsfor the normalizedinjectivityfor a varietyof geometricarrangements are Time for Err

given by Morel-Seytoux(1966).8 In his paper,Morel-Seytouxdescribesihe normal-
ized injectivity just given as the conductivity andusesthe term normalizedinjectiv- Considerthc
sure gradied
TEquation
4.14 is an exact solution of the Laplaceequationfor a line sourceand sink. It is, equation-l.l{
however,only an approximationfor the flow betweencylindrical wells, sincethe constantpressure
lines are only approximatelycircles near the line sourcesand sinks. However, for practical situa-
tions whereL > R", it is an accurateapproximation.
sAnalytical
equationsfor the flows betweenwells have been discussedby a number of au-
thors.The generalschemeof superimposingthe pressuredistributionof a numberof wellswasdevel- The average
oped by Muskat (1937)and subsequent work is basedto a large extent on this pioneeringeffort. usingDarcyi
146 Steamflooding Chap.4 Injectivity
)r the caseswherethe ity to refer to a dimensionalvalue in which q is measuredin barrels per day, pcin
o solutions(4.11)and centipoise,ft in millidarcies,ft in feet, and AP in poundsper squareinch (these
units are often termedfield units). Morel-Seytouxnormalizedinjectivity is thus
given by
(4.r4)
(q inB/d)(p in cp)
: l'127x 1o-3 (#)."",,,,"", (4'19)
E becomesP,. At the (k in mD) (h in ft) (AP in psi) "
Equation4.I9 may be usedto calculatethe injectivity in barrelsper day from the
normalizedvaluesgiven here.
It can be seenfrom equation4.18that the injectivitydecreases asl, increases;
however,the effect is not very great becauseof the nature of the logarithmic func-
tion. Calculatedvaluesare shownin the followingtable.
(4.1s)
L NormalizedInjectivity
R" in Consistent
Units
100 0.682
200 0.593
500 0.506
(4.16)
1000 0.455
2000 0.413
ion wells is given by 5000 0.369
Most of the resistanceto flow occursin the immediatevicinities of the two well
bores,and the resistanceaddedby increasingl, is not very great.In steamflooding,
this meansthat oncethe resistance aroundthe injectionwell decreasesas a resultof
(4.r7) the invasionof the low-viscositysteam,then the injectivitymay be expectedto in-
creaseconsiderably.For example,supposethat steamflow has increasedthe effec-
e usedin (4.17). tive radiusof the injectionwell from 0.1 to L0m. For a casewhereL is L00m, then
(in consistentunits). L/R,willchange from 1000to 100/V10 x 0l = 100and ln(LlR*) will changefrom
6.91to 4.61;Ihe injectivitywill increaseby a factor of 6.9114.6I= 1.5.Stimulation
_ (4.18) of the productionwell can also result in an effectivelargerwell bore radius,and
this too will increasethe injectivity.
I
ric arrangementsare Time for Breakthrough,
escribesthe normal-
t normalizedinjectiv- Considerthe straightstreamlinethat joins the two wellsjust discussed.The pres-
sure gradient along this streamlinecan be obtained by setting Rp : L - R; in
re sourceand sink. It is, equation4.I4 and differentiatingP with respectto R;.
rcethe constantpressure
ever, for practical situa- =- #("-' ., - *--L
(**).=, (4.20)
ised by a number of au-
)
rmberof wellswasdevel- The averagefluid velocity alongthe central streamlineis given by q/A$AS. and,
his pioneeringeffort. usingDarcy'sequation,is
nflooding Chap. 4 Injectivity 147

4!=v==---g--- fr q
/aP\ - ._L g'21)
dt A6LS" pr6LS,\aR,/"=o 2trhgAS, S(f - S)-
In this equation,S is the distancethat a particle of the fluid movesfrom the injec-
tion well in time /. The time for breakthroughcan be obtainedby integratingequa-
tion 4.21.with the result
ThL26 LS,
LBT _ (4.22)
3q
Substitutingfor the value of q from equation4.18leadsto the expression
. 6 AS"rtL2ln\lR*)
@'23)
"r:tftF-
The volumeof oil that is displacedduring the breakthroughperiod is givenby rear-
ranging equation4.22: The dim
circle of profi
ThL26 AS" breakthroueh
Qtar = (4.24)
3
This volumeof oil is independentof the rate of injection.It is equalto one-thirdof

the volume of mobile oil containedwithin a cylinder of reservoirof heiehth and
It is a functiq
radiusL.
Confined hl
lsolated Injection Well Surroundedby a Circle of Equally In a repeated
Spaced Producers boundaries.Tl
tern indefinitc
The generalprocedurejust describedcan be extendedto the caseof an injectorsur-
infinite series
roundedby a circle containingequallyspacedproducers,as shownin the left part
example,the
of Figve 4.22.
Resultsof this analysisare tabulatednext (Morel-Seytoux1966):
qLL - 2nN
(4.2s)
kh LP - h(N)
(N + 1) ''(*)
:
o
| /r\ I g
* ') r"(;il - rn(N)l
'LS.pL'?L(N E
.
.RT _
(4.26)
o
N
2(N + 2)kAP (!
E
o
Qtnr= {TtnhL26LS" (4.27) z
In these equations,N representsthe number of wells surroundingthe injector.

Thus, for example,for an isolatedfive-spot there is one injector with four producers
arrangedaroundit and N is equalto 4. The radiusof the surroundingcircle,.L, in
this caseis half of the diagonallengthof the squarepattern.The injectivitiesfor a Figrr:
number of valuesof N are shown in Fisure 4.23. Spacc

N equallyspacedwells v
(4.2r) of radiusRw 9r
s(r - s)
/
/ --'*------ lr.
io
t,'?
!
novesfrom the injec- AO AI
I
l by integratingequa- I
I
i
J.
_ _ . _ _ . { r ) _ _x_ _
g)9*-t' I
I
(4.22) I
I
A
v
I
: expression i
I
I
A
v
(4.23) I
"N+1 Spot"Pattern Partof infiniterow of wells
Figure 4,22 Typical IsolatedWell Patterns
rriodis givenby rear-
The dimensionless breakthroughtime for N = 1,. . . ,6 and for a continuous
circle of productionwells is shownin Figure 4.24.In this figure the dimensionless
(4.24) breakthroughtime is definedas
Dimensionless time = !-ô!'u'

breakthrough (4.28)
equalto one-thirdof q c.sop,L2
'voir of height h and
It is a function of the systemgeometry-in this case,of N andLfR,.
Gonfined Patterns
In a repeatedregularpattern, planesof symmetrybetweenwells becomeno-flow
boundaries.The flow in suchpatternscan be computedby extendingthe well pat-
tern indefinitely and summing up the pressureterms for eachwell as one or more
se of an injector sur-
infinite series.[n somecasesthe resultinganswerscan be surprisinglysimple.For
rown in the left part
example,the pressureproducedby the seriesof equal injectionwells uniformly
rx 1966):
Parameteris the numberof producersin the
(4.2s) circle around the isolatediniector
:>
69
I 9C
..1
)l :;
I
(4.26) 8
.N
8'E
(!0
Fo
5.E
(4,27) z
unding the injector.

'with four producers otot
oundingcircle,L, in Radlueof clrcleAfVellbore
radlus
'he
iniectivitiesfor a Figure 4.23 Injectivity of Isolated Well Surroundedby a Circle of Equally.
SpacedProducers
mflooding Chap.4 Injectivity 149

Continuous
\,,,
..."2 No flow bo..rn
T-
---h
I
Parameter
isthenumberof producing
wells
whichsurround
theinjec,tor
100 1000 10000 Figure 4.24 BreakthrouehTime for

Distance
to ProducerAltellbore
Radius Isolatedpatterns
spa:edalonga straightline, which is shown in the right hand part of Figure4.22 Extendingth
and also in Figure 4.25,is given by (Muskat 1937) verticalu'elb
P=Po-ffiLnfcorr,+-*'Tl (4.2e)
Repeated Fh
In equations4.29 and 4.30 the flow, q, is per unit length of well. Equation
4.29 canbe usedto predictthe flows betweena horizontalinjictor and a horizontal
producer,asshownin the smalldiagramin Figure4.26.To do this it is necessary to
write equationsfor the contributionof four seriesof regularlyspacedwellsand t-hen
to combinethesewith the result shownin equation4.30.
Gonfined Horizontal Well Pair
qp_
kLP (4.30)
The dimensionless injectivity from equation4.30hasbeenplotted againstthe loga-

rithm of C/L in Figure4.26for a constantratio of R*fL:0.002.hhe injectivlty
risesfrom a low value of 0.3 to the asymptotecorrespondingto a pair of isolatei
wells (i.e., the injectivity given by equation4.18).
c is equalto R, for the casewherethe two wells are immediatelybelow and
above the reservoirboundaries.In this case,if it is also assumedtiat L ) R,,
equation4.30 can be reducedto
-k^P:
qp 0.5r
(4.3r)
GF,r* Figrn
Horra

| )tmoge wetts
No flow boundories .l'-/
9\
I )lmoge wells
Figure 4.25 Infinite Vertical Column
rcatthrough Time for { of Horizontal Wells to RepresentWell
li i within HorizontalBoundaries
I part of Figure 4.22 Extending this approachto repeatedinverted five-spot and seven-spotpatterns of
vertical wells resultsin the injectivities given by the following two equations.
(4.2e)
Repeated Five-spot
3h of well. Equation
stor and a horizontal qp
this it is necessaryto (4.32)
pacedwells and then
kh AP - 0'6174
r"(^fr)
L = distancefrom injector to producer
(4.30)
=)]l Asymplote- no effectol boundades Equation4.18
)ll
ted againstthe loga-
E
E o.o
E
ao
t.ffi2. The injectivity .g
E
6
to a pair of isolated -o
O.2
tr
o
mediatelybelow and .E
o
nrmed that L > R.,
0
-3-2-101234
(4.31) tog.,o(C/L)
Figure 4.26 Effect of Proximity to Reservoir Boundaries on Injectivity for
Horizontal Wells
rnflooding Chap. 4 Inje.ctivity 151

RepeatedSeven-spot
o
E
qP tr3
4r
ct
1
khAP
,L',(fr)
^1. lt\ - os6elj
tc z
o
Theseare plotted in Figure 4.27.eAlso shown in this figure is a curve for an injec- a
a
c
tion well locatedwithin a continuousrow of producersa1the sameradius.comiar_ gt
ing Figure 4.27 with Figure 4.23 showsthat the injector in the repeatedpattern - 7
has c
a significantly lower injectivity than that in an isolated pattern. A considerable -
E
fraction of the oil in the iso.latedpattern flows outsideof the pattern and then back 0
toward the production wells. The quantity of oil that is producedat breakthroughis
also considerablylarger for the isolatedpattern; much oi the producedoil has come
(flow norm
from outside the pattern. This is shown in the following tabie.
tions for ttr
lar; onll-th
Volumeof oil Producedrtjlglth*g! glyid"g Aba
!y Vorumeof oir Initiailywithin partern
be characle
tion 4.3-ial
Initial mobile oil 2+ AS,L2 2.5986 LS.L2 within the s
Fraction produced Isolated 1.0472 0.9069
at breakthroueh
Repeated 0.7178 0.7437
wherethe p
The dimensionlessbreakthroughtimes (as defined by equation4.28) areplotted in

Figure 4.28 for isolated and repeated5- and 7_spotpatterns.
and where y
STEAM ZONE SHAPE: VAN LOOKERETVS
EOUATTONS W
Van Lookeren (197.7)developedequationsthat describethe degree .l/
of override that
may be expectedin a steamflood. These equationsare based I
upon fundamental I
principles such as Darcy's law and make use of the assumption
oi segregatedflow k
v:
(osR
3 The ps
.: ize the stati
Eg
.gg
faces,u'here
EE
o6
N . =
developmen
E
Fo
E In man
E.E it has been1
z
comparedto
cousoil *'ith
Figwe 4,27 Injectivity in Confined fingerinewil
Patterns
'oThis
esimilar ir
equationsare given by Deppe (1961),who alsogives equationsfor the inverted nine- a n i n i t i a l h i g hr
spot pattern and for patternsat the boundary of a field development. becauseof b1-p

o
i:g
C')
o
6a
o
o
o
a curve for an injec- o
o
ame radius.Compar- El
o
repeatedpattern has o
tern. A considerable i5
0
lattern and then back 10 100 1000 10ooo Figure 4.28 BreakthroughTimes for
Dlstanceto Producer/Wellbore
Radius Confined and IsolatedPatterns
ed at breakthroughis
roducedoil has come (flow normal to bedding plane of the reservoir is neglected).He developedequa-
tions for the caseof linear flow and alsothe caseof radial flow. The two are simi-
lar; only the radial flow equationsare describedhere.
Within Pattern
A basic finding in van Lookeren'spaper is that the degreeof override may
be characterized by a dimensionless number,which he termsz44;it is givenby equa-
Seven-Spot tion 4.33 and is proportional to the squareroot of the ratio of the viscousforces
25986L5"L2 within the steamzoneto the gravity forces.
0.9069
0.7437
o^=ffi'$-14*y (4.33)
where the pseudomobility
pt!,p,.
n 4.28)are plotted in tr4*_ (osR),
l L ,k o P o
and where z" is kinematicviscosityof steam,m2/s
IV,i is steaminjection rate, kg/s
ap i fuksl^'
gree of override that g is graVity, m/s2
d upon fundamental his thickness,m
n of segregatedflow k,is permeability of steamzone to steam,pm2
p: is effectiveviscosityof oil, Pa . s
(OSR)ris instantaneousoil-steamratio
The pseudomobilityratio is analogousto the mobility ratio usedto character-
ize the stability of water floods. Valuesof M* lessthan unity lead to stableinter-
faces,whereasthose greaterthan unity tend to lead to unstableinterfacesand the
developmentof steamtongues.
ln many cases,where the oil in the reservoiris not extremelyviscousor where
it has been preheatedby stimulation before flooding, M* may be relatively small
comparedto unity. On the other hand, whereattemptsare madeto drive cold vis-
cousoil with steamdirectly,M* will be high and it will control the situation;steam
njectivityin Confined fingeringwill then occur.'o
loThisis
relatedto the situationwhere,in Jones'method,the value of lco is lower becauseof
ros for the inverted nine- an initial high oil viscosity.In both cases,oil that is heateddoesnot flow readily to the producer
becauseof bypassing.
rnflooding Chap. 4 Injectivity 153

If M* is relativelysmall,then the value of -4n is controlledby the square-root reservoirthic
term in equation4.33.Ot the variablesin this term, the only one that is in the di- the squarem
rect control of the operator is the injection rate W,i.Higher rates give higher1a- height of re*
i.e., the viscousforcesincreasewhile the gravity forcesremain the same. evenif the n
Lower valuesof the permeabilityto steamwill alsogive highervaluesof Ap; Doscbc
aswill be seen,this leadsto steeperfronts and thicker steamzones.Accompanying considertbd
this will be an increasein the oil recoveryand in the oil-steamratio. There is con- thick resenti
siderableresearchand developmentactivity that has the objectiveof reducingthe voir is renxru
permeabilityof the steamzone to steamin order to increasethe pressuregradient thicknessof t
belowthe steamzone.11 A promisingmethodinvolvesthe additionof surfactantsto
causethe formationof foams.
The effect of-4a on the predictedshapeof the steaminterfacecan be seen
from Figure4.29.With low valuesof ,4p,the steamtendsto be confinedto the top
of the reservoir,and the front is inclined at a low angle.As,4a increases, the front Anothcr
approaches the vertical. agramsof Fir
With a situationsuch as that shown in the top drawing in Figure 4.29, it is to have to p|!
apparentthat steamwill break through early and that, for the amount of oil that helpingthe u
will be produced,the heat lossesto the overburdenand to the unsweptreservoir the oil is allor
belowthe steamzonemay be excessive. In this casethe advantagethat would have assistedgrarit
beenexpectedfor a thick reservoirfrom Myhill and Stegemeier's modelwill not be With rh
obtained.The productionrate and oil-to-steamratio will be almostindependentof ing force thl
tween the ini
Valueof A p At the starrtb
hst/h
t
^v - RadiuS +
-T' Practical
in Field
Range
voir. Once btt
comesrelatiw
steamdecreas
below.
For los'r
_l:
not extendto I
well or, if the ,
Rangeof Experiments the formation
Modelsin Laboratory .a particularlr
-+,,
light, tendsto I
allowsone to a
The parr
the well bore n
decreasing R. r
move lower do
In order t
.-1,0 aftervanLookeren
be able to cah
in Figure{.31
Figure 4.29 Interface Profile during Injection (after vanlookeren) cases,1 and J.
ttNot only doesthis increasethe recoveryof oil from below the steamzone but it also im-
fall in bet*'eeo
that the avera
provesthe recoverywithin the steamzone.The apparentviscosityof the steamis increasedand it is
better able to displaceoil from the steamzone; this aspectis discussedfurther towardsthe end of Low valu
Chapter5. reachor onll't

I by.thesquare-root reservoirthickness.It is of interestto note (equation4.33)thatAp is proportionalto
ne that is in the di- the squareroot of the ratio (Wtlh)lh-i.e., to the rate of steaminjectionper unit
rs give higher-46- height of reservoirdivided by h.In thicker reservoirsthe overrideis thus greater
the same. evenif the rate of steaminjectionper unit heightis maintained.
righervaluesof .4p; Doscherand Ghassemi(1981)and Doscher,omoregie,and Ghassemi(19g2),
nes.Accompanying considerthat, in many practicalcases,the high oil-to-steamratios expectedfor
ratio. There is con- thick reservoirsare never obtained becauseonly the oil from the top of the reser-
:ive of reducingthe voir is removed.[n thesecases,accordingto van Lookeren'stheory, the average
re pressuregradient thicknessof the steamzonewill be
on of surfactantsto
hn=Q.Jl11*=Q.5 ""'fi- M*) (4.34)
terfacecan be seen r Lpgk,''
confinedto the top
increases,
the front Another problem,which is apparentfrom the overrideshownin the upperdi-
agramsof Figure 4.29,is that after breakthroughthere is a tendencyfor the steam
in Figure4.29,it is to have to push remainingoil up the slope.Gravity is playinga role, but it is not
amountof oil that helpingthe movementof the oil. What would be moredesirableis a systemwhereby
3 unsweptreservoir the oil is allowedto drain downwards.This is oneof the thoughtsbehindthe steam-
assistedgravity drainageprocessto horizontalwells discussedin chapter 7.
€e that would have
's modelwill not be with the situationshownin the upperdrawingsin Figure4.29,the only driv-
nostindependentof ing force that is moving oil to the productionwell comesfrom the differencebe-
tween the injectionpressureof the steamand the pressureat the productionwell.
At the start this is very large,but so is the resistingforce of the oil-saturatedreser-
voir. Once breakthroughoccurs,the resistanceto flow throughthe steamzonebe-
comesrelativelylow, and the driving force requiredto maintain a given flow of
steamdecreases. Under theseconditionsmuchlessdrive is availableto movethe oil
r'aciical Range
'Feid below.
For low valuesof ,4a, Figure 4.29 showsthat the steam-liquidinterfacedoes
not extendto the baseof the injectionwell. The steamescapes from the top of the
welltr, if the well is perforatedonlyat the bottom, risesvery rapidly to thi top of
:i &periments the formation.The reasonfor this is not, as might be assumedat first, that theie is
^ ilboratory
a particularly favorableopen streak at the top but simply that the steam,being
light, tendsto float to the surface.Figure4.30,which is from van Lookeren'spaper,
allowsone to estimatethe liquid level within the well.
The parameterLNTM dependsupon the valuesof the drainageradius,R,,
the well bore radius,R,, and the skin factorfor the well, s. For a givenvalueof ,4a,
decreasing R, or increasingS hasthe effectof causingthe steam-water interfaceto
move lower down the well.
In order to estimatethe vertical conformanceof a steamflood,it is useful to
be able to calculatethe average,area-weighted steamzone thickness;this is given
in Figure 4.31.The curves in this figure are drawn for two extremetheoretical
okeren) cases,1 and2, which are developedbyvan Lookeren.Actual casesare expectedto
fall in betweenthesetwo theoreticalcurves,and it is suggested by van Lookeren
am zone but it also im-
that the averagecurve shouldbe used.
a m i s i n c r e a s e da n d i t i s
ther towards the end of
Low valuesofr4p correspondto caseswhere the steamzone either doesnot
reachor only barelyreachesthe baserock; seeFigure 4.29.when,4p is lessthan
rf looding Chap.4 Injectivity 155

!
1.0
Parameteris LNTNterm
steam
a F
-til- Sincc t
for low valu
thicknessal
Altbq
<it>
.c 0.8 <jt> by Figure4-
o given by Fg
o of the injecti
= 0.6
LNTM=3 fect the thirl
,=
' LNTM=gfor plugged
--.-> :
E 0.4 nearwelboia Numericel t
= H
AS an ex2rilt
o
River steam
.E 0.2 culate,,{pan
(,
(!
il
llo SteaminF
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SteamZoneShapeFactorA p Rate pcf
Figure 4.30 Predicted Water Level in Injection Well
utl
L N r M = r n ( R , / R .-) t l 2 - R l / z R :+ S
S is skinfactor;seeChapter6 (aftervanLookeren)
1.0, the mean steam zone thickness, as a fraction of the total thickness, is simply
equal to half the -4n. This is also equal to the vertical conformance.
1.0
Aa
\.c
r' O
z 0 . 5A n Case1
l-c
g 0.8 Averaoe The average
o Curve'
N
E Case2
o Using this tx
I 0.6
o an expected
5
o
6
th
o 0.4
E
v
.9 This is lesst
F that the pro<
o 0.2
C'I
G
included.
L
o afiervanLookeren
0
- FAROUOALI'S I..|II
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.O 2.5
ShaPeParameterA R FarouqAli (
Figure 4.31 RelativeAverageSteam-ZoneThicknessas a Functionof,4n (after many of the
van Lookeren) simplifiedag
156 Steamflooding Chap.4 Farouq

Ali'sU
ll tl since the reservoir height occurs in the denominatorof ,4p, this meansthat,
t-l for low values of Ap, the mean steam zone height is independentof the reservoir
J . .l ll -
<l r> thicknessand alsoof time.
<t r> Although the steamheight within the well dependsupon R, and s, as shown
*r>
<t r> by Figure 4.30, theseparametersdo not affect the averagesteamzone thicknessas
Fii
v given by Figure 4.31.The effect of R, and S is confined to the immediatevicinity
of the injection well. Injecting steamonly at the bottom of the reservoirtendsto af-
tl fect the thicknessof the steamzone only in the region closeto the injection well.
tl
tl
-ii Numerical Example of the Use of van Lookeren'sTheory

tl As an exampleof the use of van Lookeren'stheory, considerthe ten-patternKern
tl
tl River steamflooddiscussedpreviously.The valuesof the variablesrequired to cal-
tl culateAp are as follows:
tl
t_t
Steaminjection rate: 18.58x 106B of steamwere injected over a period of7 y,
I or 727 B/d per injection well average
-
Rate per injector W,i = 727 x 350 x 0.4536/86,400= 1.3kg/s
z, at 310oF= 5.0 x 10-6m2/s
-s
A^p= 960 kg/^,
I = 9.81m/s2
thickness,is simply h = 97 x 0.3048= 29.6m
ance.
k, = 0.4 x L0-12m2(assumingkn = 0.4)
5 x 10*6x 1,.3 \ r/2
A^=(
r r x 9 6 0 x 9S1,nR X 0.4 x 10-12
= o''n'
Case1 )
Averaqe The averagesteamchamberheight would thus be
Curve-
En = 0.5Anh = l'i..1m, or 38.5 ft
Case2
Using this height and an expectedresidualoil saturationof about 0.15would give
an expectedrecoveryof
0.52- 0.15 38..s
Ug "dx100Vo=28.27o
This is less than the reported recovery of 37Vo.One reasonfor this difference is
that the production of oil by waterflooding beneath the steamzone has not been
included.
t FAROUOALI'S UNIFIEDAPPROACH
5
Farouq Ali (1982)has presenteda description of an approach that encompasses
on of,4p (after many of the conceptsdescribedpreviously in this chapter and unites thpm into a
simplified approximatemodel.
nflooding Chap. 4 FarouqAli's Unified Approach 157

His procedureinvolvesthe calculationof the steamzone thicknessft,, from tr,,-..
van Lookeren'stheory and then, using the Mandl-Volekmethod,the calculationof function ,.:
the steamchambervolumefor successive time steps.At eachtime step,the flow of reserroir Ft
oil and waterfrom the regionbelowthe steamzoneis estimatedassumingthat the thick*a:,:rt
temperatureis uniform at a value determinedby the heat contentfor the heat loss were fou::i1!
calculated.Relativepermeabilitiesfrom Gomaa'scorrelationare used(Figure4.31). portion \': :l
\ \ . a -. ,-
The procedureis repeateduntil the steamchambervolume grows to the break- .1
throughvolumecalculatedat the start.At this point the steaminjectionrate can be C O I I C C I c ' Ci , x

adjustedto control the amountof steambypass.FarouqAli providesan encourag- then the c:-,
ing comparisonin his paperof the resultsof his calculationfor the Kern River data w a s a l s o: ' : ;
with the samecurvesdrawn by Jones. s u l t si f t n r .
stant.There
neither inr e'
GOMAAS CORRELATIONS
FORPREDICTING
OIL RECOVERY '\ n '-.,
( 4 0 % 1u a . : o
Gomaa(1980)developeda setof correlationchartsfor the predictionof steamflood
a given pr,rJ
oil recoveryand oil-to-steamratio as a function of reservoircharacteristics
and op-
Dec:ca
eratingconditions.The correlationsare basedupon a seriesof numericalsimulation
floodine rfi"
studies.
through 'Fig
Although Gomaa'sstudyis limited to a particularsetof fluid and rock proper-
this increa.<
ties and is dependenton the assumptionsinherent in the numerical simulation
tion of thc n
methodemployed,it developsinterestingconclusionsand ideas.The studyconsid-
ers a reservoirwith the relativepermeabilitycurvesshown in Figure 4.32.These
curveswere found to give a satisfactoryhistory match for an actual Kern River
steamflood.Comparedto the valueswhich are commonlyfound for conventional
oils, the relativepermeabilityof water is very low. It has been found necessaryto
employrelativepermeabilitycurvesof this type to simulateheavyoil steamfloods
in numericalsimulators.If conventionalcurvesare employedit is found that water
is producedmuchtoo quickly.The distortedrelativepermeabilitiesemployedcom-
pensatefor other problemswhich are involvedin the simulationsuch as the ex-
tremelylargetemperatureand viscositygradientswhich occur in the vicinity of the
condensation front. a.
The gravity of the oil in the studywas 14oAPI and the reservoirtemperature o
was 90"F. o
|e
\
1.0
F
S*
g 0.8 o
p
ql
?c-
6
t
3 o.o \J
o
.g 0.4
6
E 0q
e 0.2 n
Water note soecial scale
Figure 4.32 NormalizedOil-Water
0.2 RelativePermeabilities(from Gomaa Figun
0.4 0.6 0.8
( S s - S * 1 ) / ( 1 - S 1-aS; 6 1 ) 1980) G.':.
158 Steamflooding Chap. 4 Gomaa'sCo''e

e thickness8,, from Figure 4.33 showsthe oil recoveryfor reservoirsof variousthicknessesas a
d. the calculationof function of time with a constantsteam-injection rate of 1.7 B/d per acre foot of
Lmestep,the flow of reservoir.For example,the steam-injectionrate for the caseof the reservoir 300 ft
rd assumingthat the thick was30 timesgreaterthan that for the reservoir10ft thick. Higher recoveries
ent for the heat loss werefound for thick reservoirs.This might be expectedbecauseof the smallerpro-
e used(Figure4.31). portion of the total injectedheat that would be expectedto be lost vertically.
grows to the break- A significantfinding from this studywas that if the heat injectionratesare
in|:ction ratecan be correctedfor the vertical heat lossesto give the net heat injectedto the reservoir,
ovidesan encourag- then the diversecurvesof Figure4.33 all fall on the singlecurve of Figure 4.34.It
the Kern River data was also found that neither the pattern shapenor the pattern size affectedthe re-
sults if the steam-injectionrate per unit volume of reservoirwas maintainedcon-
stant. There was a small effect of the rate per unit volume parameterthat was
neither investigatednor includedin the correlation.
interestingfeatureof thesestudiesis that an intermediatesteamquality
(40Vo)wasfound to give the highestthermal efficiency.More heat was requirid for
iction of steamflood
a given productionwith steamof lower or higher quality.
aracteristicsand op-
Decreasingthe steamquality from l00Vaincreasesthe amount of hot water-
rumericalsimulation
flooding that occursbeneaththe steamzone and delaysthe time of steambreak-
through (Figure4.35);with the assumptions made in the simulationcalculations,
uid and rock proper-
this increases the recovery.Figure4.36showsthe calculatedoil recoveryas a func-
umerical simulation
tion of the net heat injectedfor varioussteamqualities.
s. The studyconsid-
Figure4.32.These
r actual Kern River
rnd for conventional
r found necessaryto
fttJECTION RATE : t.? B/O/Act. Fl
:avv oil steamfloods
t is found that water srEAileuaLrry:06 I I RESERVoIR
--J------=i THICKNESS'Ft
uoElLE olL saruRAror{ = o .la
ities employedcom-
tion such as the ex-
in the vicinityof the
q.
60
:servoirtemperature a
o
le
-40
\
e
so
$
!zo
{
o
o
TtME , YEARS
ormalizedOil-Water
abilities(from Gomaa Figure4.33 Effectof Reservoir
Thickness
on Steamflood (from
Oil Recoverv
Gomaa1980)
nflooding Chap. 4 Gomaa'sCorrelationsfor PredictingOil Recovery 159

roo
I
ft{JECTIOtR { ATE: l.? 8/Ollc?.F1.

s T E A I Q U A L I T Y: 0 . 6
I O S I L E O I L s A T U R A T I O N: O . 4 2
;::
-
x .a
x
o *
xo
60 INJECTil
a. o
o q
o
ta
.40
\ In using(
t RESERVOIR
ax T H T C K N E SFSr,, reservoiruP ut
\
s
b
t 300 heat loss read
t{ 20 o too the effectof c
t o 40 Usingttr
20
d to
ageof the or[
the estimatedt
o â oqcx the reservoiri
200 400 600 800 rooo 1200
NEf HEAT INJEC\E? MMBtu./Auc
initial oil satu
Ft.
stimulationbc
Figure 4.34 Oil Recoveryas a Functionof Net Heat Injectedfor VariousReser-
voir Thickness(from Gomaa 1980) Figure4.
of reservoirth
too
{
OUALITY.
% \ t\ + o
O Sol'5O7. l{J
20 Qlnj' 395 t{H8tu/AcrcFt. {
+r ++ ++ ++ 40 s _ooo deo
60 .F oo- J(. o
oooo 80 \ I
-+ roo T {
x q
t
INJECTOR PROOUCER
(A): 50% OIL SATURATIONPROFILES Qro
(DISPLACEDOIL BANK) E
\
o
+ x40
QUALITY. 7C
+ \
+
0 Sol. 507o s
++++
20
40
Oini . 395 MMBtu/AcrrFt. s
o
60 * t_..' sl{J 2 0
o ooo 80
_H IOO
I
r
e
-J
INJECTOR PROOUCER s
(B}: I5O"F ISOTHERMS
(UNIFORMITY
OF WELLBOREHEATING) o
Figure4.35 Effectof SteamQualityon Displacement (fromGomaa
Parameters
1980) F€'
160 Steamflooding Chap.4 Vogel's Simdffi

,----
+ +-t.t r:I
Sol. 5096
Svi.O 60
Qlnl ' 390 MMBtU/Act Fl. o o oo go
It{J€CTOR PROO{JCER
(C): IO% VAPORSATURATIONPROFILES
(STEAU ZONEGROWTHA BREAKTHROUGH)
Figure4.35 (continued)
ln using Gomaa'scorrelation,one first calculatesthe net heat injectedinto the

ERVOIR
xltEss, Ft. reservoirup until the end of the current time step.This is correctedfor the vertical
300 heat loss read from Figure 4.37, and this net heat injection is adjustedto allow for
too thq effect of steamquality using the factor read from Figure 4.38.
40 Using the effectiveheat injectionjust calculated,the oil recoveryas a percent-
20
ageof the originalmobileoil (i.e., the oil saturationat the start of the flood minus
to
the estimatedresidualoil saturationafter steaming)is obtainedusingFigure4.39.If
the reservoir has been producedby steamstimulation prior to the flood, then the
initial oil saturation should be adjustedfor the oil production during the steam
/ariousReser-
stimulation before using Gomaa'scorrelation.
Figure 4.40 showssometypical results from the correlation; the importance
of reservoir thickness,oil saturationand the net-grosspay ratio are quite evident.
roo
{
s IOSIL O I L S A T I RATlON t .42
lrJ
{
,o oflf Geo ,r'
.\
3x
:x
PRODUCER
-l
I
G60
4
s
l{
o
tQ40
b
\
s
S
o
sr{.12 0
t
r
,fl STEAM OUALITY
t.o
o.8
o.6
o.4
{
PROOUCER s
o
.t 200 400 600 800
I
looo
o.2
1200
tt o
,(fromGomaa NET HEAT NJECTEO , llll&tu. /Acrc Ft.
(fromGomaa1980)
Figure4.36 Effectof SteamQualityon Oil Recovery
nflooding Chap.4 VogelisSimplifiedHeat Calculationsfor Steamfloods 161

\
\ao d
= .N \ :i 80
6
b
t60
\ N\ rtttl
T
I \ $ --' HEAT IilJECTPil RATE *,o
o
loo
\
\ \ ).or
-- un&u. /o/Acr. Fl.
lllrl tb
$ \'l
_.2 \
\.4 \
t40
\'
s20
lr
.b
$
$ Bto
o a
o 40 80 t20 t6o 200 240 ZAO 320 {
RESERVOIR THEKIIESS, FEET o
Figure 4.37 Heat Loss to Overlying and UnderlyingStrata(from Gomaa 1980) o
t
VOGETSSIMPLIFIEDHEATCALCULATIONFORSTEAMFLOODS Figrn {
N{obrlc I
Vogel(1984)haspresentedan approachto the calculationof the steamrequirements
for a steamfloodthat is simple,practical,and conservative.The casethat Vogel
o.5
I
considersis the one in which overrideof the steamchamberoccursrapidlyand the
productionof oil is by gravity drainage,assistedby "steamdrag." As production
proceeds,the steamchamberthickens.The generalconceptis shownin Figure 4.41.
Roo
s t
\
I
I
H,O
I
No.
!r) t-
Fot d
\ oz
I
I
t-
R
\
N s
I
\
L 0.6 So'
$ o o.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.o
INJECTEOSTEATIOUALITY o
Figure 4.38 Heat-Utilization Factor as a Function of Steam Quality (from
Gomaa 1980) Figurc{
on Cum
Vogel's Simplif-n
roo
d 4 t/
z
5eo - tMtl.IAL ,IRAT,
IIOBt ILE
7
i
*
<60
otL SATr
K*
_]sg:
to
s ,/
b 40 / /
ro_
l40 ,/
\'
s /t /
S '/t / .5'
ry
8 z20o
t /t /
{
280
om Gomaa 1980)
s
o 2 2 800 rooo 1200
EFFECTIVE HEAT NJECTEO, tlll8tu./Gross Acro Ft
D Figure4.39 Steamflood Recovery
asa Functionof EffectiveHeatInjectedand
(fromGomaa1980)
MobileOil Saturation
le steamrequirements
The casethat Vogel
xcurs rapidly and the
drag." As production POROSITY : 537.
S T E A M Q U A L I T Y: 6 0 7 0
shownin Figure4.41. I t { J E C T I O NR A T E : 1 . 5 B / 0 / c n O S S A C R EF r
Ro o N ET / G R O S S
t -
---
LOO
o.73
\
No.
q
{
o
S oz
R
\
s RESERVOIR
lo, THICKNESS,
l.o
0ro2030405060
NI4AL HOE|LE OtL SATURATTOT'|, X
Quality (from
Figure4.40 Effectof Oil Saturation,
Reservoir
Thickness,
andNet-Gross
Ratio
on CumulativeOil-Steam Ratio(fromGomaa1980)
amflooding Chap.4
Vogel'sSimplifiedHeat Calculationsfor Steamfloods 163
The heat
causethe hot i
tend to resultir
Vogel p<i
beingconsunra
it is likell'thart
layer.This is a
In compe
HEAI fLOIV TO CA' ROCK U zonefrom t{.35
at
U
F
steam,one abo
. from the rrell b
a
STEAT ZO'{E -AP +

J
o
Comparisand
By combiningI
thermalefficicr
the steamchas
HIAT FLOW TO UNOERLVING ZONE
t COLD OIL
I where
RE@VERY IECHANIS-GRAVITY ORAII'AGE OF HOr OIL

ANO SLIGHT STEAT ORAG
tf,JCCTOn ?ROOUCES
This equationi
Figure 4.41 SchematicCross Sectionof ContinuousSteam-InjectionRecovery Process
(from Vogel 1982) front (equatio
the vertical he
In Vogel'sapproachthere is no way of predicting how rapidly the drainage surfacesof thc
from the reservoirwill occur,and it is necessary
to assumea lifetime for the steam- tion 4.37 it is
flood. The methodcan also be usedto analyzethe statusof an ongoingflood. In heatedimmedi
either caseit is necessaryto estimatefor the time of interest(i.e., for time t) the Vogelsho
correspondingaverageheightof the steamchamber,ft. lower than tbc
The heatstoredwithin the drainagesteamchamberis given by equation4.35. and which arc
Figure 4.42 cq
Q,=Ahp1C'(fs-fn) (4.3s) the Marx-Larg
Vogelassumesthat the steamchamberspreadsimmediatelyacrossthe top of the Also sho
wholereservoirpattern.He then calculatesthe verticalheatlossesto the overburden ciency.Recall t
and alsoto the materialbelowthe steamchamber(this may be underburdenand/or ratios were gec
'
undrainedreservoir).To calculatetheseheatlosses,he usesequation4.36(sameas cal efficiencl-.
equation2.25) for the heat lossupward and also for the heat lossdownward. the range of ru
Vogel s.qg
rate initialll"a
Qr = ZKzA(Zs- Z^)tE Trdz (4.36)
heatflux. He r
Y
The heat loss to the overburden,calculatedin this way, is conservativebecause steamhas rert
the whole upper surfaceof the reservoircannot heat up immediately(seeequa- dependentof th
tions 2.25 and 2.27). reservoirwith I
164 Steamflooding Chap.4 Vogel'sSim6*fie

The heat loss to the underburdentendsto be overestimatedeven more be-
causethe hot interfaceadvancesduring the drainageprocess.Both these errors
tend to resultin a pessimisticestimateof the steamrequirements.
Vogel points out that if it is found for a field steamflood that more heat is
beingconsumedduring the processthan would be calculatedby his approach,then
it is likely that thereare additionalheatlosses,suchasto other regionsor to a water
layer.This is a very useful featureof his approach.
In comparingthe resultscalculatedby adding the heat storedin the steam
zonefrom (4.35)and the vertical heat lossesfrom (4.36)to the heat injectedin the
G
steam,one also has to make allowancesfor heat lossfrom surfacelines. heat loss
3 from the well bore, and the heat in the producedfluids.
a
o
Comparison of Vogel'sPredictionswith Myhill-Stegemeier
By combiningEquations4.35 and 4.36,it is simpleto derive an expressionfor the
thermalefficiency,E,1,,
which is the fractionof the net injectedheatthat remainsin
the steamchamber;this is shownby equation4.37.
-1
rth = (4.37)
)
1+ _-:__X
Yrr
where
X =fto
(seeequation3.25)
This equationis similar to that derivedin Chapter3 for a steadilyadvancingsteam
front (equation3.24). The differencelies in the factor of J in the expressionfor
the vertical heat losses.In equation3.24 it was assumedthat the area of the hot
rapidly the drainage surfacesof the overburdenand underburdenincreasedat a constantrate. In equa-
ifetimefor the steam- tion 4.37 it is assumedthat the surfaceof the overburdenand underburdenis
an ongoingflood. In heatedimmediately.
t (i.e.,for time r) the Vogelshowsthat this simpleexpressionpredictsthermal efficienciesthat are
lower than thosepredictedby the Myhill-Stegemeier frontal displacementapproach
ven by equation4.35. and which are in close agreementwith the field results given in their paper.
Figure 4.42 comparesthe efficiencycalculatedfrom equation4.3'l with that from
(4.3s) the Marx-Langenheimapproach.
acrossthe top of the Also shown in the figure is a curve for 70Vaof the Marx-Langenheimeffi-
;sesto the overburden ciency.Recall that the Myhill-Stegemeier analysisshowedthat the field oil-steam
e underburdenand/or ratioswere generallyin the rangeof 70 to 100Vo of the Marx-Langenheimtheoreti-
quation4.36(sameas cal efficiency. They are in agreementwith the much simpler Vogel equation over
lossdownward. the rangeof mostpracticalinterest.
Vogel suggeststhat in a steamflood it is desirableto inject steamat a higher
(4.36) rate initially and then to reduce the rate to compensatefor the reducedvertical
heat flux. He also makesthe point that in a mature steamflood-i.e., where the
conservativebecause steamhas reachedthe breakthroughpoint-the rate of productionis essentiallyin-
mediately(seeequa- dependentof the rate of steaminjection; additional steamtendsto blow through the
reservoirwith little incrementalproduction of oil.
rnflooding Chap.4 Vogel'sSimplifiedHeatCalculations

for Steamfloods 165
1
THE FAST PROCESS
s
r! 0.8 A someuhatd
scribedbi Cm
C'
SanMiguel tar
.E0.. constant disPlacementrate posit is of a ts
o
\. r,
. \ Langenheim
lu o.+ \. ,-Maaand Specific
70%ot Marxand Langenheim's
E;,
(E Viscosir.
o Sulphurc
T o.z Rangeof results
from Myhill-Stegemeier CCR utQ
It is thoughrtb
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 1,000 degradation of
Dimensionless
Time scribedon pag
Figure 4,42 Comparisonof CalculatedHeat Efficiencies The Sanl
The simpleapproachsuggested by Vogelis practicaland useful.Its weakness zontallyb1-au
is that it doesnot give meansfor the estimationof the rate at which oil will drain. (8.3m) in thid
In Chapter7 the calculationof the rate at which oil drains from around a steam The four
chamberto a horizontalwell is described.Sucha systemis a logicalextensionof the to producehc
processshownin Figure 4.41. this particula
The precedingequationsdue to Vogel have been previouslydescribedin a pected.Nexttl
jector was frtl
form that allowsthe direct calculationof the oSR. (Seeequations3.51and 3.52.)
and steaminia
NumericalExample the horizontal
Following the discussionof van Lookeren'sequations,a numericalexamplewas Performr
givenon page157in which it waspredictedthat for the conditionsof the ten-pattern first 174d of o
Kern River steamflood,the averagedepth of the steamchamberwould be 38.5 ft. Comparisonol
At steambreakthroughfor the 61.-acre, ten-patternproject, the oil displaced timeshighertl
from the steamchamberwould have a volumeof the reservoirb
tt Aso
AQ
r-. 61x 43,560x 0.34x (0.52-0.15) x 38.5
Joitil =
I
= 2.29 x 106B
3 l60
@
if it is assumedthat the residualoil saturationwithin the steamchamberwas 0.15. 3 t40
In the field productionit was found that the productionwas 3.02 x 106B. ,,1,
rZO
The OSR for the projectis predictedby equation3.52as
iYr m
1769x 0.34x (0.52- 0.15)
OSR = = 0.26
EEO
(310- e0)(1 + 2.r4\h x 36s/3s9)
Blevinsand Billingsleyrepgrt that 18%of the injectedheatappearedin the produc-
!so
tion. This would reducethe expectedOSR to 0.26 x 0.82 = 0.21.This is still =40
t20
higherthan the experimentalratio of 0.16.The discrepancyis really largerthan it
appearsbecausethe actualproductionwaslargerthan that just calculated,and the 0
I
I
0.16ratio from the field includesthis effect. A possibleexplanationis the indica-
tion in the paperthat steamwaslost to uppersandlevelsin part of the projectarea. f
Steamflooding Chap.4 The Fast Procel

THE FAST PROCESS
I A somewhat different and interesting approach to steamflooding has been de-

I
I
scribedby Conoco(Britton et al. 1983)for the recoveryofvery viscoustar from the
SanMiguel tar sanddepositin the StreetRanchin SouthTexas.The tar in this de-
tacementrate posit is of a very low quality:
I
3 LanSenheim
I Specificgravity(60"F) 1.080-1.093
I
I Viscosityat 175'Fcs
Sulphurcontentwt. Vo
520,000
9.5-11.0
I CCR wtTo 24.5'
>=J
0o 1,000
It is thoughtthat this very viscousand denseoil resultsfrom the extensivebacterial
degradationof a lighteroriginalcrudeoil-presumably like the processthat wasde-
scribed on page 10 for Athabascabut more severe.
ncies The SanMiguel tar sandis at a depth of 1500ft (457m) and is divided hori-
J useful.Its weakness zontallyby a nonpermeable limestonebarrier.The testwasconfinedto alayer 26 ft
(8.3m) in thickness.A five-spot,5-acre(2 ha) patternwas used.
t whichoil will drain.
from around a steam The four producerswere fractured using cold water under conditions thought
gical extension to producehorizontalfractures.This was possiblebecauseof the in situ stressin
of the
this particular reservoir.In many other reservoirs,vertical fractureswould be ex-
pected.Next they weresteamstimulated,perforated,and resteamed. The centerin-
iously describedin a
jector was fractured hydraulicallywith fresh water. This was followed by hot water
rtions3.51and3.52.)
and steaminjectionat avery high rate and with an injectionpressurethat exceeded
the horizontal fracture pressure.
mericalexamplewas Performancedatafor the pilot are shownin Figures4.43 and4.44.During the
onsof the ten-pattern first 174d of operation,the averageinjectionrate was about 3000Bld (477m'/d).
rberwouldbe 38.5ft. Comparisonof this rate with the data in Table4.4 showsthat this rate is several
Bct. the oil displaced times higher than conventionalpractice-particularly when the small thicknessof
the reservoiris considered.This drastictreatmentresultedin the productionof oil,
I x 38.5
pf,EHEAT
| | rATRrxrr{JECTIOil - lrcT |ATER
160 Lrrortr* -'--

3
(D
rm chamberwas0.15. g t40
3.02x 106B. ,.i,f ZO
s a
i= roo
= 0.26
6
-
r.r 80
at,
pearedin the produc- 5ro .D

I
= 0.21.This is still = 40 RATE---+ -2rr, I
D U ll,
t20
, 77Zi
s really largerthan it E
st calculated,and the 0
rnationis the indica-
rt of the projectarea. Figure 4.43 StreetRanch Tar Production(from Britton et al. 1983)
rnflooding Chap.4 The Fast Process 167

EIIOOFIATRIX ITUECTfr I
independent d
s,,160
P'IASE
tsslcn-__)t-'
lgry:5 distillatestbt
J
cEt Distilhi
= t40 heavyones-ll
I
g r20 nificant disril
E,oo 60
;80 gs0
F o
-60 E+o
o
3oo AI IIJECTIOI{
F.o
o
-22.850 ELS r '€R
=
o
20 _EiO OFPNEHEA PHASE
INJECIIOI
o20
0 tttl , ,-,ti I
o
0 500 t000 1500 2000 2500 F10
FLUID
CUTULATIVE - TBELS
II{JECTED
Figure 4.44 StreetRanch Pilot PerformanceData (from Britton et al. 1983)
and it was demonstratedthat eachof the four producerscould flow tar at a rate
greaterthan 100barrels per day.
Steaminjectionwasstoppedat I74 d to allow the reservoirpressureto drop so
that additionalobservationwells could be drilled. Followingthis, a prolongedpe-
riod of steaminjection at a pressurejust below the fracture pressurewas carried
out, and considerableoil was produced. In the final stageof the project, a water-
flooding operationwas carried out and little additionaloil was removed.
Overall, about 170,000B of tar were producedfrom the injectionof 1.8 mil- .; O.2
6
lion barrelsof steam.On a cumulativebasis,the steam-to-tarratio wasreportedas lr

10.9.Even thoughthis figure is very high, it is remarkablein view of the very vis- ttr 0.6
g
cousnatureof the oil, the relativelythin reservoir,and the low initial tar saturation o
of the reservoir(abolt 55%). ut
> 0.4
2
OTHERMECHANISMSIN STEAMFLOODING 9
The materialdiscussed previouslyconcentrates
k o,
on the effectof heatin loweringthe
J
viscosityof the oil and thus making it moremobile.Other mechanisms that play an
importantrole in steamfloodingincludesteamdistillationof the lightercomponents 9
o
o.s
from the residualoil within the steamchamberand also the thermal expansionof =
the oil.12 0..
wu and Brown (1975;also reportedin wu 1977)havemeasuredthe yield of
H
o
hydrocarbondistillatesproducedby contactingsteamwith a seriesof crude oils.
They found that the volumeof distillatewasa functionof the quantityof steamem- 0.1
ployed (measuredas the correspondingvolume of liquid water) but was essentially
10'|
r2Thethermal
expansionof the oil is largelyignoredin this book. Its effect is, however,in- ctl
cludedindirectly becausethe residualoil saturationsare measuredat ambienttemperature.At steam
Figrn{
conditionsSo,would be larger by as much as l\Vo.
Viscodt
168 Steamflooding Chap.4 Other Mechanb

independentof the steampressure(or temperature).Figure 4.45 showsthe yields of
distillatesthat they obtained.
Distillation occurs to a much larger extent with light crude oils than with
heavyones.However,with even the heaviestoil shown in Figure 4.45, there is sig-
nificant distillateproduced.
60
*50
o
E+o 2OOpsiglSezor1
.l!, - 500psig(471oFl
3so
trl rufciloi 6
o20
p
o
00 2500 Fro
t
Figure 4.45 SteamDistillation of
ionet al.1983)
51015 Heavy Crude Oils (after Wu and
uld flow Iar aI a rate InjectedSteamto Oit Ratio Brown 1975and Wu 1977)
0.6
fr pressureto drop so
this, a prolongedpe-
pressurewas carried
o.4
I the project, a water-
as removed.
() d
e injectionof 1.8 mil- ! 6
'ratio wasreportedas lt lr
0.1
t view of the very vis- -J jlto
NE
w initial tar saturation o o
g lrJ
z 0.3
z
9 o
F
f heat in lowering the 0.1
chanismsthat play an F
9, t2 0.0
he lightercomponents o o
thermal expansionof = o.4
=
ut UJ
measuredthe yield of o o
I seriesof crude oils.
quantityof steamem-
rr) but was essentially 0.0
3510 100 1000 5000
Irs effect is, however,in- CRUDE OIL API GRAVITY OIL VISCOSITY (cr, al 100" F)
Ent temperature.At steam
Figure 4.46 Correlation of SteamDistillation Yields with API Gravity and Oil
Viscosity (from Wu and Elder 1983)
rnflooding Chap. 4
Other Mechanismsin Steamflooding 169
The effectof steamdistillationon the recoveryprocessis greaterthan that of In a pro
the simpleproductionof the distillatethat is removedfrom the residualoil, because (Willmanet a
the distillateis an effectivesolventthat reducesthe viscosityof the oil beyondthe found that src
steamzone as it condenses and mixeswith the reservoiroil. coveredmore
Wu and Elder reportedsteamdistillationresultson a rangeof 16 crude oils seriesof expc
and correlatedthe hydrocarbondistillateyieldsagainstthe gravity of the crude oil \4'ith bo
and the volume of steamused(left-handside of Figure 4.46) and againstthe vis- tivelyquickll
cosity of the crude oil measuredat 100"F(right-handside of Figure 4.46). til about1.3 p
In the left side of Figure 4.47 the distillateyields are correlatedagainstthe In anotl
simulateddistillationtemperatures of the crudeoils for 20 volumepercentoverhead. tained bi usi
The correlationon the right-handsideof this figure showsthe steamdistillateyield versus77.6cct
as a function of the yieldsat variouscut points for the simulateddistillationof the be due largel
variouscrudeoils. Eachof thesecorrelationsallowsthe predictionof the steamdis- The irrr
tillate yield of crude oil as a function of the propertiesof the crude oil and the heavyoils.Tb
quantityof steamemployed. for the oils.F
Hsueh,Hong, and Duerksen(198a)showedhow steamdistillationcurvessuch floods comes
as thosein Figure 4.45 can be predictedaccuratelyusinga simulatedtrue boiling- For bodr I
point curve obtainedby gaschromatographic analysisof the crudeand a thermody- o Reductk
namic calculationbasedon the Peng-Robinson equationof state. o Thermal
For stcr
o Remova
o Exhaugi
r A solvet
front of'
ct c;
6
o
l!0 0.1
rli ^.'- 0 . 0
j]t"
t!
o0 0.5 ()
g
o
J
_uj
z0 tz
0.3
o z
o GJ
9
Or
6
JU J 0 .1
tr
.20 0.0
Y<
u.-
cF
on t2 .2
= o 6p
= z
ur t!
(J
uJ
o0 0.3 (r
3n lrJ
o
0 0.0
300 400 500 600 700 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SIMULATED DISTILLATIONTEIIPERATURE SIMULATED DISTILLATIONYIELD (:
AT 20oloYIELO ('F) (FRACTION OF Voi)
Figurc
Figure4.47 Correlationof SteamDistillation Yields with Data from Simulated terfloo
Distillations(from Wu and Elder 1983) ter. Co
170 Steamflooding Chap.4 Other Mechan

is greaterthan that of In a pioneering,experimentallaboratory study, willman and his co-workers
e residualoil, because (Willman et al. 1961)carriedout a seriesof linear hot-waterand steamfloods.They
of the oil beyondthe found that steamfloodsrecoveredmore oil than hot waterfloods,which, in turn, re-
coveredmore oil than cold waterfloods.Figure 4.48showsthe resultsof one of their
ange of 16 crude oils seriesof experiments.
avity of the crude oil With both waterfloods and steamfloods,water breakthrough occurred rela-
) and againstthe vis- tively quickly in eachexperiment.However, steambreakthroughdid not occur un-
Figure 4.46). til about 2.3 pore volumesof total fluids were produced.
:orrelated againstthe ln another experiment it was found that a still higher recoverycould be ob-
,mepercentoverhead. tained by using high-pressuresteam (84Vorecoverywith steam at 520'F, 800 psig
: steamdistillateyield versus77.6Vowith steamat 327"F,84psig).This additionalrecoverywasthoughtto
ned distillationof the 'be due largely to the lower oil viscosity that resultedfrom the higher temperature.
tion of the steamdis- The increasedrecoveryfound with steamwasgreaterwith light oils than with
he crude oil and the heavyoils. The differencescould be explainedapproximatelyfrom distillation data
for the oils. From the studiesit was concludedthat the extra recoveryfrom thermal
isillation curvessuch floods comesfrom severalfactors.
mulatedtrue boiling- For both hot water and steam
rude and a thermody- o Reduction in oil viscosity becauseof higher temperatures
ate. o Thermal swellingof the oil
For steam drive, the preceding plus
o Removalof additional material from the residualoil by steamdistillation
y',._,
o
o Exhaustivegas drive resulting from the steamflush
o A solvent dilution effect causedby the condensationof the light ends in
v",
front of the steamzone
(IN CORE9)
STEAMINJECTION
lrl
o STEAMBREAKTHROUGH(AT COREOUTLET)
o-
J
(IN
HOT WATERFLOOD COREIO)
Vt =" tz
GJ
y6 (IN COREIO)
COLDWATERFLO@
o,
3s-
Gr
.2 RECOVERY450lo
5r AT 16 PV
z
lrl
o
Yt=t" tr WATETR (STEAM INJECT|ON)
BREAKTHROUGH
v", UJ
C
(WATERFLOODS)
WATERBREAKTHROUGH
600'F
f-.-J--.J--J
.a 0.6 0.8 1.0 TOTALPRODUCED FLUIDS - PORE
FLUIDS PORE VOLUMES
VOLUMES
DISTILLATION YIELD (STEAMCONSIDERED AS EOUIVALENT VOLUMECONDENSATE)
;TtoN oF voi)
Figure4.48 Oil Recoveries by SteamInjection,Hot Waterfloodand ColdWa-
Simulated terflood,in Corescontaining
12.2"APlBachaquero CrudeOil andConnate Wa-
ter. Coldwater80'F;Hot water330"F:Steam327'F(fromWillmanet al. 1961)
rnflooding Chap. 4 Other Mechanismsin Steamflooding

Table 4.8 showsthe magnitude of these effects as evaluatedby Willman et al. for
experimentswith three oils having different amountsof volatile material. Theseoils o 300
:
were blendsof a very low volatility white oil and a heavy naphtha.
i
The recoveriesshown on the first line of the table are for a hot waterflood. o
(.t
The secondline showsthe additionalrecoverythat wasobtainedwith the "nondis- J
tillable" oil using a hot nitrogen flood; this representsthe additional recoverythat tt 200
o
would be obtained by the gas-water-driveeffect during the steamflood.Added to o.
this are the steamdistillation effectsof line 3. Thus, for example,for the 25Vodistil-
lableoil, the residualoil without distillationwould be 42.2%(100- 54.8 - 3.0)of o
the original oil in place. It would be expected that 25vo of this residual oil, or o 100
.:
10.58o, would be recoveredby distillation.The total of the first three lines is some-
-g
what lessthan the recoveryby steamflooding(line 5). The difference(line 6) is the =
unexplainedrecovery. E
:
It is thought that much of the recoverydescribedas unexplainedin the table o
was the result of the solvent-extractioneffect mentionedpreviously.In the caseof
the nonvolatileoil, this differencewas very small, as might be expected.Although
the extra recoverywas smaller for the oil with 50Vovolatilesthan that for the oil
with25Vo,the levelof recoverywasmuchlargerin this caseand the opportunityfor significantlyhi
recoveringadditional oil was smaller. Willman's paper was one of the first in this The quantityo
field and must be regardedas a major contribution to the subject. basedon estir
The production of a 24'API crude from the Brea Field in California by means proach.A cr
of a downwardsteamfloodwas describedby volek and Pryor (1972).They describe In later y
both laboratory recovery experiments and the field project. The reservoir was the steamchl
4600ft deep, and very high steamtemperatureswere involved becauseof the pres- steamcondeof
sure; reservoir temperaturesas high as 623"F were recorded in observationwells. sation front.
Initially, the high temperaturesresultedin excessivewell bore heat lossesand me-
chanical problems.These were largely overcomeby employinginsulatedtubing. CONVERSIONOF M'
The reservoir was steeply dipping (66" from the horizontal). Steamwas in-
During a stear
jected near the top of the formation, and a stablecondensationfront formed, which
to a maximun
advanceddownward.As a result of the steamdistillation effect, a residualoil satu-
high, falls to a
ration of lessthan 8Vowasobtained,and it wasfound that the product oil contained
mum. and ther
TABLE 4.8 Actual Steam RecoveriesComparedwith PredictedRecoverieswithout Solvent Predicted
Extraction are shownin I
It is fouu
Recovery-Percentof Oil in Place
verting from h
25 Percent 50 Percent later stagesof1
Nondistillable Distillable Distillable River ten-pattc
1. Hot waterflood recovery(includesviscosity with the sarnc
reductionand swelling) 54.8 54.8 58.0 In a reh
2. Extra recoverydue to gas-driveeffects J.U 3.0 3.0 steamflood pn
3. Extra recoverydue to distillationr 10.5 19.5 should have p
4. Predictedrecoverybasedon abovemechanisms 57.8 68.3 80.5
WOR (water<i
5. Actual recoveryby steam 59.0 76.0 83.9
will also have
6. Unexplainedrecovery(line 5 minus line 4) 1a
7.7 3.4
'(Percent
likely be 85 u
of oil that is steam-distillable)x [100 - (line 1 + line 2)] (injectedminu
(Willman et al. 1961)
ternatively,th
Conversiond I
by Willman et al. for
o 300
e material.Theseoils 5
htha. c
for a hot waterflood. .9
(,
red with the "nondis- 3
litional recoverythat tt 200 Calculated
o
teamflood.Added to o.
ile, for the 25% distil-
(100- s4.8 - 3.0)of o
'this residualoil, or o 100
;t three lines is some- E Actual--r,:
g
ference(line 6) is the
rxplainedin the table

'iously.In the caseof
f
E
3
o J
64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Figure 4.49 Comparison of Actual Oil
Productionwith that Calculatedfrom
EstirnatedSteamChamberVolume
: expected.Although Year (from Volek andPryor 1972\
than that for the oil

rdthe opportunityfor significantly higher proportions of light componentsthan did the original crude.
ne of the first in this The quantity of oil producedagreedquite well with that calculatedto be displaced
iect. basedon estimatesof the steam chambervolume using the Mandl and Volek ap-
r Californiaby means proach.A comparisonis shown in Figure 4.49.
(1972).They describe In later years, the actual production tended to exceedthat calculated from
l. The reservoir was the steamchambervolume. It was thought that this was due to the effect of hot
I becauseof the pres- steamcondensateproducingoil by waterflooding aheadof the descendingconden-
in observationwells. sation front.
e heat lossesand me-
g insulatedtubing. CONVERSIONOF MATURE STEAMFLOODSTO HOT WATERFLOODING
mtal). Steamwas in- During a steamfloodit is found that the rate of production of oil increasesinitially
r front formed, which to a maximum and then declines.At the sametime, the steamoil ratio startsvery
ct. a residualoil satu- high, falls to a minimum near to the time when the oil production reachesits maxi-
product oil contained mum, and then graduallyrises as the reservoirbecomesdepleted.
ies without Solvent
Predictedsimulation data for the Kern River ten-patternproject (Hong 1985)
are shownin Figures4.50 and 4.5L.
It is found that considerableeconomycan be achievedin suchprojectsby con-
:rcentof Oil in Place
verting from high-quality steaminjection to low-quality steamor hot water in the
25 Percent 50 Percent later stagesof production.Ault, Johnson,and Kamilas (1985)show that in the Kern
Distillable Distillable River ten-patternsteamfloodthis procedureresultedin considerableenergysavings
with the sameproductionof oil (seeFigure 4.14).
54.8 58.0 ln a related paper, Hong lists a number of guidelines to indicate when a
3.0 3.0 steamflood project should be converted to a waterflood. The oil-production rate
10.5 19.5 should have passedits peak and be in a decline.The SOR (steam-oilratio) and
68.3 80.5
WOR (water-oil ratio) may be expectedto be rising steadily.The reservoirpressure
76.0 83.9
'7.7 will also have peakedand be closeto its initial value.Total fluid productionwill
3.4
likely be 85 to 95Voof the steam injection rate. The cumulative heat injection
(injectedminus produced)will be about 450 to 500 million Btu per grossac-ft. Al-
ternatively,the calculatedheat storedin the reservoir(asdistinct from that lost ver-
rnflooding Chap.4
Conversion
of MatureSteamfloods
to Hot Waterflooding 173
Often. ir
employingiri
$ +oo cumstancesti
.E driving forcc I
fi aoo
E
In reser
continuousfa
c and the cood
e(, 200 nouncedin tl
f voirswhichnr
E
systembehaw
i 100 steam chambc
o Optimumtime of conversion than would h
0 approachbece
0 1000 2000 3000 Anorhcr
Time in Days through at th
Figure 4.50 Predicted Oil Production Rate, Kern River Ten-Patternproiect oil is largell h
(from Hong 1985) of gasconingr
tically and that produced)will have reached280 to 300 million Btu per grossac-ft cap. In con\-G
(240 to 260 MJlm3). producingat r
OUALITATIVEREVIEWOF STEAMFLOODING and steamthi
Chapter7, rhi
The themeof this chapteris the quantitativeanalysisand predictbn of steamflood- Useful q
ing performanceusingthe conductiveand convectiveheattransfeiequationsdevel- prematurestcl
oped in Chapters2 and 3. [n approachessuch as that of Myhill and Stegemeierthe
i) The usc r
volume of steam-saturated reservoiris calculatedfrom the heat contentof the in-
jectedsteamand the volumetricheatcapacityof the reservoirwith an allowancefor ii) Waterfh
the heat that is lost by conduction,verticallyto the overburdenand underburden. iii) Using lon
A major problem is found in applying this method becausefrequently, and iv) Foamirg
probably usually, the steam-saturatedzone does not grow around the injector as a
continuousregionwith a near vertical condensation The use of hq
surface.
method which
120
Chapter7.
E
o
o
Pso
E Ar-KHeralr. A- |
Systemsat Rc
o
Aurr, J.W..Jot
be 40 Low Qualitv!
tr CaliforniaRq
o
a BENNrox,D.\l'..
Optimumtime of conversion Numerical Sil
0 Figure 4.51 PredictedSteam-Oil CIM, 34th AO
1000 2000 3000 Ratio and Optimum Time of Ble,rn,C. M.. Sc
Time in Days Conversion(from Hong 1985) by Cyclic Stea
174 Steamflooding Chap. 4 Bibliography

often, in cold bitumen-containing reservoirssteam can be injected only by
employing injection pressureshigh enough to fracture the reservoir. In these cii-
cumstancesthe steamheatsthe reservoiradjacentto the fracturesbut there is little
driving force to move the oil. Heated oil is bypassed.
In reservoirscontaining more mobile oil the steamchamber does grow in a
continuousfashion but, as describedby van Lookeren, the steamtends to override
and the condensationsurface becomesrelatively flat. This effect is more pro-
nouncedin thicker reservoirs.As a result much of the advantagefor thicker reser-
voirs which would be predictedfrom the Marx-Langenheimtheory is not found; the
systembehavesas if the reservoir height were no more than that of the overriding
steam chamber. The heat lossesfor a given volume of steam chamber are larger
than would be expectedfrom the simple Marx-Langenheimor Myhill-St"g"-"-i",
approachbecauseof the greatly extendedsurfaceof the steamzone.
Another problem which accompaniessteam override is that steam breaks
through at the production wells and the pressuredifferential that was driving the
-Pattern Project oil is largely lost. Again heatedoil is bypassed.This is rather similar to the problem
of gasconing which occursin the production of conventionaloil from beneaiha gas
on Btu per grossac-ft cap. In conventionaloil production the problem can sometimesbe controlled by
producing at a rate low enoughto prevent drawing gas to the well. with heavy oil
and steam this rate is often too low to be economic although, as will be seen in
Chapter 7, this limitation can be improved by using horizontal wells.
dictbn of steamflood- Useful approaches,which have been discussed,to overcomethe problem of
nsfer equationsdevel- prematuresteambreakthroughwith conventionalsteamfloodsinclude
ill and Stegemeierthe i) The use of infill wells
€at content of the in-
with an allowancefor ii) Waterflooding after breakthrough
bn and underburden. iii) Using low quality steam
cause frequently, and iv) Foaming additiveswhich will increasethe apparentviscosity of the steam
ound the injector as a
The use of horizontal wells as an alternative to conventionalwells is a production
method which is becoming increasingly attractive and which is discussed in
Chapter 7.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AL-KHAEAJI, W E., ,.SteamSurfactant

A. H., WeNc, P. F., Cesretren, L. M., and BnrGHarr,r,
Systemsat ReservoirConditions," SPE L0777(1982).
Aulr, J.W., JoHNsor.r,WM., and KavrLes, G.N., "Conversionof Mature Steamfloodsto
Low Quality Steamand/or Hot-WaterInjection Projects," SPE 13604,Bakersfield,Calif.:
California RegionalMeeting, (March 1985),149-166.
BENNtor.t,D.W., Moonr, R.G., and THorraas, F.8., "Effect of RelativePermeabilityon the
Numerical Simulation of the Steam Stimulation Process," Paper 83-34-46,Pet. Soc. of
PredictedSteam-Oil
CIM, 34th Annual Technical Meeting, Banff, Alberta (1983).
timum Time of BlaIR, C. M., ScnrnNrn,R. E., and Srour, C. A. "ChemicalEnhancementof Oil Production
rom Hong 1985) by Cyclic StearnInjection," SPE 10700(1982).
rnflooding Chap. 4 Bibliography

BLEvrNs,T. R., AsnrrrNr, R. J., and KrRr, R. S.: 'Analysisof a SteamDrive project,Ingle- HoNc, K. C.. -
(Ma1 l9tlt.
wood Field, California," IPT, tl4I-t150 (September1969).
Hsuen.L.. Hcr
BI-evtNs,T. R. and BrLtINcsrnv, R. H., "The Ten Pattern Steamflood, Kern River Field.
perature9ce
California," JPT, I505-L514(December1975).
ture o.f fkm'.
BnrrroN, M.W., IWrn"rrN, W.L., LrrnnecHr, R.J., and HanuoN, R.A.,..The StreetRanch McGrarr-Hr
Pilot Test of Fracture-AssistedSteamflood rechnology," Jpr, 5lr-s22 (March 19g3).
Jenaer-uoprx. I
o 1983SPE.
Oil Emulsiq
BucrLes, R. S., "SteamStimulation Heavy oil Recoveryat cold Lake, Alberta," spE 7gg4 'Stce
JoNes,J..
(1e79).
(Septemberl'
BuRcrn, J. and cHeurLoN, D., "How to EstimateProductioncost by SteamDrive," pef. Lo, H.Y. and I
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practicalapproachto the use of the Marx-Langenheimmethod.)
MaNol. G. aod
Bunser-qc.G.: "SteamDisplacement-KernRiver Field",JPT 1225-1231(october 1970). 59-79 (\tarcl
BunsELL,c.G. and PrrrvreN, G.M.: "Performanceof SteamDisplacementin the Kern Mar.x, J.\\. ad
River Field," IPT 997-In4 (August 1975). AIME. }16.3
cHu, c., "State-of-the-ArtReviewof SteamfloodField projects,'Ipr, l8B7-1902(october MArri{e*s. C. I
1985).O 1985SPE. MoHe,vrr.-rorS
CttuNG,K. H. and BurLEn, R. M., "GeometricalEffect of SteamInjectionon the Formation Dome Tumtr
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Dertr, J. c., "Injection Rates{he Effect of Mobility Ratio, Area Swept and pattern," MonEl-Serrcr-
SPE"I,81-91 (June 1961). Homogeneo
DrLcnrN, R.E., DnerueR,A.R., and OweNs,K.B., "The LaboratoryDevelopmentand Musrar, \1.. Il
Field Testingof Steam/Noncondensible Gas Foamsfor Mobility Control in Heavy Oil Re- Hill (19ilr:F
covery," SPE 10774, 1982. Mvsrll. \..{-
DoscHen,T. M. and GHassruI,F., "The Effect of ReservoirThicknessand Low Viscosity 173-182tFeh
Fluid on the SteamDrag Process,"SPE9897(1981). Oct-ese"'.K. D-
Doscuen, T.M., Ouonecre, O.S., and Guessrur, F., "SteamDrive Definition and En- Steamflood.I
hancement,"JPT, 1543-1545(July 1982). OzeN,A. S. an
EsoN,R. L., and O'Nesry, S.K., "Evaluationof a ConventionalSteamDrive with Ancillarv Crudeb1'Sta
Materials: North Kern Front Field," SPE 10775,1982. Plorc, J. F. arx
FenoueAtl, S.M., "Current Statusof SteamInjectionas a Heavy Oil RecoveryMethod,,' and 26C. \ti
JCPT (Jantary-March 1974). (March 27-2
Fanoue Arr, S. M., "Steam Injection Theories A Unified Approach," spB r0i46 (L982). Pnars,M.. *Tb
@ 1982SPE. ResrrNe,J. L..
FenoueAr-r, S.M. and Melonu, R.F., "Current SteamfloodTechnology,"JpT, t332-42, (March 1S3t
(Oct. 1979). Srour, C. A.. B
FRIEDMaNN, F. and Jer.rsrN,J, A., "SomeFactorsInfluencing the Formation and Propogation Film Spread
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Oakland,Calif. (April 2*4,1986). Tnavpnsr. E. F
GerreN, T.M., "Oil Productionto Expect from Known Technology,"OiI Gas J.,66-76, cessfulSteam
May 7,1973. Vellenor'. \. V
GorvtAA,E.E., "correlations for Predictingoil Recoveryby Steamflood,'Jpr,325-332 of Recovery.I
(February1980).@ 1980SPE. veNLooxener,
voirs," SPEJ
HoNc, K. C., "Guidelines for Converting Steamflood to Waterflood," SPE 13605,Bakers-
6788.@ 19"
field, Calif.: CaliforniaRegionalMeeting(March 1985),167-179. O 1985SPE.
Bibliography
Hor.rc,K.C., "SteamfloodStrategiesfor a SteeplyDipping Reservoir," SPERE,43l-439
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Oil EmulsionsDuring Thermal Recovery,"AOSTRA I. of Research,4, no. 2: 109(1988).
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(September1981).@ 1981SPE.
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California,"SPE Res.Eng., 17-23 (February1989).
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MvHIt-1, N. A. and Srnceueten, G. L., "Steam-DriveCorrelationand Prediction,"./PI
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Ocusnv, K. D., BrnvrNS,T. R., Rocnns,E. E. andJoHNsoN, W. M., "Statusof the lO-Pattern
ve Definition and En- Steamflood,Kern River Field, California,"IPT,225l-2257 (October1982).O 1982SPE.
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rm Drive with Ancillary Crude by SteamInjection," JPT 692-698(June 1969).
Pr-oec,J. F. and DuenrsrN, J. H., "Two SuccessfulSteam/FoamField Tests,Sections15A
Oil RecoveryMethod," and 26C, Midway-SunsetField," SPE 13609,California Regional Meeting, Bakersfield
(March 27-29, t985).
;h," SPE t0746 (1982). PnArs, M., "Thermal Recovery," SPE Monograph Volume Z SPE, Dallas (1982).
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vocer, J.v., "Simplified Heat calculations for Steamfloods,"Ipr, lr27-L136 (July 19g4).
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The E
of He
INTRODUCTION
The material l
by which heari
steamzonewt
the chambera
It was al
specifiedrates
low fracture p
reservoir b.v-st
volve reservci
The heat
only part of ti
the displacem
by which this r
FACTORSAFFECTT
There are mal

displacedfron
PROPSTI
Permeat
Fracturin
situatiqr
injection
r l - - 1 1 3 6( J u l y1 9 8 4 ) .
Cali fornia," "/PT,899-
. and PowEns,L.W.,
6.sl-690(July 1961).
; r t . 1 9 7 7 .O 1 9 7 7S p E .
rrrn in Porous Media,"
rtlon Yields with Basic

PE.
The Displqcemenf
of Hedvy Oil
INTRODUCTION
i The materialpresentedin the previouschaptersis concernedwith the mechanism

by which heatis transferredin the reservoirand it concentrates upon the sizeof the
steamzonewhich is formed.It was assumedthat the heatedoil was displacedfrom
the chamberand that mostof it found its way in somemannerto productionwells.
It was also assumedthat it was possibleto inject fluids into the reservoirat
specifiedratesand pressures. In actualpractice,injectionat appreciable ratesat be-
low fracture pressuremay not even be possiblewithout previousheating of the
reservoirby steamstimulationor otherwise.Frequentlysteamstimulationmay in-
volve reservoirexpansionby fracturing.
The heatbalanceand heattransferconsiderations of the previouschaptersare
only part of the problem.In this chapterconsiderationis given to the problemof
the displacement of oil by water,by hot water and by steamand to the mechanisms
by which this displacement occurs.
FACTORSAFFECTINGDISPLACEMENT
There are many factorswhich influence the efficiency and rate at which oil may be
displacedfrom the reservoirby water and steam.The most importantof theseare:
PROPERTIES
OF THE RESERVOIR
MATRIX
Permeability,wetting, homogeneity,capillarity
Fracturing-either natural or, more importantly, in many thermal recovery
situations, fracturing or reservoir expansioncreated by high pressurefluid
iniection
rflooding Chap. 4
179
DISPLACEDFLUID PROPERTIES
Particularlyviscosity
DISPLACINGFLUID PROPERTIES
Viscosity
Tendencyto changephase(both condensationand evaporation)
Potential to transfer heat
CONDITIONSAND GEOMETRY
Flood velocity (injection & production rates)
Geometricparameterssuchas dip, spacingand pattern
DISPLACEMENT
CONCEPTS
Piston Displacement
This is an idealconceptin which the displacingfluid flows throughthe reservoirin

a directionwhich is normal to the front and movesreservoirfluids to the produc-
tion well at an equalrate. The conceptis that of "pushing" the oil by the injected
fluid.
Breakthrough
The arrival of the displacingfluid at the productionwell is termedbreakthrough.

For pistondisplacement, this is the end of the process.However,in reality,further
oil in admixture with the displacingfluid is often producedlong after break-
through.with very heavyoils nearly all the productionfrom waterfloodingopera- ment carried
tions containsa preponderance of water and may be consideredto occur following two closelr 1
breakthrough. Provide a tT c
In stean
Override stable and adr
However. the
When steamis injected,it tendsto rise and advancealongthe top of the reservoir.
displaced.
Thus the interfacebetweenthe steamand reservoirliquids becomesinclined, and
steamwill arrive at the productionwell before the reservoiris completelyswept.
This effect reducesthe vertical conformanceand tendsto wastesteamby bypass- THE THEORETICAL
ing. The "short circuit" of the steamto the productionwell reducesthe pressure
gradientavailableto move the oil. In the sectitx
oped from thr
Frontal Stability
1. Displac
Under someconditions,particularlywhen a viscousoil is displacedby pushingit p l a c i n eI
with a fluid of lower viscosity(e.g.,heavyoil with water),the front betweenthe p l a c e d .r
fluids becomesunstable,and fingersof the low viscositymaterialpenetrateinto the is knon I
fluid being displaced.There are a numberof factorsthat affect frontal stability: s t a bIii t r
the viscositiesof the fluids, the direction of displacementrelative to gravity,ve- 2. The Buc
Iocity,condensation of steamand imbibitionof water.Figure5.1showsfingersthat bilitr lh
developedduringthe displacement of a viscousoil with waterin a laboratoryexperi- change
180 The Displacement

of HeavyOil Chap.5 The Theoretic
oration)
ough the reservoirin

fluids to the produc-
re oil by the injected
Figure 5.1 ViscousFingering.Photo-
graphsShowingthe Developmentof
ViscousFingersResultingfrom the
Displacementof Oil by Water in a Hele
ermedbreakthrough.
ShawCell. Velocity is 1.8Times the
er. in reality,further Critical One (from Chuokeet al. 1959)
:d long after break-
*aterfloodingopera- ment carried out in a glassHele Shaw cell. A Hele Shaw cell is constructedfrom
:d to occur following two closelyspacedglassplateswith the fluids in between.It has been used to
provide a two-dimensionalmodel of flow within a poroussolid.
In steamflooding,the interface at which the steam condensesis frequently
stableand advancesregularly-particularly if the advancedirection is downwards.
However, the condensatethat is formed flows as fingers through the oil being
top of the reservoir. displaced.
rcomesinclined,and
is completelyswept.
ste steamby bypass- THE THEORETICALAPPROACHESTO DISPLACEMENT
reducesthe pressure
In the sectionsthat follow, the theory of the mechanismof displacementis devel-
oped from three different points of view:
1. Displacementassumingthe existenceof a sharp interface between the dis-

placedby pushingit placingfluid (e.g.,water) and the oil. As the water advances,the oil is dis-
rc front betweenthe placed,and it is assumedthat there is no minglingof the oil and water.This
ial penetrateinto the is known as Muskatb model. Its main use here is to developconceptson the
lect frontal stability: stability of advanCingtGplacementfronts (interfaces).
lative to gravity,ve- 2. The Buckley-Leveretttheory. In this theory, allowanceis made for the possi-
.l showsfingersthat bility that there can be an interminglingof oil and displacingfluid, which
r a laboratoryexperi- changesthe front of the Muskat model to an advancinginterfacial regionwith
FteavyOil Chap.5 The TheoreticalApproachesto Displacement 181

a thicknessthat increasesas the processproceeds.This interminglingcan
alsobe accompaniedby larger-scale fingering.
3. A heavyoil displacementconceptthat combinessomeof the characteristicsof
both (1) and (2).In this concept,it is assumedthat the flow of the displacing
fluid occurs as numerousfingers. [t is assumedthat at any sectionin the reser-
voir, the flowing fluid in someporesconsistsentirelyof oil and that in others
it is entirely water or steam.This assumptionis sometimesknown asstratified
flow.It is also relatedto the capillarydisplacement theory of C.W. Nutt.
Finally, the one-dimensional displacement of oil by steamis considered.This
is a coupledprocess.Within the steamchamberthereis an isothermaldisplacement
of oil by steam.Beyondthe steamchamber,the oil and water that have left the Perte
steamchamberflow through the reservoir.In this region,there is also somedis-
placementof oil by the flowing water.Betweenthesetwo regionslies the advancing
condensation interface,the positionof which is determinedlargelyby heatbalance
considerations. i . e . ,i f
FLOOD INTERFACESTABILITY_MUSKAT'S MODEL
In this sectionthe problemof the stabilityof the front betweenthe displacingand Usuallvcq
displacedfluid is analyzedusing the assumptionsknown as the Muskat model ity within p
(Muskat 1937).It is assumedthat one fluid (usuallyoil) is displacedby the other, is occurriq
and the residualfluids are ignored.On one side of the moving interface,only the sumedthat
displacedfluid is assumedto move and on the other, only the displacingfluid. If this
Darcy's Law and Interfacial Stability
Considerthe inclined reservoirshownin Figure 5.2. Phase1 is displacingphase2.

The flow is assumedto be one-dimensional Converselv
and inclined at an angle0 to the hori-
zontal. It is assumedthat only phase 1 flows behind the front and only phase 2 are unfar'ff
flows beyondit.
Darcy'slaw may be written for eachphaseas1
(#), =-
VtP"t
k
-Pr$slnd (s.1) In betq'een
in stabilitl
(#), = -
Vzpz
k,
-
P29sna
ing terms.
The tr
zontalor if
If a smallpenetrationsuchas that shownformsby somerandomperturbation,then stabilitfis c
it cangrow forward if the absolutepressuregradientwithin phase1 is lessthan that p2 sin 0-i-r
within phase2. with this condition true, the pressureat the end of the protuber-
ance can overwhelmthe pressurein phase2. This condition may be written as
equation5.2.
tln
equations5.1 the velocity 4 is equal to the volumetric fluid flow divided by the cross-
sectionalarea for flow, i.e., qlA. lt Is equal to the averagevelocity within the poresof the matrix
multipliedby the porosity,d.
The Displacement
of HeavyOil Chap.5 Flood Interfa
his interminglingcan
i the characteristics of
f [o*' of the displacing
rr sectionin the reser-
'oil and that
in others
es known asstratified
orr of C.W. Nutt.
rm is considered.This Figure5.2 One-DimensionalFlooding
with an Incipient Finger
xhermaldisplacement
ter that have left the Penetrationcan occur if
hereis also somedis-
ons liesthe advancing
rrgelyby heatbalance
-(#),--(#),
i . e . ,i f
Vtut Vu,
p ) ss i n 0 < 0 (s.2)
t-t*br-
:en the displacingand Usuallyconservationwill requirethat the velocityin phase1 be equalto the veloc-
ns the Muskat model ity within phase2. This will not be the caseif a phasechangesuchascondensation
isplacedby the other, is occurring at the interface.We considerthis caselater. For the presentit is as-
nE interface,only the sumedthaLV: lrin equation5.2.
Ledisplacing If this is the case,then it is apparentthat the flow will be stableif
fluid.
and p1sing > p2 sin0 (s.3)

t, f,
is displacing
phase2.
Conversely,the flow is alwaysunstableif both the viscosityand the gravity terms
n angle0 to the hori-
are unfavorable,i.e., if,
Lrntand only phase2
a n d p 1s i n 0 < p 2 s i n I (s.4)
t.f
In betweentheseconditionsthere are combinationsof conditionsthat can result
(s.1) in stabilityor instabilitydependingupon the relativemagnitudeof the counteract-
ing terms.
The term involving gravity in Equation5.2 will be zero if the flow is hori-
zontalor if the densitiesof the two phasesare equal.In this casethe conditionfor
-rmperturbation,then stabilityis determinedby the mobility ratio, as given in equation5.5. If pr sin 0 :
rase1 is lessthan that p 2 s i n ? - i . e . , i f p r : p z o r 0 : 0 , t h e nt h e f l o w i s s t a b l e
if
end of the protuber- Itr t llt
)n may be written as i___: > :___: (s.5)
kt kz
l,r* divided by the cross-

:r the pores of the matrix
M o b i l ri tayt i =
o U =ffi. t
r HeavyOil Chap.5 Flood InterfaceStability-Muskat's Model 183

If M is lessthan l-as, for example,when the oil viscosityis low comparedto that
of the flooding material-then the front is stable.Equation5.5 is quotedvery com-
monly in the literature.
Even if the viscosity ratio term is unfavorable,it can be overcomeby a favor-
able gravity term, provided that the flooding velocity is sufficiently low. The grav-
ity term tendsto stabilizethe flow if the denseststreamis belowthe other-e.g., if
light gasis displacingdenseoil downwardor water is displacinga lighter oil upward.
The gravity term can stabilizethe effect of an unfavorablemobility ratio if
- Pz)gsin o
y .(Pt (5.6)
l-tz _ l.t't
kz k'
Similarly,a favorablemobility ratio can stabilizea flood havinga destabilizinggrav-
ity term if the flooding velocity is high enoughto overcomethe gravity effect,
i . e . ,i f
P)gsin0 (s.7)
I
V >V--hr- t
Itt _ ltz T
kt kz \
As will be shown later, the Buckley-Leverett effects tend to improve the sta-
bility; it is shown on page 209 thal the condition for stability for a horizontal system Figurt 5
w a sE i t t
then becomes
k,of k,.f
-
M,=t*<1 The effec
Kfu modelsby Chu
Po
(1958).Models
spacedglasspl
M, is lessthan L for stabledisplacement. This can be visualizedby sayingthat the
dimensionsof t
flooding fluid is not reallyjust waterbut a mixture of water and oil, which behaves permeabilityol
asif it hasa muchhigherviscosity.This advantageis reallylargelyillusionary,how- tween the plat
ever, because,as will be seen,the Buckley-Leverettmechanismcan leave vast Figure5-
quantitiesof oil behind the front when the oil is very viscous. instability.
Effect of Interfacial Tension A Simple Tha
There are other stabilizing effects that tend to reduce viscous fingering. One of Figure5.5 rep
theseis the effect of interfacialtension;this tends to stabilizebecauseit acts to tion,whichis a
shortenthe interface. is a similar ne
This stabilizingeffect is the largestfor smallfingersbecausethe pressuregra- than other*-is
dient acrossan interface is inverselyproportional to the radius of curvature. As a tendsto oppc
result,very smallperturbationstend to shrink; with the right conditions,largerones If the increrna
can grow.
Fingeringcan be initiated by fluctuationscausedby nonuniformitiesin the 2It
can be r
reservoirmatrix; then those fingers that are larger than the critical dimension 2olR by balancrn
can grow. ing it togetherak
184 of HeavyOil
The Displacement Chap.5 Flood Interface
compared to that
l\ quoted very com-
vercome by a favor-
:ntlv low. The grav-
* the other-e.g., if
a Iighter oil upward.
e mobility ratio if
(s.6)
a destabilizing
grav-
the gravity effect,
(s.7)
I0 lmprove the sta-

a horizontal system Figure 5.3 Hele-ShawModel Apparatus.The Cell Could be Adjustedso That it
was Either Vertical or Horizontal (from Saffmanand Tavlor 1958)
The effect of interfacial tensionhas been studied in Hele-Shawlaboratory

modelsby Chuoke,van Meurs,and van der Poel(1959)and by Saffmanand Taylor
(1958).Models such as that shown in Figure 5.3 consistof two parallel, closely
spacedglassplates.The equationsof motion for a singlefluid flowing in the two
I br, sayingthat the
dimensionsof sucha model are the sameas in a homogeneous poroussolid with a
I oil. whichbehaves
permeabilityof b2ll2 in two dimensions,whereb is the distanceof separationbe-
rlv illusionary,how-
tween the plates.The permeabilityis zero in the third dimension.
ism can leave vast
Figure5.4 showsthe interfacein sucha modelin an experimentthat exhibits
instability.
A Simple Theory for Stabilization by Interfacial Tension
i fingering.One of
Figure5.5 represents an interfacewithin a poroussolid at a point wherea penetra-
: becauseit acts to
tion, which is assumedto be hemisphericaland of radiusR, hasformed.Also shown
is a similar negativepenetration.The pressurewithin the protuberanceis higher
>ethe pressuregra-
than otherwisebecauseof the tensionwithin the interface.This excesspressure
of curvature.As a
tendsto opposethe growth of both positiveand negativeinterfacialprotuberances.
rditions,Iargerones
If the incrementalpressuredue to interfacial tension is of the order2of 2o/R, then
uniformitiesin the 2It can be shown
that the excesspressurewithin a bubbleor droplet of radiusR is equal to
critical dimension
2olR by balancingthe pressureforce on a midplaneof the bubbleA,P(trR'?)to the tensilestresshold-
ing it togetheralongthe perimeterof the midplane o(2r.R).
teavyOil Chap.5 Flood InterfaceStability-Muskat's Model 185

and
Figure 5.4 Photographof ProgressiveFingering in Hele-ShawModel. Air is Displacing
Glycerine Downwardsat a Velocity Greater Than the Critical One (from Saffman and
Taylor 1958) In addition u
wavelengthol
the incrementalpressuregradientnecessaryto make it grow is approximately2olR2
pitch of repee
(equation5.8).
lent waveleng
dP -dP
)- 2o An irryt
(5.8) the dimensiq
dLt dLt R'
a critical pertr
Obtainingthe pressuregradientterms from 5.1 and substitutingin 5.8 gives,with they might u
somerearrangement, the minimum radiusR of the protuberance which will be able flooding resd
to grow (equation5.9). The critical wavelength,\" (looking on the two adjacent Chuokc
hemispheresas a wave) is about 4R. The condition that the protuberancesshould porous soli&-
grow is thus surface tensit
11t2 propertiesau
4R>41 2o
r\. =
,E-t). -l I
lows the rep
='l
( P , - p 1 ) gs i n d l terfacialarea
J This ide
2o II U2 ger tends to I
-l
(s.e)
E-t),- )l
I rounding rese
V, water by imtf
the absolute1
A more accurateand sophisticatedanalysisof this problem was publishedby into it.
Chuoke,van Meurs,and van der Poel(1959)with the resultgivenby equation5.10. If o'isl
This is the sameas5.9 exceptfor the constant2z', which replaces4V2. Essentially then equatic
the sameequationwas publishedby Saffmanand Taylor (1958).
U2
I,=2*l -n:l
(s.10)
LE-fi)rv ,J Chuokeassus
tension and u
186 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Floodlnterfae

HemisphericolPerturbotion
ExcessPressure: 20 /R
Excesspressuregrodient
required= 20 /R2
Figure 5.5
and
Lrdel.Air is Displacing
Ine rfrom Saffmanand )r- = trr{i
In addition to the critical wavelengthfor finger growth, Chuoke calculatedthe
wavelengthof "maximum instability,"A-. This is the perturbationwavelength(the
is approximately
2olR2 pitch of repeatedfingers),which will grow at the fastestrate;it shouldbe the preva-
lent wavelength.It is shownwith equation5.10.
An importantconceptin this theoryis that for fingeringof this type to occur,
(s.8) the dimensionsof the reservoirmustbe substantiallylargerthan the wavelengthof
a critical perturbation.For example,while largefingerscan grow in field reservoirs,
uting in 5.8 gives,with they might not be possiblein laboratory-scale equipment.As a result, laboratory
ancewhich will be able flooding resultsmay lead to optimistic predictions.
rg on the two adjacent Chuokeet al. extendedthe ideajust describedto representinterfaceswithin
e protuberances should poroussolids.To do this, they substituteda*, which they defined as the effective
surfacetension,for o. The effective surfacetensiono* dependson the capillary
-t 1','.', propertiesand wetting of the matrix aswell ason the interfacialtension.Its useal-
lows the representationof the idea that when a protuberanceforms, much new in-
inal terfacialareais created,particularlyif the matrix is wettedby the displacingfluid.
This ideais relatedto the conceptof imbibition.When a protrudingwaterfin-
ger tends to form, the water within it is drawn away by imbibition into the sur-
(s.e) roundingreservoirif this is waterwet and at the irreduciblesaturation.Removalof
water by imbibition tends to reduce the rate of growth of the finger by increasing
the absolutepressuredifferential required to transfer the increasedflow of water
rlem was publishedby into it.
eivenby equation5.10. If o* is assumedproportionalto o and kr and kz are assumedto be equalto k,
places4f2. Essentially then equation5.10becomes
958).
^.=rl o*k \ (s.11)
(s.10) 0r, - pr)(V - ,r]
Chuokeassumedthat the effectivesurfacetensionis proportionalto the interfacial
tension and used equation5.11to predict the most probableperturbationwave-
of HeavyOil Chap.5 Flood lnterfaceStability-Muskat's Model

length. In this equation C is a constant (Chuoke'sconstant)for a particular reser-
voir material that includessomeof the precedingnumerical constantsas well as a
proportionality constantfor the relationship between the effective interfacial ten- s
sion and the actual surface tension.
This ideawas studiedfurther by Petersand Flock at the University of Alberta I
(1981).Valuesof C taken from the literature are given in Table 5.1. They show the
large effect that the wettability of the matrix has upon stability. The displacement than that in O
of oil by water is stabilizedconsiderablyby the imbibition effect if the reservoir is tion. This td
water-wet. dient within tl
The ratb
TABLE 5.1 Valuesof C, Chuoke'sConstant
combininga r
Oil-wet Water-wet
MATnlI
Petersand Flock (1981) 25.4 190.5
Chuoke 30 200
HEATBI|..
When an automobileis driven in the rain, there is a very noticeabletendencyfor
water to stream down the windshield if it is dirty (non-water-wetted),whereasthe PtV
waterwill run in continuouscurtainsif the windshieldis cleanand water-wet.This
effect is approximatelyanalogousto that just described.
Effect of Condensationupon Interfacial Stability Equation5.1'lr
to that of thc r
Equation5.12is the conditionfor stabilitythat was developedearlier.
lap\
-l-l <
lap\
-l-l V-
\dLl, \dLl, n 6p,0-,
or In the precedi
the total area-
(s.r2) a factor of U)
T-T-b,-p)ssino<o
For prd
Consider a one-dimensionalflood in which steamis introduced into a cold-water-
residualwater
saturatedreservoir.This is shown in Figure 5.6. It is assumedthat there are no
for the steam.I
transverseheat lossesand that the water saturationin the steam-sweptzone is con-
stant and equal to S,i. Although the diagramshowsthe reservoir as being horizon-
tal, this is not necessarilyso.
Steampassesthrough the steamzone and condensesat the interface. The la- Steam press
tent and sensibleheat raise more of the reservoirto the steam-saturationtempera- Steam teryc
ture, and the condensatejoins the water alreadypresentand is pushedforward by Steamentbd
Steam deasil
the steam.We will considerthe stability of the interface.As was discussedin
Hot-wat€rcl
Chapter3, the temperaturefalls quickly from 75to Ta at the condensationfront if it
Hot-watete
is assumedthat there are no lateral heat losses,that the flow velocity is uniform Reservoirta
acrossthe section, that the temperatureof the solid is equal to the fluid tempera- Cold-waterC
ture at eachpoint, and if thermal conductionis ignored. Rock heat cr
From what has gonebefore one might suspectthat the interfacewould tend to Rock densiq
be unstablebecausethe steamis much lessviscousthan the water. However there is Porosity
another very important factor: the velocity within the steamzone is much higher Irreduciblc r
The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5

Flood Interface
icrra particular reser-
constants aswell as a
ectir,einterfacialten-
Universityof Alberta Figure 5.6 Advancing Condensation

le 5.1.They showthe Front
iti. The displacement than that in the waterzonebecauseof the shrinkagethat occursduring condensa-
rectif the reservoiris tion. This tendsto stabilizethe processby requiringa higherabsolutepressuregra-
dient within the steamzone.
The ratio of the velocityof the water to that of the steammay be obtainedby
combininga materialbalance(5.13)with a heat balance(5.14).
Water-wet
MATERIALBALANCE
190.5
200 p z V z= p r q * 6 V $ - S , ) ( p z - p ) (s.13)
,ticeabletendencyfor HEATBALANCE ABOVE T,

-*'etted),whereasthe p'h(Ht - hz) Vl( - 6)p,C,(T'- Tr) + dp,S,r(hr - hz)
=
t and water-wet.This + 6pr( - S,i)(H' - hr)l
(s.14)
Equation5.14maybe rearrangedto providethe ratio of the velocityof the interface
I earlier. to that of the steam,namely,
V Pr(Hr - hz)
(5.14a)
n 6 p t $ - S , r ) ( H-r h t + 6 p . 5 . , ( h -t h r ) + ( r - 6 ) p , C , ( T t - T )
In the preceding,the fluid velocitiesare definedasthe volumetricflows dividedby
the total area.The actualaveragefluid velocitieswithin the poreswill be largerby
(s.12) a factor of 1,/6.
For practicalcases,the terms involving the heat capacitiesof the rock and
ed into a cold-water-
residualwater in the denominatorof equation5.14awill be much largerthan that
ed that there are no
for the steam.For example,considerthe followingassumedtypical numericaldata:
.m-sweptzoneis con-
;oir as beinghorizon-
rhe interface.The la- Steampressure 515psia (3.ssMPa)

r-saturationtempera- Steamtemperature r1 470"F (243'C\
is pushedforward by Steamenthalpy Hr 1205Btu/lb (2803kVke)
As was discussedin Steamdensity Pr 1.11lbft3 (17.8kglm3)
rndensationfront if it Hot-waterenthalpy hr 453 Btu/lb (10sakVkg)
* r'elocityis uniform Hot-waterdensity p" 50 lbft3 (801kg/m3)
Reservoirtemperature T^ 50'F (10"c)
to the fluid tempera-
Cold-waterenthalpy h2 18 Btu/lb $2 kl/ke)
Rock heat capacity C, 0.23 Btu/lb "F (0.e6kVke'C)
terfacewouldtendto Rock density p,
'1.65
lblft3 (2643kglm3)
Iter.Howeverthereis Porosity 0 0.3
zone is much higher Irreduciblewater saturation S,; 0.25
HeavyOil Chap.5
Flood InterfaceStability-Muskat's Model 189
Then, by substitution, quired to supply
rate in the $eaD
V 1318
= 0.1007 sult in additiooe
n 296+1631,+11157 In a nurobt
The ratio of the interfacevelocityto the actualsteamvelocitywithin the poresis, tory by Baker t l!
for this example,given by condensation iil
In steamfL
4 , - Su)= 0.1007
tu6{t x 0.3x 0.75= 0'0227 or downwards. i.
from the steam I
it. The condens
The ratio Vz/Vt canbe calculatedby rearrangingequation5.13to give
Vz pt,V6$ - 5.,)(p, - pt)
f- (s.1s) Miller's Terrprr
VrPzn Pz
Another mecha
This ratio can be substitutedinto equation5.2 to give the conditionfor stability.If (1977)that tenG
it is assumedthat kt : kz : /c,then equation5.2 canbe rearrangedto give the fol-
showsa steamo
lowing condition for stability.
There is a t
k(pt - p)g sin 0 the heat transfe
ffi"* Vtp.,
(s.16)
elsewherealong
with the resultt
The gravityterm on the right-handsideof equation5.16can eitherhelp stabi- flow to P will tc
lize or destabilizethe front dependingon whetherthe steamis flowing from above "push" available
or from below. As in the d
The left-hand side of equation5.16has been computedfor the conditions ent from Figure
given in the previous examplefor a number of assumedsteamtemperatureswith more than it *il
the resultsshownin Table5.2. mentswill stro*
the field. Also. b
TABLE 5.2 Valuesof Stability Factorfor AdiabaticDisplacementof Water by Steam stability.An exu
Steampressure(psia) 100 400 700 1000 1300 1600
n ('F) 328 445 503 545 578 605
PrlPz I t.J 7.0 5.7 5.0 4.5 3.9
Region1
Vzrtzlhl-tt 0.12 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.42 0.45
Steam
The valuesof the factor are lessthan unity, althoughthey tend to increase
with temperature.This meansthat unlessthe gravity term in 5.16is quite unfavor-
able,the heating/displacement flood shouldbe stable.The shrinkagethat occurs
during the condensationof steamis thus ableto stabilizethe steam-waterinterface.
In evaluatingthe left-hand side of equation5.16,the viscosityof water at steam
temperaturerather than the much higher value at reservoir temperaturehas been
usedfor p.2.The logic behind this is that right at the front, the water is in equi-
librium with the steamand is at the sametemperature.For a protuberanceto grow
as depictedin Figure 5.2, it is necessaryfor the pressuregradientin the steamto
overcomethat in the water right at the interface. If sucha protuberancedoesstart,
there is an additionalstabilizinginfluencebecauseof the higher steamvelocityre- Directionof frm
190 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 FloodlnterfaceS

quired to supplythe heat lossfrom the growingprotuberance. This additionalflow
rate in the steamsidewill requirean additionalpressuregradient,and this will re-
sult in additionalstabilization,as is discussedin the next section.
In a number of simple steamwaterfloods that were carried out in the labora-
i within the pores is, tory by Baker (1973)in a three-dimensional reservoirmodel,it was found that the
condensationinterface was indeed stable.
In steamfloods,the condensation front is usuallystableif the flow is sideways
27 or downwards,i.e., if gravity tendsto stabilizethe front. However,the condensate
from the steamruns through the oil which is beingdisplacedand is producedwith
3 to give it. The condensation interfaceis.stable,but the water-oilinterfaceis usuallynot.
(s.1s) Miller's TemperatureGradient Stabilization

Another mechanismhas been describedby Miller (1975)and Armento and Miller
dition for stability.If
(1977)that tendsto stabilizesteamfronts.This is depictedin Figure5.7.The figure
angedto give the fol-
showsa steamcondensationfront in which a perturbation has formed at P.
There is a sharptemperaturegradientat the front and,becauseP is indented,
the heat transfer from it to the neighboringreservoirwill be at a greaterrate than
(s.16) elsewherealongthe front. This resultsin increasedflow at P abovethe interface,
with the result that the finger will tend to fill up with water.Also, the increased
can eitherhelp stabi- flow to P will tend to increasethe local pressuredrop and reduce the amount of
s flowing from above "push" availableat P.
As in the discussionof the stabilizingeffectof interfacialtension,it is appar-
:d for the conditions ent from Figure 5.7 that the heat-transporteffect will tend to stabilizesmall fingers
,m temperatures with more than it will largeones.Again, there is the possibilitythat laboratoryexperi-
mentswill show stabledisplacements,which may not be found on a larger scalein
the field. Also, heterogeneitiesin the field tend to promotefingering and frontal in-
r by Steam stability.An extremecaseof this is the flow of steamalongeither a naturalor arti-
1300 1600
578 605
4.5 3.9
Region1 Region2
0.42 0.45
Steam Water
they tend to increase /

/."
s
5.16is quite unfavor-
;hrinkagethat occurs
;team-water interface.
ity of water at steam WavyFront
temperaturehas been
the water is in equi-
protuberanceto grow
rdientin the steamto Figure 5.7 IncreasedHeat Loss from
otuberance doesstart, Frontal Indentation(Armento and
thersteamvelocity re- Directionof front motion ---------+ Miller 1977)
f HeavyOil Chap.5 FloodInterfaceStability-Muskat's

Model 191
ficial fracture.In this situationthecondensationinterfacecan advance,eventhough \leasur
vastquantitiesof heat are transferred through the walls of the fracture. ering a *'i&
Figure5.9-
The p*
DARCY'SLAW FORTWO.PHASE FLOW cludesdatati
excludes thc
If two or more separatephasesflow simultaneouslythrough a poroussolid, then ing),the rch
the flow of eachphaseis lessthan that which would be producedby the samepres- The nd
suregradientif it were the only phasepresent.The individual fluids competewith reservoirrn|
eachother as they flow throughthe mediumand impedeeachother'sprogress.Al- its saturatio
lowanceis madefor this by introducingnew variables,relativepermeabilities,into ure 5.10.
Darcy'sequation.Theseempiricalcorrectionfactorsare obtainedfor anyparticular The cu
porousmediumby experiment. They do nu r
For two-phaseflow, Darcy'slaw is modifiedby the introductionof the relative eral shapeto
permeabilitycoefficientsk,oand k,,. Equations5.17and 5.18are the Darcy equa- dated sands
tions for the flow rate of oil, qo,and water,e., for one-dimensional flow in a bed algebraiceqr
of cross-sectionalareaA that is inclined at an angle 0 to the horizontal (seeFig- The rel
ure 5.8).If sin 0 and the flow are both positive,then the flow is uphill. In general, tion .S*,and t
the pressurein the oil phase,P,, is not the sameas the pressurein the waterphase, rock is water
P,, becauseof the effectof capillarypressureP".The effectivepermeabilityfor each forces.Whil
phaseis equalto the absolutepermeabilityk multipliedby the relativepermeability pocketsare r
k,o or k,.. The re*
water but fall
Qo= -*#(* + a,ssine) (s.r7) system,the r
saturation.a
was flooded
For the
e*= -.#(*. n,s'ine) (s.18) dependentre
mericalexan
Relative PermeabilityCurves
The advantageof the relativepermeabilityconceptas a meansfor allowingfor the THE FRACTIONALI

effect of the competitive flow of immiscible fluids in porous solids is that in many For what foll
practicalsituations,it is found that the relativepermeabilityvaluesare, to a first ties(5.17and
approximationat least,functionsof the fluid saturations(i.e., the volumefractions
of the individualfluids presentin the pore space)alone.In mostsituations,relative Kro
permeabilitiesare largelyindependentof flow velocityand of the fluid viscosities. 1,0
0.8
'*24
0.6 I
Figure 5.8 Darcy'sLaw for Two Phase
Fradt
Flow
192 The Displacement of Heavy Oil Chap. 5 The Fractiond

advance,even though Measurementsof the relative permeabilitiesfor binary oil-water systemscov-
re fracture. ering a wide range of oil viscosity for a particular reservoir rock are shown in
Figure 5.9.
The pioneeringpaper by Leverett, from which this figure is copied, also in-
cludesdata that showthat over a wide rangeof interfacial tension(but a rangethat
excludesthe extremelylow interfacial tensionsobtainableduring surfactantflood-
I a poroussolid, then ing), the relative permeabilitiesare essentiallyindependentof interfacial tension.
ced by the samepres- The relative permeabilitiesare monotonic functions of the saturationof the
rl fluids competewith reservoirmaterial; i.e., the relative permeabilityof either phase increaseswith
h other'sprogress.Al- its saturation.Often the curves are qualitatively of the generalshapeshown in Fig-
re permeabilities,into ure 5.10.
ned for any particular The curves in this figure are used in the illustrative examplesthat follow.
They do not representany particular reservoirsituation, but they are similar in gen-
ductionof the relative eral shapeto curvesfor the flow of conventionaloils through water-wet,unconsoli-
I are the Darcy equa- dated sands. The particular curves shown correspond to the simple, arbitrary,
nsionalflow in a bed algebraicequationsin the figure.
e horizontal (seeFig- The relative permeabilitycurve for water starts at an irreduciblewater satura-
u is uphill. In general, tion Su and risesto L at S, = 1..[t is tangentto the x axis.This is commonwhenthe
re in the waterphase, rock is water-wet.At S,i the irreduciblewater is held in place by interfacial tension
permeabilityfor each forces. While the water phase is still continuous,the connectionsbetween water
r relativepermeability pocketsare vanishinglythin in places.
The relative permeabilitycurve for oil is generallysimilar in shapeto that for
water but falls rather more sharply to the residualoil saturationSo. In a water-wet
(s.17) system,the residual oil saturation is not as well defined as the irreducible water
saturation,and its value may be more dependentupon the history of how the core
was flooded.
For the purposesof this analysisit is assumedthat definite,simple,saturation-
(s.18) dependentrelative permeability curves exist and that, for the purpose of the nu-
merical examplesdevelopedlater, they may be representedas in Figure 5.10.
rs for allowing for the THE FRACTIONALFLOW EOUATION

solids is that in many
For what follows, it is useful to use the equationsdefining the relative permeabili-
r valuesare, to a first
ties (5.17and 5.18)to derivean equationthat relatesthe compositionof the flowing
, the volume fractions
ost situations,relative kro krw
f the fluid viscosities. 1.0
atler Leveretl 1939
0.8
0.6
o.4
o.2 Figure 5.9 Effect of Water Saturation

on the RelativePermeabilityto Oil
J..-.-J-J...IS-J 0t (left) and to Water (right) for a Particu-
Darcy'sLaw for Two Phase 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1,0 lar Core with a Wide Rangeof Oil to
FractionalWater SaturationS* Water Viscosity Ratios
f Heavy Oil Chap. 5 The FractionalFlow Equation 193

This equatim
kro
,
*,o =(t-t*)t-'93, tional f lo,r:
l. The rari
=
lt
t
-*=ft9"{*,. 2. The dcp
IE 3. The effo
c) '*'ith nd
E S w i= 0 . 2 ;S o r = 0 . 1
b
o-
o.s gravitvb
o desiraH
4. The effo
g br' * ritil
q)
E S*i 1' -q,
-or equatim
I term aP
t I mono{oo
'l Figure 5
0.5 '
Figure5.10 HypotheticalRelative core hav
WaterSaturation PermeabilityCurves
Iarr-terd
streamto the saturationin the matrix. We will derivean equationto determinethe be drart
fractionof water/, in the flowing streamasa functionof the water saturationS, in
the matrix.3The choiceof waterfractionand saturationratherthan oil fractionand
saturationis arbitrary; the correspondingoil fraction and saturationcan be ob-
tained readilyfrom the water fraction and saturation.
For the presc
We write the oil flow as the differencebetweenthe total flow and the water
horizontal. 0,
flow as in equation5.19and substitutein 5.17to give 5.20.
that the cafll
Qo=Qt-Q* (s.1e) vicinity of thc
the saturatim
++ -Q,*-!'= -n(e
' -\ + p,gsine) (s.20) With th
kk,o kk,o ar I equation,5.26
Rearrangeequation5.18to give 5.27,subtractequation5.20 from equation5.21,
and, making use of the definition of the capillarypressure5.22, rearrangeto give
equation5.23.
6
-"(* + p,gsino) (s.2r)
Tf:: o
:
a
P,=Po-P.; Ap=p.-po (s.22) y,. 5
n,(#,.ffi) =#* n(u-e-

anssin
o) (s.23) =o
G
Equation5.23 maybe rearrangedto give the generalfractionalflow equation5.24. o
0
+^ -q: *-
'.T#(#- o*"^') (s.24)
0
-l wa ,-
t*x k,o
trro
oEquatim
andP,=P.=P
rThis derivationfollows that of Dake (1978). which can be mr
194 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 The Fractiorg

This equationcontainswithin it the effects of four different factors upon the frac-
tional flow:
1. The ratio of the viscositiesof the two fluids.
2. The dependenceof the relative permeabilitiesupon saturation.
3. The effect of gravity. For upward displacement(asin Figure 5.1)of a light oil
with water, Ap is positive; since sin 0 is also positive, the term containing
gravity has the effect of decreasingthe water fractional flow. This is usually a
desirableeffect.
4. The effect of the capillary pressureterm. The effect of this term can be seen
by writing it asin Equation5.25.Both of the factorson the right-handsideof
equation5.25 arc negativefor water displacingoil in a water-wetsystem.The
term dP"/dS, is negativebecause,for water-wetsystems,capillary pressureis
monotonicwith P" decreasing with increasingS,; a typical curve is shownin
Figure 5.11.The term dS,/d, is negativewhen water is displacingoil from a
uheticalRelative core having a high initial oil saturation.It follows that the effect of the capil-
/es
lary term, in this case,will be to increasethe water flow-i.e., water tendsto
n to determine the be drawn aheadinto the oil-rich zone by capillary attraction.
:er saturation S, in
oP, oP, dS,
an oil fraction and and areboth -ve (s.2s)
ration can be ob- 0x AS- 0x' # *
For the presentwe will assumethat the gravity term is zero (either the systemis
low and the water
horizontal,0 : 0, or the two phaseshave the samedensity,Ap : 0) and assume
that the capillarypressureterm can be neglected.Except right in the immediate
(s.1e) vicinity of the front, this is often a reasonableassumption,since the magnitude of
the saturationgradient is small.
(s.20) With these assumptionsathe fractional flow equation 5.24 reduces to
equation5.26:
om equation5.2L,
rearrangeto glve
(s.2r)
(s.22)
(s.23)
}ow equation5.24.
50 too Figure 5.11 Typical Capillary Pressure
WaterSaturation% Curve
(s.24)) aEquation
5.26 can be derived very simply if these assumptions are made initially. If sin 0 = 0
'aP = 40Po= q"p" -- q" k*Po
a n d p o = p * : p , t h e n e q u a t i o n s 5 . 1 7 a n d 5 . 1 8 b e c o m' e - K A - 't"nt"
1"" ft* ,r"= *t""'
which can be manipulatedto give equation5.26.
lavy Oil Chap.5 The Fractional Flow Equation 195

1.5-
[-
,.t 3 (s.26)
- F
Jw
f
! 1 L-----
ft
This showsthat the fraction of water in the flowing streamis a function of the ratio Et
of the relative permeabilitiesfor the flow of the two phasesand that it is also { ooh
equally dependentupon the ratio of the viscositiesof the two phases.By inspec- EFn l -
E -t
tion, we can seethat for a particularsaturation(whichfixes the relativepermeabili- €
ties),an increasein oil viscosityincreasesthe flow of water. t
Figure 5.12showscurves of/, that are calculatedfrom the relative permeabil- -o.u
F
ity curvesof Figure 5.10for variousconstantratiosof waterviscosityto oil viscos- 0
ity. The curves demonstratethe increasingtendencyfor water to flow through the
reservoir(even at relatively low water saturationsor high oil saturations)when the
increasedin
oil is very viscous.
creasesmarl
Effect of the Gravity Term on FractionalFlow where the rt
/, is greaterI
The dimensionless gravity term in equation5.24 is written in equation5.27.Itis the positive
more significant when the difference in densitiesis higher, when the reservoir is is falling cc
steeplyinclined, when the total flow is low, and when the ratio k/p," ishigh.
Effect of Sr
^ kk,,AApg sin d (s.27) and Fractic
P=-
QtPo
The relatira
The term B is proportionalto the ratio of the gravity potentialgradientA pg sin 0 are both a r
to the viscouspotentialgradiente,p"f(kk,,A). lated to thes
High velocities(i.e.,high viscosityforces)tend to overcomethe effectof grav- and 5.18.Thi
ity. Gravity tendsto stabilizethe flood if the heavierfluid is below. For a water fluids, any i
flood wherethe water is more densethan the oil, upwarddisplacement reducesthe that-rock.
fractionalwaterflow. With gasasthe displacingfluid, the flow of gasis reducedby Onah
downwardflow. For waterfloodsof heavyoils wherethe densitiesof the two fluids could havea
are very similar and when po is very large,gravity has little effect. boring volun
Figure 5.13showsthe calculatedeffect of the gravity term on the fractional stance,the
flow curvesfor a matrix with the samerelativepermeabilitycurvesas in the previ- statisticalau
ous exampleand with a water-to-oilviscosityratio of 0.1. As the gravity term is modynami
atomicnatur
It is p<
water and d
rate streans
Such rivulet
scale.For q
areasmeasu
size.It can r
One er
above the lit
voir may co
1 Figure 5.12 Effect of Viscosity Ratio
on Fractional Water Flow
quently rnov
196
The Fractkr
The Displacement of Heavy Oil Chap. 5
(s.26)
lunctionof the ratio

and that it is also
phases.By inspec-
relative permeabili-
r relativepermeabil-
icosityto oil viscos- 0.5
Figure 5.13 Effect of Gravity Term on
Water Saturatlon Fractional Water Flow
to flow through the
,turations)when the
increasedin value, the fraction ofwater in the flow for a given rock saturationde-
creasesmarkedly. The curve for B : -5 in the diagram correspondsto a case
where the water flow is downward; there is countercurrentflow in the rangewhere
/" is greaterthan 1-i.e., the oil is rising through the falling wate;,"Similarly,with
equation5.27. It is the positivevaluesof B, there is a rangewhere/, is negative.In this region,water
hen the reservoir is is falling countercurrentlythrough a rising oil stream.
rt/p" is high.
Effect of Segregated Flow on Apparent Relative Permeability
(s.27) and Fractional Flow
The relative permeabilityconceptassumesthat at eachpoint in the reservoir,there

gradient A pg sin 0 are both a water and an oil saturationand that the flows of the two phasesare re-
lated to these saturationsby relative permeability curves and flow equations5.17
c the effect of grav- and 5.18.This conceptcannotbe true on a microscopicscale,since,with immiscible
below. For a water fluids, any infinitesimal volume must be filled with either water, oil, or-failing
Eementreducesthe that-rock.
of gasis reducedby On a larger scale,it is possibleto imaginethat a volume (of, for example,1 cc)
iesof the two fluids could have an averagecompositionessentiallythe sameas that of a similar neigh-
bct. boring volume and that the flow within it might also be similar. In this circum-
m on the fractional stance,the saturationsand flowing stream compositionmust be looked on as
rves as in the previ- statisticalaverages. This conceptis similar to our acceptanceof the intensivether-
the gravity term is modynamicfluid variablessuchas temperatureand density,which, becauseof the
atomic nature of matter, have meaningonly as statistical averages.
lt is possible-and usuallyvery likely-that somevolumescarry essentially
water and otherscarry oil, i.e., that the flow throughthe reservoirconsistsof sepa-
rate streamsor rivulets of water and oil moving beside each other but separately.
Such rivulets or fingers may be on a small scaleor they may be on a much larger
scale. For example,we might imagine individual streamshaving cross-sectional
areasmeasuredin squarefeet or very small streams,each of only a few pores in
size. [t can also happenthat the rivulets meanderand changewith time.
One exampleof large individual streamsoccurring is when steamsegregates
above the liquid streamsin a steamflood.Here the upper part of the entire reser-
voir may consist of steam moving separatelyabove oil and water, which are fre-
ifect of Viscosity Ratio
FaterFlow quently moving in the samegeneraldirection below but at different velocities.
The FractionalFlow Equation 197

{eavy Oil Chap.5
An interestingand limiting model can be developedby assumingthat within cal endpant
the cross-sectionof a reservoirin which a one-dimensional waterfloodis occurring, where the re
the porescontaineither oil at the residualoil saturationwith water flowing pastor
waterat the irreduciblewater saturationwith oil flowing past.We may alsoimagine
pores that have water flowing in at one end and displacedoil leaving at the other
(seethe discussionof C.W Nutt'scapillarybundle theory that is describedlater).
In any one pore in such a system,the saturationsare either
=
S"=S,; and So=1-S,; .ct
o
o
or E
b
o.
o.s
S, = 1 - So, and So = So, (5.28)
o
.F
The correspondingrelative permeabilitiesof water and oil for the two types of (E
pores are E
tr
k,o: klo and k,n = 0
(s.2e)
kro=0 and k,-=ki,
wherekl, is definedasthe relativepermeabilityto oil at S.; and k- is definedasthe

relative permeability to water at ^S,: 1 - S.,. ki, and ki, are often referred to as
the endpointrelativepermeabilities.
The areafraction,a, of the porescarryingwater at any particular crosssec- The ra
tion (1 - c is carrying oil) is given by equation5.1
segregatedfl
SJ _ S,, by the exam
(s.30)
1-So.-S,r
whereSi is the volume averagewater saturation.

The flows of water and oil are givenby equations5.31and 5.32if the effectof
gravity is neglected.Comparisonof theseequationswith 5.17and 5.18leadsto the At first sigh
expressions 5.33and 5.34for the apparentrelativepermeabilityof the reservoirin much lessef
segregatedflow. from the fig
As a resultc
-kk'*"A(+\ watersatun
\dxl
Q*= (s.31) differenceis
-kkL$- ^^(#)
Qo= (s.32)
Fo
'
-9
+
o;(, I
a
w
kk = ki.a =
wl
(s.33) s0
s :
a
s" - s;\ -
ki. = kL| - a) = oi.lt (s.34) e
U-s--s-/
Equations5.33 and 5.34 show that the apparentrelativepermeabilitiesare linear
functionsof saturation.They are the equationsof straightlines that join the practi-
of HeavyOil
The Displacement Chap.5 The Buckler
lssumingthat within cal endpointsof the conventionalrelative permeabilitycurves with the points
erflood is occurring, where the relative permeabilitiesbecomezero.This is shownin Figure 5.14.
rater flowing pastor
\l'e may also imagine
leavingat the other
: is describedlater).
her
=
.ct
G
()
E
b 0.5
(s.28) o.
o
'E
or the two types of
so
E
(s.2e) I
0.5 1 I
Figu..5.14 Effect of Segregated
Flow
lk* is definedasthe WaterSaturation on RelativePermeabilities
often referred to as
particular crosssec- The ratio of the two relative permeabilitiesfor stratified flow is given by
equation5.35,which is derivedby dividing 5.34by 5.33.Fractionalflow curvesfor
segregatedflow are different in shapefrom those for diffuse flow, as may be seen
(s.30) by the examplein Figure 5.15.
ktr kLlt - s,.- sj\

k:" k'*\ sJ - s,i I (s.3s)
d 5.32if the effectof
and 5.18leadsto the At first sightit would seemfrom Figure5.15that the displacement of oil by wateris
tv of the reservoirin muchlesseffectivein the systemwith segregated flow. However,it is not apparent
from the figure that the two fractionalflow curvescrossat high water saturation.
As a resultof this, the displacement of oil actuallybecomesmore efficient at high
water saturationsfor the segregated flow casethan for the diffuse flow one. This
(s.31) differenceis demonstrated in later examples.
Segregated
(s.32)
t
-9
K1 DiffuseFlow
r
{,
(s.33) g 0.s
.9
(s.34) o
o
r
Itwllto = 0.01
Figure 5.15 Comparisonof Fractional
neabilitiesare linear 0 0.s and Dif-
Flow Curves for Segregated
s thatjoin the practi- WaterSaturatlon fuse Flow
HeavyOil Chap.5 The Buckley-Leverett Displacement Theory 199

THE BUCKLEY.LEVERETT THEORY
DISPLACEMENT This ma1'ben
tional \*ater fk
Buckley and Leverett (1942)developeda theory that provides a quantitative de-
scription of the displacementof one fluid from a porous matrix by an immiscible FROT{T\IE
flood. This theory introducedthe idea that water intermingleswith the oil as it is
being displaced,so that the interfacial surfaceof the Muskat model becomesa zone
with a varyingwater saturation.This conceptappliesto the casewherethe relative
permeabilitiesare nonlinearfunctionsof saturation,as, for example,in the curves The term in h
of Figure 5.14,and also to the casewhere the effectivepermeabilitiesare linear known if the fr
functions. ing the point o
The theorymakesuseof the fractionalflow concept.It is assumedthat a frac- off" venus 5.-
the flow processthat is
tional flow curve is availableand that this curve represents There is
taking placein the reservoir.This curve may or may not be similar to that which tangent,as sho
occursin laboratoryflood testsusingsmall-diametercores.For example,flow seg- tion 5.37r'iel*
regationcan produce fractional flow curvesvery different from those for the flow represents tb€ (
found in laboratorycore floods. Dake (1978)discusses a numberof factorsthat can this conditisrt
affect the fractionalflow curves. For segrq
and the water r
The Velocity of the Shock Front meratorand tb
However. thsrt
When oil is displacedfrom a porous medium by a waterflood, a front advances In this casetlx
throughthe reservoir,and acrossthis front thereis an abruptchangein the satura- usingL'Hosfiti
tion profile (i.e., there is a discontinuityin aS,ldx).There may also be a disconti-
nuity in the saturation,S,, but this is not necessary.
Aheadof the front, oil is flowing withoutwaterthrougha reservoirwith a satu-
ration corresponding to the initial irreduciblewater saturationS,i. Immediatelybe-
hind the front, the flow of wateris just sufficientto keep up with the movingfront. The Saturatir
Figure 5.16depictsthe situation in the immediatevicinity of the front. In Behind the frq
time dt the front advancesby a distance dx1. During this period the water that tion down to I
flows past the planewith an initial abcissaequalto x/ is just sufficientto provide Figure5.17.
the extrawaterthat remainsbehindthe front in the elementaldistancedxr Amate- Consider
rial balancefor this is given by equation5.36. in Figure5.18
WATERBALANCE5 to changewith
e,f,rdt = A66q- S,)dx1 (s.36) the sameas tht
tionship is rep
x|at t
Water and
3
Oil Flowing
tr
l.- x1+or1 Figure 5.16 Conditionsat the Shock e05
al t+clt Front 6
tlater on, it is shownthat the transition zonebehind the front may be terminatedby a "trail- -o
ing" front, which is accompaniedby a seconddiscontinuity,in dS"/ax.The velocity at which this lr
trailing front movescan be found in an analogousmanner to that developedhere. At the trailing

o
front, the upstreamfractional water flow is equal to that of the injected flooding fluid-usually 0
unity.
200 of HeavyOil
The Displacement Chap.5 The Buckley-L
This may be rearrangedto give the front velocity dxyfdt as a function of the frac-
tional water flow behind the front and the saturationbehind the front.
s a quantitativede-
ix by an immiscible FRONTVELOCITY
with the oil as it is k, \
4!t = !t( (s.37)
>delbecomesa zone dt A6\5.r - S.,l
e wherethe relative
rmple,in the curves The term in brackets on the right-hand side of 5.37 is a function of S,y and is
eabilitiesare linear known if the fractionalflow curve is known. It is the slopeof the straightline join-
ing the point correspondingto the front conditions to the point (S",, 0) on a graph
assumedthat a frac- of/, versusS,.
flow processthat is There is a maximum value to this slope,which may be found by drawing a
milar to that which tangent,as shownin Figure5.17.The slopeof this line when substitutedinto equa-
: example,flow seg- tion 5.37yields the maximum velocity at which a shockfront can move, and this
r thosefor the flow representsthe conditionsfor the shockfront that forms in practice.A shockfront at
r of factorsthat can this condition will overrun any front having a different saturation.
For segregatedflow, the maximum slopeoccurswhen/" : 0 (seeFigure 5.15)
and the water saturationat the shock front is S,i. For this condition, both the nu-
meratorand the denominatorof the term in bracketsin equation5.37becomezero.
However, there is still a discontinuity in the water-saturationgradient at the front.
d. a front advances
In this casethe front velocity can be found from the limiting form of equation5.37
hangein the satura-
usingL'Hospital'stheorem.
; alsobe a disconti-
dxr = q, (df,\
(s.38)
eservoirwith a satu- dt A6\dS*ls*=s.,
S-, Immediatelybe-
:h the movingfront. The Saturation Behind the Front
ity of the front. In
Behind the front, the water saturationfalls from 1 - So,right at the point of injec-
riod the water that
tion down to the saturation at the shock front, as found by the construction in
ufficient to provide
Figure 5.17.
istancedxr. Amate-
Considerthe changein saturationin the differential reservoirelementshown
in Figure 5.18.The saturationwithin this stationaryelementwill, in general,tend
to changewith time becausethe concentrationof the streamflowing from it is not
(s.36) the sameas that of the streamthat is entering;it is beingdepletedof oil. This rela-
tionship is representedby the continuity equation5.39.
Slope -1,,,
= atfront
conditions
3 s;h, I
o for highest
tr velocity
o (s*, f"r)
rditionsat the Shock s 0.5
5
6
o
e terminatedby a "trail- o
o
e velocityat which this L (S*,,o)
rd here.At the trailing
f loodingf luid-usually 0 0.5
Water Saturatlon Figure 5.17 ShockFront Conditions
leavy Oil Chap. 5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 201

1-
I Onfy:til
to,u.Eli?n,\u
_ I to t'e an C,
dash€d blt
Totol flow q1 , I
Froctionol Figure5.18 Conditionsbehindthe fl
Front. S" VariesContinuously ET
io"l
(*).=#(*), wheref* =
q!
(s.3e) EI
EI
Behind the front, the water saturationS, is a continuousfunction of x and t. 'i t .,
and a generaldifferential (equation5.40)may be written. l.'
0r-
ds,-(*),r,.(+1,* (s.40)
0
From this, the partial differential@xlil)s, is obtainedasequation5.41.This may be tional flow cu

combinedwith 5.39,as shownin the secondpart of 5.41. ration cun'e" ,
stratified fbr
1 - So,becau
(*). e, (*),
/a'\= -m= d1(qerJ (s.41)
\t/'" The Uppcr I
In Figure5.19
The term @f,/ax),1@S*f ax),is simplifiedto df,ldS,. This is written as an ordinary hand limit-i.
differential,sincef, is assumedto be a function of S, alore. Thlq-sqb-stitution re- flow curve he
sults in equation(5.42),which is known as the.,tsuckley-Leverett eqqqtl_odIt shows resultis that tl
that the velocityat which a planeof a fixed saturationadvanceiisproportionalto the water enta
the averagefluid velocitymultiplied by a function of saturation. The resi
performance1
/l\ =/u"\ -Q,.df, (s.42) form of the fn
\ /,. \ar/r, 0A ds*
r It is of ir
or troducedat th
importancein
1 downstreamq
' 6 A x fQi ,,t
sateand oil ar
lllf\ If the flo
(Note ff is written as/i/ is fixed, and
movesalonga
whereN is the numberof pore volumesof injectedwater (basedon the volume of that is introdn
poresuB to ihe pointx) that are requiredto bring the watersaturationat positionx tion is 1.0.
up to the level correspondingto fI. S. must be greaterthan S"y.If it is not, the as- In Figun
sumptionthat S, is a differentiablefunction of .r and /, which is implied by the use streamcompo
of equation5.40,is not correct. tion,f, : 0.9
The differentialcoefficientin the right-handsideof equation5.42is the slope sistsdownstre
of the fractionalflow curve. This has been plotted for a typical examplein Fig- to the slope<
ure 5.19.Also shown is the tangentthat determinesthe conditionsfor the shock Leverettzon€
front. The conditionsbehindthe shockfront correspondto that portion of the frac- of 0.'74.
The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 The Buckley-

Onlyth6 partsof the cuNes
to th€ rlghtof the vertical !tw,s*r)
dashedlinearesignificant. 4
3 o
o
Conditions behind the
tr
rresContinuously
o -^-oF
$ o.u Front o
(E
velocity 2g
(s.3e) .9
Trailing
o
o
(g
o
front
lJ- 1
us function of .r and /, velocity
o
-
0.5 1 Figure 5.19 Slope of Fractional-Flow
(s.40) Water Saturation Curve
rtion5.41.This maybe
tional flow curve for which S, > S,t i.e., to the upper right-handpart of the satu-
ration curve. At the shock front, the saturation drops rapidly from S,y to S,i. For
4
,t
stratified flow, the whole range of effective water saturationsoccurs from S,r to {
II
1 - So,becauseof the shapeof the fractionalflow curve.
(s.41)
The Upper Shock Front
In Figure5.19,the curve for the slopedoesnot fall completelyto zero at the right-
written as an ordinary hand limit-i.e., at S, : (1 - So,): 0.9. This is becausethe assumedfractional
:. This substitutionre- flow curve has a small slopeat its upper end. This is a commonoccurrence.The
rett equatig4 It shows resultis that the saturationcurvesin Figure5.22havea smallhorizontalpart where
ncesis proportional to the water entersthe reservoir.
tion. The residualoil saturationextendsa finite distanceinto the reservoir.The
performancepredictedby the Buckley-Leverett theoryis extremelysensitiveto ihe
(s.42) form of the fractionalwater flow curve at high water saturations.
It is of interestto considerthe situationwherethe flood stream,which is in-
troducedat the start of the reservoir.containsoil. While this circumstanceis not of
importancein normal waterflooding,it is significantin consideringthe conditions
downstreamof the condensation front in a steamflood.In this case,steamconden-
sateand oil are forced continuouslythrough the condensationfront.
If the flood streamcontainsoil, then the fractionalwaterflow at the entrance
is fixed, and this flowing-streamcondition persistsup to a shock front, which
movesalong at a velocity correspondingto the velocity for the fractional water flow
rasedon the volumeof that is introduced.In the caseshown in Figure 5.19,this fractionalflow composi-
saturationat positionx tion is 1.0.
S"r.If it is not, the as- In Figures5.20 and 5.21,the diagramof Figure 5.19is redrawnfor flooding
:h is impliedby the use streamcompositionsof 0.95 and 0.5. In Figure 5.20 the flooding streamcomposi-
tion,/, : 0.95,corresponds to a water saturationof S, : 0.78.This saturationper-
luation5.42is the slope sistsdownstreamup to a shockfront, which is moving with a velocity corresponding
1-picalexamplein Fig- to the slope of f* at S.: 0.78. Beyond this front is the intermingled,Buckley-
rnditionsfor the shock Leverett zone in which the water saturationfalls to the main shockfront saturation
hat oortion of the frac- of 0.74.
of HeavyOil Chap,5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 203

a constantsh
the slopeof t
3 4o (compare,5.{
o
II I
3
o ao Conditions.l
G "=
3 o.s l1gaklhlerrgh
G
tr 2o when-r; : 1. I
.9 o tity of watertl
(, CL
G
L
-9 a rearrangedI
lr 1@
00
00.5 1
WaterSaturation
Figure 5.20 Diagram for Flooding withf : 0.95
In the situationshownin Figure 5.21,the saturationof the upper shockfront

falls below that of the lower front. In this circumstance,there is only one shock Recovery at I
front, and the flowing-streamcompositionswitchesabruptly from l, : 0.5 to
At some tinre
f" : 0 at the front. Note that in this case,the front velocity is higher than that
which would correspondto the normal front velocifvdeterminedby the tangency and the a!'em!
condition. equation 5..1{-
Figure 5.22 showsthe saturationdistributionfor the exampleof Figure 5.19.
The uppercurvedparts of the lines aredxfdt (from equation5.24)multipliedby the
appropriatetime from the start of the flood. At the point where the water satu-
ration falls to the shockfront saturation5,6 the saturationcurve switchesto the Subsrir
verticalline with the water saturationfalling abruptlyto the connatewater satura- gives
tion S,;.
It shouldbe noted that identicalcurvescould have been obtainedby using
equation5.42 over the whole saturationrangeand using the combinedfractional
flow curve of Figure5.19,which is drawn by usingthe experimentalfractionalflow SubstitutingI
curve to the saturationfront conditionsand then the tansentline. This tansenthas results in equ
tion 5.47.Thb
I
-9
l!
o
t!
3 o.s
(!
.9 @
o
G
tI. =
0.5 Figure 5.21 Diagram for Flooding

WaterSaturation with, = 0.5
204 of HeavyOil
The Displacement Chap.5 The Buckley-La
a constantslopeover the rangeof saturationsthat exist acrossthe shockfront, and
the slopeof this tangentgivesthe shockfront velocitywhen it is insertedin 5.42
4o
(compare5.42 and 5.37).
^c) Conditions at Breakthrough

";
Breakthroughoccurswhen the shockfront reachesthe limit of the reservoir-i.e.,
2o when.ry: L.up until this time only oil is displacedfrom the reservoir.The quan-
o tity of waterthat hasbeeninjectedcan be found asqrt from equation5.43,which is
a rearrangedform of 5.42.
16
6AL
c''t , t = -
(df,/ds*)f
(s.43)
,l
._D.-=
No. of PV to breakthroush + a
the uppershockfront
:re is only one shock
Ii Recoveryat and after Breakthrough
@f./dS*)r
I
I
tlv from ,f, : 0.5 to

At sometime after breakthrough,the saturationprofile will be as in Figure 5.23,
1 is higher than that
ined by the tangency and the averagewatersaturationover the lengthof the reservoirL will be givenby
equation5.44.This can be integratedby parts as shown.
ampleof Figure 5.19.
i.2,1)multipliedby the
rhere the water satu-
t,=!rs.dx:i{rr;; fi, ,ds.} (s.44)
:urve switchesto the Substitutingx dS, : (q,tldA)df. from equation5.42 in 5.44 and integrating
connatewater satura- glves
s-,:s,r+ -
en obtainedby using
: combinedfractional ffiO f; (5.4s)
nental fractionalflow SubstitutingL for x in equation5.42 and combiningthe resultwith equation5.45

line.This tangenthas results in equation 5.46, which, when rearranged,gives the remarkableequa-
tion 5.47. This was first publishedby Welge(1952).
o
6
=
Diagram for Flooding Figuri 5.22 Distribution of Water Sat-

Distancetrom Inlector uration
rf HeavyOil Chap.5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 205

* Figure 5.23 AverageWater Saturation
after Breakthroush
r-
S. : S,t +- r; f, (s.46)
-. l- ft
t! --
S, _ S,I,
6.n) Effect of Visco
In the more generalcasewhere the flooding fluid alreadycontainsoil, the lower Figure 5.25sho
to the
limit of the integralin equation5.44 shouldbe the saturationcorresponding the tangentsc(
floodstreamwater fraction,f. Equation5.41then becomes examplethe *z
decreases.
r: = Jr-lL
JL - The breat
S" S,r
in Figure5.25.
The geometricsignificanceof this equationmay be seenfrom the construction As the vb
shownin Figure 5.24. that can be inir
For any point on the fractionalflow curve, which lies at or abovethe point throughboth ia
correspondingto the shock front (5"r, f"t), a tangent drawn upward intersectsthe saturationat th
line /, : f; at a water saturationcorrespondingto the averagewater saturationin slight increar
the reservoir.This is indeeda remarkablysimpleanswer-an almostmagicalresult. through the lat
The Buckley-Leverett-Welge method is employedas follows: tained at break
1. Draw the fractionalflow curve.
2. Draw the tangentfrom the foot of the curve and determine the conditions at
the shockfront (S,r,/,r) and the averagewater saturationat breakthrough.S,1,
from the intersectionwith the linefi, = f,(ft is usually1). !
lr
3. Calculatethe oil recoveryat breakthroughfrom -
a
Porevolumesof oil recoveredat breakthrough = S,/ - S,i (s.48) =
a
4. Calculate the time of breakthrough from the total injection volume qi from t
5.43and the injectionrate.6 E
lt
5. For various arbitrary valuesof S,7.,draw the tangentsand calculatethe corre-
spondingrecoveriesand injection volumes.
uAlthoughit hasbeenassumedthroughoutthis discussionof the Buckley-Leveretttheory that
the injectionrate is constant,this is not necessaryfor caseswhere/, is assumedto be independentof
rate, i.e., of q,/A. For a given injectionvolume, the sameconditionswill prevail even though the in-
jection rate varies. n
206 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 The Buckley-La
eragewater saturation
ush
(s.46) Figure 5.24 RelationbetweenOutlet

Conditionsand AverageWater Satura- tI
tion I
(s.47) t
Effect of Viscosity Ratio
I
ntainsoil, the lower Figure 5.25 showsthe seriesof fractionalflow curvesthat was drawn earlierwith
;orrespondingto the the tangentscorrespondingto the conditionsat breakthroughdrawn in. In tbis
examplethe water saturationat breakthroughincreasesas the viscosityof the oil
decreases.
The breakthroughconditionslistedin Table5.3wereobtainedfr"omthe curves
in Figure5.25.
rm the construction As the viscosityof the oil is decreased,the fractionof a pore volumeof water
that can be injectedbeforebreakthroughand the fractionalflow ofwater at break-
t or abovethe point throughboth increase.It shouldalsobe notedthat with very viscousoils, the water
pu'ard intersectsthe salurationat the front is only slightlyhigherthan the irreduciblesaturation.Only a
3 water saturationin slight increasein water saturationis required to allow much water to percolate
lmostmagicalresult. through the largely oil-saturatedreservoir.Only very low oil recoveriesare ob-
r\\'s: tained at breakthroughwhen viscousoils are displacedwith water.
I
ine the conditionsat
at breakthrough,S,y, I
'.
( -s
li
(s.48)
tion volumeqi from
I calculatethe corre- Parameteris

ltt
ltw o
k le1'-Leverettheory that
med to be independent of 00.5 1
evail even though the in- WaterSaturation
Figure5.25 Effectof ViscosityRatioon Breakthrough
Conditions
HeavyOil Chap.5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 207

TABLE 5.3 Conditionsat Breakthroughfor VariousRatiosp,*fp,"
shown as e$r
Pressure by Hagoort(l'
Gradient
t",lt". f"r Swf Recovery(t) Ratio(2)
FOR STAI
0 0.2 0.2 0 0
0.0001 0.60 0.24 0.26 0.06 0.09 2.64
0.001 0.73 0.29 0.33 0.13 0.19 2.28
0.01 0.75 0.39 0.48 0.28 0.40 1.70
0.1 0.81 0.54 0.61 0.41 0.59 0.97
I 0.90 0.73 0.78 0.58 0.83 0.33
10 0.98 0.88 0.89 0.69 0.99
1.0 0.90 0.90 0.7 1.0
(r)Fraction
of movableoil recovered.
where
(')Pressure
gradientin oil bank/pressuregradientjust behind front.
Table5.4 showsthe viscosityof Cold Lake crude and water as a function of

temperature.It is instructiveto comparethe viscosityratios for this systemwith
thosein Table5.3 above.Obviouslydisplacement with waterwould be much more
effective at higher temperatures.Similar viscosityratio data are shown in Chap-
ter 4, Figure 4.7.
PressureGradients during Displacement

Graphsc
The ratio of pressuregradients before and after the shock front are shown in
with waterfor I
Table 5.3 for the seriesof oils discussedpreviously.The pressuregradientsup-
dimensionles
stream and downstreamof the shock front were calculated by Darcy's equation positionof the
(equations5.49).
Upstream: (#) - -Qtf*flL*

Akk,,1
(s.4e)
Downstream: (#) - _ QtlLo
AkkL 105
If the absolutepressuregradientupstreamof the front is smallerthan that down- tr

o
stream,then the systemwill be unstable,since any small penetrationof the front E io4
will be ableto grow.The conditionfor this to be so is givenby equation5.50,which L
(t
may be developedas shown to give the condition for stability of the front (which is
='to3
an
o
o
TABLE 5.4 Viscosity Ratio for Cold Lake Crude as a Functionof Temperature t io2
TEMPERATURE
o
Pr ltw o
"F 'C (cp) (cp) -9
PnlPo tt"/tt"
10l
100 38 15,300 0.70 0.000046 22,000 .E
o
200 93 181 0.30 0.0017 603 c
300 r49 20.9 0.19 0.009 110 E roo
400 204 6.3 0.14 0.022 45 E
Dlmenslor
208 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 TheBuckley-L

shownaq equation5.51).This may be rewritten as equation5.52,which was given
Pressure by Hagoort (1974).
Gradient
Ratio(2)
FORSTABILITY
2.64
2.28
(#)'-(#)
1.70
0.97
0.33 Fok,,f
f*rP.k|"
^,1
fwf =
-----------:-
p*krof
(s.s1)
. ,
r -1--;-
rater as a function of
lLo Krwf
' for this system with
uould be much more k,of , k,*f
r are shown in Chap-
# <K)"
r (s.s2)
*
Graphs of dimensionless pressuregradientswithin reservoirsbeing flooded

i front are shown in with waterfor the variousratiosof oil viscosityto waterviscosityare plottedagainst
)ressuregradientsup-
dimensionless distancein Figure 5.26. The stepsin the curvescorrespondto the
I by Darcy'sequation positionof the shockfront. In this figure the dimensionless quantitiesare
ô(y\
(s.4e) Dimensionless gradient=
pressure
;#
105
tr Parameter
ispolr
aller than that down- w
.g 10,000
netration of the front tt 104
IE
r equation 5.50, which (5
of the front (which is o
103 1000
:t
o
o
o
rratu
re o. fi2
o
o
i/, Follt"
-9
c 101
.l(-|r6 22,000 .9
o
603 c
o
l 110 .E
o
1' '000
5 10 1s
45 Figure 5.26 Changeof PressureGra-
Dlmenslonless
Dlstancefrom Injector dient at Front
rf HeavyOil Chap,5 The Buckley-Leverett

Displacement
Theory 209
and TABLE 5.5 CJ
Dimensionlessdistance: 4 t
Q,t 5.
For high viscosityratios, there is an abrupt increasein pressuregradientat the 0.30

0.3-<
shockfront. This promotesinstability, and fingering of the floodwater into the oil
0.{}
bank may be expected.For the particular systemshown,the front becomesstable
0..15
whenthe oil viscosityis ten times that of the water.For lower oil-to-waterviscosity 0.50
ratios,there is a drop in pressuregradientat the shockfront. 0.55
0.60
NumericalProblemon Buckley-LeverettTheory 0.6-<
The relative permeabilitiesof oil and water in a particular core are given by the fol- 0.70
lowing equations: 0.75
0.80
. /o.ss- s,\'
o-: 0.85
\ oss /
. -
ls" 0.3\'
*"=\ oss /
from the inte
lareed scale i
where
1-So.=0'85
5-cp orl ri
S'i = 0'3 150-cpvcr
Plot the fractionalflow of water againstthe water saturationfor two oil viscosities:
5 cp and 150cp. Assumethat the viscosityof the water is 1.0 cp, that the core is t-
horizontal,and that capillarypressurecan be neglected.
For eachcase,usingBuckley-Leveretttheory, calculatethe averagewater satu- 0.9 '
ration of the core during a waterflood when water first breaksthrough.
What is the composition of the produced fluid immediately after 0.8 -:
h
breakthrough? tr
a 0.7 -
How many pore volumes of water have been injected and how many pore ts
volumesof oil have been producedat the breakthroughpoints? \
0.6 -
Each of the floods is carried on to the point wherethe oil-waterratio in the L
effluent is 0.025.At this point, for eachcasecalculatethe fraction of the original { 0.5 -
E
oil in place(OOIP) that hasbeenrecovered. $
a 0.4 -
How many pore volumesof water have been injected in eachof the cases? e
Solution Calculate fractional water flows for each oil viscosity using }-
0.3 -
equation5.26(seeTable5.5): {^
0.2 -
f*
0.t -
r * ?.k*
K* Fo
6(
Plot fractional flows againstwater saturation.See Figure 5.27. Many more o-3
pointswere usedto define the curve than are given in Table5.5.
Draw tangeng_frgmthe origin and ottain the water s-atuntionand fractional
flows at the tangencypoints. Obtain the averagewater saturationat breakthrough
210 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 The Bucktey-L

:
I TABLE 5.5 CalculatedFractionalWater Flows
a
t Fractional Flow
s, t-
'{ "a nv 150cp
:essuregradientat the 0.30 1.000 0.000 0.0000 0.0000

0.35 0.751 0.001 0.0050 0.1304
loodwaterinto the oil
0.40 0.548 0.006 0.0520 0.6221,
front becomesstable
' oil-to-waterviscosity 0.45 0.385 0.020 0.2087 0.8878
0.50 0.258 0.048 0.4827 0.9655
0.55 0.162 0.094 0.7432 0.9886
0.60 0.094 0.162 0.8963 0.9962
0.65 0.048 0.258 0.9640 0.9988
'e are given by the fol- 0.70 0.020 0.385 0.9896 0.9996
0.75 0.006 0.548 0.9978 0.9999
0.80 0.001 0.757
0.85 0.000 1.000
0.9998
1.0000
1.0000
r.0000 ru
'l
from the interceptswithl, : 1. The resultsare shownin Figure5.27 andon an en-

largedscalein Figure 5.28.
s,r s. ( -(
5-cpoil viscosity 0.575 0.833 0.630 0.33
150-cpviscosity 0.415 0.'t37 0.456 0.156
for two oil viscosities:
..0 cp, that the core is NO GRAVITY EFFECT
the averagewatersatu-
ks through.
d immediately after EI
tr
a
i and how many pore h
q
rts? o
e oil-waterratio in the I
iractionof the original {
\
ri
s
n eachof the cases? ?
h oil viscosity using
I L
b
I {.
ta
eure 5.27.Many more 0.3 0.5 0,7

l e5 . 5 . VATER SATURATION
-
ltuation and fractional sCP |SOCP
rrationat breakthrough Figure 5.27 Effect of Oil Viscosity
of HeavyOil Chap.5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 211

Compariscr r
Flows
(0.5r5,0.976) (0.667,0.976)
The numeric
F
to the case*{
$
The effc
a
N systemconsid
(0.575,0.833)
E
o
F
a
\ (0.4r5,0.737)
{ It is assu
s of either-i ?
e
tially. As befo
h
b Buckley
\
s\ ure 5.29.
Conditions d
In the segreg
0.3 0.5 0.7 volumeof the
tnru-trolouo the composit
_ {ff^ through.In tb
",
Figure 5.2E Effect of Oil Viscosity(enlargedscale) through,and t
5- and 150-cp
At breakthrough,volumesof oil produced: ,3, - S,;
. 0.tr1
The volumesof water injectedup to breakthroughare equal to the volumesof
=
the oil displaced. 0.9 -
Draw tangentsat intersectionswith f. : 1.000/1.025 : 0.976.
Read interceptsof tangentswith f" : I.0 to obtain averagewater saturations q 0.8 -
h
and measureslopesof tangents.
s 0.7
ts
i
\
o 0.6
L
At f" : 0.976 o
{
l\
0.5
s" r/f:,
{
s 0.1
5-cp oil viscosity 0.708 0.584 t.7l e
150-cpviscosity 0.560 0.545 1.84
(,)
h
.(
F
la
Total pore volumesof water injected = Uf , at f* : 0.976 0.1
- - :
: {llgll lgl - 91lltl - 0'3)= 58'3voror5-cpoil
vo oorprecovered
[too(0.s60 0.3)/(1 0.3) 37.lVo for 150-cp oil 0.3
usinglesswaterfor the lessviscousoil'

Moreoil wasrecovered
212 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 The Buckley-Le

Comparisonof Displacementwith Diffuse and Segregated
Flows
The numericalexampleof the Buckley-Leveretttheory is extendedin this section
to the casewherethe flow is consideredto be completelysegregated.
The effectiverelativepermeabilitiescorresponding
to segregated
flow for the
systemconsideredare:
0.95_ s, s, _ 0.3
,,.'o = ano k." = -lB-
0j5
It is assumedthat the porousmediumis saturatedwith oils havinga viscosity
of either 5 cp or 150cp and that the water saturationis at the irreduciblelevel ini-
tially. As before,the viscosityof the water is taken as 1,cp.
Buckley-Leverettdiagramsfor the segregated flow casesare shown in Fig-
lt
nre 5.29. it
I
Conditions at Breakthrough I
l
In the segregatedcase,only 0.11pore volumeof the 5-cpoil and a mere0.004pore
volumeof the 150-cpoil are recoveredat the breakthroughpoint, but in eachcase
the compositionof the effluent streamis still nearlyall oil immediatelyafter break-
through. In the diffuse case,0.33 and 0.156volumesof oil are recoveredat break-
el
through,and the compositionsof the effluentsjump to 83Voand74Vowaterfor the
5- and 150-cpoils, respectively.
. - ,s,i
ual to the volumesof

(0.416,0.976) (0.789,0.976)
).976.
agewater saturations
\l
I
i
\
t
s&
r/f:" {
{
r.7r e
1.84 h
Q
a
\:\
f . : 0.976
rc for 5-cp oil
'( for 150-cpoil 0.5 0.7
VATER SATUR/ITION
ril. Figure 5.29 Effect of Oil Viscosity-SegregatedFlow
f HeavyOil Chap.5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 213

Conditionsat Breakthrouqh
s.; s 0.9 -
S"r f"r S"r ;-
5-cp oil E 0.E -
s
Diffuse 0.575 0.833 0.630 0.330
Segregated 0.3 0 0.410 0 . 11 0 0.7 -
150-cpoil t'
\ I
Diffuse 0.415 0.'737 0.456 0.156 0.6 -
Segregated 0.3 0 0.304 0.004 x
h o.u-l
Conditions when Oil-Water Ratio Fallsto 0.025 b
I
Rt o . o- l
The conditionswhenthe oil-waterratio falls to 0.025are shownby the upperpoints {
of tangencyin Figure 5.29.The resultsare summarizednext. a
e
0 . ,- l
t 0.2 -,
st O/W = 0.025
Conditiona o
a
q
S"r f,r s4 ;_S,;
tl orl
5-cpoil 0t
I
Diffuse 0.667 0.976 0.708 0.408 0
Segregated 0.976 0.845 0.545
150-cpoil
0.976 0.560 0.260 Figurt !
Diffuse 0.515
0.976 0.509 0.209 l5{-rcp
Segregated
The dista
At this point, the performancefor the segregated flow has surpassedthat for to the slope o
the diffuse flow for the 5-cp oil; 0.545PV of oil hasbeen recoveredcomparedto jt,ll,)(I - S-
0.408for the diffuse flow. The reasonfor this differenceis that the relativeperme- 0.9 _
ability for oil is significantlyhigherat high watersaturationsfor the segregated
flow
than it is for the diffuse flow.
I
For the 150-cpoil, the recoveryis muchbetterthan might havebeenexpected 0.8 I
I
from the poor resultsat breakthrough;0.209PV of oil hasbeenrecovered,as com-
pared to 0.260for the diffuse flow case.As may be seenby the data in the next
caseeventuallyresultsin better performanceif the process
a
section,the segregated 0.7 -
is continuedlong enough. !
&
Comparisonof Oil Recoveries tr 0,6 -
!
vj
The fractional recoveriesof mobile oil for the four casesare comparedin Fig-
ET
ure 5.30as functionsof the pore volumesof water injected. o . s)
a
E I
Water Saturation Profiles :
i
Watersaturationis plottedas a function of distancefor the two casesinvolving5-cp 0.4 -,
oil in Figure 5.31.A similar diagramcould be drawn for the moreviscousoil. The I
i
abcissain Figure 5.31is $Axfq,t, or/,1,.Severalfeaturesshouldbe noticed: I
o.s1-
1. The abrupt changein saturationat the front for the diffuse flow. 0
2. The much greaterdistancethat the segregatedfront has reached.
case.
3. The positionof the trailing shockfront of mobile oil in the segregated Fq
214 of HeavyOil
The Displacement Chap.5 The Buckley-Leu
(.- ( H
rrl
$
0.330 a
0 . 11 0
x
\
0.156
0.004
5
FI
b
El
q
by the upperpoints {a
T
a
t* F
b rl
_ s,i il
t*
\ra
0.408 o 2 4 I I 10 t2 t4 t6 t8 20
0.545
PORE VOLUtrTES INJECTED
Figure 5.30 Fractional Recovery of Oil-Segregated and Diffuse Flow; 5 and
0.260
150 cp
0.209
The distancethat the trailing edgeof mobileoil hasadvancedis proportional
s surpassed that for to the slope of the fractional flow curve at f" : L This is a positive value,
overedcomparedto - So.- S,i), for the segregated
0-,,,1t-r.)(l flow casebut is zero for the diffuse flow
: the relativeperme- o.9
the segregated flow
havebeenexpected o.8
I recovered,as com-
:he data in the next
i
nanceif the process 0.7
a
E
a 0.6
(4
Diffuse Flov
e comparedin Fig- E
I!
a 0.5
f
casesinvolving5-cp 0,4
roreviscousoil. The
I be noticed:
o.3
useflow. 02468
reached. DI TTE N SI ON LE,SS'.TSTllvCg
case.
the segregated Figure 5.31 Water Saturation*Segregated and Diffuse Flow; 5 cp
HeavyOil Chap.5 The Buckley-LeverettDisplacementTheory 215

becauseof the tangencyof the oil relativepermeabilitycurve to the water satura- ol
tion axis for this particular problem.

a
o II
It is clear from this hypothetical examplethat the effectivenessof a water-
flooding operationis critically dependentupon the shapeof the fractional flow
curve-particularly the shapeat high water saturations.
=o
o
=
a
o
a
rV
0
FI
C.W NUTT'S CAPILLARYBUNDLEMODEL
Figurt 5J!
The approachto the displacementof oil from a porousmedium discussedin the last ing Disp{:
sectiondependsupon the conceptof both oil and waterflowing in the sameregion,
with the relativefluxes determinedby the saturationsof the phases.This concept
allowedthe developmentof relativepermeabilityand fractionalflow curves.The
mathematicalextensionof the idea that was developedby Buckley and Leverett (L
and addedto by Welgeresultsin a realisticmodel of the flooding process.
A paperby C.W Nutt (1982)explainsthe observedphenomenafrom a differ- ;
o
ent viewpoint. He showsthat most of the phenomenaof waterflooding,including q)
the effect of viscosityratio, can be explainedby consideringthat the poroussolid o

c)
o)
behavesas a simplebundle of capillariesof varying radii. E
He introduceshis idea by consideringa situationin which the porous solid o
is represented by meansof two capillariesconnectedin parallel,as shown in Fig-
0
we 5.32.
It is assumedthat the flow resistancein the feed and dischargelines can be Ftt
neglectedand that the flow in eachcapillarycan be calculatedby Poiseuille's equa-
Figure 5.3-i Cr
tion. Also, the effectsof capillaryforcescausedby the oil-waterinterfaceare ne-
in left half of F
glected at first.
Considerthe casewherethe capillariesare first full of an oil that is morevis-
cousthan water.Wateris injectedat a constantrate. The expectedperformanceis
shownin Figure 5.33,where it will be seenthat the interfacemovesto the outlet
Figr
Figure 5.32 Displacementfor Two end more rag

Capillariesof Different Diameters drop, the ave
(after Nutt 1982) proceeds. the
216 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap' 5 C.W Nutt's Ca

lo the water satura- o1
o'
>1
&
o ;o
tivenessof a water- ;o o
the fractional flow o
0
I o
=o E
o o
4
1
-o12
FluidIniectedin PoteVolumes FluidIniected
in PoreVolumes
Figure 5.33 Positionof Interfacesdur- Figure 5,34 Cumulative Oil Produc-

discussed in the last ing Displacement(after Nutt 1982) tion (after Nutt 1982)
I in the sameregion,
:hases.This concept
1 10
ral flow curves.The
c!
uckleyand Leverett Ps
IL x
89
line process. o x t{
o
-rmenafrom a differ- ; .9
^ .!p
ob
L,
:rilooding,including
o
o
60
6
'o. T
hat the poroussolid o ?o a 4<) t
C)
o
(r o
d
I
ich the poroussolid Ez 2 Pc
lel. as shown in Fig-
o
0
z
f
0 0
f
z i
012 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1. 2
schargelinescan be FluidInjectedin PoreVolumes Radiusin mm
br Poiseuille's
equa-
Iter interfaceare ne- Figure 5.35 Comparison with Experimental Data from Sandpack Waterf loods. Parameter
in left half of Figure is p.lp* (after Nutt 1982)
r oil that is morevis-

:cted performanceis
movesto the outlet
Parameter
is interfacial
tensionin N m-1
o.
;o
o
o
o
()
E,
o Floodrate=0.05mh-1
0
Fluidlnjectedin porevolumes
Figure 5.36 Effect of Interfacial Tension on Recovery for an Oil-Vy'etSystem
)rsplacementfor Two end more rapidly in the largercapillary.This occursbecause,for a given pressure
DifferentDiameters drop, the averageflow velocity is greaterin a larger capillary. As the displacement
,lt proceeds,the ratio ofvelocitiesincreases becausethe largercapillarycontainsrela-
Heavy Oil Chap. 5 C,W Nutt'sCapillaryBundleModel 217

l
I
o,
o. E
.= E
E O
o a
o
o
o
(,
o
o) o
tr E
o
0.1Nm-1
o
I
2 Figure 5.37 Effect of Flood Rate for

Oil-Wet System t-iSr
hert
Srrdil
tively morewater; this is lessviscous,and, as a result,the pressuredifferencebe- Usrq
tween the inlet and outlet of both tubesdecreases.
{ When the water reachesthe end of the largecapillary,breakthroughoccurs; the right haff
after that, relativelylittle oil is producedbecauseof the low pressuregradient.Most cosityratioc
of the injectedwaterflows throughthe largecapillary.Figure5.34showsthe quali- predictspmn
i tative effect on oil recoverythat would be expected.

Nutt expandsthis idea by consideringa wholerangeof capillariesof varying
cc;-us
oits.
diametersin paralleland adjustingthe distributionof sizesto match observedre-

sults.One of the more interestingcomparisonsis shownin Figure 5.35. o_
In the left part of this figure, the points showexperimentaldisplacement re- .E
sultsreportedby Blackwellfor a seriesof flooding experimentsusinga singlesand- (I)
pack and various oil-water viscosity ratios. The curves in the diagram were q)
calculatedfor the experimentalconditionsusingthe pore-sizedistributionshownin

o)
E
FluiJ
IL
.c
0)
q)
o-
q)
E.
;o
o
-1
o
(,
Intertacialtension = - 0.02 N m o
lnterfacialtension = -0.0 N m
-1 =
o
FluidInjectedin porevolumes
Figure 5.38 Effect of Flood Rate for a Water-WetSystem
218 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap,5 Analysis of Sta

o.
;
o
o
o
o
o
tr
o
012
:r oi Flood Rate for FluidInjectedin PoreVolumes
Figure 5.39 An Effect of Temperature.Recoveryof a Mixture of n-decane,n-
hexadecane, and Squalanefrom a Core. Pointsare ExperimentalData from ||
Sudibjoet al. (1978);The Curve is a CalculatedOne for all Three Temperatures il
'1
,uredifferencebe- Using a SelectedCapillary SizeDistribution tt
I
the right half. Nutt's simpletheory givesa good predictionof the effect of the vis- I
akthroughoccurs;
cosityratioonthedisplacementefficiency.
ure gradient.Most
i4 showsthe quali- predictspoorerdisplaceqentefficienciesand gritlelSleakJ[fqugh for the morevis-
cousolls.
pillariesof varying
natchobservedre-
re 5.35. o_
ll displacement re- -
;
rsinga singlesand-
the diagram were
,tributionshownin O
E
o
- .42 0'1 Figure 5.40 Another Effect of Tem-
Fluidlnjectedin PoreVolumes perature(after Nutt 1982)
.-r'1982 o
;o
o
o
(,
o
tr
o
2 Figure 5.41 Effect of Temperature

I Combinedwith Changein Wetttbility
FluidIniectedin PoreVolumes (after Nutt 1982)
eavy Oil Chap.5 Analysis of SteamfloodUsing the Buckley-LeverettTheory 219

The effectof interfacialtensionis alsoincludedby Nutt in his theory.The in- densesabrq
terfacialtensionslowsdown the displacement of the oil if the solid is oil-wet and heat of tb c
viceversa;in either case,the smallerthe radiusof the capillary,the greaterthe ef- initial teqr
fect. Thus the interfacial tension effect tends to make the displacementfor capil- steam displ
laries of different radii more uniform in water-wet systemsand less uniform in that therc r
oil-wetones. section,thl
Nutt showshow a high oil-water interfacial tension may be expectedto have and that ttc
little effect on the recoveryat breakthroughfor oil-wet systemsbut that it will have In thc
a significant effect on the ultimate recovery-high interfacial tension gives lower the oil fru
recovery.This is shownby Figure 5.36;the breakthroughpoints occur where the can be dcrr
recoverycurvesdeviatefrom the initial straightline. Boberg 197
Nutt alsopredictsthat in an oil-wet systemwith a finite interfacialtension,a flooding. l*
higherrecoverywill be obtainedwith a higherflood velocity.Predictedresultsare is at constal
shownin Figure5.37. saturatimil
For water-wet systemsNutt's theory predicts that lower flooding velocities or if therc a
should give better recoveriesbecausethe capillary force tends to improve the dis- liquid watcr
placementin the smallercapillaries.The effect is shownin Figure 5.38. sumedthat I
Another effect that Nutt considersis that of temperature.He showsthat for even if wala
someporoussolids(i.e., for somepore-sizedistributions),the effectof temperature mobility wi!
shouldbe negligible-as it hasbeenshownto be by Sudibjoet al. for one core.See steam-swep
Figure 5.39. The pn
Conversely, Nutt predictsthat for other pore-sizedistributions,there should heat liberar
be a temperatureeffect(Figure5.40).By alsoassumingthat the wettabilitychanges sate from tt
with temperature,an effect very similar to the experimentaldata can be predicted Figure 5.42i
(Figure5.41). tion of the o
Although Nutt's capillary model theory is ableto explain many of the observed the steam-s
phenomena,it is not a completeexplanation.The classicalBuckley-Leverett theory At thc
is alsoableto explainthe samephenomena.What is clear,however,is that the pro- tion increc
cessesoccurringin the displacement of oils-and particularlyheavyoils-by water gion beyond
from porous solids are complexand are affected by a multitude of variables. steamregio
It is also apparentthat attemptsto extrapolateexperimental data widely by front into tL
theoreticalconceptsmay lead to inCorrectpredictionsbeiause of the incorrect rep- In thc r
resentationor even omission of important phenomena.It appearsthat the recent in the floodi
tendencyto replaceexperimentalstudieswith complicatedmathematicalmodels region.Becr
based on simplistic conceptsis still very premature. Simple predictions based on densationfm
realisticexperimentalinformation are muchto be desired.We needto keepour labo- in connectic
ratoriesfor a while vet!
ANALYSISOF STEAMFLOODUSING THE BUCKLEY.LEVERETT

THEORY
In this section,the behavior of a one-dimensional.adiabaticsteamfloodis ana-
lyzed.The processthat is consideredis shownin Figure 5.42. sIEf
This diagram showsthe flooding processat an intermediate stage.Steam is
introduced at the left and grveepsthrough the steam-sweptregion, in which the
temperatureis constant at Zs. The small drop in temperaturedue to the pressure Movin
drop in the steamzone is ignored. At the condensationfront, all the steam con-
'/ 220 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Analysis of Sl
his theory.The in- densesabruptly and the liberated heat of condensationtogetherwith the sensible
solid is oil-wet and heat of the condensateis absorbedin raising the reservoirand its contentsfrom the
, the greaterthe ef- initial temperatureTn to Ts.The sameassumptionsare made as for the caseof the
rlacementfor capil- steam displacementof a water-saturatedreservoir (see Figure 5.6). It is assumed
nd less uniform in that there are no lateral heat losses.that the fluid velocitiesare uniform acrossthe-
section,that the temperatureof the solid is equalto that of the fluids at eachpoint,
e expectedto have and that thermal conductioncan be ignored.
bur rhat it will have ln the steam-sweptregion, steamflows at a relatively high velocity and moves
tensiongiveslower the oil forward at the saturationtemperature.The displacementof oil in this region
rtsoccur where the can be described quantitatively using the Buckley-Leverett theory (Shutler and
Boberg 1972;Boberg 1987)in the same manner as has been describedfor water-
rterfacialtension,a flooding. No condensationof steamoccurs within the steam-sweptregion, since it
'redictedresultsare is at constanttemperatureand it is assumedthat there are no heat losses.The water
saturationin the regioncorrespondsto the irreduciblevalue,56. If the steamis wet,
flooding velocities or if there are heat losses,a higher water saturationis requiredin order to move the
to improvethe dis- liquid water to the interface; this is discussedlater. For the presentcase,it is as-
ure 5.38. sumedthat the steamis introduced dry and saturatedand that there are no losses;
. He showsthat for even if water is flowing, the increasein water saturationrequired to provide water
ifect of temperature mobility will usually be small. The oil saturationincreasesfrom left to right in the
rl. for one core.See steam-swept regionin Figure 5.42.
The position of the condensationfront is determinedby a heat balance.The
rtions,there should heat liberatedby the condensationof the steamand by the cooling of the conden-
wettability changes sate from the start of the processto the time correspondingto the situation in
ta can be predicted Figure 5.42is conservedas sensibleheatwithin the steam-swept region.The posi-
tion of the condensationfront can be found from this heat balance.The volume of
anyof the observed the steam-sweptregion increasesproportionally to the quantity of injected steam.
lley-Leveretttheory At the condensationfront, steamsaturation drops to zero, the water satura-
:ver,is that the pro- tion increasessomewhatbecausethere is need for water to flow in the oil-bank re-
reavyoils-by water gion beyond, and the oil saturationrises abruptly. The oil which is swept from the
: of variables. steamregion, togetherwith the condensate,flows forwards from the condensation
rntaldata widely by front into the waterflood region.
rf the incorrectrep- In the waterflood region, someoil is displacedby the flowing water. The oil
lars that the recent in the flooding streamfrom the steamchamberalso flows through the waterflood
'athematicalmodels region.Becauseof the high proportion of oil in the flooding streamleavingthe con-
redictionsbasedon densationfront, the conditionsare similar to thosewhich were discussedpreviously
:edto keepour labo- in connectionwith Figure 5.21.Immediatelybeyondthe condensationfront, the satu-
CondensotionFront Woterflood
Steom condenses Front
'HEORY S t e p c h o n g e so f s o t u r o t i o n s Step chonges of
^^d +amâ.^+' r.a
oil ond woter
soturotions
steamflood is ana-
SteomfloodReoion WoterfloodRegion Originol
...-_--_-.>
STEAM-_>
liate stage. Steam is T e m p e r o t u r e= Oil Sot
egion, in which the
MovingFluids: Steom*Oil Oil+Woter i Oil only
due to the pressure
Figure 5.42 Diagram of Adiabatic, One-DimensionalSteamflood
. all the steam con-
Heavy Oil Chap.5 Analysis of Steamflood Using the Buckley-Leverett Theory 221
ration conditions correspondto the fractional flow of oil and water that is leaving areamartl
the front. If the fractionalwater-flowcurve is concaveto the left, as in Figure5.21, the areasI
then theseconditionsremain constantin the reservoirup to the waterfloodfront,
where the saturationchangesabruptlyto correspondto those in the initial reser- -t;;
voir. The waterflood front advancesmuch more rapidly than doesthe condensation l"
front, and water breaksthrough long before the arrival of the condensationfront. The rolum
Buckley-LeverettTheory Applied to the Steam Chamber
The generaldistribution of saturationsthat occur within the steamchamberare The quant

shown in Figure 5.43.The abscissain this diagramis the dimensionless distance, in the losr
which is equalto df"/d9".The regionwith constantoil saturation,So.occursonly if
the curve of f, is not tangentto the saturationaxis at its upper terminal point.
The water saturationis constantat S,; throughoutbecausethere is no water
flow within the steamfloodregion.As has been mentionedpreviously,if the in- The correq
jectedsteamis wet, then the water saturationwould be somewhathigherthan Su.
ume bv thc
The curve of steamsaturationversusdistancein Figure 5.43 is obtaineddi-
rectly from relativepermeabilitydata for the flow of steamand oil in the reservoir
matrix with an irreduciblesaturationof water.In Figure 5.43,the steamsaturation
is plotted downward.
The fractkt
vided b1'th
Calculationof Volume of Steam Within the Reservoir
Considerthe positionwithin the steamfloodregionthat corresponds to the vertical

dottedline shownin Figure 5.43;this represents somepoint behind the condensa-
tion front. The numberof pore volumesof steam(measuredasvapor and basedon Heat Balrr
the total pore volumeof the reservoirbetweenthe point of injectionand the point At anv part
corresponding to the vertical dottedline) that hasbeeninjectedis equalto 1/fl (see ance.At th
equation5.42). tional cold r
Another way of looking at the horizontalscalein Figure5.43is to regardit as within the r
the distancealongthe reservoirexpressed in porevolumesof reservoirper volume denses:the
of injected steam.At any particular time, some of the injected steam remains lowing eqru
within the steamfloodregionto the left as steam,and the remainderhaspassedbe-
yond.The volumeof remainingsteamper volumeof injectedsteamis given by the (S
WATER
P*l
-l
ot
E,"* o
E
o
TI \.)
STEAM
f s , f ' s , a n dS
s
I
S ol
This I
equation -i.5
!o,
otL H,: tl -
I
' i f t
's Figure 5.43 Saturationsin the Steam The h
Dimensionless
Distance Chamber In. H. is the

of HeavyOil Chap.5 Analysisof !
ater that is leaving area marked STEAM in the figure; it is convenientto expressthis as the sum of
l. as in Figure 5.2L, the areasmarked L and2. This sum is given by
e r.raterf lood front,
V f1_so,_swi
in the initial reser- I +arear= fldS,+,fiS,=1-i+flS, (5.53)
:s the condensation fi,=ur"u Jr,
'ondensationfront.
The volumeof water is given by the areamarkedWATER,which is equalto
v,_ (5.54)
S.if i
V"i
steamchamberare The quantityof oil remainingis calculatedby subtractingarea1 from the rectangle
:nsionless distance, in the lowerleft corner.i.e..
n. 5o,occursonly if
terminalpoint. (5.ss)
€ there is no water #,="s'-1+i t
:er.iously,if the in- The corresponding volumeof rock matrix is givenby multiplyingthe total porevol- ,1
rat higherthan S,;. ume by the ratio (1 - il16.
inr
5.-13is obtaineddi-
il
oil in the reservoir -w
=-I
r-6", (s.s6)
I
he steamsaturation Vni 6
The fractionalrecoveryof oil is equal to the pore volume occupiedby steamdi-
videdby the porevolumeinitially filled with oil, i.e., by
_
Recovery--
r - [ + /;s, (s.s7)
-
ruds to the vertical /;(l - s*,)
:hindthe condensa-
Heat Balance
vapor and basedon
:ction and the point At any particulartime, the limit of the steamchamberis determinedby a heatbal-
is equalto 1//,1(see ance.At the condensation front, the injectedsteamis condensingand heatingaddi-
tional cold reservoirmaterial.The balanceis determinedby equatingthe total heat
.{3 is to regardit as within the contentsof the chamberto the heat suppliedby the steamwhen it con-
eservoirper volume denses;the condensate coolsto the reservoirtemperature.This is shownby the fol-
:ted steam remains lowing equation:
inderhaspassed be-
(Steamdolumesupplied)' H, : (steamvolumein chamber). H,
eam is given by the
+ (watervolumein chamber). H.
* (oil volumein chamber). H,
* (rock volumein chamber). H,
This balance,based on a unit volume of injected steam,is expressedin
equation5.58.
H , = ( 1 - i + l ; s " ) H " * s , , / J H , + ( / J S , - 1 + . [ ) H , 'o

**ftt, (5.58)
rturations in the Steam

The heat contentterms H; are all measuredabovethe rdservoirtemperature
&. H, is the heatin a volumeof steamvapormeasuredaboveliquid water at 7n.In
HeavyOil Chap.5 Analysis of SteamfloodUsingthe Buckley-LeverettTheory 223

any particular numerical example,all the terms on the right-hand side of this equa- b. Plot a di
tion will be either constantsor known functionsoffl. It is thus possibleto plotlhe along thr
right-hand side against/J and thus determine the value of /j which balanies the
c. Calculag
equation.
sured as
NumericalExample
The following numerical example illustrates the use of the Buckley-Leverett Heat Balanca
methodto analyzea steamflood.
The problemr
Problem A one-dimensional, adiabaticsteamfloodis carried out using dry gram. The fd
saturatedsteamat 3.5 MPa (243"C).
flow of steam
The steamis injectedinto the core at a rateof 10kg m-2 h-1.The corehasthe
the computed
following properties:
Linear Stearnflot
Initial temperature 25"C oil

Length 50 cm Saturation
Porosity 0.35
Initial oil saturation 0.060
0.83
Irreduciblewater saturation 0.060
0.17 both initially and for
steamfloodedcore
0.095
Residualoil saturation 0.06 after exhaustivesteamflood
0.130
basedon oil at Tn 0 . 16 5
Permeabilityto steamat S,i and .!o, 0.9 p,m2 0.200
Permeabilityto oil at S"i and S" : 0 1.0 p,,m2 0.235
0.270
0.305
0.340
The materialsinvolvedhave the followingproperties: 0.375
0.410
PhysicalProperties 0.445
0.480
oil Rock Water Steam 0.515
Density at 25'C kg/cu m 966 2,600 1,000 0.518
17.54
Viscosityat25'Ccp 2,000 0.550
0.9
Viscosityat Zs cp 4 0.585
0.018
Mean heat capacitykykg "C 2.1, 0.84 4.2 (r)In
kiloloulespcr
Enthalpy at G above7n
k/kg 458 183 945 2,697
k/cu m H,, H,, H", H" 442,235 476,112 944,700 47,293 Figure5..
of the reservci
( i . e . , / ' ) .I t * i l l
Assumethat the flow in the steamchamberis segregated-i.e.,that the rela- the steam for a
tive permeabilitiesare linear functionsof So. steamchambe
Alternati
a. calculate the time required for steamto breakthrough, the number of pore required to hea
volumesof steam (measuredas liquid water) that have been injected at this be convertedto
time, and the correspondingpercent recoveryof the original oil in place. of the densitie
224 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Analysisof Sts

I sideof this equa- b. Plot a diagramof saturation(water, steam,and oil) versusfractional distance
pssible to plot the along the core at steambreakthrough.
rhich balancesthe Calculate the recovery as a function of pore volumesof steaminjected mea-
sured as liquid and plot a curve.
Heat Balance,Saturations, and Recovery

Buckley-Leverett
The problemwas solvedby meansof a tabular calculationusing a spreadsheet pro-
ried out using dry gram. The following table showsthe calculated relative permeabilities,fractional
flow of steam, andf ' as a function of the oil saturation.The sixth column shows
'. The corehasthe
the computedheat content of the chamber.
LinearSteamfloodNumericalExample rl
r,
oil
Permeabilitypm2
f f' Chamber Recovery ,
Saturation Steam Oil Steam Steam Heat(r) Vo OOIP
0.060 0.900 0.000 1.0000 0.0000 0 92.77
0.060 0.900 0.000 1.0000 0.0065 7,193 92.77 i
;- and for
rd core
0.095
0.130
0.860
0.820
0.050
0.090
0.9998
0.9995
0.0071
0.0078
? Rq5
I 715
92.58
92.01
I
;tive steamflood
0.165 0.780 0.140 0.9992 0.0087 9,678 91.05
al Tn
0.200 0.740 0.180 0.9989 0.0097 10,818 89.72
0.235 0.700 0.230 0.9985 0.0108 12,181, 88.00
0.270 0.650 0.270 0.9981 0.0122 1,3,824 85.91
0.305 0.610 0.320 0.9977 0.0139 1,5,827 83.43
0.340 0.570 0.360 0.9972 0.0159 18,300 80.57
0.375 0.530 0.410 0.9966 0.0185 21,394 77.32
0.410 0.490 0.450 0.9959 0.0216 25,330 73.70
0.445 0.450 0.500 0.9950 0.0257 30,433 69.69
0.480 0.410 0.550 0.9940 0.0311 ?7 to? 65.31
Water Steam 0.515 0.370 0.590 0.9928 0.0382 46,408 60.54
0.518 0.360 0.590 0.9927 0.0389 47,271, 60-20_
1,000 r7.54 0.550 0.330 0.640 0.9913 0.0483 5q 171 55.39
0.9
0.585 0.290 0.680 0.9894 0.0628 78,385 49.86
0.018
(t)In
A1 kilo.loulesper cubic meter of injectedsteam.
945 2,697
r-r.700 4'7,293 Figure 5.44 showsthe heat required to heat the steamchamberas a function
of the reservoir pore volumesthat have been heatedper volume of injected steam
(i.e.,f ').It will be seenthat the heatrequirementsare equalto the availableheatin
-i.e., that the rela- the steam for a reservoir pore volume of 0.0389.This is the pore volume in the
steamchamberper volume of injected steam,measuredas vapor.
Alternatively, we can saythat I/0.0389 : 25.7volumesof steam,asvapor, are
he number of pore required to heat and sweepone pore volume of reservoir.The steamvolumescan
rn injected at this be convertedto the more conventionalwater equivalentby multiplying by the ratio
ral oil in place. of the densities,i.e., by I7.54/1000.
eavy Oil Chap.5 Analysis of SteamfloodUsing the Buckley-LeverettTheory 225

Required
o
t 6oooo
Available
b o-
40000
o
c.
?
x b60
(0.0389,
47293)
6
t
o
fi zoooo o40
o
,;
o *eo
o
I0
0 0.02 0.o4 0,06 Figure 5.44 Heat Balancefor Steam
ReservolrPoreVolumeeper VolumeInlectedf' Chamber
Porevolumeof core : 50 x 0.35cm3/cm2

: 0.175^'l^'
Displacemrrl
Steamrequiredfor breakthrough= 0.175x 25.7 x I7.54
: 78.9ksl^' The fluid mir
water. Its cc
chamber:this
Time requiredfor steambreakthrough: Z# = 7.89h
1o
The saturationsare plotted as a function of /'in Figure 5.45,and the position of MaterialBalarrce
the condensate front is alsoshown.The water and oil saturationsbeyondthe front
are discussedlater.
The oil recoveryhasbeencalculatedin the seventhcolumn of the preceding
table using equation5.57.The percentoil recoveryis plotted as a function of the
steaminjectedin Figure 5.46.The pointsfor beyondthe steambreakthroughcome Steam Ch.
from the previoustable; up to breakthrough,the percentrecoveryvarieslinearly Connatc
with the steaminjection.tIt shouldbe noted,however,that in general,the recovery Remaro
Steam
is not volumetricallyequalto the steaminjection.
Total po
Injected sr
Effluent r:
0.8 Displaced
l" in effl*
z
I 0.6
E
P o.+ Condensationlronl
The materialt
o
for the left-ha
(measured asli
About 2% of r
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.0s 0.06 o.o7 o.o8 Figure 5.45 Saturationsduring placedoil. Thc
(l/PvInlected
Distance measured
asvapor) Steamflood paniedby l.lO
TThestraight line the steamchar
in Figure 5.46 should really be two straight lines, as in Figure 5.49. The
changein slope occurs when water condensatebreaksthrough. However,with the linear relative sationfront aQ
permeabilityrelationsassumedhere,the oil displacedaheadof the condensationfront is very small lar to that sbo
and can be neslected. curve is muchI

of HeavyOil Chap.5 Analysisof Sre
SteamIniected(PVas Vapor)
50 100
6
o
E60
SteambreaKhrough
o40
o
c)
seo
Heat Balancefor Steam

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.s Figure 5.46 Oil Recovery as a Func-
Steam Iniected (PVas Liquid) tion of the Quantity of Steam Injected
m.',/cm2
:
'{
- x Displacementof Oil ahead of the CondensationFront I
17.54
The fluid mixture flowing from the steamchamberconsistsof viscouscold oil and
water. Its compositionmay be obtained from a material balancefor the steam I
chamber;this is shownin the followine table.
rh
i-5.and the position of MaterialBalancefor Steam at Breakthrough

,tionsbeyondthe front Basis:One volumeof iniectedsteam
'lumn of the preceding Steam measured Steammeasured

'd as a function of the as vapor as liquid
rm breakthroughcome Steam Chamber Contents:
ecoveryvarieslinearly Connate water 0.0066 0.377
n general,the recovery Remaining oil 0.0129 0,73s
Steam 0.0194 0.019
Total pore volume of chamber 0.0389 2.218
Injected steam 1 (vapor) 1 (asliquid)
Effluent water 0.0172 0.981
Displaced oil 0.0194 1.108
/" in effluent 0.41 0.47
The materialbalanceis basedon one volumeof injectedsteammeasuredasvapor

for the left-hand column and liquid for the right. One volume of injectedsteam
(measuredas liquid)producesa steamchamberhavinga total porevolumeof 2.218.
About 2% of the injectedsteamremainsbehind to replacethe volume of the dis-
S a t u r a t i o n sd u r i n g placedoil. The steamcondensate or effluent watermeasures 0.981volumes,accom-
paniedby 1.108volumesof displacedoil. The fractionof waterin the effluent from
the steamchamberis 0.47.The reservoirsaturationdownstreamfrom the conden-
n.\. as in Figure 5.49. The
.:r.uith the linear relative sationfront adjustsitself to correspondto this fractionalflow; the situationis simi-
: c : r s a t i o nf r o n t i s v e r y s m a l l lar to that shown in Figure 5.21,althoughin this casethe water fractional flow
curve is muchsteeper.With the relativepermeabilitycurvesassumedhere and the
of HeavyOil Chap.5 Analysisof SteamfloodUsingthe Buckley-Leverett

Theory 227
muchlowerviscosityof watercomparedto that of oil, only a slightincreasein water
saturationis requiredto accommodatethe water flow. It is calculatedthat the water
saturationwill rise from the irreduciblevalue of 0.17to about0.171-a very small ,r=
change.A waterflood shock front racesaheadof the condensationfront, and it is
o
characterizedby this very slight increasein water saturation. In this example,the G
waterflood effect downstreamof the condensationfront is very small. The main
effect is that of the displacedoil moving through the reservoiras it leavesthe con-
densationfront; the accompanying water condensate is ableto flow with very little
changein water saturation.The calculatedsaturationsare shownby the solid lines
as functionsof the distancealonsthe core of Fieure 5.47.
EFFECTOF SHAPEOF RELATIVEPERMEABILITY

CURVES
o
V
0L
Distancr I
point and lessn

In the proceedingnumericalcalculation,it wasassumedthat the relativepermeabili- ferencein the r
ties were linear functionsof saturation.The calculationhas been repeatedin this a considerabl
sectionassumingthat the relativepermeabilitiesvary with the cube of the mobile casethe \.\'ateri
saturation.The resultsare tabulatedin the followingtable.The calculatedsatura- tial recoverr.is I
tions are shown as dotted lines in Fisure 5.47. ditions at the E
The calcu
Figure5.49.
Assumedto Vary with the Cubeof the Mobile
Flood NumericalExamplewith RelativePermeabilities The follor
Saturation
1. In the inir
Permeabilitiespm2
oil f f' Chamber Recovery relativepe
Saturation Steam oil Steam Steam Heat(r) Vo OOIP becauseol
0.060 0.90 0.00 1.0000 0.0000 0 92.77 tion front-
0.095 0.78 0.00 1.0000 0.0000 49 90.05 2. At steam
0.130 0.68 0.00 1.0000 0.0002 239 87.18 two exan{
0.165 0.58 0.00 1.0000 0.0006 666 84.t7 3. After stea
0.200 0.49 0.01 0.9999 0.0013 1,482 81.02
lationship
0.235 0.42 0.01 0.9999 0.0025 2,938 77.72
low oil sat
0.2'70 0.35 0.02 0.9997 0.0047 5,443 74.29
0.305 0.29 0.03 0.9995 0.0082 9,682 70.71 PRESSUREDROPFOR
0.340 0.23 0.05 0.9991 0.0141 t6,823 66.99
0.375 0.19 0.0'7 0.9983 0.0240 28,901, 63.t4 The pressuredn
0.40'r 0.15 0.09 0.99'72 0.0389 47,3tl 59.49 particularlywitl
0.410 0.15 0.09 0.99'71 0.0407 49,556 59.15 reservoiris freg
0.445 0.11 0.13 0.9950 0.0694 85,508 55.02
0.480 0.08 0.16 0.9914 O,IZOL 149,593 50.76
0.515 0.06 0.21, 0.9852 0.2t21 26'7,253 46.38
0.550 0.04 0.26 0.9739 0.3851 490,864 41.90
0.585 0.03 0.32 0.9531 0.7224 931,479 37.34
(t)In
kilojoulesper cubic meter of injectedsteam.
It is interestingto note that the quantityof oil remainingin the steamcham-

ber is almostthe samefor the cubic relativepermeabilitycurvesas for the linear
ones.However,it is distributeddifferently. More oil remainsnear the injection
228 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Pressure
Dropfor
ight increasein water
;ulatedthat the water
t 0.171-a very small
ntion front, and it is STEAM
In this example,the .E 0.6
(! orL
ery small. The main
r as it leavesthe con-
fr 0.4
""'f'v-J'o'"'' "''
Q
r flow with very little

rwn by the solid lines Linear
Rel.Perm.
Curves
Figure 5.47 Saturationsduring Steam-
0 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.08 flood. Effect of RelativePermeability
Distance(1/PVinjected,measuredas vapor) Curves
point and lessnear the front for the cubic curves.There is also a considerabledif-
rerelativepermeabili- ferencein the waterflooding zone aheadof the steamfront. With the cubic curves, f!
a considerablyhigher water saturation is required to provide oil mobility. In this ,t
beenrepeatedin this
re cube of the mobile casethe water is ableto sweepadditionaloil aheadof the steamfront, and the ini- H
'he tial recoveryis better.The Buckley-Leverett diagramin Figure5.48showsthe con-
calculatedsatura-
ditions at the water front.
The calculatedoil recoveryis plotted againstthe volume of steaminjected in
Figure5.49.
rh rhe cube of the Mobile The following featuresshould be noted.
1. In the initial stages,additionaloil is recoveredin the examplewith the cubic
lhamber Recovery relativepermeabilitycurvesas comparedto that with the linear ones.This is
Heat(t) Vo OOIP becauseof the additional oil displacedby water downstreamof the condensa-
0 92.77 tion front.
49 90.05 2. At steambreakthrough,the recoveriesare almost exactlythe samefor the
239 87.18 two examples.
666 84.r7 3. After steambreakthrough,the systemwith the linear relativepermeabilityre-
t,482 81.02 lationshipsshowsincreasinglybetter recoveries.The reasonfor this is that at
2,938 77.72
low oil saturations,the oil is more mobilein this system.
5,443 74.29
9,682 70.71, PRESSUREDROPFOR STEAMFLOODING
I 6,823 66.99
28,901 63.1,4 The pressuredrop required to force steaminto the reservoiris of great importance,
4 7 , 3 I1 59.49 particularlywith viscousoils. The rate at which steamcan be introducedinto the
19,556 59.15 reservoir is frequently controlled by the pressuredrop.
85,508 55.02
149,593 50.76
?67,253 46.38
' 0.8
490.864 41.90 o
tr
93t,479 37.34 b o.o
6
WaterFront
=
G v.e Sw= 0 223
.9 f*= o'+23
E 0., Figure 5.48 CalculatedConditionsat
rg in the steamcham- L
Water Front for Steamfloodwith As-
lrves as for the linear 0 0,2 0.4 0.6 sumedCubic RelativePermeability
ins near the injection Water Saturallon Curves
f HeavyOil Chap.5 PressureDrop for Steamflooding 229

100 much more viso
Linearrelative
zonesare shorl
q
80 CubicrelativoDermeabilitv that in the ccld
-
flow of the stcr
E60 and the temper
* SteamBreakthrough
cal examplesh
i40
o 6 MPa/m. For ti
e 3 MPa, or over
&. zo WaterBreakthrough
Steamhe
0 but as it forces
0123 a Figure 5.49 CalculatedOil Recovery
SteamInlectedIn PoreVolumesas Water
creasesenornxl
as a Function of SteamIniection
Steamcan flog r
steamfloodusedin the numerical
Consider,for example,the laboratory-scale dense,it mug c
exampledescribedpreviously.Resultsof the calculationpertainingto the pressure posedonly if th
drop are given in the following table. to becomeexpc
out the other.
Imaginea
PressureGradientsin SteamfloodNumericalExample
Steamis beingir
Steam Zone by the continrn
Zone Ahead
Inlet At front of Condensation Front temperatureand
The steam
Compositionof flowing stream
process.If the ra
Oil Va 0 0.'73 53
Water 0 0 47 densationfront,
Steam 100 99.27 0 voir beyond.thc
pressuregoesup
VolumetricFlow Rates A problem
oil m3/m'zh 0 0.0042 0.0111 very high value.
Water 0 0 0.0098 fracture occurs.
Steam 0.5701 0.5660 0
voirs when ecom
Permeability
steamfloodingm
Oil pm2 0 0.590 0.9996 injectedfluids fl
Water 0 0 0.0004 pressuredrop im
Steam 0.900 0.360 0 Under thes
rection of the fna
PressureGradient
kPa/m 3.17 7.86 6160 duced. The pres
psift 0.14 0.35 272 in parting the re
maybe verticalo
within the reserv
This table showsthe conditionsat the inlet to the core,just beforethe con- changeas the rer
densationfront and just beyondthe condensationfront. The flowing streamcon- tions; it has bee
sists almost entirely of steam even immediatelybefore the condensationfront originally were \
(99.27volVosteam).The very high ratio of steamto oil is the reasonfor the high (Denbina, Bobeq
effectiveness of the steamin driving the oil forward.Immediatelybeyondthe front, It is interes
where the steamhas shrunk in volume becauseof its condensationto water, the the condensate n
ratio of oil volumeto watervolumein the flowing streamis much smaller;also,in region-either w
this region,the temperaturehas fallen to the reservoirtemperatureand the oil is doesnot increase
230 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Pressure

Dropfor
much more viscous.At the bottom of the table,the pressuregradientsin the two
zonesare shown.The pressuregradientwithin the steamzoneis only about0.1%of
that in the cold zone beyondthe condensationfront. There is little restrictionto
flow of the steamand oil within the steamzone, but as soon as steamcondenses
and the temperaturefalls, there is a very greatresistance. In the particularnumeri-
cal example shown, the pressuregradient within the cold flow zone is over
6 MPa/m. For the 500-cmcore of the numericalexample,the pressuredrop is about
3 MPa, or over 400 psi.
Steamhas little problem in sweepingthe oil from the steam-saturatedzone,
but as it forcesthe oil through the condensationfront, the resistanceto flow in-
alculated Oil Recovery
creasesenormously.The flows within the steamzone and beyond are coupled.
rf Steam Injection
Steamcan flow only if it can condenseat the perimeterof the steamzone.To con-
tsed in the numerical dense,it must contact fresh cold reservoir. Fresh cold reservoir can become ex-
rining to the pressure posedonly if there is sufficient pressureto force the oil through it and thus allow it
to becomeexposedto the hot steam.one phaseof the processcannotoccur with- ,l
out the other.
Imagine a steamfloodingprocessin which the mechanismsare balanced.
;N
Steamis being introducedcontinuouslyand is condensedby the coolingprovided
Zone Ahead
by the continuously uncoveredreservoir. The swept reservoir is heated to steam
of Condensation Front temperatureand the oil within it is forceddownstream.
The steamchamberpressurereachesan equilibriumvalue that balancesthe
process.If the rate of injectionof steamis increased, moreoil is suppliedto the con-
53
47
densationfront, more pressureis required to force this oil through the cold reser-
0 voir beyond, the required pressuredifferential increases,and the steam chamber
pressuregoesup accordingly.
A problemarisesif the oil is very viscousand the injectionpressurerisesto a
0.0111 very high value. In this situation the pressurecan reach a level at which reservoir
0.0098 fracture occurs.This is the situationin many, indeedmost,virgin bitumen reser-
0 voirs when economicsteam-injectionratesare achieved.Under theseconditionsthe
steamfloodingmechanism,which hasbeendescribedpreviously,fails. Instead,the
0.9996 injectedfluids flow into the openingfracture beyond,and becausethere is little
0.0004 pressuredrop involved in their transport, the fracture extends.
0 Under theseconditions,the heatingoccursas a finger extendingalongthe di-
rectionof the fracture.The amountof oil displacedby the processis drasticallyre-
6160
duced. The pressureis dissipatednot in advancinga broad condensationfront but
2',72 in parting the reservoirmatrix. The situationis shownin Figure5.50.The fracture
may be verticalor horizontaldependingupon the initial in situ compressive stresses
within the reservoir.This is discussed further in Chapter6. The in situ stressesmay
:, just beforethe con- changeas the result of stressesintroduced by neighboringthermal recoveryopera-
: flowing streamcon- tions; it has been found at least in one project that reservoirsin which fractures
e condensationfront originally were vertical change so that subsequentfractures become horizontal
re reasonfor the high (Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter 1987).
rtelybeyondthe front, It is interesting to note that although the fracture may advancerapidly and
:nsationto water, the the condensatemay be carried away alongits length, the areal extent of the heated
muchsmaller;also,in region-either vertical or horizontal, dependingupon the fracture orientation)-
reratureand the oil is doesnot increasemuchfasterthan it would if a broad condensationfront were beins
il HeavyOil Chap.5 PressureDrop for Steamflooding 231

C O L DR E G I O N I M M O B I LOEI L
burden.the b
areathat mus
Figure 5.50 SteamFlow and Condensationwithin Fracture
ward and sidr
horizontaldis
carried forward by the samesteaminjectionrate in a reservoircontainingoil of a for an easiert
lower viscosity.The readershould refer to the resultsof the comparisonof the Another
heatingof a reservoirfrom a fracturewith thoseof the Marx-Langenheimfrontal is that the cc
advancethat were given in Figure 3.I2. In that example,for instance,the heated increasingll's
area for the fracture was about double that for the frontal advancein a reservoir step-liketenp
100ft thick. ual. In Chapt
When steam advancesinto the fracture, heat is still transferredto the oil advancinefm
sand,and the oil becomesfluid. The volume of oil heatedby a given amount of vance(seeeq
steamis approximatelythe same.However,the pressureavailableis largelyspentin to estimateth
disruptingthe reservoirmatrixorather than in moving the oil. In Figure 5.50,the Eventua
oil is movedforward somewhatby the pressuregradientalongthe fracture,but this the drive is m
is generallyinadequateto achievemuchmovement.The hot oil remainsbesidethe ity. Meansfr
fracture,and the steamand waterrun throughit. Eventuallythe condensate reaches describedb1 !
the pressuresink, and steambreaksthrough without having displacednearly as ationsVogelp
much oil as is possiblein a nonfracturingsystem. the productiu
steambypass
which is ecorx
STEAM OVERRIDE As the p
In a lateralsteamfloodin which steamis injectedat a pressurebelowthat required well, the mecb
for fracturing,with the purposeof pushingoil horizontallytowardone or morepro- oil is driven ar
duction wells, there is a tendencyfor the condensationfront to become tilted so in a direction;
that steamruns over the top of the colderoil below.This is shownin Figure 5.51. parallelto the
As the steamfront advances,the volumeof the steamchamberincreasesand oil is with the drag
displaced.This oil tends to flow downward and sidewaystowards the production tivelysmallun
well, and it is accompaniedby condensate well is hindere
from the steam.
The effectivenessof this displacementis generallysimilar to that described well with the r
previously.However,becausethe steamis advancingrapidly under the colder over- As is me
'The energyis expended horizontal pro(
in carrying out work againstthe stressesin the reservoirmatrix.
This work, evenfor a vertical fracture,resultsin a lift of the surfaceof the ground abovethe reser-
and by makir4
voir. In cyclic steamprojects,someof this energybecomesavailable,during the productioncycle,to proach is to dr
provide compactiondrive to move the reservoirfluids (Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter 1987). injectionand p
232 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 SteamOverrb

_ Eo t L I
II
} WATER
I
i,,A
Oil + Condensate
FlowPaths
Figure 5.51 SteamOverride during Steamfloodingof Mobile Oil
burden,the heat lossesare greaterthan for a linear flood becauseof the greater
area that must be heated.The advancingsteamchambertends to produce a down-
ward and sidewaysdrive over a larger area than would be achievedwith a simple
rir containingoil of a
horizontaldisplacement
for an easierdisplacement
flow. The enlargedcondensation
of the oil.
front areatendsto allow i
re comparisonof the Another factor which becomesimportant with highly overridingsteamfronts H
x-Langenheimfrontal is that the conductivetransferof heat beyondthe condensation interfacebecomes
' instance,the heated increasinglysignificantas the surfaceof the condensation front grows.The sharp
I
dvancein a reservoir step-liketemperaturegradientwhich occursinitially at the interfacebecomesgrad-
ual. In Chapter2 it wasshownthat the quantityof heatwhich is movedaheadof an
I
transferredto the oil advancingfront is, in the steadystate,inverselyproportional to the velocity of ad-
br a given amount of vance(seeequation2.45 et seq.).The methodsdescribedin Chapter2 can be used
ableis largelyspentin to estimatethe heatwhich is aheadof the advancingfront.
il. In Figure5.50,the Eventuallythe steamchamberreachesthe productionwell, and at this time
r the fracture,but this the drive is mostlydownward,so the movementof oil is assistedsomewhatby grav-
oil remainsbesidethe ity. Meansfor calculatingthe thermalefficiencyof processes suchasthis havebeen
he condensate reaches describedby Vogel(1984)and were describedin Chapters3 and 4. In thesesitu-
rg displacednearly as ationsVogelpointsout that the injectionof excesssteamresultslargelyin bypassto
the productionwell. The rate of injectionshouldbe controlledso as to minimize
steambypass;however,in suchsituationsthe rate of productionmay be belowthat
which is economic.
As the point is approachedwhere steamcan break through to the production
well, the mechanismby which oil is moved gradually changesfrom one where the
re belowthat required
oil is driven awayfrom the advancinginterface through the colder oil beyond (i.e.,
ward one or more pro-
in a direction awayfrom the interface) to one where the movementis more or less
It to becometilted so
parallel to the interfacewith the driving force being provided by gravity combined
shownin Figure5.51.
with the drag of the steamflowing within the steamzone.This last effect is rela-
rcr increases
and oil is
tively smallunlessexcessive steambypassis permitted.The flow to the production
ruards the production
well is hindered by the nature of the radial flow to it and the limited contactof the
well with the reservoir.
rilar to that described
As is mentionedin Chapter7, the processcan be improvedby using extended
underthe colderover-
horizontal productionwells, which increasethe collection capacityfor draining oil,
:s in the reservoirmatrix. gravity drainageprinciple. A related ap-
and by making use of the steam-assisted
re ground abovethe reser-
ng the productioncycle,to
proach is to drill in-fill wells to recover someof the remaining oil left betweenthe
. and Rotter 1987). injection and production wells; this is discussedin Chapter 4.
rf HeavyOil Chap.5 Steam Override 233

The useof hot water or low steamquality is also describedin Chapter-4as a In thE- |
meansfor recoveringfurther oil from mature steamfloods where steamhas broken have been cm
throughto the producers.The densityof the waterallowsit to fall to the bottom of assumedthal t
the steamchamberand thus invadethe regionoccupiedby the remainingoil. An- ing form:
other approachis to employlow quality steamthroughoutthe drive; this approach
is discussed
in Chapter4 in conjunctionwith the correlationsdevelopedby Gomaa.
EFFECTOF STEAM OUALITY
In the analysisof the adiabatic,one-dimensional steamfloodshownin Figure5.42, wheren.C-C

it was assumedthat the steamwas dry and saturated.In practicalprocesses, wet From thc
steamis employed.Qualitatively,the effect of water in the steamis to increasethe the ratio R can
watersaturationin the steamfloodregion,sinceliquid wateraswell as steamhasto
flow. The heat in the liquid water that reachesthe condensation front is alsotrans-
ferred and this contributesto the advanceof the front. On a weightbasis,the total
heat of wet steamis lessthan that of dry steam;however,on a volumebasis,with Equating
the volumemeasuredas that of the wet steammixture, the heat contentis larger. leadsto
Water at its boiling point has a higher heat content per unit volume than does
steam.For a given quantityof injectedheat,the condensation front movesforward
a slightlysmallerdistancethan it doesfor dry steaminjection.The reasonfor this is
that the flooded steamchambercontainsslightlymoreheatbecausethe watersatu- This ma1'bere
ration and oil saturationare both slightly higher.However,the differenceis rela- termsof the s&
tively small,as will be seen.
The conditionswithin the steamfloodedregioncan be approximatedby as-
suming that the flowing ratio of steamvapor to liquid water remains constant where
within the steamfloodregion. This assumptionis reasonableexcept in extreme
casesbecausethe amountof water left behind to provide the increasedwater satu-
ration is only a small fraction of the total steamand water flow.
The fractionalsteamquality,f,, is definedby the following equation.
Thesum
t
J'-
-
q*pJ
QtPt
q'p'
(s.se)
This may be rearrangedas follows to give the ratio of water flow to steam Eliminat
flow (on a volumetricbasis):
q!=e:ft;nl =o (s.60) This ma1
Q" P"L I' J tion as a furrti
The flows of the individual componentsare given by the Darcy equations:
-
K"A
-
AP
=
Qo -
&o dX
The rr.ate
k*A AP
Qn
= -- (s.61)
Pw 0x
Equation
k,A aP for any given o
Qt=
lt, 6x before;the com
234 The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Effectof Stean t

d in Chapter 4 as a In thesethree equations,the relativepermeabilitiesand absolutepermeability
:e steam has broken have been combinedas singleterms. For the purposeof this analysis,it will be
all to the bottom of assumedthat the three permeabilitiescan be expressed by equationsof the follow-
remaining oil. An- ing form:
irive; this approach
r elopedby Gomaa.
ko = Co(So - t,,)'l
k, = C,(S* - r"'rl (s.62)
ft, = C,(S,)'
oun in Figure5.42, wheren, Co,C*, and C, are constants.

tical processes, wet From the expressions fot q, and 4" in equation5.61,a secondexpressionfor
m is to increasethe the ratio R can be obtained.
*ell assteamhasto
Q *= ! ' P ' = R (s.63)
r front is alsotrans- KtF*
Qt
:iqhtbasis,the total rt
, rolumebasis,with Equating the right-hand sides of equations5.60 and 5.63 and rearranging ;!
at contentis larger. leadsto I
volume than does
ront movesforward
'he
reasonfor this is
ausethe watersatu-
?=ff^=?(+)' (s.64)
I
This may be rearrangedto give the followingexpressionfor the water saturationin

e differenceis rela- termsof the steamsaturation:
S,=S,r*FS,
rpproximatedby as-
'r remainsconstant where
except in extreme
rcreasedwater satu- B_ (?r^)" (s.6s)
re equation. The sum of the saturationsof the three individual phasesmustbe unity.
(s.se) S,+S,*So=l (s.66)

Eliminating S, from 5.65and 5.66leadsto
later flow to steam
s,,+(L+p)s,*s,=l (s.67)
This may be rearrangedto give the followingexpressionfor the steamsatura-
(s.60)
tion as a function of the oil saturation:
Darcy equations: -S,-S,;)
s,=( 1 ( 1+ p ) (s.68)
The water saturationis obtainedbv difference.

(s.61) S,=L-S,-So (5.69)
Equations5.68and 5.69allow the steamandwatersaturationsto be calculated
for any given oil saturation.The Buckley-Leverettmethod may now be applied as
before;the combinedwater plus steamstreamis treatedas a singlecomponent.
teavy Oil Chap,5 Effect of Steam Ouality 235

We define the fractional flow of water plus steamas
Q,*Qs (1 +R)4,
"
rwr (s.70)
qo + q, + q, q, + (I + R)q,
'* n*J;=)
.9 0.6
The ratio of oil flow to steam(vapor)is given by L
f
t 0.4
KoF, p,C"ls"-so,\n a
Qo
(s.71)
Q, K,Fo lroC,\ S, I
Combiningequations5.70and 5.71leadsto the following expressionfor f^.
I 0.02
Jws Pore Volun
(s.72) The calc

the distance6
- 'So'\'
,*r[T/
/ S' per Gigai:ule r
heat, the frff
qualities.The ,
where
of the steamfi
t steam saturat
n-tL:C'l \ alsobe seen.
'l
tlo C" \1 + R/
through the cl
This may be differentiatedto give an expressionfor f!",. remainingbet
injected stearn
c-cl
, , _=
/;
df,,
=
_ -K=
df*,_---"r/s,-.\'-trI
r"f,",\= * rs.z:l interface.
+sJ
d(s, s-l ilt ffil The cakr
Figure5.53.R
The equationsdescribedhere can be usedto predict the saturationsand re-
of the oil at ba
covery from a steamfloodby meansof a tabular calculationsimilar to that de-
would be abh
scribedpreviously.The positionof the condensate front is determinedby the same
type of heat balance;it is necessaryto treat the wet steamas a singlecomponent
and to use the volume of the combinedvapor and liquid in the calculation.The
heat available in a cubic meter of the wet steam (measuredas mixture) will be
0.8
higherthan that in a cubic meterof vapor.
The resultsof a seriesof calculationsof this type are shown in Figures5.52 E
o ^^
and 5.53.Thesenumericalexampleswere calculatedusingthe data from the previ-
ous numerical example.The only difference in the input data is the steamquality. L
f
Figure 5.52 showsthe oil, steam,and, by difference,water saturationin the o

(n
nr
v.a
steamchamberfor caseswherethe steamqualityis l00Vo,50Vo, and25Vo.As before,
the horizontal axis representsthe distancefrom the injector measuredin pore vol-
umesper pore volume of injectedsteam,the steambeing measuredas the volume of
the mixture of vapor and water. Decreasingthe quality of the steamhas the effect
of increasingthe heat supply per pore volume and the distanceto which the con- v u.a
densationfront advances. Cubic Mr
The Displacementof Heavy Oil Chap.5 Effect of Stean

(s.70)
1\
+Rl
.9 0.6
L
J
-^ nA
(n Heot in Steom
(s.71) 100% 47293
50% 62758
I expressionforfi". 25% 92142
Figure 5.52 Effect of SteamQuality
o 0.02 0.o4 0.06 0.08 on Saturations.Linear RelativePerme-
PoreVolumesper lnjectedPoreVolume ability Functions
l;
(s.72) The calculatedsaturationsare also shownin Figure 5.53.Here the scalefor H
the distancefrom the injector has been expressedas cubic meters of pore volume
per Gigajoule(GJ) of injected heat. These curves show that for a given quantity of
heat, the frontal advanceis nearly the samefor each of the three injected steam
qualities.The effect of lowering the steamquality is to reduce,slightly, the advance {
of the steamfront becauseof the higher heat capacityof the chamber.The smaller
steam saturations and the larger oil and water saturationsof the chamber can
also be seen.The water saturationis higher becauseof the need for water to flow
through the chamber(i.e., saturationsaboveS,; are required).The oil saturations
remainingbehind the front are also'higherbecauseof the lower volume of the
injected steam. Less steam flow is available to drag the oil to the condensation
!o-Jo'l interface.
rs.z:t
,(t + B )l The calculated percent recoveriesof the OOIP are tabulated in the box in
Figure 5.53.For a given injection of heat, the dry steamis predictedto remove60Vo
: saturationsand reof the oil at breakthrough,whereas,for the sameheat injection, 25Voquality steam
r similar to that de- would be able to remove about5l% from a slightly smaller steamedvolume.
:rmined by the same
; a single component
the calculation.The , 1 O O %Q u o l i t v
t
,/ ./
,/ 50%
----
/' 25%
as mixture) will be
0.8
:" :' 1'1':t':' ;
:.:.S-:-- :'
;'m
I
rown in Figures5.52
data from the previ-
't u.o I T
a
a
t -,i
is the steamquality. l
rter saturationin the -S 6a
and25Vo. As before,
neasuredin pore vol- 0.2 t/ i
rred asthe volumeof
,"t
tl / lsoz
o:n lccq-
steamhasthe effect Figure 5.53 Effect of Heat Input on
ce to which the con- O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Saturations.Linear RelativePerme-
Cubic Metres of Pore Volume per GJ abilityFunctions
l-leavyOil Chap.5 Effect of Steam Ouality 237

EFFECTOF VERTICAL HEAT LOSSES
In the analysisjust described,it is assumedthat there are no vertical heat losses

from the expandingsteamchamber.Considerthe situationshown in Figure 5.42,
in which heatis lost by verticalconduction,both upwardsand downwardsfrom the o
steamfloodregion.Suchlosseshave the effect of reducingthe heat availableto ad- E60
vancethe front and also of reducingthe quality of the steamthat is flowing. The o
o40
effectwill vary with time. Initially in the flood, therewill be little areafor heat to
be conductedaway,and the effect on the processwill be small.As the flood pro- *eo
gresses, the rate of heatlossincreases, and a smallerand smallerfractionof the in-
jected heat is availableto advancethe front. Heat balancesfor this effect were
discussedin Chapter 3 for severalsituations.These may also be applied to the
presentsituationusing the averagesteamchamberheat capacity,as predictedbe-
fore. It is suggested that for practicalpurposes,the magnitudeof the effect upon 2. In the
the recoveryof oil can be estimatedby includingthe lossesin the calculationof the 1l6rth
heat availableto extendthe front and by using an averagequality of the steamin greater
order to estimateits effect upon recovery. prodr.rc
More elaborateproceduresfor carrying out suchcalculations,which invorve
3. Becaus
the approximationof the steamchamberas a number of discretevolumes,have
steamb
beenproposed(Shutlerand Boberg 1972;Boberg1987).Thesemethodsare rather
floods t
involved and complicated;in many cases,the accuracyof the input data would
strongtl
probablynot justify the complexity.The methodsdescribedhere are relativelysim-
ple and can be readily carried out using tabular calculationswith a spreadsheet- 4. InaEa
type microcomputerprogram. fingen I
a succe
sateas i
EFFECTOF INCREASINGSTEAM VISCOSITY
fer. tbc
If the steamhad a higherviscosityit would be more effectivein displacingthe oil (steamf
from the steamchamber.As an exampleof this effect, the numerical example shownb
which was describedstartingon page224 wasrepeatedassumingthat the viscosity tempere
of the steamwas 0.05cp insteadof the true value of 0.018cp. This changehad the vancein
resultof decreasing, substantially,the oil saturationswhich remainedin the steam Until al
chamberand improving the recoveries.The oil recoveriesare plotted againstthe the sen
volume of steaminjectedin Figure 5.54.There was also a slight reductionin the With ho
quantityof steamrequiredto reachbreakthrough.This differenceresultedfrom the more fin
lower heat capacityof the steamchamber. 5. With ve
This calculationindicatesthat additivessuch as foam producingmaterials practica
should,becauseof their effectin increasingthe apparentviscosityof the steam,re- ture as
sult in a lower residualoil saturationin the steam-sweptregionsaswell as increase flo*'s al
the steam-drageffect. to the fr
the prod
GENERALCONCLUSIONSON DISPLACEMENT
The following qualitativeconclusionson the nature of displacementprocesses

for
heavyoils can be drawn:
1. when heavyoils are displacedby water,the watertendsto breakthroughvery Ann,teNro.\t. I

quickly.This would be so evenif therewere no frontal instability. Media."SPE
of HeavyOil Chap.5 Bibliography
ro vertical heat losses
80
hown in Figure5.42,
6
downwardsfrom the o
E60
: heatavailableto ad-
([t
l that is flowing. The B qo
o
little areafor heat to
all. As the flood pro- szo
ller fractionof the in-
Figure 5.54 Effect of Higher Steam
; for this effect were
0.5 11.522.5 Viscosity upon Calculated Oil Recov-
so be applied to the eries. Steam Injected (PZ as Vapor)
Steam Iniected (PVa8 Liquid)
rcitv,as predictedbe-
de of the effect upon 2. In the production of heavy oil by waterflooding,the water tends to run
the calculationof the
rality of the steamin
throughthe oil and dragsomeoil with it. The effectiveness of this processis
greater the lower the oil viscosity. Higher temperaturesgive better oil-water
f
f!
productionratiosbecauseof the betterviscosityratio. ,t

ations,which involve 3. Becauseof the stabilization resulting from the shrinkage on condensation,
scretevolumes,have steamhas a much lower tendencyto finger than doeswater. In many steam-
e methodsare rather floods the steamcondensationfront is more or lessstable,although there is a
:he input data would strongtendencyfor the steamto overridethe liquids.
I
3reare relativelysim- 4. In a steamflood,the watercondensate tendsto drain throughthe oil either as
s with a spreadsheet- fingers or in diffuse flow. This is often not undesirable,since in order to have
a successful heatingprocessusingsteamit is necessary to removethe conden-
sateas it is formed. As was discussed in the sectionon convectiveheat trans-
fer, the heat in the condensatecan be effectively transferred to the front
(steamfront) as long as uncondensedsteamremains at the front. As has been
: in displacingthe oil
shown by Miller, there is also a tendencyfor the front to be stabilizedby the
e numericalexample
temperaturegradient. Steamfloodingfronts can be relatively stable and ad-
ringthat the viscosity
vancein a regularmanner through the reservoirwith the steamoverriding.
This changehad the
Until all the latent heat of the steamis lost supplyingvertical losses,most of
lmainedin the steam
'e plotted againstthe the sensibleheat of the condensateis given up at the steaminterface as well.
With hot waterflooding, the front is much more unstableand there is much
ight reductionin the
more fingering of heat into the reservoir.
nce resultedfrom the
5. With very viscousoils, reservoir!_4cturingcan occur if steamis injectedat a
producingmaterials practical rate. This resultsin the heating of the reservoiradjacentto the frac-
rsity of the steam,re- ture as the steam flows into the fracture and condenses.The condensate
ns aswell as increase flows alongthe fracture. Although largevolumesof oil can be heatedadjacent
to the fracture, there is little driving force availableto move the heatedoil to
the production well, and oil production is small.
rcementprocesses
for
BIBLIOGRAPHY
to breakthroughvery Anl,rENro,M.E., and MrLLrR, C.A., "stability of Moving CombustionFronts in Porous

instability. Media," SPEJ,423-430,December1977.@ 1977SPE,
HeavyOil Chap.5 Bibliography 239

BAKEn,P. E., "Effect of Pressureand Rate on SteamZone Developmentin Steamflooding,"
SPEJ,274-284, October 1973.
BoneRG,R. C., "Thermal Methods of Oil Recovery,"J. Wiley, New york, 1987.
BucrLey, S.E., and Lnvnnrrr, M. c., "Mechanismof Fluid Displacement in Sands,"Trans.
AIME, 146,t07-n6, (L942).
cuuore, R. L., vaNMEuns,P., and vANDERPonr-,c., "The Instabilityof Slow,Immiscible,
viscousLiquid-Liquid Displacements in PermeableMedia," pet. Trans.AIME, 216,1gg-
194,(t959). @ 1959SPE.
Dere, L. P., "Fundamentalsof ReservoirEngineeringChapter L0," Elsevier Scientific Pub-
lishingCo., New York, 1978.
DeunrNA,E.S., Bonrr.c, T.c., and Rorrrn, M.B., "Evaluation of Key ReservoirDrive
Mechanismsin the Early Cyclesof SteamStimulationat Cold Lake," SPE 16737,Dallas,
1987.
Cycli
Haooonr, J., "DisplacementStability of Water Drives in Water-WetConnate-Water-Bearing
Reservoirs,"SPEJ,63-74, February1974.
LrvenErr, M.c., "Flow of oil-water Mixtures Through UnconsolidatedSands,"Trans.
AIME, L32,I49-t7t, (1939). O 1939SpE.
MILLln, C.A., "Stabilityof Moving Surfacesin Fluid Systemswith Heat and MassTrans-
port, III. Stabilityof Displacement
Frontsin PorousMedia," ArchE Journal,21,474-479, INTRODUCTION
(May 1975).
The useof crr
MusKer,M., "Flow of Homogeneous Fluids," McGraw Hill, New york, 1937.
proven to be ar
Nurr, C.W., "The PhysicalBasis of the Displacementof Oil from PorousMedia by other
Fluids: a CapillaryBundle Model," Proc. Roy. Soc.Lond., A3BZ,I55-I78, (1982).
ditions,and th
A signiF
PErnns,8.J., and FLocK, D.L., "The onset of InstabilityDuring Two-phaseImmiscible
Displacementin PorousMedia," SPEJ,249-258,April 1981.
tratednearto I
ents are highe
SannveN,P.G., and reyLoR, G.I., "The Penetrationof a Fluid into a porousMedium or
Hele-Shawcell containing a More ViscousLiquid," Proc. Roy. Soc., 4245, 3rz-329,
do the mostgs
(1es8). tional steamfb
heated as it flo
sHurr-en,N. D., and BoneRG, T. c., 'A one-Dimensional,Analytic Techniquefor predicting
Oil Recoveryby Hot Water or Steamflooding,"SpEJ, 489-498,Dec. 1972.
mustpassthru
At one eo
Suunro, R., and BanooN,C., rn EuropeanSymposiumon Enhancedoil Recovery(ed. J.
Brown), Edinburgh: Institute of Offshore Engineering,Heriot-Watt University, 303-334,
ing oil thatis x
(1e78). hereis to "meh
vaNMnuns, P., and vANDERPou, C., 'A TheoreticalDescriptionof Water-DriveProcesses
requirementsft
InvolvingViscousFingering,"Pet. Trans.,AIME, 2I3,103-112,(1958). quiredto raiser
voceL, J. H., "SimplifiedHeat calculationsfor steamfloods,"Jpr, rrzT-t136,July 19g4.
The othe
preciablemotilr
wELGe,H. J., "Simplified Method For computing oil Recovery By Gas or water Drive,"
circumstancetl
Trans. AIME, 195,91,-98,(1952).
tance;this canI
ment is relatedt
be much lower
In the fin
make it mobile
by reducingthe
injection decrea
the injectionc.u
generalreservc
of HeavyOil Chap,5
ent in Steamflooding,"
turk, 1987.
ment in Sands,"Trans.
t1-of Slow, Immiscible,

rans.AIME, 216,I88-
:lsevierScientificPub-
'Key ReservoirDrive
;e." SPE 16737,Dallas, CyclicSfedm Stimulqtion
lon nate-Water-Bearing
lidated Sands,"Trans.
f
f
Heat and Mass Trans-
i Journal,21,474-478, INTRODUCTION
The use of cyclic injection of steamto increasethe flow of oil from reservoirshas {
rk, 1937. proven to be an effective technique.It is useful over a wide rangeof reservoircon-
lorous Media by other ditions, and the mechanismby which it worksvaries.
155-178,(1982). A significant feature of steamstimulation is that the injected heat is concen-
Two-PhaseImmiscible trated near to the well bore wherethe streamlinesconvergeand the pressuregradi-
ents are highest.Steamstimulationtends,inherently,to put the heat whereit will
o a PorousMedium or do the most good. A major differencebetweencyclic steamstimulation and conven-
Soc., 4245, 312-329, tional steamfloodingis that in stimulation,the displacedoil becomesand remains
heated as it flows to the production well whereasin conventionalflooding the oil
:chniquefor Predicting must passthrough cooler reservoir until the flood becomesmature.
:c. 1972. At one end of the scaleis the cyclic injection of steaminto reservoirscontain-
i Oil Recovery(ed. J. ing oil that is soviscousthat it may be consideredas almostsolid.The role of steam
rt University,303-334, here is to "melt the solid" and thus allow it to flow through the reservoir.The steam
requirementsfor this mode of operation are related to the quantity of steam re-
Water-DriveProcesses quired to raise the reservoirto steamtemperatureafter an allowanceof heat losses.
b8).
The other extremecaseis where the oil within the reservoiralreadyhas ap-
,r?'t-1136,July 1984. preciablemobility and conventionalproduction is possiblebut at a low rate. In this
Gas Or Water Drive," circumstancethe role of steam injection is to decreasethe near-well bore resis-
talaei thii can be looked on as a true stimulationof production.The steamrequire-
ment is relatedto the heat requiredfor the near-well bore region; normally this will
be much lower than that required for generalreservoir heating.
In the first case,the role of steamis to heat oil throughout the reservoir to
make it mobile. In the second,the role of steamis to increasethe production rate
by reducingthe near-well bore flow resistance.In both cases,the effect of steam
injection decreasesas the heated region cools, and it becomesnecessaryto repeat
the injection cycle.Also, in both cases,subsequentcyclesbecomelesseffective. In
generalreservoir heating it is necessaryfor successivecyclesto heat the reservoir
HeavyOil Chap.5
which is more and more remote from the production well. For the near-well bore The effc
stimulationmechanism,the effectof subsequent cyclesdeterioratesas the reservoir by consideri
pressure(or other driving mechanism)becomesdissipated. throughthrec
At any point in the spectrumof applicationsof the cyclic steamstimulation
process,theremustbe an effectivemeansto force the oil to the productionwell. If Well Bore Sti
the oil alreadyhassubstantialmobility and can be producedby conventionalmeans
without steamstimulationat appreciablerates,then the samedriving force, the Theremar.bc
reservoirpressure,can transportthe oil to the well. The flow is fasterthan in con- not character
ventionalproductionbecauseof the reductionin the near-wellbore resistance; this may occur as I
is discussedlater. forations.chea
Reservoirpressureis inadequateto move the oil at a practical rate to the pro- migratineresc
ductionwell when the cold oil is initially immobileor nearlyso. In this case,other to flow is repr
driving forcesare required.
In some reservoirs,compactiondrive resultsfrom the consolidationof the
reservoirsand,with an accompanying decrease in averageporosityasthe pore pres-
surefalls; this can provide drive pressureto transport the oil. The oil is squeezed Even if the sL
from the porousrock as it compactswhen the pore pressureis lowered.This mech- tance,-\P./9.<
anismhasbeenimportant in the productionof oil from the Bolivar Coastof Lake reducesthe vir
Maracaiboin Venezuela. in the skin ef!
Another form of compactionrecognizedasbeingimportantto the production the factorS. T]
of oil in the earlycyclesof steamstimulationin the bitumenreservoirof Cold Lake other deposits
is the compactionthat followsreservoirexpansionas the resultof steaminjectionat sistance bl'tcz
fracturing pressure.In this reservoir,injection at fracturing pressureis the only lies in the welt
meansby which steamcan be injectedat practicalrates.Steaminjectioncausesan neededto hea
increasein the pore volumeof the reservoir,which is reflectedby an increasein the
elevationof the ground surfaceabove.Someof the energyusedto injectsteaminto
Near-Well 8q
the reservoiris storedaspotentialenergyby lifting the ground.When the well pres-
sureis lowered,fluids can be squeezed towardsthe well by the settlingof the lifted The steadl.sg
ground.The effect is not reversible,sincemovementof the sandgrainsin the vi- around the s'd
cinity of the fracturewill preventthem from shifting backto their initial position:
there is hysteresis.
A very important sourceof drive to moveoil to the well in steamstimulation
projects,particularlythoseproducingbitumen,is gravity.This can only have a sig-
nificant effect if there is a low-densityphaseto replacethe oil as it drains down-
wards. Steamcan fill this role. As oil is drained from the reservoir,an existing
;tt
steamchambercan expandto replaceit. :3
The cyclic steamstimulation processis also known as huff and puff, as steam
soaking,and as steamstimulation;theseare all acceptabledescriptions.
COLD FLOW
THE STIMULATIONOF WELLS WITH APPRECIABLE
Rei
Steaminjected into reservoirs,which are saturatedwith relatively mobile oil, flows
into the formation by displacingreservoir fluids away from the well. At the same
time, heatis transferredto the reservoirmatrix and condensation of steamoccurs.
The condensatefrom the steam is cooled as it flows into the reservoir and more
heat is transferred.Heat is also lost to the overburdenand underburden. t
242 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6 The Stimuhtbn

the near-well bore The effect of steamstimulation can be visualizedin an approximatemanner
atesas the reservoir by consideringthe flow to the well as being controlled by the steady-stateflow
through three concentriccylindricalregions,as shownin Figure 6.1.
ic steamstimulation
l productionwell. If Well Bore Skin
conventionalmeans
e driving force, the There may be specialrestrictionsto flow in the immediatewell bore regionthat are
s fasterthan in con- not characteristicof flow through the reservoiras a whole. Resistancein the region
bore resistance; this may occur as the result of damagedue to mud invasion,inadequateor blocked per-
forations,chemicaldamagesuchas that causedby clay swelling,and damagedue to
tical rateto the pro- migratingreservoirfines blockingthe pore structureof the matrix. The resistance
r. In this case,other to flow is representedby the effect of a skin factor, g in the formula
AP" _ pS
:onsolidationof the (6.1)
q Zrrkh
;ity asthe pore pres-
The oil is squeezed Even if the skin factor remains unchangedduring stimulation, the well bore resis-
lowered.This mech- tance, A,P,fq,decreaseswith steam stimulation becausethe increasedtemperature
rlivar Coastof Lake reducesthe viscosity,p.rn additionto this, steammay effect further improvement
in the skin effect by cleaningthe poresin the well bore region;i.e., it may reduce
nt to the production the factor S. This is particularly important where the skin effect is causedby wax or
rrvoir of Cold Lake other depositswhich can be removedby steam.The reductionof well bore skin re-
of steaminjection at sistanceby heating can have a very dramatic effect if much of the flow resistance
pressureis the only lies in the well bore skin. This effect is largelyindependentof the quantityof heat
n injection causesan neededto heat the bulk of the reservoir.
by an increasein the
I to inject steaminto Near-Well Bore Region
When the well pres-
settlingof the lifted The steady-stateresistanceto flow in the cylinder of radius Rr, that is heated
and grainsin the vi- aroundthe well bore is given by
their initial position:
in steamstimulation
can only have a sig-
DrainageRadius
il as it drains down- Re
eservoir, an existing
ff and puff, as steam

scriptions.
Y Resistances
in series:
rely mobileoil, flows
he well. At the same Skin HotZone Cold Zone
tion of steamoccurs. trhs IrhLn(Rh/R$) IrcLn(Re/Rh)
: reservoir and more znkh
derburden. Figure 6.1 Steady-State
Radial Flow to a Steam-Stimulated
Well
itimulation Chap.6 The Stimulation of Wells with Appreciable Cold Flow 243
LPn_ p" ln(Rn/R*)
(6.2)
q 2rrkh
This resistanceto flow is reduced if the region is heatedbecauseof the effect of
temperaturein changingthe viscosity,pr,.
Far-Well Bore Region
Beyondthe heat front of radiusRa, the resistanceto flow is given by

LP, p.ln(R"lRn)
= (6.3)
q Zrrkh
If the sum of the resistancesto flow for the cold situationis divided by the similar
sum for the hot, the resultis
M p.S. * p.,ln(R"/R,)
pnSn* p.nln(RnfR*) * p"ln(R"/R)
(6.4)
Alltrr
methodssr
The re
lroon],- equationd6
If the total pressuredrop, )AP, is the samefor both cases,this becomes
Qn_ p"S. * p,, ln(R"/R,)

(6.s)
e, FnSn p.lln(R6lR*) * t",ln(R"/R)
*
Two extremecasesof this are of interest.
l. If p.ais negligiblecomparedto pr..,then

q n_ 5 , * l n ( R " f R , ) After injecri<
(6'6)
Q, ln(R,/R1) tically and r
2. If Rh = R"-i.e., the wholereservoiris heated-and S, = S",then estimatedas
dition, allorl
q!=y: ducedfluids.
(6.7)
Q, ltn The cal
ing equationt
This assumesthat the skin factor remainsconstant.If Sr,is lessthan S., then this
too will tend to improve the flow and the ratio could, in favorablecircumstances,
be largerthan that given by equation6.7.
In this equar
oil producrim
BOBERGAND LANTZ'S MODEL verticalhearI
wise integrat
A quantitativeanalysisof the processoutlinedin the previoussectionis described
in a classicalpaperby Boberg andLantz (1966);their methodpredictsthe perfor-
mancefor isolatedsteam-stimulatedwells in reservoirscontaining relatively low vis-
cosity oil. The basicidea involvedis shownin Figure 6.2. rln rherr
p
It is assumedthat steamflow is radial and that the heatedzone is a cylinder as shown in Figr
centeredon the well.''The reservoirmay, if it is appropriate,be representedas memberand lr is
lationof ro. lf rhr
shownby a numberof thin sandsdivided by horizontal, impermeableshalebarriers. reservolras a sil
2M Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6 Boberg and La

(6.2)
ruse of the effect of
olt SAND
SHA!E
ven by
OIT SAND
(6.3)
5l{AtE
ott 'AND Figure 6,2 Boberg and Lantz,s Steam_

vided by thesimilar stimulation Model (from Boberg and
Lantz 1966)
rH
Allowanceis madefor the heat lossfrom the well bore during injectionusing
IF
methodssuchas that describedin Chapter2. st
(6.4) p
-?'t- The radiusof the steamheatedzoneis calculatedusingthe Maix-Langenheim
equationdescribedpreviously.l if
hH"f (tD) :
ris becomes -?-
4IGr(Ts - TR) {
(6.s) . 4K2p2C2t 4qzt
I =- (6.8)
h'(p,C,)'- h2
f(td = e'o erfc({t) + 2 -1
After injectionstops,the temperatureof the heatedzonefalls as it losesheat ver-

(6.6)
tically and also horizontally to the colder surroundings.These heat lossesare
estimatedas a function of time from solutionsto the conductivityequation.In ad-
= S., then
dition, allowanceis madefor the heat removedfrom the heatediegionby the pro-
ducedfluids.
(6.7) The calculationis carried out in a stepwisemannerin time usingthe follow-
ing equationto estimatethe averagetemperatureof the heatedcylinder at eachstep:
:ssthan S", then this
rrablecircumstances, Tuue= Tn + (fs - TR)lrRrzg - 6) - 6l (6.e)
In this equation,6 is a term that accountsfor the energyremovedby the water and
oil production, and la and v7 are dimensionless factorsthat allow for the radial and
verticalheatlossesfrom the heatedcylindricalvolume.6 is obtainedfrom the step-
{ wise integrationof the heat balanceequation,
s sectionis described
^ [' H'dt
I predictsthe perfor- A- |
(6.10)
I J,,mih(pC),(fs - f*)
ing relativelylow vis- {
'In their paper,
Boberg and Lanz considera numberof equal-sized,separatesandmembers,
I as shown in Figure 6.2,with thick shalemembersbetween.In this case,11,is the heat injection per
ed zone is a cylinder
memberand y'lis the thicknessof eachindividual member,both in equation6.4 and alsoin the calcu-
e. be representedas lation of rn. If the shalemembersarethin, then their effect shouldbi allowedfor by consideringthe
neableshalebarriers. reservoiras a singleentity.
Stimulation Chap.6 Bobergand Lantz'sModel 245

where1{ is the rate at which heat is withdrawn with the products.At eachstep,it
ol@
is changedusingthe quantitiesof the products,their heat capacities,and the pro- c
duction temperature.There is a decline in the production rate and temperature o
with time. ?ro
I.,
The factors 7aand i2 are obtainedfrom Figure 6.3. Thesewere obtainedfrom
approximatetheoreticalsolutionsto the conductionequation(lp can be obtained !co
from equation2.85). z
The productionrate at eachtime is calculatedusing the idea that the flow o
is through two concentricreservoircylindersand the skin, with allowancebeing U.o
madefor the changingresistanceof the skin and heatedcylinderas the hot-oil vis- o
cosityfalls. 92q
At the end of the production cycle, Boberg and Lantz add the heat remaining c
in the reservoirto the heat injectedwith the steamin the next injectionperiod in
6l
order to calculatethe total heat injected.This is usedto estimatethe new heated
radius.This approximationis conservative,sinceit neglectsthe heat storedin the
overburdenand underburdenat the end of the cycle.The methodhasbeenshown FE:r
to producegoodpredictionfor reservoirshavingoil with an in situ viscosityof a few Bobq
hundredcentipoises.
For the assumedmechanismto be effective,it is necessarythat there be an factors-
effectivereservoirpressurethat is ableto move the oil to the well bore in the cold neck- c
condition. The increasedproductionof the stimulatedwell comesfrom the in-
creasedflow that this natural drive can producewhen the effectiveradiusof the
well bore is increasedby heatingthe reservoiraroundit.
n
tive. re
ties srr
Effect of ProcessVariables (negati
1967l.
Bobergand Lantz describea studyof the theoreticaleffect of variousprocessvari-
effect d
ablesand draw a numberof interestinsconclusions:
Chapre
the skil
1. The methodis intendedfor reservoirswith substantialdrive and cold mobility;
3. The fa
their method is not suitablefor tar sands.
o Higb r
2. Wells having a high skin factor respondmost favorablyto stimulation even if
thar i
no cleanup(i.e. reductionof S) is achieved.Figure 6.4 showsthe calculated
o Lon,
effect of steamstimulation on the oroduction for a well assumingseveralskin
proxi
fl greatl
fecr d
ofal
shour
ratesI
from I
o Lorl p
rated r
Figure 6.3 Chart for Estimating7p
beas.
andzyin Equation 6.6. (from Boberg o High c
and Lantz 1966) increa
Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap. 6 Bobergard La

lcts. At eachstep,it
o
aiities, and the pro- G
Ite and temperature
o
ao
I
tll
were obtainedfrom
(vncan be obtained e
z
: idea that the flow I
ith allowancebeing L'
D
ler as the hot-oil vis- o
o
e
J the heatremaining a
;t injectionperiod in J
natethe new heated
o
40 60 80 t00 120 140 160 rso t{
re heat storedin the IIMT SINCESIARIOF SIEAMINJECIION
. DAYS IF
hod hasbeen shown Figure 6.4 Effect of Skin Damage on steam stimulation Response(from
F
B
;itu viscosityof a few Boberg and Lantz 7966)
ary that there be an factors.Steamstimulationallowsoil to flow more easilythrough the ,,bottle-

well bore in the cold neck" createdby a high skin factor. {
comesfrom the in-
fective radiusof the The skin factor is a variablethat representsthe additional(or, if nega-
tive, reduced)pressuredrop around the well bore causedby local irregulari-
ties such as plugging (positive) or cleaning treatments such as acidizing
(negative,it is hoped).It is definedby equation6.1(seeMatthewsand Russell
1967).The effect of the skin in radial fluid flow to a well is analogousto the
varlousprocessvan-
effect of insulationon the flow of heatthat wasdiscussed in the latter part of
Chapter2. In somecasesan additional effect of steamstimulationis to reduce
the skin factor S by cleaningout depositsaroundthe well bore.
ve and cold mobility;
3. The factorswhich tend to give higher incrementaloil to steamratios are:
o High oil saturationand high oil sandto shaleratios.Thesereducethe heat
o stimulationevenif
that is requiredper unit volumeof reservoiroil.
showsthe calculated
o Low producedwater-oilratio (woR). water has a heat capacitythat is ap-
ssumingseveralskin
proximatelytwice that of oil and thus water productiontendsto accelerate
greatlythe drainageof heatfrom the stimulatedreservoir.The predictedef-
fect of producedwoR ratio can be seenin Figure 6.5 which showsresults
of a processvariable study made by Boberg and Lantz. Figure 6.5 also
I shows the beneficial effect which is predictedfor using higher injection
ratesand also larger steaminjectionquantities.Theseimprovementsstem
from the lower fraction of the heat which is lost.
o Low producedgasto oil ratio. This is beneficialsinceproducedgasis satu-
ratedwith watervapor and the heatin this, particularlythe latentheat,can
be a seriousdrain on the heat pool.
hart for Estimating 7p
ation 6.6. (from Boberg o High oil viscosity.The viscosityof very viscousoils dropsmorerapidlywith
6l increasingtemperaturethan doesthat of lessviscousonesand, as a result.
Stimulation Chap.6 Bobergand Lantz's Model 247

J 2.4
(o
I
I o rt
o mr/h,= STEAMRATE(LB/HR)/NETFT rO
= 0.5(5T8/Ol/FT
cotD Ol[ RATE
4 2.0 o
ro
r6
E
I
o mr/hn = 151
lot I
I
t.a
ol I m./hn = $g
E WOR=O Pt a,
E t.2
H t.2 2,/\
trl
t/t mrlhn = l5QO; (n
t.o
/ ffit J
:.8
zut rI 7 5 o
z
o.t
E.4 lt
ttl
4
\,
7 E 0.6
lt
e
-o (,,
50 loo 150
200 250 300 z 0.4
I
m,t;/h - M LB STEAM/FIOF GROSSINTERVAL
Figure 6.5 Theoretical Prediction of Incremental Oil-Steam Ratio versus
SteamInjected(from Bobergand Lantz 1966)
Figrrt
the effect of steam stimulation can be larger with very viscous oils. andLr
Figure 6.6 showsthe predictedeffect for a particular set of conditions. equal for the I
o Large sandthickness.This improvesthe OSR becauseof the reducedfrac- gree of heat pc
tion of the injectedheatwhich is lost. the time scah
4. Back-pressuring the well during the earlypart of the productioncyclecan be will be smaller
beneficialby reducingheatedzonecoolingcausedby the flashingof water.
Bobergand Lantz'smethodhasbeenextendedand coupledwith calculations

for gasJifting wells using the Orkiszewskicorrelationsfor calculatingthe two-
or if a.oa.i = o
phasepressuredrop in a vertical pipe (Boberg,Penberthy,and Hagedorn 1973).
SCALINGOF THERMALMODELS
whereR is the
Physicallaboratorymodelsare usuallyscaledto the field situationby employingdi- Thus. fm
mensionalanalysis.The most commonschemeemployedfor doing this is to make t h in the mod
the physicalmodelgeometricallysimilar to the field situationand to usethe same The othe
fluids in the model,i.e., oil, waterand steam.Scalingis usuallycarriedout by mak- the sameratio I
ine the Fourier number i.e.,
,o=#
248 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6 Scalingof Tfrern
o t.8
!o
!o
ro
t.6
I
o 1 .4
4,
E 1.2
ul
(n
t.o
6
0.8 5
f,l
z
rlj
HI
il
€
w
0.6 fif
Fl
oc
t",
z 0.4 L
5
250 300
TERVAI. 40 t00 t000 I I
Ratio versus - cP
ortvtscostTY
Figure 6.6 Effect of Viscosity on Incrementaloil-Steam Ratio (from Bobers
a n dL a n t z I 9 6 6 )
h very viscous oils.
set of conditions. equalfor the model and the field at corresponding
times.This meansthat the de-
r of the reducedfrac- greeof heatpenetrationby conductionwill be the samefor each.It alsomeansthat
the time scalewill be shortenedbecausethe correspondinglengthsin the model
duction cycle can be will be smaller.
e flashingof water.
lmodet a.oo.r
=
_ /Lroa.r\2
rledwith calculations t*" \t*" /
calculatingthe two- "r"r
of if a-o6"1 = @fierd,
d Hagedorn1973).
+*=(L,"*,)'_n,
Iri.ro \ lri"ro /
whereR is the geometricscalingfactor.
tion by employingdi- Thus, for example,if 1 cm in the modelequals1 m in the field, R : 0.01and
doing this is to make t h in the modelwill be equalto 104h : 1.14y in the field.
and to usethe same The other criterionusedis to makethe pressuregradientsdue to oil flow bear
y'carriedout by mak- the sameratio to the potentialgradientdue to gravity in the modeland in the field;
i.e.,
=(#fr),,,,,
(m)^.,,,
itimulation Chap.6 Scalingof ThermalModels 249
The velocityV in eachcaseis proportionalto Llt.If the samefluids are usedin the
model as in the field, then Ap and lr.owill be the samein each,so
=(f),,",,
(f)..,",
and
k m o c e_t t
Rl,,",o -
kr,",o lmodel R I
Becauseof the need to shortenthe time scaleby the factor R2 in the model,it is
necessaryto increasethe permeabilityof the modelby a factor of llR in order to
maintain the viscousdrag forcesproportionalto the gravity forces.This scaling
procedurewas describedby Pujol and Boberg(1972).
More elaboratescalingprocedureswhich allow modelsto be operatedat pres-
suresmuch lower than thosein the reservoirare discussedby Stegemeier, Laum- Figrrt r
bach, and Volek (1980).The approachof operatingscaledphysicalmodelsunder Troog I
low pressureconditionsusing oils different from those in the reservoirand with
steamof a differentquality hasbeenusedby Shelland othersfor the physicalmodel Soak time
simulationof oil recoveryprocessesusingsteam. Soaktiru
that hot-oil sro
NIKO AND TROOST'SCYCLICSTEAM STIMULATIONMODELEXPERIMENTS future lifting c
r977).
Niko and Troost (197I) carried out an interestingseriesof low-pressure, scaled- Differential p
model studiesof the steamstimulationprocess.Their physicalmodel represented
the near-wellregionof a reservoirin which therewas adequatecold-oilmobility to The prod
providedrive. In sucha model,it is necessary the resen'oirp
to representthe ability of the reser-
voir beyondthe model to supplyand to receivecold oil during the productionand Oil viscosity
stimulationcycles.
Niko and Troostovercamethis problemby usinga seriesof resistanceand ca- The prod
pacitortubesconnectedto the end of the sandpack.This arrangementis shownin stimulationto I
Figure 6.7. The seriesof tubesand capillariesprovideda volumeinto which liquid larger proporti
from the sandpackcould be squeezed. The conditionswere arrangedso that the
heat remainedwithin the sandpack. Reservoirthil
A numberof processvariablestudieswere carriedout. The followingconclu- Thickerk
sionsare expressed in termsof the full-scalefield that wasmodeled.The field data did not penetr
which were represented were for a typical VenezuelanBolivar coastfield. reservoir,the s
and per unit ol
Effect of ProcessVariables
Injection rate
TABLE 6.1 Effed
A steam-injectionrate in the rangeof 19 to 60 t/d into a 9-m layer of reservoir Viscositl r
had little effect on subsequentperformancefor a given total quantity of injected Productrrr
steam.
250 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap,6 Niko and Troost'

fluids are usedin the
;h. so
ELEVATION
R: in the model,it is
tor of L/R in order to
i' forces.This scaling
o be operatedat pres- -l
b1'Stegemeier, Laum- Figure 6,7 Niko and Troost's Steam Stimulation Apparatus (after Niko and F
$(
rh1'sicalmodelsunder Troost 1971) H
bl
he reservoirand with Soak time
for the physicalmodel F
Soaktime wasnot a significantvariablein the rangeof 1 to 160d. This means I
that hot-oil storagewithin the reservoircan be looked upon as a cushionto meet
{
future lifting demands.This has also been found in field experience(Borregales
lXPERIMENTS
r977).
low-pressure, scaled- Differential pressure

:al model represented The production rate was found to be proportional to the difference between
te cold-oilmobility to the reservoirpressureand the well pressure.
re ability of the reser-
rg the productionand Oil viscosity
s of resistance
and ca- The productivityindex improvement(the ratio of the productivityindex after
'angementis shownin stimulationto that before)was greaterfor more viscousoils becauseheatinghad a
ume into which liquid largerproportionaleffect on their viscosity(Table6.1).
arrangedso that the Reservoirthickness
The followingconclu- Thicker layersdid not respondaswell asmight be expectedbecausethe steam
odeled.The field data did not penetrateto the bottom.For a fixed injectionof steamper unit thicknessof
rr coastfield. reservoir,the steamwas found to penetratefarther horizontallyfor thicker layers
and per unit of original oil in place.For a 980-cpoil, a 1133-tsteamslug injected
TABLE 6.1 Effect of InitialOil Viscosity on ProductivityRatio

r 9-m layerof reservoir Viscosityin centipoise 980 4000 8000
al quantity of injected Productivity ratio 6 IJ 20
Niko and Troost's CyclicSteam StimulationModel Experiments 25',l

Stimulation Chap.6
into a 9-m layergavean increasedproductivityratio of 4.5; three times this quan-
tity of steaminjectedinto a27-m layer gavea ratio of 3.8. 4
Steam slug size -9
@
The effect of steamslug size was found to be rather complex.A given quan- :3
E
tity of steaminjected as a number of small treatmentsrather than as fewer larger a
o
treatments(see Figures 6.8 and 6.9) gave a higher initial oil-to-steamratio o
(Figure6.10)and higher cumulativeproductioninitially (Figure6.11). z2
o
30 6
=1
E
!, Steam-soak
experiment f
e) o
E Steam-slugsize: 3400tons
20 Cyclelength:1230days 0
at
o
E
tr F€r
o
Ero
:
tt g a),u
o E
o- c
o
0 o
f
1000 2000 3000 !,
o
Time in days CL
- 10,(n
Figure 6.8 Large Steam-Slug Size (after Niko and Troost 1971) o
o
30 G
f
E
!t Steam-soak
experiment f
o
G)
Steam-slugsize:1133tons o
E
20 Cyclelength:625days
ot
tg r!
G
tr
o
E
I
10 After a 1-e
!t passedthat frou
o steamratios apg
o.
Cycle length
0
1000 2000 3000 The effect of c1c
Time in days eachcycle.It *'as
Figure 6.9 SmallerSteam-Slugs
(after Niko and Troost 1971) earlierin eachcr
ducedthe cumu
252 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6
SteamStimulatio
three times this quan-
4
"9
(6
-o
rmplex.A given quan- E
(E
rr than as fewer larger o
:ial oil-to-steamratio o
ure 6.11). E2
o
.:
g 1133 tons/cycle
---------,I
)eriment I I
E
5
=1 3400 tons/cycle
6800 tons/cycle
l*3',t,=l o
0
1000 2000
Time in days
3000
I
Figure 6.10 Cumulative Oil-SteamRatio (after Niko and Troost 1971)
oa 20.000
--l
l E
i
o
(t
:t
tt
o
ir.r*ronrt';%;19,'n
CL
- 10,000
rost1971) o
o
.:
_,
(E
)€riment |
1
|
E
E
5
o
tl
1133tons
0
| | 1000 2(X)o 3000
@5 days
| | Time in days
Il Figure 6.11 CumulativeProduction(after Niko and Troost 1971)
After a year or so the cumulative production from the large treatment sur-
passedthat from the smallertreatments(Figure 6.11)and the cumulativeoil-to-
\d steamratios approachedthe samelevel (Figure 6.10).
Cycle length
The effect of cyclelength was also studiedfor a fixed injection quantity of steamto
eachcycle.It was found that decreasingthe cyclelength (i.e., cutting off production
ost 1971) earlier in each cycle)increasedthe cumulative oil production (Figure 6.12)but re-
duced the cumulative oil to steamratio (Figure 6.13).
Stimulation Chap,6
, Steam StimulationProductionMechanism
STEAM STIMULATIONPRODUCTIONMECHANISM 6
In the Boberg-Lantzanalysisof the steamstimulationprocessand also in the ex- -9
6
perimentsof Niko and Troost discussedin the previoussection,the production
mechanismfor the steam-stimulated well was assumedto be basicallythe sameas E
that for cold production.A reservoirpressurepushedthe oil to the well; the effect t4
6
of the steamwas to make the oil flow more easilyby heatingthe reservoiradjacent
to the well bore. o
o
The pressurethat moved the oil was the reservoirpressureexistingbefore
the operationstarted.In the exampleof the Quirequirefield usedby Bobergand Ez
Lantz as a field example,this view of the mechanismis a reasonable one. In this :
E
casethe cold-flow rate was already135B/d, and this was increasedto 350 B/d by 5
steaming.
o
Factorsignored in the Boberg-Lantzmethod include the following: 0
o
1. The movementof the oil from around the well by displacement with steam
during the injectioncycleand the refilling of the steam-saturated
regiondur- Figrn I
ing the productionare ignored.The Boberg-Lantztheory assumesthat the and Tm
steam heats the near-well bore region but does not move oil away from the
well bore.This is inconsistent
with the ideasdescribedin the previouschapter. 2. The rheq
falling.ra
During the productioncycle,the oil mustfirst build an oil bank as it flows to cool fluid
the productionwell. Also as the pressurearoundthe well bore is decreased during in the cfli
the onsetof production,there will be vaporizationof water and the generationof conducti<
steam.Eventually,however,the steamwill be displacedfrom the systemand liq- partialh.I
uids will flow coolingwr
20,000 considere
den. This
tially'ar rl
c, heatedsq
E losses.cal
E
o the adjre
o heat loss h
J
t,
o 3. As Boberg
010,000 of oil rl ithi
ration.Th
o
o in this ma
"z
(E
men)is so
evenif tha
E
c even ttK}q
= Sizeof steamslug: 1133tons/cycle becauseit
o
is produca
0 1000 2000 3000 This las pt

Time in days fornia fields.thc
Figure 6.12 Effect of Cycle Length on Cumulative Oil Production(after Niko thanthatwhich
and Troost 1971) well bore radius
254 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6 SteamStimulatb

6
o Cyclelength
, and also in the ex- ,r'\ -1
o / | -. I InOayS
:ion, the production l, t 1l7o,---
rasicallythe sameas E // l. ..t l.
-rt
r the well; the effect E4 Ir-/l- ----?'-
o
he reservoiradjacent
o
o
;sureexistingbefore
usedby Bobergand E2
J
sonableone. In this E
reasedto 350 B/d by J
o Sizeof steam-slug:
1133tonspercycle
following: 0
0 1000 2000 3000 i{
ti
lacementwith steam Time in days ll|
:aturatedregiondur- Figure
6,13 Effectof CycleLength
onCumulative Ratio(afterNiko
Oil-Steam
lt
|i
)rv assumesthat the andTroost1971) fl
;e oil away from the
the previouschapter. 2. The theory assumes that the near-wellbore regionremainsat a uniform, but
falling, temperature.In practice,muchof the coolingcomesfrom the flow of
i(
ril bank as it flows to cool fluids into the perimeter,and a temperaturegradientwill be established rl
I
e is decreased during in the cylindricalregion.The heatedcylinderis assumedto cool by thermal
nd the generationof
r the systemand liq-
conduction.In the radial direction, this conductionwill be offset, at least I
partially, by the flowing fluids carrying heat back by convection.The radial
coolingwill be lessthan estimated.The other mechanismof cooling that is
consideredis the verticalconductionof heatto the overburdenand underbur-
@
-tazc ..-4
den. This estimationassumesthat the overburdenand underburdenare ini-
tially at the reservoirtemperature.In practicethey will have alreadybeen
..-Go-) heatedsomewhatduring the spreadingof the heat chamber,and the heat
losses,calculatedfrom the Marx-Langenheimformula,are alreadypresentin
'l, t t I the adjacentreservoirboundaries.This, too, will tend to make the estimated
heat losshigh.
I 3. As BobergandLantz point out, the methoddoesnot allow for any depletion
of oil within the heatedzone-i.e., replacement of oil saturationby steamsatu-
rnmary | ration. They recognizethat in many casesthe major part of the oil is produced
rduction in this manner.Thesecasesare thosein which the cold oil (or usuallybitu-
I men)is soviscousthat it cannotflow at a practicalrate to the heatedboundry
II evenif that boundaryis very largein radius.Thesecasesare alsothosewhere,
I eventhough the reservoiris thick, there is a relativelylow oil-to-steamratio
tons/cycle becauseit is necessary to heat the entire reservoirvolumefrom which the oil
I
I is produced.
This lastpoint hasbeendiscussed by Burns(1969)who pointsout that in Cali-

3000
fornia fields, the increasein oil rate found in steamstimulation is often much larger
;tion (afterNiko than that which would be expectedfrom the conceptof an increasein the effective
well bore radius.
Stimulation Chap. 6 Steam StimulationProductionMechanism 255

Assumingsteady-state conditionsand neglectingany contributionof skin fac-
tor, the ratio of the productionrate for a well surroundedby a heatedregionof
radiusRl, to that for an unheatedwell shouldbe given by equation6.11(compare
with equation6.5):
F,, R"
Qn *'" R-
(6.11)
Q" , R n F,, R.
rn +
R. *t" R,
If the ratio of viscositiesis very large,then this equationmay be reducedto equa-
tion 6.12;i.e., the effectivewell bore radiusis increasedby heatingfrom R, to Rr
(comparewith equation6.6):
tn&
qo_ R*
i
!
(6.72)
Q' -- &
t.,
Rr,
l
As Burns points out, for reasonable valuesof R7,,the productionratio from equa-
tion 6.12 is limited to relatively low values.For example,if R, : 0.25 ft ind
R" : 1000ft, the followingvaluesfor the productionratio may be calculated:
Heatedzone radius,feet: 50 100 200
'
Productionratio: 2.8 3.6 5.2
However,asmaybe seenfrom Table6.2 (takenfrom Burns'paper),the ratiosfound
in the field are usuallymuchlarger;the averagevalueof qnfq.in this tableis r2.g or
9.0 if the extremelyhigh value for the third row of data is left out.
Although large skin factorsand/orreductionsin the value of the skin factor
could causetheoreticalincreasesin the productionratio that are as largeas those
shown in Table 6.2, this is not consistentwith the valuesfound for the oil-steam
ratio. When the improvementin productionrate ariseslargelyfrom its effect upon
the skin factor,then it would be expectedthat a relativelysmall amountof steam
would be sufficient,i.e., that there would be a relativelyhigh oil-steamratio. In
Table4.7 it was shownthat for generalreservoirheatingto be achieved,steam-to-
oil ratios of at least0.5 to 2 would be required.Thesevaluesare for production
without heatloss.If allowanceis madefor lossesand for incompletedisplacement,
then considerablymore-probably severaltimes more-steam would be required.
Assumingthat at leasttwice asmuchsteamwould be requiredthen the SORwould
be expectedto be at least1 to 4 (i.e. oSR would be no more than 0.25 to 1) for
generalreservoirheating.[n Table6.2, only the first three or possiblyfour of the
projects shown display oil-to-steamratios sufficiently high for skin and near-
wellborestimulationto be the main causeof the improvedproductionrate. In the
other cases,the quantityof steamthat wasrequiredwould be expectedto be suffi-
cient for there to havebeenextensiveheatineof the reservoirwell bevondthe well
bore zone.
256 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6

:ributionof skin fac-
i--
, a heatedregionof
N:UF O.OOi66F
ration6.11(compare F YFAE
.:P-P
O@hNSf<fNNNN
r;6i î -idddddd
= UR
'Ee - .,
q v ? 9 9Nn$ \. ancno n€ on€no

(6.11) 0.o9 \ociN*oooooo
a
I
a
=;(=.=;===x:
--6;l'i<;.b5il;
be reduced to equa- - O'O-O\***6€N
rating from R, to Rr
I Xr
na€nnh€t+$\o
>f.x
"A E
(6.r2)
o N$O<tO*Cir$
:\ooc{om60€oo
>d iN
.oF
ion ratio from equa-

if R" : 0.25 ft and (h
nO+OhOOTOF-
r ss+€€o.Nr$€
v be calculated:
lm ooc'tooroono
SNNnNO$nr€
235 NNN*NN
5 .2
>er),the ratiosfound NOi NN*::6i
n this tableis 12.8or
I out. \oo :i
ue of the skin factor e. o'l :$F- i+r-sai o
are as large as those

rnd for the oil-steam o(! €\OS-€nnn€N
from its effect upon <a
rall amountof steam
h oil-steamratio. In 9c
nh60$oh60r
: achieved,steam-to- ic!iio
QU)
s are for production
mpletedisplacement,
r would be required. E <.= 5 co='=
F - ; u iov ; c 4 5 D b q
then the SORwould t E c r ! P
e than 0.25 to 1) for =ssFgriE'gE
possiblyfour of the
t
for skin and near- ::-
-:ooo
oductionrate. In the ==i=-
q r - -5 r . E3
expectedto be suffi- !_q5o5-""S8
qPP 5 >= 6b >, >F .
*ell beyondthe well €t r d :s:ESieo 7A
ci€-E66=-n >=
i,5E=gE=5;f #8
;timulation Chap.6 257

INJECT STEAM 1st CYCLE
The srca
watertendlo
r
STEAI\4 COLDZONE olL
ZONE ductedinto tt
Produti
ing steamchr
T- ..
repro becomesnerc
in the depleic
by evaporair
2nd CYCLE Nth CYCLE denseat the b
continuesto g
steamratio-
For thc 1
alsothat it h
SanArdo f-rl
Figure 6,14 Gravity DrainageEffect (25 B/d cold tr
(after Doscher1966) it containslO
after steamir
The Boberg-Lantzexplanationdoesnot allow for the displacement of oil from Lennqt
the steam-heated regionby the effectof an expanding,overridingsteamzonecom- portant in Ecz
bined with gravity drainageto the well bore.2This mechanismwas describedby nia, includin
Doscherin 1966(seeFigure 6.14). differencein I
This mechanismis basicallydifferentfrom that involvedin the cold flow pro- tional envirm
cess.[t can, particularlywith thick reservoirscontainingvery viscousoils, become the reservoir
the dominantproductionmechanism,particularlyin the latercycles.In this mecha- voir layersin
nism, the heatedregion around the well bore is not just a conduit for the trans- themselves (g
portation of the heated oil but, as it becomesdepleted,is the source of the
producedoil.
For this mechanismto be dominant,it is necessary for the cold, in situ viscos- SIMPLIFIEDANALYS
ity of the oil to be high enoughto contain the injectedsteamin the vicinity of the RESERVOIRCOOL
well and thus to allow the steamchamberto be an expandablesourceof vapor to
replacethe oil and condensate asthey drain. The compression and expansionof the Insightinto th
steamwithin this chamberprovidesthe cushionto accommodatethe changesin lowing simpli
liquid volumethat are requiredduring the steamingand productioncycles.In the usedto obtain
BobergandLantz modeland in Niko and Troost'sexperimentswith mobileoil, it is Supposc
the movementof the fluid in the cold reservoirthat providesthis flexibility. the productic
Gravity drainagecan occur only if there are two fluids of differentdensities: will assumeth
in this caseheavyoil and water (which havealmostthe samedensities)and lighter production ral
steam. then the ratec
tiplied by the r
2Evenif
the condensatefront is assumedto remain vertical, the volume occupiedby the in- to allow for tt
iectedsteam is not accountedfor in the Boberg-Lantztheory. During injection,steamis expectedto moved from tl
sweepoil away from the well bore, as describedin the previouschapter.This steam-drivenoil is
will includea
pushedthrough the condensationfront and into the oil bank beyond.During the productioncycle,
this heatedoil must flow backward toward the well. The steamwill either flow to the production
well and be producedor rise abovethe oil, forming an overridingchamber.As the oil flows through
the hot rock matrix, it becomesheatedand highly mobile.
258 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.'6 SimplifiedArd

The steamtendsto rise and move awayfrom the well, and the heavieroil and
water tend to fall to the well. As the liquid drains away,heat continuesto be con-
ducted into the cooler reservoiradjacentto and below the growing steamchamber.
Productionis accompaniedby a falling pressureand temperaturein the grow-
ing steamchamber,and, as the whole systemcools,anothersteaminjectioncycle
becomesnecessary. During the period of falling pressure,sensibleheatin the rocks
in the depletedsteam-chamber is transferredto the residualwater and is removed
by evaporationof the water to steam.At the sametime, steamcontinuesto con-
denseat the boundariesof the chamber.With successive cycles,the steamchamber
continuesto grow, and the vertical heatlossesgrow larger.This reducesthe oil-to-
steamratio.
For the processto be effective,it is desirablethat the reservoirbe thick and
also that it be continuous.For examplemuch better resultswere obtainedin the
SanArdo field in California,which contains220 ft of moreor lesscontinuoussand r,
rrti DrainageEffect (25 Bld cold to 360Bld after steaming)than in the Coalingafield, which, although ti
'66) il
it contains107ft of pay,is split into layerslessthan 30 ft thick (3 Bld cold to 528/d 11
after steaming);seeTable6.2. rl
rcementof oil from Lennon (1976)has reviewedthe geologicalfactorswhich havebeenfound im- fa
rgsteamzonecom- portant in steam-soak projectsin the west sideof the SanJoaquinBasinin Califor- ll
r *'as describedby nia, includingthe Coalingaand Midway-Sunset fields.He showsthat much of the d
rt
differencein the performanceof projectsin this areacan be relatedto the deposi- ,a
the cold flow pro- tional environment(particularlythe presenceof marineshaleswhich tend to divide
scousoils, become the reservoir),to the reservoirstructureand type of trap (e.g.the dip of the reser-
:les.In this mecha- voir layersin the Midway-Sunsetfield), and to the nature of the reservoirrocks
duit for the trans- themselves(porosityand permeability).
the source of the
:old,in situviscos- SIMPLIFIEDANALYSIS OF PRODUCTIONRATE DECLINEDURING

the vicinityof the RESERVOIRCOOLING
sourceof vapor to
d expansionof the Insightinto the natureof the cyclicsteamingprocesscan be obtainedfrom the fol-
ate the changesin lowing simplifiedanalysisof the productionrate decline.The methodcan alsobe
:Iion cycles.In the usedto obtain descriptiveparametersfor the comparisonof projects.
'ith mobileoil, it is Supposethat a quantityof heat,Q;, is injectedrapidlyinto a reservoir.During
risflexibility. the productioncycle,heatis removedcontinuallyfrom this stored"heatbank." We
differentdensities: will assumethat the rate of withdrawalof heatfrom the bank is proportionalto the
nsities)and lighter productionrate of the oil. tf the heat in the producedoil were the only heat loss,
then the rate of losswould be given by the heat capacityof the product streammul-
tiplied by the differencebetweenits temperatureand that of the reservoir.In order
ne occupiedby the in- to allow for the other sourcesof loss,particularlythe heat in the water that is re-
1. steamls expectedto moved from the reservoir and also the heat loss to the reservoir surroundings,we
:is steam-driven oil is will includea facror,11,and write.
r the productioncycle,
lo*'to the production
s the oil flows through d Q = -nqpC(T -
T,) (6.13)
dt
nulation Chap.'b SimplifiedAnalysis of ProductionRate DeclineDuring ReservoirCooling 259

wherep is the heat storedin the bank
r is the time
n is a dimensionlessfactor
This mal bc
pC is the volumetricheat capacityof the oil
T is the temperatureof the heatbank
TR is the reservoir temperature
As heatis withdrawnfrom the initial bank, the temperatureof the bank declines.If
whereC is r
it is assumedthat the massand compositionof the material that constitutesthe
Elimin
heat bank remainsconstantor approximatelyconstantand that it has a constant
heat capacity,then
Q_T-T^_r*
(6.14)
Q, Ts-T* This a
whereTx is the dimensionless
temperatureof the bank. days/barrel)
This equationmay be differentiatedto give the straiehtI
dQ _ ory indicate
o
'' d T * (6.15) to be greate
dt dt
factor 4. It r
Combiningequations6.13and 6.15leadsto
vided bv thc
-,1qpC(Ts-T^)T* quantitieso{
O,T= (6.16)
the oil liesd
As the temperatureof the heatbank falls, the productionrate 4 will decrease clinewouldI
with
time becauseof an increasein the viscosityof the producedoil. For simplicity,we 4 would be r
will assumethat the rate q is proportionalto T*', wheres is constant.If, for exam- The fractiqr
ple, we assumedthat q was proportionalto the reciprocalof the oil viscosity,then have a stror
s would be equalto the parameterm for a viscosityequationof the form that the pro<
larly in the e
11
:- - :T+m (6.r7) A facto
lL lt' not uniform
This type of equationis used in Chapter7 in the material on gravity drainage, the heatban
where it is shown that the parameterm hasvaluesof about 3 for typical heavy oils radial flor ir
in thermal recoverysituations.If, as happensfor steam-assisted gravity drainageto willxot fall r
horizontal wells, the rate is proportional to the squareroot of the reciprocal vis- Althoq
cosity,then s might be expectedto havea valueof aboutml2. ln general,it would contain corq
be reasonable to expectthat s shouldbe of the order of m/2 to m.The production publishedca
rate is given as a function of the reducedtemperatureby the equation draw reasor
I
deviationsfn
Q _ 7 * ,," r (6.19) of Chapter7
Qi Burns(
In this equation,qi is the oil productionrate extrapolatedto zerotime.3Eliminating of steaminjc
q from 6.18and 6.16leadsto fornia.The c
3Inpractical tDeclinc
situations,the productionrate normallygrowswith time during the initial stages
of the productioncycle.The reasonfor this is the needto purge steamfrom the steamchamberand ( 1 9 6 9 )m e n t r o n t
also,frequently,the throttling of the productionwell to control excessivesteamvelocities.The ini- s t e a ms t i m u l a t i
tial rate usedin equation6.18is the initial rate found by extrapolatingthe productioncurve after the ical curves \er_
initial period back to the start.
SimplifiedAn
260 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6
dr* - _lQiPC(Ts
- Tn).*,*,
(6.1e)
dt Q't
This may be integratedby separatingthe variablesto give
-L-nq'PC(T:-Tilst *r, (6.20)

Z*' Q,
rebank declines.If whereC is an integrationconstant.
rat constitutesthe Eliminating Z* from 6.18and 6.20 leadsto
t it has a constant
1 \PC(Ts - 7^)s
-t+ 1 (6.2r)
q Q, Qi
(6.14)
This equationindicatesthat a plot of reciprocaloil productionrate (e.g.,in
days/barrel)shouldgive a straightline whenit is plottedagainsttime.4The slopeof r{
ii
the straightline is a measureof the rate at which the productiondeclines.The the- q
rt
ory indicatesthat this declineis expectedto be lessfor largeheatinjectionS, p;, and l{
(6.1s) to be greaterfor higher steamtemperaturesand particularly for higher valuesof the fa
factor 4. It will be recalledthat this factor is equal to the total heatloss rate di-
vided by the rate of sensibleheat removalin the oil. Thus, for example,if large tF
quantitiesof water were producedwith the oil-as, for example,might happenif rl
(6.16) ,i
the oil lies abovea water leg-then 4 would be higherand the productionrate de-
cline would be greater.Similarly,in thin reservoirswith higherverticalheatlosses,
*'ill decrease with
For simplicity,we 4 would be expectedto be greater,and the rate of declinewould also be greater.
The fractionof the condensate from the injectedsteamthat returnswith the oil can
;tant. If, for exam-
have a strongimpact (see,for example,Martin 1967).rn many projects,it is found
oil viscosity,then
that the producedwater is muchlessin quantity than the injectedsteam-particu-
the form
larly in the early cyclesand in mobile oil reservoirs.
(6.r7) A factor not consideredhere is that the temperaturewithin the heat bank is
not uniform. There is a tendencyfor the near-well bore regionto remain hotter as
r gravity drainage, the heat bank cssls. Sincethe flow restrictionis greater,becauseof the nature of
' typical heavyoils radial flcwr in the near-well bore regionand also in the skin, the productionrate
gravitydrainageto willxot fall quite as fast as expected;i.e., it is possiblefor 4 to be lessthan 1.
the reciprocalvis- Although the precedinganalysisis crude and seemsto, perhapsfortunately,
n general,it would contain compensatingerrors, it does representthe type of decline rate found in
z. The production publishedcases,and it is also possibleto comparevaluesof the factor, 4, and to
uation draw reasonableconclusions.In the following, it is assumedthat s : m, and any
t' deviationsfrom this are includedin the factor q; m is obtainedusingthe methods
. (6.18) of Chapter7.
Burns (1969)givesdata for the declinein the oil-productionrate for two cycles
rime.3Eliminating of steaminjectionin the PotterSandin the Midway Sunsetfield in southernCali-
fornia. The data are shownis Figure 6.15.
uring the initial stages aDecline
curvesof this type are often referred to as harmonicdecline curves.Sebaand Perry
he steamchamberand (1969)mentionthe useof suchcurvesfor the successfulcorrelationof productionrate data for cyclic
am velocities.The ini- steamstimulationin the YorbaLinda field. They alsoindicatethat harmoniccurvesfit their theoret-
luction curve after the ical curvesvery closely-maximum deviation5Voand mostly within 17o.
SimplifiedAnalysisof ProductionRateDeclineDuringReservoirCooling 261

nulation Chap.6
WellMccuflochM&M No.7completed4-921 l.P.25Bld d/B
205 ft of 410 ft zone open to production
E
t
o 6
0.03
o E
6
E @ @
tr o
o
E
5 50 ' @
It
o
r 30
o.
E
6 6
loTi J J A S O N Dl
1965 1966 --------------l
Figure 6.15 Typical Responseto Cyclic SteamInjection in the Midway Sunset
Field (after Burns 1969)
Thesedata are replottedas the reciprocalof the oil-productionrate against

TABLE6..r O
time in Figure 6.16;the data are represented
well by straightlines.
The slopesof thesestraightlinescan be usedto calculatevaluesof the appar- Crcle Sur
ent lossfactor 4 (Table6.3). Steam pressun
Steam temp<n
P a r a m e t e rn =
TABLE
6.3 DataforWellM & M No.7
Steam injectrc
CycleNumber pC BtulB 'F
Slope of graph.
Steampressure,psig 320 350
Factor 4
Steamtemperature,"F 428 436
Parameterm : s 2.5 2.5 (Boberg and L
Steaminjection,B 6,156 10,040
Heat per barrel of steamassuming 314,000 315,000
70% quality
pC Btu/B "F 1"15 r75
Slopeof graph,B 1 0.00023 0.000059
Factor 4 3.1 1.27
(Burns1969).
The factorsindicatethat there was considerably lesslossin the secondcycle

than in the first one. Possiblymuch of the heatinjectedin the first cyclewas con-
served,and this reducedthe lossin the second.
Figure 6.17showsdata for the Quiriquire field studied by Boberg and Lantz
plotted in the sameformat. Apart from the first points for each cycle that reflect
the throttling of the well during the startup,thesedata also fall on straightlines.
However,in this case,the secondcycle (T = 2.53) showeda more rapid, rather
than a slower,declinein the productionwith time. Possiblythis reflectsthe declin-
Iitrrt
ing reservoirpressure.Data are shownin Table6.4.
Quin
262 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6

Simplified An
-l dtB
II 0.(x}
1stCycle
2nd Cycle
I
--l 0.02
I 0.01
D a t a f o r W eM
ll &MNo.7
MidwaySunsetField
from Burns1969
J-,1
) n Dl Figure 6.16 Reciprocal Production
100 200 Rate for Cyclic Steam Stimulated Well
idway Sunset Time in Days in Midway SunsetField
hrction rate against TABLE 6.4 Data for CyclicStimulationin the OuiriquireFieldin Venezuela
iles.
valuesof the appar- Cycle Number
Steampressure,psig 770 800
Steamtemperature,"F 516 520
Parameterrn = s 2.4 2.4
Steaminjection,B 5r,714 54,857
pC Btu/B'F r75 r75
Slopeof graph,B-1 0.0000187 0.000025
350 Factor 4 1.8 2.5
436
2.5 (Bobergand Lantz 1966)
10,040
315,000
d/B
r75
0.000059 2nd Cycle
0.01
t.27
1st Cycle
o
in the secondcycle 0.005

first cycle was con- Datafor Quiriouire
fromBoberg& LanE1966
y Boberg andLantz
ch cycle that reflect
rll on straight lines.
0 100
200 300 400 500
i more rapid, rather Time In Days
Dreflects the declin-
Figure 6.17 Reciprocal Production Rate for Cyclic Stimulation in the
QuiriquireFieldin Venezuela
linrlation Chap. 6 SimplifiedAnalysis of ProductionRate DeclineDuring ReservoirCooling 263

dlB
0.02
o.01
Datalor Midway-Sunset
AveragePotterSand
fiom Burns1969
Figure 6.18 Reciprocal Production

20 40 60 80 Rate for Cyclic Stimulation of Average
Timein Days Potter Sand
The raf
Data for other wells are shownin Figures6.18,6.19 and 6.20. and Lefkor-it
The datain Figure6.20 arefor a well that had a poor cementjob and in which of gravitl' dn
it wasthoughtthat steamwaslost to nonproductivehorizons.The lines are steeper The rtx
than thosein Figure 6.15,which is for the samereservoir-presumablythe effec- zone rise-fro
tive heat injectionQ; was lessin well M & M 5,A,becauseof the steamloss. Doscher.As I
Severalpapersdescribetheoreticalmethodsfor the analysisand predictionof terfacecalcu
steamstimulatedproductionin which the Bobergand Lantz approachis extended Figure6.21.1
to includegravity drainage(Towsonand Boberg1967;Sebaand perry 1969;Kuo,
Shain,and Phocas1970;and Jones1977). 2n
Each of thesestudiesassumesthe initial formation of a heatedzone that is
analyzedusingthe Marx Langenheimapproach.Variousapproximationsare made
concerningthe state of the region around the heatedzone (e.g., it is cold; it is
heatedby conductionfrom the hot zonebut is at a uniform temperature;it is heated 150
by radial conductionand the temperaturedistributionvariesaccordingly).
E
.9
dtB -9100
J.
p
0.06 =
II
50
0.04
0
0
Figlrt
Phoca
San Ardo
sThis
rheo
Figure 6.19 Reciprocal Production perature gradicn
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Rate for Cyclic Steam Stimulation of gradient in viscc
Timein Days Coalinsa and San Ardo Sands d i s c u s s e di n C h e
264 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6 SimplifiedArd

dlB
0.04
0.02
Figure 6.20 ReciprocalProduction

;iprocal Production Rate for Cyclic SteamStimulationof a
itimulation of Average 50 100 Midway SunsetWell with Poor
Timein Days Cementing
The rate of drainageof the oil is calculatedusing the methodsof Matthews
t.20. and Lefkovits (1956),who developedan analyticalmethodfor predictingthe effect
:nt job and in which of gravity drainagefor conventionalisothermalreservoirs.s
'he
lines are steeper The theories predict that the interface between the liquids and the steam
esumablythe effec- zone risg-from a level at the bottom of the well in the manner envisagedby
e steamloss. Doscher.As the liquid is drainedaway,the interfacefalls. The positionsof the in-
,isand predictionof terface calculatedfor a specific exampleby Kuo, Shain, and Phocasare shown in
)proachis extended Figure 6.21.This also showsthe calculatedtemperaturedistributions.
td Perry 1969;Kuo,
200 200
heatedzone that is I
I
I
rimationsare made I
I
:.g., it is cold; it is a
a
a
)erature;it is heated I
I
cordingly). I
a
I
0'i
30
Wellspacing= 2112acres is timein y
Parameter
50 100 150
Radius, ft
Figure 6.21 ConditionsAround Steam-Stimulated Well (after Kuo, Shain, and
Phocas1970)
tThis theory assumes
that the viscosityof the oil is uniform. In practice,there is a sharp tem-
:rprocal Production peraturegradientin the oil layer adjacentto a growing steamchamber,and there is a corresponding
iteam Stimulation of gradientin viscosity.It is largelythe oil adjacentto the chamberthat is flowing. This mechanismis
n Ardo Sands discussedin Chapter7.
mulation Chap.6 SimplifiedAnalysisof ProductionRate DeclineDuringReservoirCooling 265

THE PROBLEMOF THE FIRSTCYCLEIN THE CYCLICSTEAM STIMULATION When il
OF TAR SANDS the separatod r
seemslikely d
During one of the later cyclesin the productionof very viscousoils by steamstimu-
pore voluur- |
lation, the steamflows into the low-pressuresteamchamberleft from the preceding
within the rc!
cycle;as steaminjectioncontinues,the temperatureand pressureincrease.Steam
ing volurnc-
condenses both within the chamberand at its perimeter.More oil is heated,and '
As thct
this drainsto the lower part of the chambertogetherwith the steamcondensate.
ume is creatcd
In the first cycle the problem is different becausethere is no preformed low-
is also neceie
pressuresteamchamberthat is ableto acceptthe steam.If the in situ oil is reason-
the heatedrcr
ably mobile, a chambercan be formed by pushingoil away from the well. Most of
mulationof q
the outwardlydisplacedoil, togetherwith someof the condensate, will be returned through opco I
laterby the natural reservoirpressure.A similar resultcan be achievedif there is a
into the undi
high water-saturation layerin which thereis fluid mobility.Another similar circum-
than simplyL
stancemight occur with a layer of high gassaturation.
tributed regir
If the in situ oil is practicallyimmobileand if the water saturationis too low
In the fl
for water to be mobile,as is often the casewith tar sands,then it is necessary, in the sandis bo
the first cycle,for the injection pressureto be high enoughto disrupt the reservoir.
the actiond r
The sandmustbe physicallymovedin order to make room for the steam.Someof
steamis cmw
the volume can come from the compressionof the reservoirmaterials,but most
into the tar sr
comesby lifting the surfaceof the ground and creatingnew void space.Sincethe
In the rq
volume of the injectedsteam(measuredas liquid) -s larger than that of the oil it
conductioniil
produces,it is apparentthat the increasein liquid volume accommodated by the tumenwithin I
disruptionof the reservoirmustbe very substantial.
sure beyond I
For example,considerthe injectionof 50,000B of steaminto a reservoirwith
steam-saturat
a sandthicknessof 100ft. Injectionsof this order are commonlycarriedout in the
loosensthe sar
cyclic steamstimulationof the Cold Lake reservoir.If this injectionresultedin a
The whole m
singlefracture having the height of the reservoirand a total length of 800 ft (400ft
vancessteadil
either sideof the well), then, if it wereof uniform width and containedthe conden-
satefrom the steam,it would needto be 3.5 ft wide. In practice,of course,it is very Thermalexparsil
unlikely that the increasein reservoirwould be of the simpleshapesuchas this. dlslodgingsanda
Nevertheless it is apparentthat injectionsof this magnitudewill causesignificant fluidsto penetr*
changesto the reservoirmatrix.
Whether this increaseoccurs through the creationof "cracks"or by a dis-
tributed increasein the pore volumeover considerable volumesis still obscure,al-
thoughthe latter seemsmoreprobablein unconsolidated sandswhen one considers
sr
the largepore volumethat must be generated. + Il
1'
In their original state,tar sandsare often-and perhapsalways-very closely
packed (Dusseault1977).They are often describedas locked. By this it is meant
that protuberances on individual sandgrainstend to fit into hollowsin their neigh-
bors. This makes the sand much strongerthan would be expectedfor a non-
cementedmaterial.It is the locking of grainsthat is thoughtto explainthe strength
of the near-verticaloil sand cliffs found where the tar sandsform outcrops along
the bank of the AthabascaRiver. This is in distinctcontrastto the low ansleof re- Figurt 632
posefound for typical loosesands. voir with Stc
266 CyclicSteam Stimulation Chap.6 The Problem d

'h/IULATION
When the tar sandsin Athabascaare mined and separated,it is found that
the separatedsandoccupiesa volumethat is about25Vogreaterthan the original.It
seemslikely that fracturing oil sandsin situ also createsan irreversibleincreasein
s oils by steamstimu- pore volume. In any case,in the first cycle, it is the creation of additional volume
it from the preceding within the reservoirby disruption from the entry of steamthat providesthe work-
sure increase.Steam ing volume.
re oil is heated,and -As
the steamentersthe reservoir, fracturing occurs and additional pore vol-
: steamcondensate. ume is created;this allows the accommodationof the condensatefrom the steam.It
is no preformed low- is also necessaryto accommodatethe volume of the steamthat is flowing through
: in situ oil is reason- the heatedreservoiron its way to the regionwhere condensationoccurs.The accu-
om the well. Most of mulation of condensatemay be quite remote from the well. The condensateflows
nte, will be returned through open fracturesto fill the volume behind the fracture front as it encroaches
achievedif there is a into the undisturbed reservoir. This fracture front is probably distributed rather
othersimilar circum- than simply being the edgeof an advancingcrack. One conceptof how such a dis-
tributed regionmight advanceinto the reservoiris shown inFigure 6.22.
saturationis too low In the steam-saturatedregion, the pressureis abovethe fracture pressureand
en it is necessary, in the sandis loose and free to move. Steamflows through the disturbed regionunder
disruptthe reservoir. the action of a small pressuregradient.At a surface,the condensationsurface,the
r the steam.Someof steamis convertedto water, and this liquid water flows through multiple fractures
' materials,but most
into the tar sandbeyond.As it flows, it coolsrapidly.
roid space.Sincethe ln the regionbeyond and closeto the condensationsurface,heat is carried by
lan that of the oil it conductioninto the disturbedsandbetweenthe fractures.This heat causesthe bi-
:commodatedby the tumenwithin the poresto try to expand(seeButler 1986).The increasedpore pres-
sure beyond the condensationsurface causesa backflow of fluid toward the
into a reservoirwith steam-saturatedregion. This increaseof pressurebeyond the condensationsurface
tly carriedout in the loosensthe sandparticles,and theyjoin the loosesandwithin the disturbedregion.
rjectionresultedin a The whole mechanismproceedsin a coupledfashion, and the disturbed region ad-
ngth of 800ft (400ft vancessteadily.There is a dilation of the sandmatrix; the porosityincreases, and
rntainedthe conden-
r, of course,it is very Thermalexpansionof bitumenis
: shapesuchas this. dislodgingsandand allowing AdvancingCondensation
Surface
rill causesignificant fluidsto oenetrate
tracks" or by a dis-
:s is still obscure,al-
Steam-saturated
s whenone considers
+ DisturbedRegion- loosesandheld . .., \_
againstfaceas in a filtercake
always-very closely \
. By this it is meant Condensate'filtrate" \
rllows in their neigh- flowingwithinfractures
expectedfor a non- Limitof Bulk
I explainthe strength MatrixDisturbance
advancingin front
form outcrops along of condensationsurtace
r the low angleof re- Figtre 6.22 PossibleMechanismfor the Disruption and Fracturingof a Tar SandReser-
voir with Steam
itimulation Chap.6 The Problem of the First Cycle in the Cyclic Steam Stimulation of Tar Sands 267
overall the increasein pore volume is achievedby raising the surfaceof the ground
way beyond the disturbed region.
!
As the disturbance and fracturing continues, an increasinglylarge bank of
-1
disturbed, higher-porositysand is created.Later on, when the pore pressureis re-
leasedduring the production cycle, this "fluffed-up" sand becomesCompressed
.s
by
the weightof the overburdensinking upon it and the porositybecomesreduced,al- €
C
though not to its original level. During the reduction of porosity, there is a squeez-
C
ing of the fluids back to the productionwell.
As the fracture closes,the fluid pressureacts to move oil as well as the con- I
rt
densateto the well. However, much of the steam condensateis relatively remote
from the well and is trapped. This trapping of the condensatebeyond the oil ex-
plains why water production is lessthan might be expectedduring the first produc- =
o
tion cycles.
Although this mechanismis similar to that describedpreviouslyfor the steam
stimulation of mobile heavy oils, there are important differences.With the mobile
oils, the volume of the condensatefrom the steamwas accommodatedby the move- rtr
ment of oil awayfrom the well bore and by the invasionof the condensateinto the PrqE
oil, probablyeither as fingersor stratified fingerlets.With essentiallyimmobile bitu-
men containedin tar sands,the accommodation Boberg, ard I
is by the dilation of the tar sands
as the fracturingstressis exceeded.In the first case,the flow of fluids toward the voir drive fu
well bore during the productioncycleis driven by thr reservoirpressurearoundthe tant. In the ct
perimeterof the heatedregion.In the secondcase,muchof the driven force comes doesnot flot
from the compactionof the matrix squeezingfluids toward the production well. In The nco
later cycles,as hasbeendescribedpreviously,the steamand its condensate performarrc t
are ac-
commodatedby the compression lem. It has br
of steamwithin the existingchamber,and gravity
providesmuch of the drive. simulaton ca
The similarity of the mechanismsis also seenby comparingthe production assumedto h
curvesfor cold Lake bitumen shown in Figure 6.23 to those found by Niko and proximatelyI
Troost for mobile heavy oil in Figure 6.8. Dietrich for o
Figure 6.24 showsthe corresponding cumulativeoil and water productionfor
the samecold Lake project.The water-to-oilratio in the producedsteamis only
Ir
slightly larger than 1 after the first cycle; after four cyclesit is about 2. I
Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter (1987)have studiedthe productionof oil in the

!ar'
early cyclesof steamstimulationat Cold Lake using numericalsimulation.They
find that the field data can be closely simulatedby incorporating a model for the =
responseof the reservoir sand to shear failure during steam injection.6This pro- o
vides increasedpore volume during injection and allows a compactiondrive Ouiing o
production. The pore volume decreasesas the sand consolidatesduring the relax- o
ation of the pore pressure.They also incorporate a relative permeability hysteresis a
into their model;this allowsthe penetratonof condensate into the dilatedreservoir t
E
but restrictsits back flow during the compactiondrive. In their paper,Denbina, t
(,
uThereis no
shearstresswithin a static fluid in which the compressivestressis equal in all
directions.In a solid however,it is possibleand usualfor the compressivestressesto be different in
different directions.If this is the case,there must also be accompanyingshearstress(see,for ex-
Iigut,
ample,Holtz and Kovacs 1981).In many casesthis can lead to the failure ofthe solid in shear.
ulatb
268 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6 The ftoblern d

surfaceof the ground 300
It
:asinglylarge bank of o
le pore pressureis re- s
:comescompressedby o 200
, becomesreduced,al- (E
E
sity, there is a squeez- c
.9
C'
oil as well as the con- E 100
I
:e is relatively remote o
rte beyondthe oil ex- o-
rring the first produc- o
0
eviouslyfor the steam 0 200 400 600 8oo q
rces.With the mobile Timein days
nodatedby the move- Figure 6.23 oil-Production Rates from Esso'scold Lake Steam-stimulation
Project.Data for "averagewell,, (after Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter l9g7) {
e condensate into the n
ntially immobilebitu- Fl
Boberg, and Rotter conclude that formation compactionprovides the main reser- q
ation of the tar sands
voir drive during early cycles.In later cycles,gravity becomesincreasinglyimpor- il
' of fluids toward the
r pressurearoundthe
tant. In the early cycles,muchof the steamcondensate flows into the reseivoiibut
r
LI
fl
doesnot flow backbecauseof the permeabilityhysteresis.
re driven force comes t
The needto useunusualrelativepermeabilityrelationsto matchthe observed I
re productionwell. In
performanceof cyclic steamingprojectsby numericalsimulationis a commonprob- I
its condensate are ac- I

lem' It has been discussedby Dietrich (1981)who finds that conventionalthermal
chamber,and gravity
simulatorscan match the field performanceif the relative permeability for water is
assumedto be extremelysmall.The value of k,nfor water saturatedsandwith ap-
raring the production
proximately50Vomobilewater and 50Vomobileoil from the curve recommendedby
e found by Niko and
Dietrich for cyclicsteamingis comparedto the corresponding value recommended
water production for 140
oducedsteamis only Datafor averagewell
is about2. I rzo
oductionof oil in the L
- Field
ical simulation.They f; 100
= Model
rting a model for the -80
injection.6This pro- o
rpactiondrive during 5eo
rtesduring the relax- o
.2 40
ermeabilityhysteresis (6
r the dilatedreservoir
heir paper,Denbina,
Ero
f
oo
r s r v e s t r e s si s e q u a l i n a l l o 200 400 600 8oo
stressesto be different in Timein days
shear stress (see. for ex- Figure 6.24 cumulative oil and water productionfrom Essot cold Lake Stim-
of the solid in shear. ulation Project(after Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter l9g7)
itimulation Chap,6 The Problem of the First cycle in the cyclic Steam stimulation of rar sands 269
by Gomaa (seeFigure 4.32) for steamflooding,and to the range found in the con- CYCLIC STEAIITG
ventionalwaterfloodingof sandcoresin the followine table:
This reserxir
Cyclic stream,Dietrich (1981) 0.001 perature is l(l
Steamflooding,Gomma (1980) 0.004 ture is abql
Conventionalwaterfloodins 0.02-0.1 bitumenin A
cousthan Ad
The difficulty is that if conventionalcurves are used for the relative perme-
A pnir
ability of water, then the water production predicted by the model is far greater
scribesthe rct
than that found in practice.Water doesnot flow back to the productionwell as fast
450ft thick,I
in the field aswould be predictedby the simulator.Dietrich, like Denbina,Boberg,
wasset into o
and Rotter,discusses the possibilityof therebeinga hysteresis in which watercould linear was scl
flow very easily into the formation but in which the relative permeabilityfor back-
As mayl
ward flow would be far less. duction l:rt6r
A factor which could contribute to such hysteresisbut, which seemsto have
tion pressurc
beenignored,is that of the instabilityof the water-oilinterfaceduring injection.As
and 4. It secc
hasbeen describedin Chapter5, the flowing streambeyondthe condensationinter-
that in c1'ch
face is largelywater but, becausethe viscosityof water is much lower than that of
describedpet
the oil, the water-oil interface is highly unstable and the water flows as fingers tent with rlF i
which can be describedasrivuletsthroughthe oil. For the segregated flow, the satu- oil not being r
ration required for movementof the water is only very slightly larger than the irre-
this heat is co
duciblewater saturationand the water becomesrapidly disperseddeep into the oil.
It seemspossiblethat when the well pressureis lowered for the production cycle,
the rivulets of water becomeunstableas the flow direction is reversedand they be- TABLE5.5 CF
come broken by the oil into pockets.Then, as the oil proceedsto displacethese
pockets of water back toward the well, the relative permeabilitiescorrespondto Cycle
those for diffuse flow. Steaminjectioo
It is suggestedthat the flow away from the well is characterized,becauseof pressure
the abundantsupplyof water and the instability of broad oil-water interfaces,by the B
segregated flow of smallswift waterrivulets;this dispersesthe intrudingwaterover
considerabledistances.The flow back to the well is with more normal flow because Production
oil, B
it is now the oil which is displacingthe water. Water,B
This processwould be expectedto be modified by the override of the steam Oil B/SD avenlr
chamber. In this circumstance,heated oil tends to be bypassedbelow the steam,
and watercondensate will flow with the heatedoil with both tendingto be dragged OSR
forward by the pressuregradient.In this drag-layer,the temperatureis considerably (from Bott 1967
above that of the reservoir and the ratio of oil viscosity to water viscosity will be
lessthan it would be at reservoirtemperature(seeFigure 4.7). As a result the water
saturationwithin this mobile layer will be substantiallyhigher and more water will It is interestiq
be availableto flow backwardswhen the flow is reversed.Thus. someof the steam of reciprocalp
condensatecan be distributed far aheadof the advancingfront, while somewill re- The datr
main with bypassedoil and will be much closerto the well. the oil-steamr
For cyclic steamingof bitumen with fracturing, the fractureswhich were able showthe ham
to carry the water away from the condensationinterface during steam injection, reasonable.
close,or at leastpartially close,during the production cycle.This effect may be ex- Bott etsO
pected to contribute substantiallyto the hysteresiseffects. it possibleto c
270 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6 CyclicSteacil

te found in the con- CYCLICSTEAMINGOF VACCA TAR, OXNARD,CALIFORNIA
This reservoircontainsa 5" API crudeoil at a depth of 1870ft. The reservoirtem-

.001 peratureis 100"F.The extrapolatedviscosityof the crude oil at reservoirtempera-
.004 ture is about 1 million centipoise;this is approximatelythe sameas that of the
t-0.1 bitumen in Athabasca.Although the Vaccatar is heavierand basicallymore vis-
cousthan Athabascabitumen,the temperatureis higherin the Vaccareservoir.
the relativeperme- A projectto recoverthis tar hasbeendescribedby Bott (1967).His paperde-
model is far greater
scribesthe resultsof four cyclesof stimulationin well 702.The reservoirwasabout
oductionwell as fast 450 ft thick, but the well was drilled into only the upper 2I7 ft of the pay. Casing
re Denbina,Boberg, wassetinto the upper 107ft of this hole,leaving110ft of pay openbelow.A slotted
n whichwatercould linear was set in the open hole and packedwith gravel.
:rmeabilityfor back-
As may be seenfrom Table6.5, the projectwasvery promising,and high pro-
ductionrateswereachievedwith excellentoil-to-steamratios.Very high steaminjec-
ihich seemsto have q
tion pressureswere requiredin the first two cyclescomparedto thosein cycles3
duringinjection.As {
and 4. It seemslikely that fracturingof the reservoiroccurredin cyclesL and 2, but
: condensation inter- *l
that in cycles 3 and 4, injection occurred into an existing steam chamber,as rd
h lower than that of describedpreviously.The lower oil-steamratiosfound in cyclesI and2 are consis- B(
ter flows as fingers tent with the idea of steambeinginjectedinto a fracturewith much of the heated i{
eatedflow, the satu- H
largerthan the irre-
oil not being availableduring the subsequent productioncycle.However,much of
this heat is conservedand reducesthe requirementsin the subsequent cycles.
r
hf
ed deepinto the oil. il{
tl
le production cycle,
:versedand they be- TABLE 6.5 Cvclic Stimulationof VaccaTar (Well 702)
ds to displacethese 5'API; /t = 217ft.; k = 5.5 D; Ip = 166'P
lities correspondto Cycle r23 Total
Steaminjection
cterized,becauseof pressure 1,600 1,750 1,200 1,050
ter interfaces,by the B 22,839 14,756 7,500 r0,671 55,766
intrudingwaterover
rormalflow because Production
oil, B 5,153 13,192 11,497 t3,125 42,967
Water, B r,904 4,358 5 575 9,181 21,018
i'errideof the steam Oil B/SD average 115 t3r 107 "t5 99
:d below the steam,
ndingto be dragged OSR 0.23 0.89 1.53 1.23 0.77
atureis considerably (from Bott 1967).
rterviscositywill be
\s a resultthe water
and morewaterwill It is interestingthat the productiondatafrom the Vaccaprojectplot asstraightlines
r. someof the steam of reciprocalproductionrate againsttime. This is shownin Figure 6.25.
. while somewill re- The datafall, in general,on straightlinesfor eachcycle,and the slopesreflect
the oil-steamratio. It is interestingthat thesedata,for an initially immobileoil, still
rreswhich were able showthe harmonicdeclinediscussedearlier.Also, the calculatedvaluesof 4 seem
ing steaminjection, reasonable.
ris effectmay be ex- Bott also reports the water-to-oil ratio found for each cycle, and this makes
it possibleto calculatethe averageheat capacityof the products.This is compared
:imulation Chap.6 CyclicSteamingof VaccaTar, Oxnard,California 271

dtB The rc
Bbl Steam OSR Eta
't 22,389 0.23 8.3 drawn frm
2 14,7ffi 0.89 3.0 4th Cycle
3 7,500 1.53 1.1 load is trad
't.23
0.02 4 10,671 1.7
ment (partil
Total 55,766 O.77
in overall p
squeezedfr|o
This g
is of grealcl
0.01
matricesYI
when the rcr
Datalrom Bott(1964 tor to the sacl
VaccaTransamericaWell702
tion. An er!
Figure 6.25 Cyclic Stimulationof
ing grouod r
0 50 100 150 VaccaTar, Oxnard, California. 5'API,
Timein Days Reservoir Temperature 100'F. partly un&
denceof tb
to the slopesof the declinecurvesin Table6.5. The comparisonindicatesthat in was done to
cycles1 and2, more heat was lost from the heat bank than could be accountedfor If rhsl
by the heat carried awaywith the products.This is shownby the ratio in the last would be lir
line of the tablebeinggreaterthan 1. In cycles3 and 4, the reversewas true. This as the pqe I
indicatesthat heat lost in the first two cyclesaugmentedthe heat bank in the latter duced.In ad
two. Thesecomparisons were madeassumingthat the parameters was equalto la; from water b
however,it is possiblethat with the mechanismof flow, s would be lessthan m and also tendstn
this, in turn, would make the calculatedloss factors in the last row of Table 6.6 dencedby d
smaller than they should be. this, sincet
(1977),plcs r
TABLE 6'6 Comparisonof Slopeof DeclineCurvesfor VaccaProjectwith ReportedWater-Oil
mulativepm
Ratiosin Product. denceof 50 r
of about23 r
Cycle 1
Slopeof line in
Figure 6.4 B-1 x L000
L
0.326 0.157 0.r17 0.120 o
I Maintv o
CalculatedqpC, Btu/B "F 1459 519 200 297 6 l+
Water-oilratio in product
o80 I Solution
0.369 0.344 0.485 0.700 ecoriw
o l-
pC for product, Btu/B61"F 304 295 345 420 o I
qpCfpCp,.a 4.8 1.8 0.58 0.71 c
I
8 6 0 t-
= I
COMPACTIONDRIVE IN CONVENTTONALHEAVY OIL RESERVOTRS
E I
o40
(,
c I
There has been extensiveproduction of heavy oils both by conventional,nonther-
mal meansand by cyclic steamstimulationin the Bolivar regionof the eastcoastof
o
!t
o,
II
Lake Maracaiboin Venezuela.The reservoirsin this area arevery large, and enor- 8 2 0 r-
o l/
mous quantities of oil have been produced.The cold production from these reser- o l-/
voirs (the main ones are Tia Juana,Lagunillas and Bachquero)is very substantial, E o a-4-tz---
5
and the recovery, without thermal stimulation, is much higher than would be E 020,
3
expected. o Cumulativc t
272 CyclicSteam Stimulation Chap.6 CompactionD

The reasonfor this higher production is compactiondrive. As fluids are with-
drawn from the reservoir,the pore pressuredecreasesand additional compressive
load is transferredto the rock matrix. This matrix is sensitiveto load, and rearrange-
ment (particularly of plasticallydeformableclay constituents)occurswith a decrease
in overall pore volume and a subsidenceof the ground surface. The fluids are
squeezedfrom the reservoirrather like water from a sponge.
This type of behaviorprobablyoccurs to someextent in most reservoirsbut it
is of greatestpractical significance in reservoirs(both petroleum and water) with
matriceswhich are sensitiveto increasedstress.It is thought that this is the case
when the reservoirmatrix has not been previously stressedin its geologicalhistory
to the sameextent asoccurswhen the pore pressureis relievedduring fluid produc-
tion. An extreme,well-documentedcaseof compactiondrive and the accompany-
;lic Stimulationof ing ground subsidenceis that of oil productionfrom the Wilmington field which lies
'rd. California. 5"API,
partly under the city of Long Beach,california. In this case,the maximumsubsi-
:rature 100'F.
denceof the ground surfacewas greaterthan 8 metersand very substantialdamage
on indicatesthat in was done to surfacefacilities such as buildings and bridges(Mayuga 1970).
ld be accountedfor If there were no compaction drive in the Bolivar reservoirs,the recovery
the ratio in the last would be limited to about 5vo of the original oil in place(Figure 1.12).However,
/ersewas true. This as the pore pressureis decreased,the reservoircompactsand additional oil is pro-
at bank in the latter duced.In addition to compactionof the sandreservoir,there is also a contribution
er J wasequalto m; from water being squeezedfrom the pores of interbeddedshale streaks;this water
I be lessthan rn and alsotendsto displaceoil. The compactionin this areais well documentedand evi-
st row of Table 6.6 dencedby the settlingof the ground surface.Measurements have been made of
this, since the 1930sin somecases.Figure 6.26,which is taken from Borregales
(1977),plots the cumulativesubsidenceof the surfaceof the ground againstthe cu-
mulative production for a project in the Tia Juana field. In this diagram, a subsi-
ReportedWater-Oil
denceof 50 million barrels correspondsto a changein the elevationof the surface
of about2.3 m.
I Productiondue to:
0 . 11 7 0.t20 o
Compaction Compac- Compaction ;C
n 297 6
o80 Solution i rion :
0.485 0.700 GasDrive:
r5 420
o
, witfr,
reactts : ^2;
^B
ao vaea i ,t
0.58 0.7r c sof'n , ,'
8eo :gsdriv€i /
+ oll;lerVl
E
)/
t/
.s
RS o40
(, A ActualProduction
tr
o o
rventional,nonther- p B PrimaryRecovery
o C MaximumRecovery
r of the eastcoastof
820 a
(26.2%STOilP)
ery large, and enor- o o
E
ln from these reser- o @
I is very substantial, Eo
f Figure 6.26 Drive Mechanismsin the
her than would be E o 20 40 60 80 100 120 D-2/E-2 Projectin the Tia JuanaField
f
o Cumulative
Withdrawal
in Millionsof Barrels (after Borregales1977)
imulation Chap.6 CompactionDrive in ConventionalHeavy Oil Reservoirs 273

During the initial production,when the drive was largely due to the effect of
solution gas,there was relatively little subsidence.Over the bulk of the production
period shown, the surface subsidencetracks the cumulative production along a
I
I
45' line; the drive is essentiallydue to compactionalone.This would continueto
the limit B if no steamwere introduced.
I
I
Cyclic steamstimulation not only acceleratesproduction, it also increasesthe
recoveryachievable.One reasonfor this is the additionalgasdrive that is initiated
by the effect of the steam;oil is displacedby steamvapor remaining in the reser-
voir. [n addition, the more rapid production rate makes more extensivedepletion
economic.The limit shownby the point C for cyclicsteamstimulationcorresponds
a
to a recoveryof 28% of the original oil in place.The projectedrecoveryfor other
projectsin the Bolivar Coastis shownin Table6.7.It canbe seenthat the increase
in oil recoveryby steamsoakingis between5 and 15 Eo of.the original oil. The very
high oil-to-steamratiosindicatea stimulationmechanismrather than one depend-
Iitil
ing on generalreservoirheating.Figure 6.27showsthe averageproductionbehavior
livar (
of all of the steam-soaked wells on the Bolivar Coast.
When fl
TABLE 6.7 CyclicSteam Results-BolivarCoast are usuallyth
Recoveryas % STOIIP zontal or verti
Proiect STOIIP Compaction
Name Bx106
tion. Even wi
Primary Total VoSTOIIP
which the fre
D2/82 454 19.8 8.2 28.0 18.9 2.94 Settari,
J-7 713 10.6 12.2 22.8 t4.6 4.94 fractures aru
H-7 98 8.2 tJ.z 11 i
16.I 5.03 fracturesweil
D-6 604 4.4 13.1 17.5 14.l 7.37
T-6 305 7.5
It is ro
5.6 13.1 zt.+ 4.83
situ stresses t
(Data from Borregales1977)
Howard and I
onal, principe
Borregalesconsidersthat, after the recoveryof 20 to 30Voof the oil in place,these
vertical and tl
projectsshouldbe convertedto steamdrives;presumablythis would allow recover-
Fracture
ies of the order of 50%. He points out that it is desirableto continuethe cyclic
to the minirm
steamprocessto the point wherecompactiondrive is no longeroperative.At this happensto h
point, the reservoiris hot and the reservoirpressureis low. This allowsthe easier minimum prir
introductionof steamin the steamdrive, which, at a lower pressure,is thermally be vertical ao
more efficient.A particularly important considerationis that if compactiondrive
were still availablewhen flooding steamis introduced,then the valuablecom- Stress Oue t
pactiondrive might be dissipated,movingcompressible steamratherthan the hard-
to-push oil. The result would be a lower overall recovery and/or a higher overall Both fluids a
steamrequirement. stressesmust I
stresseswhicb
tain a shape.
FRACTURING
AND RESERVOIR
EXPANSIONDURINGSTEAM INJECTION As a siu
hypotheticals
In orderto obtain practicalratesof steaminjectionin oil sandreservoirs,it is usual mannerexpG
to use steampressureshigh enoughto fracture the reservoir and thereby allow in- the readerto i
jection. With lower pressuresin a virgin reservoir, the injection rates are usually tThis
exrr
negligible. Limited.
274 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6 Fracturing and

r due to the effect of g
rlk of the production f; ooo

o-
production along a
is would continueto
E Euoo
gc
0-
=o
= E4oo
, it alsoincreases the Fc
Jrivethat is initiated E *soo
naining in the reser- iEg z o o
E
: extensivedepletion
55
nulationcorresponds g€100
rd recoveryfor other 66
E
eenthat the increase E0
o 20 40 80 100
:riginal oil. The very
Time in Months
er than one depend-
productionbehavior Figure 6.27 AverageProductionBehaviorof Steam-Stimulated
Wellsin the Bo- I I
livar CoastFields (after Borregales1977) ,l
r{
When fluids are injected into porous cementedrocks, the fracturesthat form rd
dl
are usuallythin cracks,and thesetend to be approximatelyplanar and either hori-
Compaction
zontalor vertical. With vertical fracturesit is found that there is a preferredorienta-
tion. Even with horizontalfractures,there tendsto be an azimuthaldirection in
H
q
-r STOIIP OSR hl
which the fracture spreadspreferentially (Aughenbaughand Pullen 1966). rl
s,
18.9 2.94 Settari, Kry, and Yee (1988)have reported the formation of asymmetrical ,
t4.6 4.94 fractures around steam-injectedwells at Cold Lake in a region where horizontal I
16.1 5.03 fractureswere expectedfrom measurement of the initial reservoirin situ stresses. I
1A I
7.37 I
It is acceptedthat the orientationof the fracturewill be controlledby the in
23.4 4.83
situ stressesthat exist within the rock at the time of fracturing (see,for example,
Howard and Fast1970).In generalthesestresses may be resolvedinto three orthog-
onal, principal compressive stresses,and it is usuallyassumedthat one of theseis
he oil in place,these vertical and that the other two are horizontal.
*ould allow recover- Fracture theory predicts that the plane of a hydraulic fracture will lie normal
continuethe cyclic to the minimum principalcompressive stress.Thus,if the minimum principalstress
er operative.At this happensto be vertical, then the fracturewill be horizontaland vice versa.If the
his allowsthe easier minimum principalstressis horizontalin a specificdirectionthen the fracturewill
ressure,is thermally be vertical and will be at right anglesto the directionof the minimum stress.
if compactiondrive
r the valuablecom- Stress Due to Gravity in a Semi-infinite Strain-FreeSolid
'atherthan the hard-
Both fluids and solidscan supportcompressivestresses. However,in a fluid, the
I or a hisher overall
stressesmust be equalin all directions(the pressure),whereasa solid can support
stresseswhich differ with direction.It is this propertythat allowsa solid to main-
tain a shape.
JECTION As a simpleexampleof the stressesT within a solid, considera semi-infinite
hypotheticalsolid that is stress-and strain-freeand that is then in someimaginary
reservoirs,it is usual manner exposedto a gravitational field normal to its surface.It might be useful for
nd therebyallow in- the readerto imagine a block of an elasticsolid such as an eraser.
ion ratesare usually TThis
exampleresultedfrom a discussionwith Dr. S. Bharatha of Esso ResourcesCanada
Limited.
timulation Chap.6 Fracturingand ReservoirExpansionDuring Steam Injection 275

The gravitywill compressthe solid downward,and this will alsotend to make like. In senera
it extend horizontally. We will assumethat the horizontal growth of a large hori- fracturestend I
zontallayer of the solid is constrainedby somedistant immovablebarrier and that, shallowdepths
as a result,the horizontaldimensionsremain consranr. The directiono
A small elementin the solid is shown in Figure 6.28.rt is beingcompressed form can be in
downwardby the vertical principal stressand horizontallyby the two equil hori- boresusinga fo
zontal principal stresses. ter is that of th
The condition that the strain (i.e. the contraction per unit length) in Usingthb
directionL be zerois given by equation6.22.This statesthat the sumof the contri- of the maximu
butionsto the straincausedby the threeprincipalstresses shouldbe zero.From this a map for .{lba
is derivedan expressionfor the horizontalstressas a function of the verticalstress. In the reg
tion with the m
Op ltCn UOV v
.EEE
Ct=--:---=U or oH = ;-- ov (6.22) are thus erpect
L-v
Agar (198,iirep
where E is Young'smodulus sandreservoir5
op is horizontalstress than 250 m. an(
ay is vertical stress tical fractur* a
z is Poisson'sratio Lower Grand R
But z < 0.5; therefora,o171 6y. this changedto
Part of rhe
Poisson's ratio must alwaysbe lessthan 0.5, since,if it were not, therewould
Lake, commun
be an expansionin volumewhen a body is compressed.s For a fluid, poisson,s
ratio entialdirection
is 0.5.If Poisson'sratio is lessthan 0.5,then equation6.22 indicatesthat the horizon-
in thevicinitl th
tal stresswill be lessthan the vertical.In sucha situationonly verticalfracturescan
Daneshr.
form if the materialis fracturedby the injectionof a fluid within its poresand if its
in a gaswell:thc
tensilestrengthis either negligibleor the samein eachdirection.
tion. Drilling mr
This conclusionappliesonly to the imaginaryunstrainedsemi-infinitesolid
mediatelyafter t
for the conditionsjust considered.A similar analysisappliedto a large spherical
the pressuredal
body to which a gravity was suddenlyapplied (the gravity coming from lts own
the positionof t
mass)would lead to a resultin which therewas a residualhoop compressive stress In situ stn
at the surface,and, near the surface,horizontalfractureswould be possible.
Gronseth,and I
In Situ ReservoirStresses
Fracturing hel
ln actualpractice,the stresses
within the earth'scrust are mostcomplexand are re-
latedto eventssuchasthe movementof tectonicplates,mountainbuilding,and the The minimump
cipal stress.It il
stresscorrespqx
by the densitva
22.6 kPalm. lf t
duringa fracturi
half of it (Hona
Figure 6.28 Principal StressesActing

Ground Heave
on Solid Element
There hasbeena
'Notice fracturein uncq
that in equation6.22, opwonld be equalto cvand henceto the stressin any direction
if v : 0.5. In this circumstance, the materialwould act like a fluid. cracksformingas
276 CyclicSteamStimulation Chap.6 Fracturing

andRe
will alsotend to make like. In general,it is found that in the real world, horizontalrather than vertical
,rowth of a large hori- fractures tend to form from the hydraulic fracturing of porous rocks at relatively
vablebarrier and that, shallowdepths(downto about 1200ft.); belowthis, verticalfracturesusuallyform.
The directionof the horizontalprincipal stresses in regionswhereverticalfractures
It is beingcompressed form can be inferred from measurements made of the out-of-roundness of well
rv the two equal hori- boresusinga four-armcaliper.The directioncorresponding to the smallestdiame-
ter is that of the largerhorizontalprincipal stressand vice versa.
per unit length) in Using this techniqueit hasbeenpossibleto plot mapsshowingthe directions
the sumof the contri- of the maximumand minimum horizontalstressdirections.Figure 6.29showssuch
ruldbe zero.From this a map for Alberta.
r of the verticalstress. In the regionshown,the maximumstresslies generallyin the NE/SW direc-
tion with the minimum stressnormal to it. Fracturesat depthsbelowabout IZ00ft
UV (6.22) are thus expectedto be vertical and to occur in the NE/SW direction.Chhina and
Agar (1985)report the resultsof fracture testsat 12 locationsin the Alberta tar
sandreservoirs.They find that horizontalfracturesnormally occur at depthsless
than 250 m, and verticalonesoccur at depthsgreaterthan 400m. In between,ver-
tical fracturesare likely, althoughhorizontalones may occur. In one test in the
Lower Grand Rapidsformation at342m, a horizontalfracturestartedgrowing,but
this changedto a vertical orientationas it grew.
Part of the datausedin drawingFigure6.29wasthe observationthat at Cold
,*'erenot, there would
Lake, communicationsbetweensteam-fractured wells tend to occur in this prefer-
a fluid, Poisson'sratio ential direction.Goughand Bell alsomentioncalipermeasurements madeon a well
catesthat the horizon- in the vicinity that indicateda directionof 41' eastof north for the maximumstress.
; r.erticalfracturescan Daneshyet al. (1986)describemeasurements of in situ stressesat variouslevels
:hin its poresand if its in a gaswell; thesewereobtainedfrom microfracturetestsduringthe drilling opera-
tion. tion. Drilling mud was usedas fracturefluid and orientedcoreswere obtainedim-
red semi-infinitesolid mediatelyafter the microfracturetests.The minimum stresses were obtainedfrom
d to a large spherical the pressuredata and the directionsof the vertical fractureswere obtainedfrom
coming from its own the position of the fractureswithin the retrievedcores.
xlp compressivestress
In situ stressmeasurements in the cold Lake field are describedby Kry,
ruldbe possible.
Gronseth,and Morgenstern(1989).
Fracturing Pressure
st complexand are re-
The minimum pressurerequiredto form a fractureis equalto the minimum prin-
rtainbuilding,and the
cipal stress.It is usual to take the vertical principal stressas being equal to the
stresscorrespondingto the weight of the overburden,i.e., to the depth multiplied
by the densityand gravity. This givesvaluesof about 1 psi per foot of deptl, or
22.6 kPalm. If vertical fracturestend to form, the fracturing pressuremeasured
during a fracturingoperationwill be lessthan this valueand can be assmallasone-
half of it (Howard and Fast1970).
?rincipalStresses
Ground Heave
Acting
ent
There hasbeen a lot of discussionwithout much data in regardto the nature of the
, thestress
in anydirection fracturein unconsolidated tar sand.From this it seemslikely that, ratherthan thin
cracksforming asin the fracturing of consolidatedrocks, relativelylargevolumesof
S t i m u l a t i o n C h a p .6 Fracturing
and Reservoir
Expansion
DuringSteamInjection 277
LEGEND
P R O D U C T I OWNE L L a
I N J E C T I OW
N ELL c
B E N C HM A R K a
The ertr
calculatedr.r
It seemsposs
stimulation.
EFFECTOF FRACTT
If gravitr dra
EIPLAIIATIOII
crudesbv stea
I.rlh!fr horltont.l
tlraar orlanlallon
zonethat is al
Inlarrrd lrgn b.talgctr might specu
Ilnlnun horl.onlal
rlraar orlanlrllon
madeof the r
Infaaaad Iton braalo!tr might be mtr
There sr
However it n
Shepherd197
0 IOO mln operating*itl
+
0 tO loMil.r in spiteof thc
reportedin tl
steaming.hor
Figure6.29 PrincipalHorizontalStress in Alberta(fromGoughand
Directions Kr1'. Gr
Bell 1981) Lake, the ma
tar sand become disrupted when high-pressuresteam is injected. Evidence for this mostimmedia
is contained in measurementsof the surface disruption observed in a McMurray --l(r\
a-.
- uro
steam injection pilot, where it was found that substantial permanent ground heave
time curue follo,
resulted as a result of the steam injection (Agnew 1976).Figure 6.30 shows contours neous shut-in pn
for constant elevation increase for one of the patterns at this pilot. shut-in pressurc
278 CyclicSteam Stimulation Chap.6 Effect of Fract

LEGEND
PRODUCTION WELL
INJECTIONWELL
B E N C HM A R K
Figure 6.30 Changesin Ground Ele-

vation at Texaco'sIn Situ SteamFlood-
ing Pilot Near McMurray Alberta.
Contoursare for constantincreases in
ground elevationmeasuredin hun-
dredthsof a foot. Data for May 12-
-^s4
Nov. 24, 1976(from Agnew 1976)
The extentto which steamcan penetratea fracturebeforeit condenses can be

calculatedusingHearn'sequation,which was describedpreviously(equation3.57).
It seemspossiblethat this relationwill find more applicationin the theoryof steam
stimulation.
EFFECTOF FRACTUREORIENTATION
ON PRODUCTIVITYFROMSTIMULATION
Itororro'l
)( If gravity drainageplaysan important role in the productionof extremelyviscous
l-
K1 crudesby steamstimulation,then the orientationof the fracture-disrupted reservoir
zonethat is allowingsteaminjectionwould seemto be important.In particular,one
XN
-t- might speculatethat vertically oriented fractures,becausethey allow use to be
madeof the vertical thicknessof the reservoirto provide headfor drainageof oil,
might be muchbetter than horizontalfractures.
There seemsto be little data,eitherpositiveor negative,to supportthis view.
'rOett,X
However it might be noted that the Esso pilot at cold Lake (Buckles1979and
Shepherd7979)and the subsequent commercialextensionsare successfulprojects,
operatingwith economicoil-to-steamratios and with economicwell productivities
in spiteof the very high in situ oil viscosity.Predominantlyvertical fractureswere
reportedin the early operations,althoughit has been found that with extensive
steaming,horizontalfracturesmay be formed (Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter 1987).
ifrom Gough and
Kry, Gronseth,and Morgenstern(1989)have shown that, in a test at Cold
Lake, the maximum in situ stress,e measuredby mini-fracturetests,increasedal-
cted. Evidence for this mostimmediatelyfrom 9.3 to 10.5MPa as a resultof steaminjectioninto neighbor-
served in a McMurray eKry,
Gronseth,and Morgensterndefine the pressureat the point ofinflection in the pressure
rmanent ground heave
time curve following the well shut-in after the mini-injection as being the in-situ stressor instanta-
rre 6.30 shows contours neousshut-inpressure."Judgementis requiredto infer the value of the in-situ stressfrom measured
s pilot. shut-inpressures."
r Stimulation Chap.6 Effect of FractureOrientationon Productivitvfrom Stimulation 279

In thc I
sivelyas thc r
steamis firs
NE/SW car
an areaof thr
erally horin
tion is probd
treatment.tI
cal stressthe
upward expt
abovetherm
AcNrw, H.. U"

AucHeseel€l
Symp.on Sd
Bosenc,T.C. t
Well,".fPT, t
Bosenc,T. C-,
Figure 6.31 Stress Redistribution Could Result in Interwell Communication (from PerformaG
Dusseault1977) 1973).
Stage1: Initiation of multi-well simultaneoushydraulicfracture. Bonnecer-rsC
Fracturepropagationis normal to minor stress. sium, Edrm
Stage2: Increasein minor principal stresscausesrelocationand changein fractureori-
CIM Specid
entation (casewhere 01 remainsvertical)
Borr, R. C.. I
ing wells. This was interpreted as an increasein the horizontal stresswhich had to Bucrles, R. I,
be overcometo initiate a vertical fracture from the well bore. [n succeedingmini-
(1e7e).
fracturetests,it wasfound that the instantaneous shut-inpressure(ISIP)fell in less BunNs,J.. A X
o 1969SPE
than two hours to a stabilizedvalue of 9.8 MPa. This is significantlyhigher than
the initial ISIP of 9.3 MPa and approximatelyequalto the calculatedverticalstress. Burr-En, R. M-
(September-
This behavior was interpreted by Kry, Gronseth, and Morgensternas indicating
that the vertical fractures initiating from the well bore had turned to becomepre- CHHrNe,H. S. r
men from CI
dominantly horizontal.
Tar Sands,L
Another factor is that vertical fractures may assist recovery of the oil by
providing an improved means of passageof the oil past horizontal tight streaks. D,quessv,A. /l
surementsD
Horizontal movementof the fluids in the unfractured reservoir is usually less re-
nn HeeN, H. J.
stricted than vertical movement.Vertical fracturesshould improve this situation.
Project in tL
DeNsrNa,E. S'
POSSIBLEPRODUCTIONOF ORTHOGONALVERTICAL FRACTURES Mechanism
FROM THE FRACTURINGOF A LINE OF WELLS (1e87).O rgt
DrnrnrcH, J. K
An interestingpossibility that was describedby Dusseault(1977),basedon an ear- Reservoirs,
lier suggestionby Schuckand Advani, is that the fracturing of a row of wells may so Doscnen,T. M
modify the stressfields in the reservoirthat fracturesnormal to the usual direction try Confereu
may alsobe formed.This possibilityis shownin Figure 6.31. Calif., 76-81
280 CyclicSteam Stimulation Chap,6 Bibliography
In the Essoproductionareaat Cold Lake, reservoirfracturingoccursexten-
sivelyas the resultof steaminjection.Vertical fracturesare normally found when
steamis first injectedinto a new reservoir,and thesegenerallyhave the expected
NE/SW orientation(Mainlandand Lo 1983).Howeverit hasbeenfound that after
an areaof the field has undergoneintensive steaminjection, new fracturesare gen-
erallyhorizontal(Denbina,Boberg,and Rotter 1987).This changein fracturedirec-
tion is probablythe result of changesin the tectonic stressescausedby thermal
treatment.Heatingincreasesthe horizontalcompressive stresses,leavingthe verti-
cal stressthe minimum principal stress.The vertical stresscan be relievedby the
upwardexpansionof the ground.This is evidencedby the surfaceheaveobserved
abovethermal in situ operations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AcNew, H., U.S. Patent4,143,714 (1976).

AucnnNnaucH,N. B. and PuLLeN,M.W., "DirectionalHydrofracturing:Factor Fiction," 3d
Symp.on Salt Proc.2,393-403 (1966).
Bonenc,T. C. and LeNrz, R. B., "Calculationof the Productionof a ThermallvStimulated
Well.".IPZ 1613-1623 (December1966).O 1966SPE.
Bonenc,T. C., PeNnenrHy,JR.,W. L., and HecnoonN,A. R., "Calculatingthe Steam-Lifted
munication(from Performanceof Gas-Lifted and Flowine Heavv-Oil Wells." JPT. t207-1215(October
re73).
BonneGeles,C. J., "SteamSoakon the Bolivar Coast,"Canada-Venezuela Oil SandsSympo-
sium, Edmonton, May 30-June 4, 1977pub. as The Oil Sandsof Canada-Venezuela 1977
rgein fractureori-
CIM SpecialVolume17,(1977).
Borr, R. C., "Cyclic SteamProject in a Virgin Tar Reservoir,"JPT, 585-591,(May 1967).
stress which had to Bucrres, R. S., "SteamStimulationHeavyOil Recoveryat Cold Lake, Alberta," SPE 7994,
n succeeding mini-
(re7e).
re (ISIP)fell in less BuRNs,J., 'A Reviewof SteamSoakOperationsin California,"JPT, 25-34 (January1969).
icantly higher than @ 1969SPE.
latedverticalstress. Burrrn, R. M., "The Expansionof Tar SandsDuring Thermal Recovery,"JCPT, 5L-56
rsternas indicating (September-October 1986).
red to becomepre- CnuINe,H. S. and AceR, J. G., "PotentialUse of FractureTechnologyfor Recoveryof Bitu-
men from Oil Sands,"3d UNITAR/UNDP InternationalConferenceon Heavy Oil and
Tar Sands,Long Beach,Calif.,77l-789, (July 1985)publishedby AOSTRA 1988.
x'ery of the oil by
ontal tight streaks. DeNesuv,A.A., Slussen,G.L., CHrsHoLu, P.T.,and MecEe,D.A., "In-SituStressMea-
surementsDuring Drilling," JPT 891-898,August 1986.
r is usuallylessre-
ove this situation. oe HaeN, H. J. and vANLooKEREN, J., "Early Resultsof the First Large-ScaleSteamSoak
Project in the Tia Juana Field, WesternVenezuela,"JPT, l0l-ll0 (January1969).
DeNuNe, E.S., BoneRc,T.C., and RottEn, M.B., "Evaluationof Key ReservoirDrive
ES Mechanismsin the Early Cyclesof SteamStimulationat Cold Lake," SPE 16737,Dallas
(1987).O 1987SPE.
DrErnrcu, J. K., "Relative Permeability During Cyclic Steam Stimulation of Heavy-Oil
r), basedon an ear- Reservoirs,"IPT, 1987-1989(October 1981).
row of wells may so DoscHen,T. M., "FactorsInfluencingSuccess in SteamSoakOperations,"PetroleumIndus-
the usualdirection try Conferenceon Thermal Oil Recovery,Sponsoredby Rockwell Mfg. Co., Los Angeles,
Calif.,76-80, June6, 1966.(referencefrom Burns 1969).
imulation Chap,6 Bibliography 281
Dusseaur-r,M. B., "StressStateand HydraulicFracturingin the AthabascaOil Sands,',Oil
SsrpHelD
Sandsof Canadaand Venezuela,2T-35, CIM SpecialVolume 17,(1977).
ence.Ed
Dussnaulr,M. B. and MoRGeNstpRr.r, N., "samplingand Testingof AthabascaOil Sandsfor and Tar !
stability studies,"oil sandsof canadaand venezuela,260-269,cIM Specialvolume 17.
(t977). SrrcevgrE
with \-r
GoucH, D. I. and Bnr-r-,J. S., "StressOrientationsfrom Oil-WellFracturesin Alberta and
S u s .R . J - ."
Texas,"Can.J. Earth Scl., 18:638-645(1981).
ing Surfr
Hourz, R. D. and Kovecs,w.D.,An Introductionto Geotechnical Engineering"Englewood (\oserfr
Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall (1981),
Tousor, D-
HoLzueusrN,G. R., et al., "Resultsof DeformationMonitoringDuring SteamStimulation," 130-135|
Conf. on Appl. OilsandsGeoscience, Edmonton,Alberta (June11-13,19g0).
HowenD,G. C. and Fasr, C. R., "Hydraulic Fracturing",SpE Monograph1970.
JoNns,J., "Cyclic Steam ReservoirModel for Viscous Oil, PressureDepleted,Gravity
Drainage Reservoirs,"SPE 6544(1977).
Knv, P.R., GRousnrH,J.M., and MonceNsrrnrv,N.R., "Geotechnicalproperties," In:
AosrRA TechnicalHandbookon oil sands,Bitumensand Heavy oils, Heprer,L. G. and
Hsi' C. (Editors),Alberta Oil SandsTechnologyand ResearchAuthority, Edmonton,
Alberta.
Kuo, c.H., SHATN, S.A. and PHoces,D.M., "GravityDrainageModelfor the Steam-Soak
Process,"SPEJ,119-126(June 1970).O 1970SPE.
Lerrovlrs, H. C. and MArrHrws, C. S., 'Applicationof DeclineCurvesto Gravity-Drainage
Reservoirsin the StripperStage,"Pet. Trans.AIME, 213:2i5-280 (1958).
LeNNoN,R. B., "GeologicalFactorsin Steam-SoakProjectson the West Side of the San
JoaquinBasin,"lPT, 741,-748,J:uly1976.
MatNLeNo,G. G. and Lo, H.Y., "TechnologicalBasisfor CommercialIn-Situ Recoveryof
Cold Lake Crude," 11thWorld Pet. Cong..London,SessionRDT3(1)(1983).
ManlIN, J. C., 'A TheoreticalAnalysisof SteamStimulation,"JPT, 411-418(March 1967).
ManrHEws,c. S. and Lerrovrrs, H. c., "Gravity DrainagePerformanceof Depletion:Type
Reservoirsin the StripperStage,"lPT, 207 265-274(December1956).
MettuEws, C.S. and Russrlr-, D.G., "PressureBuildup and Flow Testsin Wells," SpE
Monograph l, (1967).
Mavuce, M. N., "Geologyand developmentof California'sgiant-Wilmington Oilfield," In:
Halbouty,M.T, (Editor), "Geologyof giant petroleumfieldsl' Mem. Am. Ass. pet. Geol.,
14, 158-186,(1970).
Ntro, H. and Tnoosr, P. J. P. M., "ExperimentalInvestigationof the Steam-Soak
Processin
a Depletion-typeReservoir,"JPT 251:1006-1014 (AugustI97t). @ 1971SpE.
OweNS,W. D. and Suren, V. E., "SteamStimulation-NewestForm of SecondaryPetroleum
Recovery,"Oil GasJ., 82-90 (April 26, 1965).
Purol, L. and BoneRc,T. C., "ScalingAccuracyof LaboratorySteamFlooding Models,,,
sPE 4t9t (1972\.
SEnn,R. D. and PERRy,G. E., 'A MathematicalModel of RepeatedSteamSoaksof Thick
Gravity DrainageReservoirs,"JPT, 87-94 (January1969).
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282 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Chap.6 Bibliogr4lt
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re Depleted,Gravity
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I 958).
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l-,118(March1967).
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n Flooding Models,"
'teamSoaksof Thick
nd Soil Behaviourto
rnical Meetingof the
n." WorldOil,68-72
mulation Chap.6 Bibliography 283

Sfec
Drcl
INTRODUCTIil
The recoq
come knor
In this prr
forces, aod
interfacetl
steamchat
A rh.
velopedby
been desc
Stephensl!
with reced
CONCEPT
The intenti
vise a mea
ner in ord
steamflood
Gravi
chief drivir
geringth4r
It wa
well that w
Steom- Assisfed Gravity
Drsinqge
INTRODUCTION
The recovery of heavy crudes using a specialform of steamfloodingthat has be-

come known assteam-assisted gravity drainage(SAGD) is discussedin this chapter.
In this processthe movement of oil to the production well is causedby gravity
forces, and the geometry is such that the oil moves approximatelyparallel to the
interfacethat formsthe boundaryof a growing,steam-saturated zoneknown asthe
steamchamber.
A theory that predictsthe rate at which this processwill occur has been de-
velopedby the Heavy Oil ResearchDivision at Esso Resourcesin Calgary and has
been described in a series of papers (Butler, McNab, and Lo 1981;Butler and
Stephens1981;Butler,Stephensand Weiss,1980;Butler 1985).This theory,together
with recent developmentsis summarized.
CONCEPT
The intention in developingthe steam-assisted gravity drainageprocesswas to de-

vise a meanswherebyheavyoil or bitumen could be removedin a systematicman-
ner in order to give a more complete recovery than is possible in conventional
steamfloodingprocesses, wherethe oil is movedby pushingit with injectedfluids.
Gravity is already present throughout the reservoir, and by using it as the
chief driving force to effect oil movement,it ilpgssible to avoid the differential fin- zort
gs4lss.t*hat-oe.e-ur!,whe!..yp.qg'i& Up*qgbugty{L!-!9!s-vidu',..fld{ -*Pd/,
It was reasonedthatlf steamwere injected above but close to a production
well that was completedat the baseof the reservoir,the steamwould tend to rise
, Ctt (ttq |
we,.., u,
7 "- " i; \ r.r1lJ
.')t,.",t,
t ' {
and the condensates, togetherwith warmed oil, would fall. The oil and condensate
GRAVITYDRAN'I
would be removed continuously from the production well. It-w-as*tb$ght that if
theqeliqu16. were not removedtoo quickly, then the tendencyof the steamto flow In the dets
directly to the productionwell-and thus to bypassthe reservoir-could be re- meanswbct
_!g9,dg-pos9!b_!y g_ve_aghtnllatg4This is analogousto the ability of i steim mp moved as i
to allow the flow of condensatefrom the bottom of a steam-heatedradiatorwithout shownin Fi
allowingsignificantbypassingof the steam. Stean
An attraction of this conceptis that, although the injection well and the pro- heaviercc
ductionwell can be very close,the mechanismwill causethe steamchamberto ex- for introdr
pand gradually and eventually allow drainagefrom a very large area. The injector cold oil a I
and producerdo not have to spanthe drainagearea.Another advantageis that the lower locli
heatBd
--:--;---:-oil remains Lrpt-a-cit ilows towards-the pro?uciion wetffi;;diFfif filled with r
tasl'waili;cus.ied"in Chaptei 5, ilre-oii itrat is displacedfrom the
- A hni
i[ffiT:fiil3i ff.I3ll'ilT;:ilL ropush
rotheproduction
weir.
rnsAcnTne the well,ar
oil remainsheatedas it flows around the steamchamber.r horizontalr
Although the conceptis attractive,it wasnot clearinitially whetherthe mech- someapplh
anism could produceoil at practical rates.The first efforts were to analyzethe pro- well (for h
cess theoreticallyto determine the production rates that might be anticipated. In reservcin
Followingthis, a numberof scaledrecovery-model experimentswere carriedout in reservoir.n
the laboratoryto studythe process,and the resultswere comparedwith theory. The g
cess.The d
within the c
RELATIONSHIP
TO CONVENTIONALSTEAMFLOODING
into the col
In previouschaptersit hasbeenshown that steamfloodingtendsto producea stable it to drain b
displacement without steamfingering.Condensate that leasesthe steamzoneflows is removed
through the oil zone either as fingersor, in exceptionalcases,by diffuse Buckley- the steamd
Leveretttype flow. steamcond
A major problemwith conventionallateralsteamfloodingis the tendencyfor In sc
steamto overridethe oil zoneand breakthroughat the productionwell. This effect bathtub.In t
can be reducedby completingthe producernear to the baseof the reservoirand by
removingproductat a controlledrate in order to allow gravity to keep the steam Mechanism:
zonesegregated. A considerable improvementcan be achievedif the reservoirdips o Stearn
and if the steamis injectedso that it flows downdip. o Oilart
Operationin this fashionhas much in commonwith the steam-assisted grav- o Florl i
ity drainagediscussedin the following sections.However,with conventionalwells o Chafll
the pressuregradientsassociated with radial flow to the productionwell make the -3
maximumrate that is achievablewithout steamconingrelativelylow. In the steam- //a
assistedgravity drainageprocess,horizontalwells are employed,and production
ratesof the order of 0.3 B/d per foot of horizontal well are indicated to be practica- \k^
/
ble without steamconing; with long horizontalwells this providesan economic \\

drainagerate. \\
A majorpotentialfor the steam-assisted
the shortcomings of conventional
gravity drainageprocesslies iq over-
steamflooding that are createdbi-iTe-
J
_coming \
thq steamto dri_rg:_:
eqiqt-oJ Continuous steam '
tThere
is a similarity betweenthe SAGD processand reversein-situ combustionwhich is de- injectionintocharrb
scribedin Chapter9. From one point ofview SAGD can be looked upon as reversesteamflooding.
286 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 GravityDrd
ril and condensate { GRAVITYDRAINAGETHEORY
f
as thought that if 1
the steamto flow In the developmentof the conceptjust described,the objective was to develop a
oir-could be re- meanswhereby steam could be introduced continuously and the condensatere-
tr of a steam"t?a-p moved as it formed, togetherwith the oil that has been heated.The conceptis
d radiatorwithout shownin Figure7.1.
Steamis introducednear the bottom of the reservoirand tendsto rise; the
n'ell and the pro- heaviercondensateand heatedoil tend to fall to the bottom. Meansare provided
rm chamberto ex- for introducing steam quite near to the bottom if there is difficulty in displacing
area.The injector cold oil or higher up if the oil is mobile, and for removingliquids as they drain to a
;qnlase
is-tt'e1Jbg lower location.As the liquids are removed,the spacethat is left in the poresis
l. In conventional filled with steam.
isplaced from the A horizontalwell is placedat the bottom. A steamchamberis formed above
rell. In SAGD-th-* the well, and steamis injectedcontinuouslyinto this chamberby meansof another
horizontalwell placedcloseto and usuallysomewhatabovethe productionwell. [n I
lhether the mech- someapplicationsthe injectionwell may be a verticalwell rather than a horizontal ]N
I
o analyzethe pro- well (for long horizontalproductionwells,a numberof verticalwells may be used).
(
tt be anticipated. In reservoirscontainingmobileoil, a horizontalinjectionwell placedhigher in the q
;ere carried out in reservoir,rather than low down, can be usedwith advantage. tl
rl
ed with theory. The steampressureis usuallymaintainedconstantduring much of the pro- d
cess.The chamberis surroundedby colderoil sand.Steamflows through the sand {
q
within the chamberto the interfaceand condenses. The liberatedheatis conducted
into the colderoil sand.This heatsthe oil near the condensation surfaceand allows
t
tl
rl
o producea stable it to drain by gravityto the productionwell. The condensate alsodrains.As the oil
steamzoneflows is removq4 the -steamchambergrory-supwards and sideways.The pressrlFwi-iliin
i diffuse Buckley- the steam-ihdmbeiifitils a;ieitiafiv constant.Flow is causedby gravity.Oil and
steamcondensate drain downwardsand steamrises.
s the tendencyfor In somerespectsthe processis analogousto that of water draining from a
,nu'ell.This effect bathtub.In the majormechanismof steam-assisted gravitydrainage,steamdoesnot
e reservoirand by
to keep the steam Mechanism:
the reservoirdips o Steamcondenses at interface
o Oilandcondensate drainto wellat bottom
eam-assisted grav- o Flowis causedby gravity
conventionalwells o Chambergrowsupwardsandsideways
ion well make the
low. In the steam-
C. and production
ted to be practica-
ides an economic
'ocesslies in over- Heatedoil flows

.,;-'+ to well
re created Dy the
Continuous steam
mbustionwhich is de- injectionintochamber Oil and condensate Figure 7.1 Steam-Assisted
Gravity
:\ ersesteamflooding. draincontinuously Drainaee
rainage Chap. 7 GravityDrainageTheory 287
push the oil out anymorethan the air pusheswater from the tub when it empties.
residualorl I
Yet' eventually,the steamfills the volumeoriginallyoccupiedby oil just asair even-
order a-sthd
tually fills the tub. In rhc
It has long been realized that the gravity drainageof conventionalcrude oil grou'th of th
from below a gas cap can produce unusuallyhigh oil recoveries.Dykstra (197g)
up*'ard erot
summarizes work in this area.Terwilligeret al (1951)showedthat the recoveryde- becomescrit
creasesand the drainagerate increaseswhen pressuregradientsare imposedupon
seriesof pan
the gravity drainageprocess.Increasingthe rate by lowering the production well
The ho
pressuretendsto leaveadditionalliquid behind in the gas-saturated region. w e l l so n e i t h
While the dynamichold-upof oil in the gas-saturated steamchamberis signifi- m a t i c a l l l ' a tt
cant, it is relativelysmall,sincethe viscosityof the oil within the chamberis-very
reservoirand
low comparedwith the averageviscosityof ihe oil drainingbelow and around it.
g-lESteam Ia1
The averageoil saturationremainingin the steamchimber can be estimated
w e l l s .T h i s u
usingthe integratedform of an equationdevelopedby cardwell and parsons
$9a\; initial anallr
this is shownin equation7.1.
This theon i
a b-l)lu3$/\rrtt-tt
Jor = ----l-l ,, I (7.1) Darcy's Lar
D \DKgt I -.-1
Figure sh
where S-o, is the average residual oil saturation after time I
heated br ge
Z is the drainageheight
wards the prr
k is the permeability
The se
b is thb exponentin cardwell and parson'sequationfor relative
c o n d e n s i n g:
permeability,k, : Sb
sho'*n. is inc
ls is the kinematicviscosityof the oil at the temperatureof the steam
15. Heat is tt
If b is set equalto a typical valueof 3.5 and Z is setequalto the maximumpossible face. into th
valueh, then the resultis equation7.2. from the inte
the oil is r'. C
s.,= o+z(z&!)'^ (7.2) into the papt
Typical field valuesfor a steamchambertemperatureof 216"Cand for Cold Lake

crude are as follows.
vs = 0.452m2/d (5.2 cs) 6 :0.3; ft=30.5m
k = 0.987x 10-12m2(1 darcy) g = 7.32 x 1010m/d2
Note that thc
The averageresidualoil saturationhas been calculatedin Table 7.1 for various ps, and pip.,
times /. within the el
U and it is as
TABLE 7.1 So.as a Functionof Time ture aheadol
is the same a
t (days) 100 200 1,000 2,000 10,000
s,, 0.34 u.zo 0.14 0.10 0.06
For a practicalcasewith a projectlife of 6 to 15 years,the averagetime that

the chamberwould drain might be of the orderof 2000days,and the corresponding
288 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 GravitvDrana

:ubwhen it empties. residual oil saturationwould be 0.1. values calculatedfrom (7.2) are of the same
v oil just asair even- order as thosegiven in Figure 4.9 in Chapter4.
In the initial analysisof this concept,it appearedthat the upward rate of
nventionalcrude oil growth of the steamchamberwould be larger than that sideways.Eventually the
ries. Dykstra (1978) upward growth is limited by the top of the reservoir,and the sidewardgrowth then
hat the recoveryde- becomescritical. Figure 7.2 showshow steamchambersare expectedto grow for a
.s are imposedupon seriesof parallel horizontal production wells in a reservoir.
the productionwell The horizontalwell shown in the centerof Figure 7.2 is flanked by similar
Lratedregion. wellson either side.The positionsof the condensation surfaceare showndiagram-
n chamberis signifi- maticallyat successive periodsof time. The__steam chambglsgrow to the top of the
the chamberis very reservoirand then s?tqadljdp:WgyC.4_tt-er a periodlhey intermingle and form a sin-
'----?-----'
low and aroundit. g-lE-steamlayeiabove the oil. Heating continues and oil drains to the horizontal
€r can be estimated wells.This method allowsalmostcompletecoverageof the reservoirvolume.The
and Parsons(1949); initial analysisfocusedon the rate at which steamchamberscan grow sideways.
This theory is discussedin the next sections.
(7.r) Darcy's Law
Figure 7.3 showsa small part of the drainageinterface.It is a vertical section.Oil

et heatedby steamflows approximatelyparallel to the condensationsurfacedown to-
wardsthe productionwell somewherebelow the left of the depictedregion.
The steamis at a temperature25,and the reservoiris initially at Zn.Steamis
rtionfor relative condensingat the condensationsurface,or the interface,which, in the region
shown,is inclined at an angle d to the horizontal.The interfaceis at temperature
eratureof the steam Zs. Heat is transferred into the ien -Beyond the inter-
--^-.#
r maximumpossible face, into the reservoir,successivelayersof material are cooler.At a distance€

from the interface,wherethe viscosityof the oil is pr.and the kinematicviscosityof
the oil is z, Darcy'slaw may be written, for a sectionwith unity thicknessmeasured
(7.2) into the paper,as: -!
a\
_ k(dt
,^ = x 1)(p, - pr)gsin 0
and for Cold Lake uq - t7.51
= 30.5m =kgtino dt
" ^/d' Note that the€gllgntialgradientis (vpo- gc)g sin g. p, is neglectedin comparisonto
tble 7.1 for various ps, and p/pois set equal to z. The equation-f,v€3-tlierate of drainageof oil, dq,
within the elementd{.If the interfacevelocitymeasurednormal to the interfaceis
er-rcbyconduc-tf
.93lLtl1eSjg$"d-tl$.f lgU9g*-rats-f .o-gpply,thenthetempera-
ture aheadof the interfacefor a steady-state
advanceis givenby equation7.4; this
is the sameas equation2.44.
) 10,000
).10 0.06
Figure 7.2 Growth of SteamCham-

e averagetime that bers Above ParallelAdjacentHorizon-
1 the corresponding tal Wells
Drainage Chap.7 Gravity DrainageTheory 289

POSTTtOiloF function of di
temperaturetc
"r" The vari
T=Ts lX
STEAT the particular
CHATBER ,. correspondsre
T=Tr ll{ terestis giveo
NOBTAL ORIGII'AL
VELOCITY BESERYOIR
u
\ xerr
CONDUCTIOT
This functim r
of the integra
Figure 7.3 Small Vertical Sectiono{ In order t
Interface temperature.I
the paramete
T-To -ultd
The inrq
= P (7.4)
Ts-T^ equation7.10
High valuesof u result in the temperaturefalling rapidly with distance,and low
valuesgive a slowlyfalling temperature.
If the reservoir were unheated,then the correspondingdifferential flow
would be given by equation7.5:
lntegrated Flo
d q ,= W d t (7.s) Eliminatingtb
Up
equation7.ll I
It is useful to subtractthis flow from that given by equation7.3 to give the involvesthe unk
creasedflow due to heatins.
dq - dq, = kg sino(-l-- 1)rE (7.6)

\ z val There is r
We now redefinedq as (dq - dq,), as given in 7.7. zero, then q ca
zero, then tlx
u(+_
dq= k8,," (7.7) provide an int
*)r* would be need
This manipulationis done becauseotherwisethe total flow that would be deter-
mined by integrating7.3 would be infinite, since 24,althoughit is likely to be very Material Bab
large,mustbe finitq By making this change,the difficulty is overcome.2 A secondrelat
Integrationof equation7.7 resultsin 7.8. fined by consi
regiondepicte
aJ(+- +)"
q= kssin (7.8) If the int
fasterrate thar
To evaluatethe integralit is necessaryto know the viscosityof the oil as a func- advanceof the
tion of distancefrom the interface.SinceequationT.4givesthe temperatureas a verticaleleme
2An alternative
meansfor circumventingthe problemof the infinite cold flow is to neglectvp
in equation7.8 and make the upper limit of the integralsomehypotheticalfinite value 4.,*. In prin-
ciple, f."* is chosento be suchthat I has fallen to a value at which the drainageis negligibte.
290 Steam-Assisted
GravityDrainage Chap.7 Gravity Drainag
function of distance,it is necessaryto know the viscosityonly as a function of
temperatureto evaluate4.
The variation of viscosity with temperaturedependsupon the properties of
the particular oil in the reservoir.One arbitrary form of temperaturefunction that
correspondsreasonablywell to the performanceof actual oils over the rangeof in-
terestis given by equation7.9.
:=(#)^ (7.e)
This function also has the attractionof being of a form that makesthe evaluation
of the integralof 7.8 particularlysimple.Also, zn is infinite, i.e., 1,fvp= g.
rall Vertical Section of
In orderto useequation7.9it is necessary to specifythe viscosityat the steam
temperature,Zs,and a value for the parameterm. For heavycrudes,it is found that
the parameterlz should have a value of about 3 to 4.
(7.4) The integral of equation 7.8 may be evaluatedwith the result shown in
equation7.10.
ith distance,
and low f - 1 1 , 1l d\ .€ = ; a
I f - - -val - 1 (7.10)
.ro \z U l7lu5
ing differentialflow
Integrated Flow
(7.s) Eliminating the integralfrom equations7.8 and 7.10givesthe expressionshownin

equation7.11.for the flow 4. By itself this equationis not too useful, since it in-
n 7.3 to give the involvesthe unknown variablesU and sin 0.
kga sin 0
q= (7.11)
^rru
(7.6)
There is a trivial solutionto 7.11.that shouldbe noted.If both U and sin 0 are
zero,then q canbe any arbitraryvalue.The significanceof this resultis that if U is
zero, then the steady-statetemperaturedistribution that was assumedwould
provide an infinite amount of heated reservoirand only an infinitesimal slope
(7.7)
would be neededto move any amountof oil. This is, of course,unrealistic.
that would be deter-
Material Balance
it is likely to be very
overcome.t A secondrelationshipbetween the flow of oil q and the front velocity can be de-
fined by consideringthe materialbalanceat the interface.Consideragainthe small
regiondepictedin Figure 7.3.
(7.8) If the interface is advancing,then oil must be flowing out of the region at a
fasterrate than it is flowing in; it is the differencein the ratesthat determinesthe
of the oil asa func- advanceof the interfaceratherthan the rate itself.A materialbalanceabouta thin
the temperature as a vertical elementresultsin equation7.12.
cold flow is to neglect zp
frnite value {,"*. In prin-
ainage is negligible.
(#),=do''(q). (7.r2)
7 Drainage Chap.7 Gravity DrainageTheory 291

Velocity of the Interface
Position of tb
The velocityof the interfaceu is relatedto the term (ay/at)in equation7.12 and
to The horizonta
the angle0 by equation7.I3.
u : -cos
,(x). (7.13)
In this expressionthe term @yl$ can be expected to be negative.U from

equation7.13 is substitutedinto equation7.11,and this is simplified by setting
sin 0/cos0 : tan 0 : @y/Al. When this is done,the resultis 7.1.4. Multiplying eqr
and substitutir
kga sin 0
- ------------- equation7.18.
q- =
tnus cos 0(0y/0t)
*(x)
^"'(x) (7.14) Note that the hc
dent of time. If
above the prodr
of time t and be
_ _klad LS.
- lay\
^r, \M),
Equation7.r4 maybe rearranged
andintegrated
by separating
the variables,
asin
7.1,5.
ln , [ o - , 6 \ S "-k "s q Equation 7.19 r

I q d q = Jg|
r0
dv equation7.20.
tTlUS
l2gAS,kga(h - y)
t=V
^r4
(7.1,s)
or, at the bottom of the steamchamberwherey = 0. Equation7.20 m
sionlessvariable
q= one side3 (7.16)
This is a remarkableresult,sinceit indicatesthat the rate of drainageis a function

of the drainageheightbut is not dependenton the shapeof the interfaceor on its
horizontalextension.Extending the interface horizoniallyincreasesthe area for
heat transfer,but this effect is just counterbalancedby theeffect of the longerand
more slopingpath in restrictingthe flow.
It is interestingto realizethat all the variablesin equationT.16and similar
oneshaveequalweight.For examplg,changingany of them by a factorof 2 changes
the predictedrate by a factor of rt.
3Equation
7.16 is marked one side. It gives the rate at which oil drains from one side of the Valuesof Y calcr
steam chamber' For the usual field situation where oil is draining from both sides
ber, the rate must be doubled.
of the steam cham- A characte
face moves hori.
292 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Gravity Drainage1

Position of the lnterface
I in equation7.12andto The horizontal velocity of the interface is given by equation7.17.
-(#).
(7.13) /a,\
t_t = Q.17)
\atl, /q\
r be negative. U from
is simplified by setting
\ri,
It is 7.14. Multiplying equation7.r7 by equation7.14 (as shown on the secondline of 7.14)
and substitutingthe value for 4 from equation7.15results,after rearrangement,in
equation7.18.
/a'\ _ T- ks" (7'18)

\ti,= Vrow"r;,(h-y,
(7.r4) Note that the horizontal velocity is a function of the vertical height but is indepen-
dent of time. If it is assumedthat the steamchamberis initially a vertical plane
abovethe production well, then the horizontal displacementis given as a function
of time r and heighty by 7.I9.
rr"
ting the variables,as in x=rti t (7.1e)
,rry*rg1,-g
Equation7.19 may be rearrangedto give y as a function of x and /, as in
equation7.20.
. ksa |rY
(7.rs) Y=h-rots"^"'\;) (7'20)
Equation7.20 may also be written in the dimensionless
form of 7.21.The dimen-
sionlessvariablesX, Y, and /' are defined by 7.22.
(7.16) n,Y=r-+(+)' J'

I
t
lroa
\-
I
14.4 (7.2r)
f drainageis a function
/v\
i the interface or on its t=\i)
increasesthe area for
:ffect of the longer and
x=(il (7.22)
uation7.16and similar
by a factor of 2 changes . t k* f
- ' _- _i\l 6AS,*r ,h
drains from one side of the Valuesof Y calculatedfrom equation7.21 are plotted againstX in Figure 7.4.
oth sides of the steam cham- A characteristicfeature of this set of curvesis that the lower part of the inter-
face moves horizontally away from the production well. If the well were at the
dty Drainage Chap.7 Gravity DrainageTheory 293

Equaair
1
gral which b
U.'J temperaturci
q) above unncc
c 0.6 tion 7.9. ttrca
o
o In this r
i5 0 . 4 function can I
E porated(&d
FL o.2
Q) Changeof S
The dependa
tion 7.4. Usiq
Figure 7.4 Calculated Interface Curves 7.8 from distr
obtainedby d
origin of Figure7.4, then it is apparentthat the oil would haveto movefarther and nating the eq
farther horizontally along the base of the diagram as the bottom of the interface
moved away.
In the discussion of equation7.11it waspointedout that, basedon the assump-
tions made,oil could indeedmove horizontallybelowa stationaryhorizontalinter-
Substitutim r
face.This was indicatedto be possiblebecausethere is assumedto be an infinite
equation7.8.
thickness of oil, all at steamtemperaturebelow a stationary interface. With such
conditionsonly an infinitesimalslopewould be neededto causeoil flow. Although
this is not realistic,the conceptof two interfacialcurveswith oil slidingdown one
that is advancingand then moving alonganotheralmoststationaryone with a much
lower slopeis conceivableand resembles somepracticalsituations.a The integralo
Another way of looking at this resultis to imaginethat a pool of heatedoil is which contain
maintained around and above the horizontal well with the rate of removal being relation. Equr
controlledin order to maintain the level of the liquid constantwithin this sump. pendenceofv
As the processproceeds,the width of the sumpincreases becauseof the receding only of the ef
interface. also of the ef,
Becauseof the problem of the recessionof the interface from the production In ordcr
well, the ratescalculatedby equation7.16 arerecognizedasbeingtoo high. This is nient to redef
discussedfurther in the discussionon TANDRAIN, which is given later. resultsin exp
THE EXPONENTm-AN EXTENDEDDEFINITION

This definesa
The properlXm wasirluo-duced with the empiricalequation7.9 to allow for the ef-
the steamt€n
_;eet--irti'aup-}4!@t"
-equation viscosity. In the development*ofthe-ili66iyl"ltrisTorm"ot
matterto writr
iJpariii[iurty"iiiracfive, since it allows the evaluation of the reciprocal
viscosity-distance integral(equation7.8)and providesa simpleand useful result. 5It is also
1
gral of 7.25 and
aOneexampleof suchbehavior is given by the processshown in Figure 7.63.In this experi-
parameter.Tbir
ment oil from a steamchamberdrained downwardsto a horizontal shalebarrier which was heated readily;misadi
from below.The oil was able to f low alongthe surfaceof the barrier with an interfacethat was in- tions it is adequ
clined only very slightly.
The Exponentr
294 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap' 7
Equation7.9providesa particularlysimpleresultbecauseit resultsin an inte-
gral which is evaluatedreadily; it also makesthe viscosityof the oil at reservoir
temperatureinfinite and makesthe manipulationto eliminatethe cold flow used
above unnecessary.If the temperatureviscosity relationshipis limited to equa-
tion7.9, then it is not possibleto allow for the effect of reservoirtemperature.
In this sectionit will be shownhow any realisticform of viscosity-temperature
functioncan be employedand how the effectof reservoirtemperaturecan be incor-
porated(Butler 1985).
Changeof Variable of Integration
The dependence of temperatureon distancefrom the interface{ is given by equa-

tion 7.4. Usingthis relationshipit is possibleto changethe variableof integrationin
7.8 from distanceto temperature.The expressionfor d{ given by equation7.23 is
obtainedby differentiatingequationT.4andcombiningthe resultwith7.4 by elimi-
rveto movefarther and
nating the exponentialterm.
)ottom of the interface
.t.basedon the assump- dt= -Ta-k)

ddT
(7,23)
ionary horizontalinter-
,umedto be an infinite Substitutionof df from 7.23 givesthe following expression for the integral of
equation7.8.
ry interface.With such
f (+-i)'r= ! [ " / 1
auseoil flow. Although dr
th oil slidingdown one
_1\ (7.24)
UJa\, ,^lT-Tn
ionaryonewith a much
,rations.a The integralon the left-handsideof 7.24waspreviouslyevaluatedby equation7.L0,
rt a pool of heatedoil is which containswithin it the exponentlz from the empiricalviscosity-temperature
l rate of removal being relation.Equation7.24 allowsthe evaluationof the integralfor any specifiedde-
stantwithin this sump. pendenceof viscosityz on temperature7l furthermore,it allowsthe inclusionnot
)ecauseof the recedins only of the effect of the steamtemperatureG (equation7.10also allowsthis) but
also of the effect of the reservoir temperatureTn.
Lcefrom the production In order to continueto use the expressiondevelopedpreviously,it is conve-
, beingtoo high.This is nient to redefineln usingequation7.25. Combining7.10and7.24 and solvingfor rn
resultsin expression 7.25.
*=1.,r:e-+)f^l'
is siven later.
( 7.2s)
This definesm as a function of the viscosity-temperature gf the oil,

characteristics
r 7.9to allow for the ef-
the steam temperature,and the reservoirtemperature.tIt is a relatively simple
he theoiv. this form of
matterto write a computerprogramthat will calculatethe integralof equation7.24
,rationof the reciprocal
rple and useful result. 5It is alsopossible
to considerthe term mvsas a propertyof the oil that is definedby the inte-
gral of 7.25 and is a function of Za and 7s. In the developmenthere,m is consideredas a separate
r Figure 7.63.ln this experi- parameter.This has someadvantage,since /s is a strongfunction of temperatureand is visualized
rle barrier which was heated readily;m is a dimensionless numberthat doesnot vary rapidlywith either Tnor ?r. In many applica-
ith an interface that was in-
t i o n s i t i s a d e q u a t e t o c o n s i d e r r ? ?a s a c o n s t a n t .
The Exponentm-An ExtendedDefinition 295

vity Drainage Chap.7
or the correspondingvalue of m for specificcrudesand input parameters.Specific DIMENSIONALSN
valuesof the parameterm are calculatedin a later sectionusingequation 7.25 and
viscosity-temperature
curvesfor specificoils. As discussedi
beine heatedI
ORIGINALSCALEDVISUAL MODEL
The earliestexperimentscarried out in Esso Canada'slaboratoryinvolvedthe use

of glass-sided reservoirmodelsoperatedat atmosphericpressure.The resultsof an F, is sometic
experimentof this type are shownin Figure 7.5 as a seriesof positionsof the ob- sionlesstinr, t
servedinterface. that is beingb
larity betwecr
-49es-lgde! +Odel ?9 cy l-ong,11cm h1gLltd25_cm thick was filled with
glassbeadsand saturatedwith cold Lake crude.A 1vi1emeshalongthe left-hand
vertical side of the model representeda fracture. Stea;t?fr6spheJc pressurewas
introducedinto the top of the model,and liquids were allowedto driin from the
bottom as shown. The permeabilityof the glassbeadswas chosento make the IfF, andt'el
model dimensionallysimilar to the field. quotient,
If the theory describedpreviouslywere completeand accurate,the dimen-
sional similarity betweenthe model and the field could be achievedby making
the dimensionless time as determinedby equation7.22the samefor the model as
for the field. For a givenvalueof /', equation7.2! predictsa specificcurve of yver-
will alsobe eq
susX.
If therc r
Examinationof equation7.22indicatesthat with this restrictionalone,it would
velocity at rti
be possibleto compensatefor a low permeabilityt by employinga matrix with a
the field shou
high thermaldiffusivity a. The low mobility of the oil would be compensated for in spondingp<io
this caseby allowing a deeperpenetrationof the heat below the interface.Sucha
The veh
compensation is realisticonly if there is, in fact, a sufficientdepth for heat flow to
occur; i.e., the assumptionthat the reservoirextendsto infinity that is implicit in
the integrationof equation7.8 may not be realistic.
An analysisof this problemhas shownthat a conditionfor dimensionalsimi-
larity that overcomesthis problemis that not only must/' (asgivenby equation7.22) This equatio
be the samefor the model and the field, but also,a dimensionless voir matrix. R
number,B3given
by equation7.26 mustbe madethe same. be proportitn
the samefq t
sin 0 will alsoI
(7.26)
then, that thc
time t" should
Glass-sided reservoir model -...--_
-
1
I
E If equation7l
E
o similarity.
j Figure 7.5 Glass-SidedReservior
Model (after Butler, McNab and Lo
1981)
296 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Dimensiord Si

parameters.Specific DIMENSIONALSIMILARITY
ng equation7.25 and
As discussedin Chapter2, the extentof the rise of the temperaturein a solid body
beingheatedby conductionis determinedby the dimensionless number
F,=* (7.2t)
n'
rory involvedthe use
rre. The resultsof an F, is sometimesknown as the Fourier number.It may be looked upon as the dimen-
f positionsof the ob- sionlesstime, which comparesthe depthof the penetrationof isothermsinto a body
that is beingheatedby conductionto its physicaldimensions.For dimensionalsimi-
thick wasfilled with larity betweena model and the field, both I'" and /' shouldbe the same.
h alongthe left-hand .tT"kp
Jsphericpressurewas 't ' : - a l - (7.28\
h Y 6AS.mvth
ed to drain from the
chosento make the If F, and t' are eachequalin the field and in the model,then it followsthat their
quotient,
accurate,the dimen-
achievedby making B' F. o_ L = (7.2e)
ad L,S"mvs
rme for the model as
recificcurve of Yver- will alsobe equal.This is the conditionthat wasmentionedin the previoussection.
If there is dimensionalsimilarity betweenthe model and the field, then the
"ictionalone,it would
velocityat which the fluid is running down the interfaceat any particularpoint in
f ing a matrix with a the field shouldbe equal,in scaledterms,to the velocityin the modelat the corre-
e compensatedfor in spondingpoint.
the interface.Sucha The velocityat the interfaceis given by
epth for heat flow to
g
ity that is implicit in velocityat interface: -+(g\ - kS,sin (7.30)
6AS"\dtl+s vQA,So
br dimensionalsimi-
This equationrecognizesthat the flow is confinedto a fraction @AS, of the reser-
i'enby equation7.22)
voir matrix. For thereto be similarity at the point, the velocityof the interfacemust
lessnumber83 given
be proportional to hft, and it follows, therefore, that kgt sin 9lhvs$ AS, should be
the samefor both the model and the field. If theseare dimensionallysimilar, then
sin 0 will alsobe the same,and it can be droppedfrom the expression. A condition,
(7.26)
then, that the fluids shouldbe draining at similar ratesis that the dimensionless
time /" shouldbe the samein both.
,, kst
-t ' = : (7.31)
6 A,S"vsh
If equation7.31is divided by 7.28,there resultsanotherconditionfor dimensional
similarity.
a s s - S i d e dR e s e r v i o r
VB, = T
ksh* (7.32)
utler, McNab and Lo
V
"dAS',,t
r Drainage Chap.7 DimensionalSimilarity 297

It will be notedthat fnrit equalto mB3.6Theparametermwillbe the samefor The 5
the field and the model if they operatewith the sameoil, steamtemperature,and b e n o t e dt f
reservoirtemperature.Even if theseconditionsare not true, the valuesof z will l i n e st o c u l
not differ very much; as a result,althoughit will be impossibleto satisfyboth 7.31 of the mcd
and 1.32simultaneously, the error is probablynot very great. the model '
If it is assumedthat m hasthe samevalue in both the field and the reservoir. also tend tr
then the conditions7.29or 7.32 canboth be replacedby by the the<
Ur:r/ffi (7.33)
It als
of the rcse
desirableir
It is suggested that the conditioninvolving83, equation7.29,shouldbe used,since loss- parti
this is the one that comesout of the improvedtheoryasa dimensionless parameter; As rr;
this is discussedlater. to about l.
The dimensionless time definedby equation7.31is quite similar to the drain- conditions
age modulus x time referredto in the paper on gravity drainageby H. Dykstra The I
(1e78). resultsare
For the modelexperimentshownin Figurei.5,the corresponding model and The t
field conditionsare given in Table7.2. The agreei
due to iacr
Modeland FieldParameters fective her
heat is use
MODEL FIELD willbe rhs
mlr) 3.9 3.9 t u t i n g 1 . 5t
Kg m'/d' 107gtr) 0.072s) modified it
hm 0.105 30.5 it is in bett
om'fd 0.0557 0.0557
,, mtfd 1 2 . 2 5( 9 8 " C ) 0.4s2(21s.C)
dAS, 0.4 0.21
Bz 10.3 10.3
atlh2 5.0s1:' 6.00x 10-5r('z)
"'l he data in the table come from the original paper on this subject.
It was not realized then that 721
could be expressed as a function of 7p and 15, and it *ur as.umed that since the oil was the same, rn
would have the samevalue for both the model and the field.
(')t
in days.
\'/Correspondsto 15000D.
(o)Corresponds
to 1.0 D.
ln order to obtain dimensionalsimilarity, it is necessaryto employa much more

permeablemedium in the modelthan is presentin the field. The time scaleis very
compressed_ in this example; 1 min for the model is equivalent to (5.05/
(6.00x 10-5))min, or 0.16y, in the field.
682has been
defined in this way in order to make it consistentwith the usagein the cited
papers.
298 Steam-Assisted
GravityDrainage Chap.7 Dimensiona
r will be the samefor The positionof the interfaceat 10-minintervalsis shownin Figure7.5. It will
3amtemperature,and be notedthat the oil drainedin a systematicmanner.The tendencyof the interface
. the valuesof rn will lines to curve upwardat the top is believedto be due to heatlossesthroughthe top
'le to satisfyboth 7.31 of the model.Thesecausepressuregradientsin the steamchambernear the top of
the model that are not recognizedin the precedingtheory.Suchpressuregradients
Leldand the reservoir, alsotend to causethe actualproductionto be somewhatlower than that estimated
by the theory.
It alsoseemslikely that noncondensablegaswill tend to accumulateat the top
(7.33) of the reservoirand reducethe rate of heatingalongthe top. Suchan effectmay be
desirablein somecases,sinceit will limit the overrideof the steamand reduceheat
shouldbe used,since loss-particularly in isolatedwell systems(Butler and Yee I986a,1986b).
ensionless
parameter; As was shownpreviously,10 min in this particular experimentis equivalent
to about 1.6 y productionin a full-scalefield experimentcorrespondingto these
: similar to the drain- conditions.
rinageby H. Dykstra The recoveryof oil from the modelis plottedagainsttime in Fig.7.6, and the
resultsare comparedwith the recoverypredictedby equation7.16.
espondingmodel and The observedrate was of the sameorder as that predictedbut slightlylower.
The agreementis encouraging. The deviationof the observedrate is thoughtto be
due to factors not recognizedin the derivation of the equation.With time, the ef-
fective heightbecomeslower than /ebecauseof depletionand becausesomeof the
heat is usedto causethe lateraltransferof the drainingfluid to the fixed well (as
FIELD will be shownlater,this lasteffectcan be compensated for approximatelyby substi-
i.9 tuting 1.5 for the constant2 within the squareroot sign in equation7.16.The line
0.07zto) modified in this manneris also shownin Figure 7.6 whereit is markedTanDrain;
i0.,s it is in better agreement.
0.0557
0.1s2(215.C)
t1.21
10.3 1.0
6.00x l0-5t(2)
Eouotion7. 16
A
i not realized then that m
e the oil was the same, m
L
TANDRAIN
c)
o
(J
AA
-q 0.5 AA
l,^^^
V
E
c
rmploy a much more o ^^
U /tL
fhe time scaleis very o
L I Experiment
equivalent to (5.05/ L
40 80
th the usagein the cited Time in Minutes
Figure 7.6 Recovery of Oil from Model
1 Drainage Chap.7 Dimensional

Similarity 299
ORIGINALSCALED,PRESSURIZED
MODELS
EssoCanadahas carried out gravity drainageexperimentsusinga scaled,pressur-
ized reservoirmodelin additionto atmospheric-pressure, visual-models.
showsa photographof a horizontal section through one of these modelsalter
Filure 7.7
oil had been partially producedby gravity drainageusing steamat about 3 Mpa.
The centralcircular steamchambercan be seenclearlyin contrastto the black
the
oil-
r
I
saturatedregionthat surroundsit. The well arrangementthat was usedfor this | ,-.t
ex-
perimentis shownin Figure 7.g. I Uat* "
lffi
In this particular experimentthe flow was radial. Steamwas injectedfrom a lsr|('r
vertical well locatedalmostimmediatelyabovethe productionwell. ls.;:ol
The shapeof
tlS-tg.lttambgr
- catedgt obs€rvations
for_med.is depictedby rhe .uru.i in Figure 7.s; ttrieF#m=-
rrom-!-h.elmocouplesthat were buried in the reiervoir sand.
ProduCtioniaGdTiom these experimentswere about the same ii would be
l*"
I
predictedby the gravity drainagetheory with an allowancefor radial flow.
CALCULATEDDRAINAGERATESFORFIELDCONDITIONS
The p
Figure 7.9 showsthe expectedrate of drainageto a horizontalwell under a practi-
temperatur
cal field condition' The curvespredict the raiesof drainageof Lloydminster,
Cold zontalwell i
Lake, and Athabascacrudesfor the particularset of reservoirconditionsshown
as 500 m long
a function of the steamtemperatureemployed.
This is cakr
the valuess
and averag
Thesc
the wholerr
t a l w e l l .I n '
researcher
s!
o
I'
E
r')
E
o
o
E
o
o
o
.g
o
o
Figure 7.7 Photographof High PressureGravity DrainageModel (from Butler,

F4r
McNab and Lo 1981)
for t
300 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 CalculatedD

{ a scaled,pressur-
models.Figure 7.7
'e modelsafter the
n at about 3 MPa.
ist to the blackoil-
Height: 38.7 cm
1susedfor this ex- Diameter: 55.9 cm
Permeability:
180D
'as injectedfrom a Sandporosity:0.,144
56; : 0.86
*ell. The shapeof Sleamoressure:3 MPa
j.g: tne]e-u,==-er|=lo-
he reservoiisand.
sameas would be
radialflow.
Production
Production from I
tt iliJ,liJ;1"#'#:::1.:'"#:::face fl
d
The predicted rates increasewith steamtemperaturebecauseof the effect of il

'ell under practi-
a temperatureupon oil viscosity.Ratesfrom about 0.05to 0.8 m3/d per meter of hori- il
f
.loydminster,
Cold zontalwell are predicted(0.1to 1..6Bldft). For example,at200'C a horizontalwell il
rnditionsshownas I
500 m long would be expectedto produce about 150 m3of Cold Lake oil per day. (
This is calculatedfrom equation7.16.In practice,maximumratesof about807oof {
the valuesshownmight be expected.Also, of course,depletionwill lower the rate, I
{
and averageratesthat are only a fraction of the maximumwill be found. I
Thesecalculationsassumethat the steamchamberstartsout extendingover II
the wholevertical height of the reservoirand alongthe whole length of the horizon-
tal well. [n practiceit may take time for the chamberto grow to theselimits. Esso I I
researchers(Griffin and Trofimenkoff 1986)have suggestedthat the rate at which a A
I
so = 0.825;Sor = 0"175;9- 0.325:K"ff = 1 pn?tPc = z'tzskJ/m3oc

kf, = t.Z W/moC;h - 20 m; T = 12o C
B/Doy ft
!
E 1.5
r.)
-
q)
0.5 1.0
+
o
E.
q) AE
ql
c
t- n -rn-
o 100 200 3oo
Steom Temperoture o C
rom Butler, Figure7.9 PredictedDrainageRatefor VariousCrudes(basedon Equation7.16
for typical conditions;2 sides)
'ainage
Chap. 7 Calculated Drainage Rates for Field Conditions 301
steamchamberspreadsalongthe horizontal well if the chamberstartsfrom a verti-
cal injector can be calculatedfrom equationT.lg by settingl:0; they present
laboratory results to support this. Rates abott 50Vofaster than this were found
when the horizontal well was heated.
TANDRAIN.AN EXTENSIONTO THE ORIGINALSAGD THEORY
The theory described in the previous sectionshas been modified and extended
(Butler and Stephens1981)in two ways:
1. The calculatedinterfacecurvesof Figure J.4 weremodified so that they re-

main joined to the productionwell.
2. The theory was modified to allow for the confining effect of adjacentwells.
Whereasin the previous treatment the interface spreadhorizontally to infin-
ity, in this paper it spreadsonly to a vertical no-flow boundary located
halfway to the next adjacentwell.
A point of concernwith the solutionderivedpreviouslywasthat the oil drain- The rate is &l
ing down the interfacecurveswould have to drain horizontallyto the well after it the recovery,
reachedthe bottom. Someof the availableheadmustbe usedto causethis lateral proportion.t
flow. Anotbcr
As a simpleapproximation,it is assumedthat the lower parts of the interface headcausing
curvesof Figure 7.4 canbe replacedby tangentsdrawn from the well to the curves. of the head b
This is shownby the curvesin Figure 7.10.
The name TANDRAIN was used at one time for a computerprogramwhich Effect of l|o
drew thesecurves.
The theory in
Figure 7.11showsthe effect for a typical interface.The TANDRAIN assump-
interface cun
tion reducesthe rate of drainageof oil to the value given by Equation 7.34.
The din
ently from th
expressionfu
tance betwec
The rw
< 0.8 on the drainA
Q) found that it r
P o.o
o
4
,a
o The relatiood
0.4
o
C)
is shownin F
E
g 0 .2 7A variari
the interface rtr
size this straigl
00.5 1 1.5 2 intermediate p<i
value. Abovc et
HorizontolDistoncex/h
spondto the ia
Figure 7.10 CalculatedInterface Positionsfor an Infinite ReservoirUsins the maximum; this I
TandrainAssumption rate equation sir
302 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Tandrain-An I

:r startsfrom a verti- -c 1
-l = 0; they present q,
han this were found o 0.8
c
o
o 0.6
i5
a 0.4
o
o)
dified and extended .9
a
o.2 Decreosein Recovery
q) ot t'=0.4 (13%)
.E 05 0.5 1 1.5 2
ified so that they re- o
Dimensionless Distonce x/h
Figure 7.11 Effect of Tandrain Assumptionon PredictedRecovery
:ct of adjacentwells.
:orizontallyto infin-
w boundary located 1..5kga$!,5"h
q= (7.34)
asthat the oil drain- The rate is 87% of that calculatedby 7.16,and-as may be seenfrom Figure 7.11-
!' to the well after it the recovery,for the samevalue of the dimensionlesstime, is reducedin the same
to causethis lateral proportion.T
Another way of comparingequations7.19and 7.34 is to saythat the effective
rarts of the interface headcausingvertical drainagehasbeenreducedfrom ft to 75% of ft. The remainder
rewell to the curves. of the head is used to causehorizontal movementof the draining oil.
)uter programwhich Effeet of No Flow Boundary
The theory in the TANDRAIN paper (Butler and Stephens1981)leadsto the set of
ANDRAIN assump- interface curves shown in Figure 7.12 for a confined reservoir.
:quation7.34. The dimensionlesstime and the abscissausedin this figure are defined differ-
ently from those of equation 7.25; w rather than h is used as the dimensionin the
expressionfor the dimensionlesstime; w is defined as half of the horizontal dis-
tance betweenwells.
The revised theory provides a relation that allows for the effect of depletion
on the drainagerate. A numerical solution was developedin the paper, and it was
found that it could be representedby the simple equation7.35a.
Q.=1/,-f'\n (7.35a)
The relationshipbetweenthis and the previousexpressionsfor the rate of drainage
is shownin Figure 7.13.
7A variation of the abovederivationis termedLINDRAIN. In this variation it is assumedthat

the interface remains straight right up to the top of the reservoir. As the steam chamber grows in
size this straightinterface becomesmore inclined and longer. It is also assumedthat, at a limiting
intermediatepoint on the interface,the heat aheadof the interfaceis just equal to the steadystate
value.Above and belowthis critical point there is lessheat aheadofthe interfacethan would corre-
spondto the steadystate.The location of the critical point is chosenso that the drainagerate is a
voir Usingthe maximum; this leadsto a position of y/h = 1/V3. With theseassumptionsit is found that adrainage
rate equationsimilar to 7.34 is obtained exceptthat the constant1.5 is replacedby 0.75V3 = 1.3.
Drainage Chap.7 Tandrain-An Extensionto the OriginalSAGD Theory 303

o
a
u,l
J
z
o 0.s
(D
z
ut
=
o
D I M E N S I O N L E S SX
. A
'. * =; L ^ l k g a
vTTSmi,
Figure Z.l2 Confined Horizontal Well Interfaces
Further Expt
The cumulative recovery of mobile oil may be obtained by integrating Esso Resour
equation7.35awith respectto dimensionless
time; ihe resultis model experu
of
Recovery=
t, Q*dt*= {t. -:tr' (7.35b)
box havinetri
*2l cqt!::L
ratedwith Co
Th" lu]y9 /* requiredto obtain a particularrecovery,/ may be obtainedby solv- meabilitl of rl
ing (7.35b)for 11 The root of intereit is siven bv
The ptx
t;
t o t -)
t^ -'t-/)\ steamchamh
t* = 2r/*.or{11-:
v2 \ 3 into the chan
For instance,if f : 0.5, then t* = 0.4253. centerof the
The correspondingcurvesfor cumulativerecoveryare shownin Fieure The elapsedt
q) 7.14. front windon
+J
d In thisr
1.5 !-+-el---Th-e-e-ry-..4.1-=lT-r* ter of the bott
o
EO centric tubes
d
s-r!-l.g-tr.--7-:1-1.g-l:.-1-j..._ flowed out. T
.'.1 -
wastypicalll'
a
a configuratim
(,]0J Eqn 7.35 Figure
O.l
de prediction mr
:v
0.5 steam*as inj
0
d
*
II a'' horizontalprt
0)
d Numerical Soluti The rnq
reservoirand
theorydoesrr
0 0.4 0.8
that the steau
.*__ t the theon'pr
DimensionlessTime f Figure 7.13 Comparisonof Drainage
w Ratesfrom Different SAGD Eouations and it reprme
304 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Tandrain-An

I
|1 Original Equation
(7.16)
\
TANDRAIN
Infinite Depleting Reservoir
o 0.5 Reservoir Equation 7.35
h
h
OJ
oo'
0.5
*t
Dimensi.onless Tirne l --
w
Figure 7.14 Cumulative Recoveryfor a Horizontal Well
)ffi*. Further ExperimentalData
tained by integrating Esso ResourcesCanada has carried out a considerablenumber of gg!g[1gga|

:is -model experiments.One such experiment(Butler and Stephens1981)involved a
bcix having transparentfront and rearwalls thatwas 36 cm wide,26 cm high, and
a': (7.35b) 2.5 cm thick. The modelwaspackedwith a coarse-grained sandthat wasfully satu-
;Ca;ii[eoid Lake crude. The grain size of the sandwas chosenso that the per-
ru'be obtainedby solv- meabilityof the packingwould make 82 the samefor the model and for the field.
The photographsin Figures 7.15 show the stagesin the developmentof a
steamchamberdue to the gravity drainageof oil during continuousflow of steam
into the chamber.The steamchamberis the lighter-colored,growingregionin the
centerof the photographs. The major part of the oil has drainedfrom this region.
The elapsedtime is indicatedat the bottom of eachpicture;the grid drawn on the
shownin Fisure7.14. front window of the model has a line spacingof 20 mm.
In this modelthe steaminlet and productoutlet wereboth placedin the cen-
ter of the bottom of the model,with the inlet 2 cm abovethe outlet; they were con-
centric tubes.Steamflowed in to replacethe hot oil and the condensateas they
flowed out. The residualoil saturationin the drainedspaceof the steamchamber
wastypically5%. Modelsof this type with a varietyof differentpermeabilities, well
configurations,and overall geometrywere used.
Figure 7.L6comparesthe production rate from one of these modelswith the
prediction made by the TANDRAIN theory. In this particular experimentthe
steamwas injected into a central well, which was located slightly above a lower,
horizontal production well.
The measuredrate rises as the steamchambergrows toward the top of the
reservoir and then decreasesas the reservoirbecomesdepleted.The TANDRAIN
theory doesnot predict the rising-rateperiod, becausein its derivation it is assumed
that the steamchamberextendsfor the whole vertical height at the start. However,
Comparisonof Drainage the theory predictsa maximum production rate that is closeto the measuredvalue,
ifferent SAGD Equations and it representsthe decline during depletionreasonablywell.
:y Drainage Chap. 7 Tandrain-AnExtension

to the OriginalSAGDTheory 305
i /,'*
:.it .t,'
a
a
3
T
T
T
c
it
t
t
I
E
FEr
Extrapolatkn
Usingthe the
t(
extrapolated
THE RISINGSTEAM
In this sectio
considered. an
at which oil is
The deri
Weiss(1980). a
lar to thosein
It is assu
the steamcha
shapeis, at lea
suchas thoses
In the pn
that would be
not all the hea
tally to the we
is within the sr
headis availab
Duringtt
assumed that I
any particular
Figure 7.15 Developmentof the SteamChamberDuring Gravity Drainagein Laboratory the equation.u
Model tion 7.16.This
306 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 The RisingStea

o 1.5
6
G
Experiment
c
o
g 1.0
It
o
r
o
o
o nq
E -'- \
\\
.9
.D
E
TANDRAIN\.
o
.E
o0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
DimensionlessTime
Figure 7.16 Oil-ProductionRate from Low-PressureLaboratoryModel
Extrapolation of the Model Experimentsto the Field
Using the theory and the scalingmethodsdescribed,the model experimentswere

extrapolatedto the field scaleas shownby the data in Table7.3.
THE RISINGSTEAM CHAMBER
In this sectionthe vertical growth of a steamchamberabovea horizontalwell is

considered,and equationsare derivedfor the rate at which it risesand for the rate
at which oil is produced.
The derivation that follows differs from that given by Butler, Stephens,and
Weiss(1980),althoughthe final results(i.e., equations7.43and7.44)are very simi-
lar to thosein the reference,and the sameexperimentaldata are used.
It is assumedthat the problemis a two-dimensional one and that the shipe of
the steam chamberremains geometricallysimilar as it rises. This similarity of
shapeis, at leastto a first approximation,found in experimentswith visualmodels
such as those shown by the earlier seriesof photographs.
In the previoussectionson TANDRAIN, it wasshownthat the drainagerate
that would be predicted from equation 7.16overestimatesthe production because
not all the headh is available;someof the headis required to move the oil horizon-
tally to the well. For TANDRAIN, this is allowed for by changingthe factor 2 that
is within the squareroot signto 1.5.This is equivalentto assumingthatT5Voof the
head is available.
During the rising-chamber period,similar considerations apply,and it may be
assumedthat the availablehead is lessthan the total height of the chamber,h, at
any particular time. We will allow for this by including an unspecifiedfactor B in
rn Laboratory the equation,with the expectationthat it will turn out to be lessthan the 2 in equa-
tion 7.16.This is shownin equation7.36.
Drainage Chap.7 The RisingSteam Chamber 307

The fa
is drainingto
:El 5
from onlv c
U cl 6
,:nll
*nl* F-riFr<.i
= rl o nO\olF-d
> **N
;\ -t
X HI E
o1l tr Sinceit r
LH )
grows,the cu
areamultiplio
wherethe cq
chamberis I
ooo\\oo$
o cO\OO\hOi
Differentiatiq
o
tion rate. egu
L)
Settingthe ri
rrl equation7.39
: heiehtof the r
V)rO\*6 O*h*Oi
\OO$*r ii ON$nh n
-xoidr-iodo
d.j.jGi6i
NNOV)
rN€
d
E
l!
a,
@
..1 o
o trt :
E ot Y
' - l
^ ^
oc)h
x
lu 3ltq
r!l Y!
iN00oo\
r)o\c.lOh
*Na]
EFOTNNF
€"do+oos-e
ooo
o) Z o'-n
ol 6v oo
E \ Value of ho;
>l E
l(5 tl
cr Equation7.{l
tl
-----ll '1.-:-
!t I
first brackets
.=
o ),t il:l trl > secondbracke
x
a
o sl$ll
gt
sl$9 l { t
->l--> il d-l
vil a"
s t-s
The init
perimentsimi
u.l
:>
FI\
E ê. st\ heightof the c
(t? OFtt\Ohd
.;.
N $ \o 6 N O- E E,-a- E E y H |-t,
ples implante
? tl
Llr measuredtenq
6 ; ooSN-*\Fis{' :I E H I :
eachthermoc
:_r .r
c,
I
steamtemper
TheRisingSta
The factor 2 outside the squareroot sign in equation7.36 recognizesthat oil
is draining to the well from both sides,whereas7.16 gavethe quantity draining
from only one side.
Q:2 (7.36)
Sinceit is assumedthat the steamchamberremainsgeometricallysimilar asit

grows, the cumulative oil productionwill be proportional to the mobile oil per unit
areamultipliedby the squareof the chamberheight.This is shownby equation7.37,
wherethe constant7 is determinedby the shapeof the chamber;the area of the
chamberis 7h2.
e c u= f o n o , = y d a s " h 2 (7.37)
DifferentiatingT.3Twith respectto time givesanotherexpressionfor the produc-

tion rate, equation7.38.
q = zvSA^S,hff (7.38)
setting the right-handside of 7.36 equal to the right-handside of 7.38 resultsin

equation7.39,which may be integratedas in 7.40 to give an expressionfor the
heightof the chamber,h, as a function of time. This is equation7.41.
kga$ L,S"h
=z
2tSAS,hff (7.3e)
*rt
[orr,r*r=irlffifr* (7.40)
^=(+i)"(m)"
=(i#)"0#n1'''u' (7.41)
r
Value of Proportionality Constant in Height Equation
ci
F: Equation 7.41 showsthat the chamberheight ft should be equal to a constant(the
tl
first brackets),multiplied by a factor involving the reservoir and oil properties(the
il > secondbracketedterm), and multipliedby the time raisedto the J power.
vil ao The initial constantterm in 7.4Ihas beenevaluatedfrom a scaled-model
9 ll .€S ex-
ii
st\ perimentsimilar to that shownin the earlierphotographs.In this experimentthe
height of the chamberwas determinedfrom the behaviorof a seriesof thermocou:
€lE ples implantedinto the model in a vertical line above the productionwell. The
=l !
measuredtemperatures are shownin Figure 7.17.As the steamchamberapproached
EI Y
eachthermocouple,the temperatureincreasedabruptly from the initial level to the
: steamtemperature.
The RisingSteam Chamber 309

100
o
o_
o
J
i: 50
e,
CL
E
o
F
Timein Minutes
Figure 7.17 MeasuredTemperaturesaboveproduction Well Equation7-
is verr':atis
From these measurements it was possibleto plot the height of the steam
chamberagainsttime, as in Figure 7.18.Also shownin Figure 7.1gis a theoretical Shape of S
line basedon equation7.41with the constantset equal to 2; i.e., this theoretical
curve is basedon equation7.42.The slopeof the experimentalcurve is closeto the If it is assu
theoreticalvalue of ?. circle.then
of gamma!
,=,(ffi)',f'' (7.42) ment*ith t
The Oil-productionRate
When the valueof ft from equation7.42 is substitutedinto equation7.37, the result

is equation7.43.This haswithin it theshapefactor, y. By cuive fitting the oil-rate-
productiondata from the experiment,7 hasbeenfound to be about
*9. s
Qcum
= ^r(ffi)" roLSo)1/3
f/z (7.43) ;
o
o
From curve fitting, o
o
q 810
= 2.25 or y
10
o
Q"u^
= zzs(tv)"($ AS.)rt3t4t3 (7.44)
Using this value leadsto equation1.44 for the cumulativeoil production,and dif-
ferentiatingthis with respectto time resultsin equation7.45 for the instantaneous
productionrate. 0
q- =+ = t(Bg\'''(,fAS,;r/3rrl3 (7.4s)
dt \mvsl
310 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 The RisirgS

-t tr
I 200
I q)
c
150
...*..
Theory
Experiment
eisht
of I 100
rermocouple
I q)
lvewell,mml a
0)
II 50
rrl
I q)
-
?n
71020 trn
fime in Minutes
60 Figure 7.18 SteamChamberRise
on Well Equation7.44is comparedto the experimentaldata in Figure 7.19.The agreement

is very satisfactory.
: height of the steam
re 7.18is a theoretical Shape of Steam Chamber.
ll i.e., this theoretical
al curve is closeto the If it is assumedthat the shapeof the steamchamberis approximatelya sectorof a
circle,then the anglesubtendedby the sidesof the sectorthat gives*aas the value
of gammais 64"; this is shownin Figure 7.20.This shapeis in approximateagree-
(7.42) ment with the observedshapesof rising steamchambers.
luation7.37,the result
rve fitting the oil-rate- 20
Equation7.u14
e about*9.
I
(7.43) f
o
o
C)
o
810
o
(7.44)
O Experiment
I production,and dif-
for the instantaneous
20 40 60
(7.4s) Time in Minutes
Figure7.19 Oil Recovery
DuringChamber-Rise
Period
ty Drainage Chap.7 The RisingSteamChamber 311

o
H
G
E
o
ct)
G^
't6r E
o
^= qt
-@
gr?
Eg,
E
Figure 7.20 ApproximateShapeof .9
th '(
Rising ChamberSectorwith y : 9116
o
AvailableHead E
i5
It is also possibleto calculatethe value of the head availabilityfactor B. This is
donein equation7.46; the result-!, or 1.125-indicatesthat nearly half the avail-
ableheadis requiredto move the oil laterally.
Figrr
4v2 9
B=8r-i- (7.46) ture. It alsopr
8
eachother an
This value is lessthan the value of 1.5 found for the TANDRAIN equation.The gerswhich int
photographs in Figure 7.15indicatethat duringthe chamber-rise period,the top of Tl pical 1
the steamchamberis ill-defined becauseof the instabilityof the rising front (but of the fineen
the sidewaysspreadingfront hasa stableinterface).Becauseof the raggednatureof
the front, it is not surprisingthat lessof the headis availableto effect drainageto
the productionwell. The photographsshowclearlythe effect of gravity in stabiliz- Visctrsi:J;'
ing and destabilizingsteamfronts. Velocits oi rt.c I
Equation 7.39 (with F = 1.125)predictsa lower drainagerate at the point Steam temp.er
where the chamberreachesthe top of the reservoirthan does the TANDRAIN Steam tenr;'crr
Steam temprcr
equationfor the samevalue of h. It is practicalto continueto use equations7.44
Finger dimcns:tx
and 7.45 after the chamberreachesthe top until the rate reachesthat predictedby
Steam tr-mP'e
the TANDRAIN equation.After this point the TANDRAIN equationshouldbe Steam tenp=:::
employedto follow the further depletionof the reservoir.This approachis shown S t e a m t em ; r : a
in the numericalexamplewhich is developedstartingon page316. tThe
top oi trc f
The ratepredictedby equation7.45 for the rising chamberperiod and that by
equation7.35for the depletionperiod can be plottedon a singlechart, as shownin
Figure 7.21.
EFFECT
OFSTEAM
ON I
PROPERTIES
FINGERRISETHEORY
Steam and R
Another approachto the predictionof the rate of rise of a steamchamberhasbeen
describedby Butler (1987).This paperdescribesa theoreticalapproachin which the The equation
frictional drag for the falling oil around a rising finger is balancedwith the fric- effect of rere
-
tional dragwithin the finger and the driving force providedby gravity. Figurc
The theory predictsa rate of rise for the fingerswhich is proportionalto the tion 7.1-ias a
permeabilityand inverselyproportionalto the viscosityof the oil at steamtempera- of 129.1mm:
312 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Steat

TANDRAIN- startingwith
o 3
G 1 l- - - verticalhot plane
$
E
o ,'--_..-,/
ct)
Q^ '..
'EF0 ,p Parameteris w/h
=o w is (wellspacing)/2 \
_o \
9C Drainage
from \
vao a 0.5 \
risingunconfinedchamber \
E \
pproximateShapeof o tl o'25 o'zs
o * d = 1.a5(w/h) 1R""ouery1 \
:r Sectorwith y = 9/16 tr
o a I
.E
o
lity factor B. This is 0
nearlyhalf the avail-
00.s1 t
Fractionof UltimateRecovery r
Figure 7.21 CalculatedDrainageRatesfor Rising and DepletingChambers tl
r{
(7.46) ture. It alsopredictsthe curvatureof the top of the risingfinger.Fingersrisebeside
eachother and the oil flowing downwardsbetweenthem falls as meanderingfin- {
IAIN equation.The gerswhich interferewith eachother and with the rising steam. i
iseperiod,the top of
the rising front (but
Typical predictedvaluesof the rate of rise and of a characteristicdimension
of the fingersare given in the followingtable:
fI
the raggednatureof i{
q
to effect drainageto
of gravity in stabiliz- Viscosity of reservoiroil at 100'C ilrl
Velocity of rise mfd !
Lgerate at the point Steamtemperature f00'C 0.0163 0.0082 0.0043 {
es the TANDRAIN Steamtemperature200"C 0.0822 0.0571 0.0415
Steamtemperature 300"C 0.190 0.149 0.r21
o use equations7.44
Finger dimension/o m (seeequationbelowl)
res that predictedby 8.97 4.57 2.65
Steamtemperature 100"C
i equationshouldbe Steamtemperature 200"C 4.47 3.29 2.53
rs approachis shown Steamtemperature300"C 2.56 2.22 L.94
316. tThe
top of the finger is parabolic according to the equation
:r period and that by
lYlfot = $lft')
le chart, as shownin
RESERVOIR
EFFECTOF STEAM TEMPERATURE, AND OIL
TEMPERATURE,
PROPERTIESON DRAINAGERATES
Steam and ReservoirTemperatures

m chamber has been
pproach in which the The equationusedfor the generaldefinitionof m (7.25)allowsthe predictionof the
anced with the fric- effect of reservoirtemperatureon production rate (Butler 1981).
v gravity. Figure 7.22 showsa plot of the integrandin the right-hand side of equa-
s proportional to the tion 7.25 as a function of temperaturefor a typical heavycrude havinga viscosity
:lil at steam tempera- of 129.1,--t/s (or cs) at 100"Cand 6.8 mm'/s at200"C.
' Drainage Effect of Steam Temperature,ReservoirTemperature,and Oil Properties 313

Chap,7
. 1.6
PARAMETERIS RESERVOIRTEMPERATUREOC
^ 1.4 E
'i t.,
OF
?r r.o 3
o
6
l!\
?oa (J
!; ou
j
i 0.4 a
= o.z I
o
o.o 2
50 150 200 250 3
STEAM TEMPERATUREOC o
Figure 7.22 Effect of remperatureon value of Integrandin Equation 7.25
curves are showncorresponding to reservoirtemperaturesof 0, 20, and 40.c.

Increasingthe reservoirtemperaturehas the effect of increasingthe value of the
integrand and, thereby, the correspondingvalue of the integral and the oil-
productionrate.
The curvesin Figure 7.22 wereintegratednumericallyand the corresponding
valuesof mwere calculated, with the resultsshownin Figure7.23.rtis found thai very vlscous (
z changessomewhatwith steamtemperatureand decreases with increasingreser- more fluid m
voir temperature.A lower value of m for a given set of conditionshasthe effect of termed a con
increasingthe drainagerate. Lor'r'ert
In general,it is found that the rateof drainagevariesinverselywith the square more slo'* lr
root of mv*This factor is plotted againststeamtemperaturefor the samecrudeoil drainagerate
in Figure7.24.This figure showsthe significanteffectof the reservoirtemperature temperatureI
and how it may be allowedfor by the extendedtheory. The cal
Oil Properties ure 7.26. Tlx
but the overa
The three curvesin Figure 7.25 givecalculatedvalues of m as a function of steam
temperaturefor three differenthypotheticaloils. The uppercurve corresponds to a
a
a
a/,J
o R E S E R V O ITRE M P E R A T U R E Ij
uJ 2
J
z o
o c
2
ah I
fie I
o
=
I E
E t
lr o
O3 I
u.l
f
80 120 150 200 240

STEAMTEMPERATURE 'C
Figure 7.23 Effect of Reservoirand SteamTemperatureson rn
314 Steam-Assisted
Gravity Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Stea
n'""_l R E S E R V O ITRE M P E R A T U R E
)
.rs/1 I\
IF
/,Y1
'l
'/// |
-
F
ct
o
0.2
o
rr 0,1
u,l
I fr o.oo
I o
= 0.04
0 250 E,
o u.oo=129.1SQ MM/SEC
r Equation7.25
rresof 0, 20, and 40'C. 240

80 120 160 200
asingthe value of the 'C
integral and the oil-
STEAMTEMPEBATURE 'l
Figure 7.24 Effect of Tn and Ts on Rate Factor rl
and the corresponding 1

q
e 7.23.It is found that veryviscousoil similar to Athabascabitumen.The middle curve is for a somewhat
*'ith increasingreser- morefluid crudesimilar to Cold Lake crude.The lowestcurve is for what might be
5
t.
itionshasthe effect of termeda conventionalheavyoil similar to the oils found in the Lloydminsterarea. i
Lower valuesof m are calculatedfor the lessviscousoils becausez changes 1
rerselywith the square
for the samecrude oil
more slowly with temperature;this has the effect of tending to give predicted
drainagerateshigherthan would be expectedfrom the viscosityof the oil at steam
t
reservoirtemperature temperaturealone.
ilrl
I
The calculateddrainage-ratefactorsfor these three oils are plotted in Fig- q
{
ure7.26. The calculatedeffect of the oil propertieson drainagerate is significant, I
but the overall effect is not overwhelmins. 1
{
as a function of steam
lurve corresponds to a
I
R E S E R V O ITRE M P E R A T U R=E1 3 ' C
o
o
t!
J
z 4.5
9
o
z 4.0
UT
=
3.5
lr
o
UJ 3.0
f
J
PARAMETER IS CRUDE
2.5 vtscoslTY AT 100'c/200'c
SQ MM/SEC
: ,.0--;;,
STEAMTEMPERATURE OC
tes on /n Figure 7.25 Valuesof rn for Different Crude Oils
ty Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Steam Temperature, Reservoir Temperature, and Oil Properties 315
PARAMETERIS CRUDE bitumenand r
vtscostTYAT 100"C the sand used
t\ IN SQ MM/SEC representI )-
s (a) Obtain wt
t
o obtainingan :
o
lt
lrl
F
E
|rJ
(,
=
t R E S E R V O ITRE M P E R A T U R=E1 3 " C
o
80 120 160 200 240

Estimating lrt
STEAMTEMPERATURE OC
Figure 7.26 Drainage-RateFactorsfor Three Heavy Crudes
There are,of course,othervariablesin equationssuch as7.16that are equally

(b) Tabulatcp
effectivein modifying the drainagerate;these(e.g.,thicknessand permeability),ai
well as the oil properties,can vary significantlybetweenreservoirs.
NumericalProblemon Steam-Assisted
Gravity Drainage
A tar sandreservoirhas the following properties:
Reservoirtemperature 15"C
Oil viscosityat f 100,000cs
Bitumendensity 7.00glcc
Bitumenviscosityat 100"C 80 cs
Reservoirthickness 20 m
Thermal diffusivity 0.0j m2lD
Porosity 0.33
Residualoil saturation 0.13
Effective permeability for oil flow 0.4 d8 (c) Calcularc
The field is to be drainedby a seriesof parallelhorizontalwells with a spacingof
75 m betweenwells.The wellswill be located2.5 m abovethe baseof the ieservoir.
Steamwill be injectedfrom separatehorizontalinjectionwells placed above the
producers.Assumethat initial thermalcommunicationis achievedand that the sys-
tem will be operatedwith a steampressureof 1.2MPa. Estimatethe percentrecov- (d) Equation
ery of the original oil in placeas a function of time for a period of 7 y.
It is plannedto carry out a model experimentrepresentingthe field in the
laboratory.The modelwill have a heightof 35 cm and will operateusingthe same
sAssumed
to correspondto an absolutepermeabilityof 1.0 D.
316 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Stean

bitumen and at the samepressureas the field. What shouldbe the permeabilityof
- the sand used in the model? How many minutes in the model will be required to
represent1 y in the field?
(a) Obtain value of parameterm: Determine m using either equation 7.25 or by
I
obtaining an approximatevalue by interpolation from Figwe 7.25.
Zs = 188'C
=13ccI
I Zn = 15"C
vs = 7.8 cs (by interpolation on Figure A.5.2)
=ll'l.rt*,,"'"^''"'
-_l x) Estimating m from Figure 7.25 leadsto
mdcs m=3.4
7.16that are equally (b) Tabulateparametersfor problem:

nd permeability),as
xin.
6 = 033
AS,=0.75-0.13=0.62
k = 0.4 x 10-12mz
I = 9.81ry/s2
q. = 0.07/(24x 3600)m'fs = 8.10x l0-7 m2fs
h=20-2.5=17.5m
m=3.4
vs = 7.8 x 10-6m2/s
w = 75/2 = 37.5m
(c) Calculatefactor to convertq to q*:

lls with a spacingof
nse of the reservoir. '-1<.1 = 17'67
F a c t o=r - l - * l'527x 106
s/m2 dlm2
ls placed above the !ffi=
vedand that the sys-
te the percent recov- (d) Equation for t*:
odofTy.
ting the field in the t
ef,ateusing the same
t* = ,f ---t*-
w Y f\S,mvrh
(seeFigure7.12)
= 4.2L5 x L0-a/6un
Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Steam Temperature, Reservoir Temperature,and Oil Properties ?17
(e) Calculate rates and recovery for depletion assuming chamber starts as vertical
0.
plane: a
o
g
o
GI
I
TIME IN YEARS q = 2q*/17,67
J o.at
q'
(1) (2)
€0
E
(t-
0 0 1.225 0 0.139m3/md E
1 0.154 1.205 0 . 18 8 0.136 o
2 0.308 1.147 0.369 0.130 6
3 0.462 1.050 0.539 0 . 11 9 tr o.
A
0.615 0.916
c
0.690 0.104 o
5 0.769 0.'742 0.818 0.084 ()
o 0.923 0.529 0.916 0.060 :
7 1.077 0.278
t,
0.979 0.031 o
(r)From o.
equation7.35a.
(t)Fractional
recoveryof mobile oil.
(f) Rates and recovery during rising-chamber phase:
l,-^-\21
= 2.zsl:n'| 16As,;"'ro"
Qcu^
\musl sary,then. to s
= 32.11.t0' (with r in years) from the deph
Fractionalrecovery: q"" f(17.5 x 75 x 0.33 x 0.62) = 0.120t413,

with t in years.
Summary Table h
4.,- (in m3/m; = 3'il(ff) = 0.0r23t1!:y" Years

0
Differentiating
with, 0.5
1.0
;r:: ;, r:rff il;, i, l, ooru
o,*, 1.53
2.0
3.0
Rate and Recoveryduring Rising-Chamber
Period 4.0
Time Years q Fractional Recovery 5.0
6.0
0 0 0
7.0
0.5 0.093 0.048
(l)Fractional
1.0 0.117 0.120 recorr
2.0 0.148 0.302
Theseratesare
The recoveryratesare plotted againstthe percentrecoveryin Figure 7.27. The two (g) Scalingo.ft)
curvesintersectat 2l7o recoveryand a rate of 0.135m3/m d. for the model a
Assumethat the rising-chambercurve appliesup to the point of intersection
and that the rate then followsthe depletioncurve.The changeoverpoint occursat
558d, but this point corresponds to only 401d for the depletioncurve. It is neces-
318 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Stean

ber starts as vertical
0.15
o
o
p
o
ol
558 days R.C.curve
q -- 2q*/17.67 .101days on dep curve
€ 0.1
E
ct\
0.139 m3/md E
0 . 13 6 o
0.130 (E
0 . 11 9 E o.o5
0.104
tr
o
0.084 o
0.060 5 rl
0.031
o 'l
t1
o
o.0 q
ri
0 20 40 60 80 100 q
% Recoveryof MobileOil d
Figure 7.27 Oil-ProductionRate versusRecovery. \
ll
sary, then, to subtract157 d from the time in order to calculateconsistentrates

from the depletionequation.
Ir
i
)t'3, with / in vears. 'l
SummaryTablefor Ratesand Recoveryas a Functionof Time
'l
Years qt*q* Recovery(l) il
(
|!
0 0 0 {
0.5 0.093 0.048 \1
1.0 0.1,17 0.120 {l
1.53 0 . 13 5 0.169 1.202 0.2r2 t

2.0 0.133 0.242 1.17'7 0.293
3.0 0.124 0.395 1.097 0.467
4.0 0.111 0.549 0.979 0.627
nal Recovery 5.0 0.093 0.703 0.821 0.766
6.0 0.071 0.857 0.625 0.878
0
7.0 0.044 1.011 0.390 0.957
0.048
(l)Fractional
tl.120 recoveryof the movableoil abovethe productionwell.
t.).302
These rates are plotted in Figure 7.28.

igure 7.27. The two (g) Scalingof theModel The dimensionlessnumbers83 and /* shouldbe the same
for the model as for the field: i.e.,
pint of intersection
- r- *kgh
lver point occurs at *kgh \ \
Br=( :(
r curve. It is neces- O Ls"o^rrlrr,,o O AS"o*rrl-"0,,
Drainage Chap.7 Effect of Steam Temperature,ReservoirTemperature,and Oil Properties 319

100 u. tc STEAM-INJECT
bi
€ There arc t
o tr posed to I
c) nl drainage:
F}
o
>50 a) l. Hori,
o
E. 2. \'ertic
L
q) 0.05 o HorizontJ
o
o
Q) ! In this am
t o
n ducer. Fr
0O et al. lS7)
o 2 4 6 8- catedjus b
Time in Yeors are drilled I
Figure 7.28 production Ratesand percentRecovery
gether.abo
Sincethe temperaturesand pressurewill be the samein the model and the field, Communb
the only variablesthat will differ will be h andk (we will assumethat the porosity, them qcl-
saturation,and thermal diffusivity will be the same).Then In rhi
top of thc r
(kh)t*,6 = (kh)ôa"r If rhc
to locateth
and the permeabilityof the sandto be usedin the modelwill be mobilitl of
chamberto
, hu"ra 20 length of ti
i =
kmodcr kri"rd= x 0.4 = 229 D effectivepermeability
i
,-.", f., condensat
cation peri
Using the samerelativepermeabilityof 0.4 assumedinitially, this meansthat The I
a porous medium having an absolutepermeabilityof 22.9/0.4: 55 D shouldbe proximatet
used. allow for tl
If the dimensionless
time for two correspondingstagesin the model and the from this q
field are the same,then
'kgo\
*=(* =(: I
r/:l
ts" I
6 AS"-rr) ,,,,0 Y $LSomvsl.o6",
In thi
Ttrc e
Hence, would girc
the oil viscc
/fi"ta theseare sl
/model Birun
separaticrs
,model - simisticin r
radiusthat
estimatedtl
Ifl11s1a:1y: = 161 min.
525,600min, then /moder shownin F
320 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Steam-inie

U. JJ STEAM.INJECTION
WELLS
There are two general arrangementsof steam-injectionwells that have been pro-
L
posed to be used with horizontal production wells in steam-assisted gravity
0.1 rr) drainage:
tr
Q) 1. Horizontalinjectionwells,with one well positionedaboveeachproducer.
E. 2. Vertical steam-injection
wells locateddirectly,abovethe producers.
nnq o Horizontal Injection Wells
o
f
J
! In this arrangementa horizontal injection well is placed directly above each pro-
o_ ducer. For example, in AOSTRA's Underground Test Facility project (Edmunds
et al. 1987)horizontalwells are drilled upwardfrom the mined tunnel,which is lo-
8 catedjust belowthe Athabascatar sandreservoir,and then horizontally.The wells
are drilled asinjector-producer pairs.In this application,the wellsarevery closeto-
rri. gether,about 2 m apart, to allow interwell reservoirheatingand communication.
model and the field, Communicationcan be-achiqvedinitially by heating both wells 4!rd pressuring
rme that the porosity, th_e-1g-qyc-lically.
In this application,the steamchamber,as it forms,mustgrow upward,to the
top of the reservoir,in order to achievehigh vertical conformance.
If the reservoircontainsoil havingan appreciable mobility,then it is possible
to locatethe injectionwell higherup in the reservoir.The limiting factoris that the
mobility of the oil within the reservoirshouldbe high enoughto allow the steam
lbe
chamberto advancedownwardsfrom the injector to the producer in a reasonable
tl
length of time. During this advancethere is a displacement of cold oil and steam
tl
permeability condensateto the productionwell, and, with adequateoil mobility, this communi- F
I
cation period can be highly productive. rl
The length of time requiredto achievecommunicationcan be estimatedap- tl

tially,this meansthat
proximatelyby calculatingthe breakthroughtime from equation4.23. In order to
..1= 55 D shouldbe
allow for the changingconditionsduring the displacement,the time calculated
from this equationshouldbe divided by 2; this hasbeendone in eqtation7.47.
in the model and the
$ AS,p.,s"ln(s/Rr) (7.47)
LBT _
6k LP
I
/ model
In this equation,s represents the interwell distance.
The allowablevertical separationbetweenthe injector and the producer that
would give a one year breakthroughtime hasbeenplottedagainstthe logarithmof
the oil viscosityin Figure7.29.Typicalvalueswere assumedfor the othervariables;
theseare shownin the figure.
Bitumenshaveviscositiesrangingfrom 105to 106cp, and it will be seenthat
separationsof 2 m or less are required.The lower curve in Figure 7.29 is pes-
simistic in this range,since it doesnot allow for the effect of well bore heating.The
radiusthat is heatedcan be estimatedusingFigure 2.12.For typical tar sand,it is
estimatedthat a radiusof 3 to 5 m is heatedappreciablyin a period of 60 d. Also
shownin Figure 7.29is a curve for a well bore radiusof 3 m.
y Drainage Chap.7 Steam-injectionWells 321

350 fect of this rs
tr
p thanu ithin h
E+o smallerdisplt
., the positiond
ing to fractim
Ero the figure is tl
6 the breakthrq
tr
smallerfor th
3. zo
OJ
Rw= 3 m
If the ir
0
boundarl'and
310 placedoil at b
rJ boundedb1 h
! f u - 0 . 1m
Figure 7.29 Allowable Vertical Sepa- given br':
3+56 ration for One Year Breakthroush
Log16(Oil Viscosity in cp) Time
wherethe a'm
It is clear from Figure 7.29 that if the viscosityof the oil in the reservoiris
61% of that ft
belowabout10,000cp, then quitehigh verticalseparations canbe employed,particu-
for steamflod
larly if the productionwell is preheated.A largeseparationis advantageous, since
Figure7.31-I
the pressuregradientresultingfrom the flow of steamassiststhe drainageof oil. tn
breakthrougl
somesituations,there may be an advantagein employingtwo horizontalinjection
wells,with one locatedcloseto the producerto initiate steamchamberformation
and a secondlocatedhigherin the reservoirto be usedasthe steamchambergrows
to it (Butler 1984).
The quantity of oil displacedduring the establishment
t
vt(w
cation can be estimatedusingthe ideasof inter-welldisplacement

of thermal communi-
discussedin the
developmentof equation4.24in Chapter4. This equationwaswritten for two fully-
,.rf
penetratingverticalwells.It can be rewritten as follows,with a changeof symbols
to representtwo parallel horizontal wells having lengthswhich are great enoughfor
the problemto be consideredas two-dimensional:
"L
Vu,= @13)
(s'zdAS,)
wheres representsthe distancebetweenparallelhorizontalwellswithin a reservoir
of infinite extent and Vt,is the productionvolumeper unit lengthof well at break-
(7.48)
t.rL
through. Although this equationis also applicableto other arrangements we will
considerthe casewherethe injectionwell is verticallyabovethe producer.
'"
When oil is displacedby downwardsteamfloodingthe volume that is dis- ,'",
placedis somewhatlessthan would be calculatedby equation7.48becauseof the
differencebetweenthe propertiesof the steamand the oil, becauseof the needfor 04l-
the condensate from the steamto flow with the oil, and becauseof the needto heat
the reservoir.
The displacementof oil by downwardsteamfloodingin two dimensionshas
beenstudiedtheoreticallyby Butler and Petela(1989).In their theoreticalmodelit
is assumedthat the streamlinesfor the steamfloodingphaseremain the sameas
they would be for singlefluid flow. As the oil is displacedfrom eachstreamtubethe
condensationinterface advancesalone it as determinedby a heat balance.The ef-
322 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Steam-injectr

fect of this is that the velocitywithin shorterstreamtubesincreasesmore rapidly
than within longeronesand breakthroughoccursrelativelymorerapidly(i.e.with a
smallerdisplacedvolume)than it would with single-fluidflow. Figure 7.30 shows
the positionof the interfacefor a particular set of conditionsat times correspond-
ing to fractionsof 0.25,0.5, 0.75,and 1.0of the breakthroughtime. Also shownin
the figure is the brokenline which correspondsto the position of the interfaceat
the breakthroughpoint for singlefluid flow. The volume of the displacedzone is
smallerfor the steamfloodingcasethan for the singlefluid case.
If the injection well is at the top of the reservoirjust below the upper
boundaryand the productionwell is at the lower boundarythen the volumeof dis-
placedoil at breakthroughis lessthan for the previouscalculation.For reservoirs
boundedby horizontalsurfacesthe volumeof displacedoil for singlefluid flow is
$able VerticalSepa- givenby:
ar Breakthrough
Yu,= (2/rr)(s2dAS,) (7.4e)
wherethe symbolsare asbefore.This equationleadsto a displacedvolumewhich is
in the reservoiris
67% of that for the unboundedreservoir.Butler and Petelastudiedthis geometry
employed,particu-
for steamfloodingand calculatedpositionsof the condensation front are shownin
Jl'antageous, since
Figure 7.31.The broken line in this figure showsthe position of the interfaceat
drainageof oil. In
breakthrough.Again, asfor the unconfinedcase,the volumeof the displacedzone
Lorizontalinjection
:hamberformation
amchambergrows vl(U2l
t = 0.25tg1
thermalcommuni-
rt discussedin the
'itten for two fully- t = 0.50tg1
changeof symbols
'e great enoughfor t = 0.75tg1
t = 1 . 0 0t A t
(7.48)
Singlefluid
within a reservoir
h of well at break-
angements we will
: producer. 0.8 1.0
olume that is dis-
.-18becauseof the
useof the need for
of the needto heat
Figure 7.30 Positionsof SteamFront
,ro dimensionshas for Times Correspondingto 0.25,0.5,
0.75and 1.0Timesthe Breakthrough
heoreticalmodelit Time in an Unconfined Reservoir.The
:main the sameas Broken Line is the Positionof the In-
achstreamtubethe Producer
terface for SingleFluid Flow at Break-
rt balance.The ef- through (from Butler and Petela1990)
)rainage Chap.7 Steam-injectionWells 323

yl(u2) abovebut ri
1.0 tion of the e
sourceand I
The re
assisted grar
ber the hear
other experi
to someerte
t = 0.50tg1
steamis inF
Inpctin
which gror:
pressure dnv
High ratesfo
rateschamb
to operater-
Oil draining
saturatedreg
Figure 7.31 Positionsof SteamFront
tachedbv a r
for Times Correspondingto 0.25, 0.5,
0.75 and 1.0 Times the Breakthrough only a part (
Time for a Reservoirwith Horizontal overburdena
Boundaries.The Broken Line is the keep steamI
Positionof the Interfacefor Single doingthis he
5 Fluid Flow (from Butler and Petela
xl(u2) leeo) Vertical kic
at breakthroughis smallerthan for singlefluid flow. For the particular example Verticalu'ell
shownthe volumeof the displacedregionis 9I% of that for singlefluid flow.e At Yan
The downwardvertical steamfloodingof a Lloydminster-typeheavyoil has dergroundcl
been studiedby Sugiantoand Butler (1989)usinga scaledphysicalmodel.In their wells,which
experimentsthey found that the time for steambreakthroughcould be predicted The H<
reasonably accuratelyby the theorydescribedabovebut that the shapeof the inter- drilled horiz
facewasratherbroaderthan that shownin Figure7.3L The reasonfor this wasthat Steam*as iq
the injectedsteamspreadbeneaththe overburdenand, as a result,the steamsource operatedfor
wasmorelike a distributedplanethan a line (a line is a point on a two dimensional ratio wasven
diagramsuchas Figure 7.31).
Steamfloodingcalculationsmade by Butler and Petelashow excellentagree-
ment betweenthe shapeof the experimentalinterfaceat breakthroughand that
which they predictedfor steamfloodingusing the samemethod that is described
eln
estimatingthe volumeof displacedoil it is necessaryto includethe factor @AS,. The value
of ASomay be rather lessthan for the long term projectbecausethe drainageof oil may not be com-
plete at the time of steambreakthrough.For examplesupposethat in a vertical flood projectthe ver-
tical distances is 20 m, f is 0.35,S, is 0.85,and S.. is 0.3 (this might be a reasonable
value for a time
of about 150days;seeTable 7.1),then the volume of displacedoil at steambreakthroughmight be
expected to be about 0.91 of the volume calculated from the above equation li.e. V6,=
0.91(2/tr\\s'z6LS"):0.91(21rX202 x 0.35 x 0.55): 45 m3/ml.For a 500 m well this would corre-
spondto a productionof 22500m3.or 140kB, during the establishmentof thermal communication.
This productioncould have a very significanteffect on the economics.
324 Gravity Drainage

Steam-Assisted Chap.7 Steam-inject
abovebut with a planar steamsource.Figure 7.32showscomparisonsof the posi-
tion of the experimentalinterfaceand thosepredictedby theory for both a linear
sourceand a planar one.
The reasonfor the spreadingof the steambelow the overburdenis the steam-
assistedgravity drainageeffect (seeFigure 7.33).At the edgeof the spreadingcham-
ber the heatedoil falls away and allows the steamchamberto spreadlaterally. tn
other experimentsit hasbeenfound that the degreeof spreadingcan be controlled
to someextentby adjustingthe verticalpositionof the injectorand the rate at which
steamis injected.
Injectingthe steamat an intermediateelevationresultsin a steamchamber
which grows upwardsbecauseof the SAGD effect and downwardsbecauseof the
pressuredrive. The relativeextentof theseeffectsdependsupon the injectionrates.
High ratesforce the chamberdown to the productionwell rapidly,whereaswith low
rateschamberrise is the predominanteffect. Under theseconditionsit is possible
to operatewith a steamchamberwhich is only in the upper part of the reservoir. t,
I
Oil draining to the bottom of this chamberis forced through the interveningoil flf
(!
saturatedregionto the productionwell. This operationwith a steamchamberde-
r s i t i o n so f S t e a m F r o n t rl
:spondingto 0.25, 0.5,
tachedby a considerable distancefrom the productionwell is undesirablebecause
nes the Breakthrough only a part of the potential drainagehead ii employedand the heat lossesto the fl
:rvoir with Horizontal overburdenare excessive. It is desirablethat steambe injectedat a rate sufficientto \
I
e Broken Line is the
Interface for Single
keep steamlow down in the reservoir.There may,in somecases,be difficultiesin r
il
doingthis becauseof inadequatesteamgenerationcapacity.
m Butler and Petela I
Vertical Injectors i
tl
: particular example vertical wells can alsobe usedfor steaminjectionabovehorizontalproducers. {
nglefluid flow.e At Yaregain Russia,horizontalproductionwells have been drilled from un- lll
Il
r-type heavyoil has derground chambersand steam injected above them from separate,near-vertical rl
tl
sicalmodel.In their wells,which are drilled from separateundergroundworkings. 1
,l
r could be predicted The Hopco project in California involved eight horizontal production wells q
Leshapeof the inter- drilled horizontallyfrom an undergroundchamberat the foot of a mine shaft. ll
son for this wasthat Steamwasinjectedfrom separateverticalwellsdrilled from the surface.The project
rlt, the steamsource operatedfor about 1l y; althoughit was successfulin producingoil, the oil-steam
n a two dimensional ratio wasvery low. However,the operatorsconsiderthat this approachis promising,
how excellentagree-
:akthroughand that Theoru
od that is described SurfaceS6urce
-)
., Theory-{,'in
\. Line Source i t
e factor @AS,.The value :\
:e of oil may not be com-
49 min ,.;' _-l
cal flood projectthe ver-
rsonablevaluefor a time /'/
r breakthroughmight be
ue equation li.e. V6,= Figure 7.32 Comparison of the Ex-
Experimenta/
l well this would corre- perimental and Theoretical Positions
:hermalcommunication.
64 min
of the Steam Front at Breakthrough
(from Butler and Petela 1990)
Drainage Chap. 7 Steam-injectionWells 325

In theirl*
lntrusionof SteamBeneathOverburden
horizontalr
the heatedr
dictionb1'r
the tempsn
their exarq
50% in tlrc
Noleson Mschanlsm Inap
Oil and condensate flow is drivenby gravity.
Sieamrequiremenllo heat overburdenand
only the rer
r€ervoir ls hlgh. overcomeb
Steamflow ls limitedby viscousresislance. Figure 7.33 Mechanismof Spreading
of SteamChamberJust Beneaththe
Other
StsamAP can not exceedgravily head.
Overburden the follo*-ir
l. Expe
and they ascribethe poor resultsobtainedto a pilot site that wasunfavorable.They gener
suggestthat further projectsshouldbe considered(Dietrich 1988). 2. In nl
The EssoResourcesfirst horizontalpilot at Cold Lake (Bezaireand Markiw u'ould
1979)involveda deviatedproductionwell drilled from the surfacein order to pass for lhi
horizontallynearthe baseof the formation.A verticalinjectoris drilled from above. shon t
Although there have been no detailedresultspublishedfrom the Esso project, a theirI
paper at the 1983PetroleumCongressindicatedthat it had producedmore than 3. The a
100,000barrelsof oil. It is believedstill to be producingoil in 1990. media
A secondhorizontalpilot has been drilled at Cold Lake by Esso,which has c a l 1 1"
about1 km of open horizontallength.The latestplansare to usethis togetherwith assum
a numberof vertical wells above.Thesevertical wells will producefirst by cyclic to thc
steamingand then, presumably,someor all of them will be usedfor injection. of oil I
In the Sceptreoil projectin the Tangleflagsfield in Saskatchewan, the hori- ratio t
zontalproduceris locatedtoward the bottom of the oil zone.Steamis injectedfrom res€n
existingverticalwells above.The projectis consideredto be successfuland, during in this
the downwardflooding phase,very high productionrateshavebeen achieved.
There are several advantagesto using vertical injection wells. They are Joshiand T
cheaperand simplerto construct,and there is not the sameneedfor drilling accu- injecton an
racy that would be requiredfor horizontalwells.Also, it is possibleto changethe significant
point of injectionof the steamverticallyasthe projectmatures.In the initial stages fracturesin
it is desirableto have the steaminjectioncloseto the productionwell to facilitate the earlvnq
communication.However, as the project continues,it becomesadvantageous to A thin
raise the point of injectionso that the motion of the steamthrough the chamber of product n
producesa favorablerather than an unfavorablepressuregradient. is removedI
A major disadvantage of vertical injectionwells is that each injector covers as the renr
only a relativelylimited lengthof the producer.For very long producers,it is neces- chamber.ar
sary to employmore than one injector.It has been shown by Griffin and Trofi- be controll
menkoff (1986)that equation7.L9 can be used to estimatethe half-lengthof the drainedliqr
activewell. In their paper they point out that with someproductionsystems,the needlesslvp
well will remain unheatedfrom the end of the activeportion in one direction,but
becausethe hot fluids are flowing within it, it will be heatedin the other direction. "'Thrsc
326 GravityDrainage
Steam-Assisted Chap.7 Steam-injec
In their laboratoryexperiments,theseauthorsfound that the activeportion of the
horizontalwell spreadmore rapidly than would be calculatedfrom equation7.19in
the heateddirection.They suggested that this effect could be includedin the pre-
diction by usinga value of m in the equationfor the hot end that corresponded to
the temperatureof the productionfluids rather than the reservoirtemperature.In
their example,it was found that this effect increasedthe spreadingrate by about
50Vain the hot direction.
In a productionsysteminvolving multiple injectors,it would presumablybe
only the remoteend that would be cold. Even in this case,the difficulty might be
overcomeby employinga production tubing reachingto the end of the well.
lechanismof Spreading
tber JustBeneaththe Other interestingobservationsin the Griffin and Trofimenkoff paper include
the following:
1. Experimentsin both high-pressureand low-pressuremodelsagreewith the
as unfavorable.They generaltheory presentedhere. t
)88). 2. In systemswith vertical injectionwells, the productionis much greaterthan
Bezaireand Markiw would be calculatedfrom the active length of the productionwell. The reason
r
ilt
face in order to pass for this is the production from the ends of the steamchamber.The authors n
rsdrilled from above. showthat if allowanceis madefor this, good agreementis obtainedbetween ll
r the Esso project, a their laboratoryexperimentsand the theoreticalprediction. \
producedmore than 3. The authorsfind, in their experiments,that the extentof steamoverrideim- {
r990. mediatelyunderthe overburdenis muchlessthan would be expectedtheoreti- I
r bv Esso,which has cally. They recommendthat the width of the heatedsurfacebe estimatedby I
rs€this togetherwith
'oducefirst by cyclic
assumingthat the interfaceis a straightline rising from the productionwell I
to the top of the reservoir.While this assumptionhaslittle effect on the rate ll
>edfor injection. of oil production,it affectsthe estimatesof thermal efficiencyand oil-steam tl

4
katchewan, the hori- ratio by reducingthe area for heat loss both to the overburdenand to the {
c
teamis injectedfrom reservoirbelowthe interface.l0 The estimationof heatlossesis discussed later rl
rccessfuland, during
e beenachieved.
in this chapter. I{
rl
ion wells. They are Joshiand Threlkeld (1985)of Phillips Petroleumcomparedhorizontaland vertical
gedfor drilling accu- injectorsand found the horizontalinjectorto be the most effectiveand to provide
rssibleto changethe significantlyfasterrecovery.Joshiand Threlkeld also studiedthe effect of vertical
;. In the initial stages fracturesin the reservoir.They found that theseare desirablein that they promote
tion well to facilitate the early rapid productionof oil. Multiple fracturesare better than singleones.
nes advantageous to A third areastudiedin this paperfrom Phillipsinvolvesthe effectof the rate
hrough the chamber ofproduct removalupon the efficiencyofthe process.It is found that ifthe product
lient. is removedtoo slowly,the thermalefficiencyis low, but that it risesto an optimum
each injector covers as the removalrate is increased.At very high rates,steamis bypassedfrom the
rroducers,it is neces- chamber,and the efficiencyfalls again.The rate of withdrawalof productshould
,r Griffin and Trofi- be controlledto preventsignificantbypassingof steam.If the rate is too low, then
re half-lengthof the drained liquid product buildg up above the productionwell, and the processis
duction systems,the nebdlessly prolonged.This adjustmentis found to be straightforwardin practice.
in one direction,but
toThis
n the other direction. correspondsto the LINDRAIN assumptionsdescribedin the footnote to page303.
y Drainage Chap.7 Steam-injectionWells 327

ASSUMPTION
AVOIDINGTHE STEADY.STATEHEAT.DISTRIBUTION t-
In the precedingtheoreticalmaterialin this chapter,it has been assumedthat the
temperaturedistribution aheadof the advancingfront is that correspondingto the -c 0.
steadystatefor the particularlocal advancevelocityU; this is givenby equation7.4.
It is this assumptionthat gives rise to the discrepancyof the front advancingfrom o
the productionwell; this was discussedearlier.Also, since the heat aheadof the 30"
-o
front will generallybe somewhatless than that correspondingto the steadystate,
i5
the earlierequationstend to overestimatethe productionrate. -0.
o
An approachthat avoidsthe steady-state heat assumptionhas beendescribed o
(Butler 1985).The interfaceis divided into small elements,and the heat storage !
aheadof eachof theseis calculatedat successive time stepsusing an approximate >0-
differentialequation.For eachtime step,the flow of oil behind the elementis cal-
culatedand then the movementof the interfaceis obtainedfrom materialbalance
considerations similar to thoseinvolvedin equation7.12.
Figure 7.34 showsthe positionsof the interfacecalculatedusing this tech-
nique for a caseinvolvingan unconfinedwell with the parameter83 set equalto 8.
In the new theory it is found that the resultsdependsomewhaton B:; this is de-
fined by equation7.29.
for the transic
Although the curvesfor differentvaluesof Bt arc generallysimilar to thoseof
Chapter l. F!
Figure 7.10,they tend to becomemore S-shapedasB: is increased.This tendency
smaller valu6
toward an S shapewas also displayedby the experimentalcurves shown in Fig-
Figure 3.
ure 7.5. Calculatedinterfacecurvesfor variousvaluesof Bz at a constantdimen-
of an advancin
sionless time of /* = 0.5 are shownin Figure7.35.
for larger valu
Also plotted on Figure 7.35is a dottedcurve drawn from equation7.21;this
Thus for a gir.
curve is basedon the assumptionthat the heat aheadof the advancinginterface
steadystate\a
correspondsto the steadystate.As B: is increased,the curvesfrom the improved
t h e s m a l l e rt h
theorybecomecloserto the original theory.This is consistentwith the calculations
This erp
1.0 ure 7.35.The t
steady state ua
ahead of the fi
0.8 permeabilitf it
steadystate hc
Q)
C) oil drains. bur
0.6
gravity. high t
o
i5 thin la1'enof r
E 0.4 thick la1ers.O
o lished becaus
E0) The buil
0.2
becausethe fn
(Figure1.8t./
state is includ
1n 1.5
0 0.5 vance of the ir
HorizontolDistoncex/h will be noted i
Figure 7.34 Positionof Interfacefor an Unconfined Well the reserroir a

Steam-Assisted Chap.7 Avoidingthe S
)N
Porometer is volue of 83
n assumedthat the
rrrespondingto the c 0.8
en by equation7.4.
rnt advancingfrom q,
heat aheadof the 3 o.o

o t* = 0.5
to the steadystate, o
i5
hasbeendescribed E 0.4
o
rd the heat storage E
ing an approximate I o.z Dottcd line is from originol
equotion 7,2'l
the elementis cal-
m materialbalance
0 0.s 1.0 1.5
ed using this tech- HorizontolDistoncex/h
rr 83 set equalto 8. r
'r
Figure 7.35 Effect of Parameter 83 on Shape of Interface
rt on 83; this is de- rl
for the transienttemperatureprofile aheadof an advancingfront that were madein ll

i similar to thoseof \
Chapter 2. Figure 2.8 showsthat the approachto the steadystate increasesfor {
sed. This tendency
smallervaluesof a. Smallvaluesof a alsogive largervaluesof B: in Figure 7.35. F
rves shown in Fig- rl
, a constantdimen-
Figure2.8 showsthat the approachto the steady-state heatequilibriumahead
of an advancingfront is a function of U2tla.For a giventime, /, this approachis less
r
for largervaluesof a; theselargervaluesof a correspondto smallervaluesof .B3. il
equation7.21;this tl
Thus for a given value of /* the degreeof heat penetration(i.e. the fraction of the
advancinginterface xl
from the improved

steadystatevaluewhich is achieved)will tend to be lessthe largerthe valueof a or c{
'ith the calculations the smallerthe value of B:. s
rl
This explainsthe effect of B: on the position of the interfacecurvesin Fig- u
ure 7.35.The smallerthe valueof B: the farther awaythe heatpenetrationfrom the I
,I
steadystatevalue.As a result there is a lower drainagerate while the heat bank rI
aheadof the front is building. Largevaluesof ,B3correspondto the casewherethe

permeabilityis large comparedto the thermal diffusivity. In this circumstancea
steadystateheat distribution is achievedrapidly and only a very thin layer of heated
oil drains,but it drains quickly becauseof the favorablepermeability(and/orhigh
gravity,high head,low viscosity,and so on). High valuesof ,B3result in relatively
thin layersof rapidly-flowingmobileoil whereaslow valuesof ,B3resultin the flow of
thick layers.Considerable time is requiredfor a thick flowing layerto becomeestab-
lishedbecauseof the need to build up the heat bank beyondthe advancingfront.
The buildup of the heat bank takes longerin the lower part of the reservoir
becausethe frontal advancerate is slower there and for a given time U2tfais lower
(Figure 2.8). As a result, for the calculationwhere the deviationfrom the steady
stateis included(Figure7.34)comparedto that whereit is not (Figure7.4),the ad-
vanceof the interfaceis slowernear the baseof the reservoirthan it is at the top. It
will be notedin Figure 7.34 that initially the steamchamberdoesnot advanceinto
|ell the reservoirat the bottom; it overridesat the top without steampenetratingto the
Drainage Chap.7 Avoidingthe Steady-stateHeat-distributionAssumption 329

AthabascaCrude; 300cs at 1000C; 10 cs at 2OOoC Coid ---. C
q = 0.069mzlday; ReservoirTemperature 12 oC a=38
Parameteris kh
Paramelef 6 Er
in darcy metres
an darcy neinla
20
(f) (')
dl co
c.)
=
= -(u 1n
>10
1oo oc 3oo
steam
r#fierature
Figure 7.36 Effect of SteamTemperatureand kh on 83 LloydminslerTy;r
o = 0Gtr
productionwell.l1This is reminiscentof the behaviorpredictedby van Lookeren's
theorydescribedin chapter 4 (seeFigures4.29 an44.30).The phenomenonshown
for earlytimesin Figure7.34, andwhich would be evenmoreevidentif the valueof
83 had beensmaller,occurseventhoughit is assumedthat initially the entireverti-
cal plane abovethe productionwell is at steamtemperature.The flow of draining (9
oil preventsthe advanceof the steamdownwards. o
Values of the Parameter83

9ro
Figures7.36,7.37,and 7.38 give valuesof -83as a function of steamtemperature
and the productkh for three different crude oils using typical valuesof a and rn.
Valuesof 83 for a whole rangeof situationscan be estimatedfrom thesediagrams
by interpolation.
ttThe theory
describeddoesnot allow for steambeing introduced at a higher pressurethan
the draining oil. In practicethe steamchambercould be forced to the productionwell more rapidly
by either increasingthe steaminjection pressureor by lowering the pressurewithin the production
well. Strategiessuchas this are desirablebecausethey make the wholedrainageheadavailablemore Heat Penetr
rapidly.
Also there is a needto allow for the resistanceto radial f low in the immediatevicinity of the Figure7.39:
productionwell; this too requiresan increasein the pressuredifferencebetweenthe injectorand the a casein\.ol
producer.Another factor which requiresan increasein the pressuredifferenceis the resistanceto ure 7.12.it $
the radial flow of steamaround the injector.Neverthelessthere remainsthe conceptof the continu-
what lower.1
ous steam-assisted gravity drainagewith the productionof oil controlledso that oil is withdrawn at
a rate equalto that of the drainagearound the perimeterof the chamberwithout allowinglive steam
The rez
to bypassin excessivequantities.This can also be looked upon as the productionof oil from below is lower thar
an expandingsteam (gas) cap without allowing the coning or, perhapsmore accurately,cresting '-
I hls lt
of steam. the initial renr
330 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Avoidingthe

2oooc C o l dL a k eC r u d e ;l o o c s a t l o o o C ; 6 c s a t 2 o o
oC
2tc q = o.oo9m2/day; ReservoirTemperature oC
12
Parameteris kh
in darcymetres
20
(f)
(D
(!)
*=tF^"'*
100 200 300
Figure 7.37 Effect of SteamTempera- Ir
oC
SteamTemperature ture and kh on Bs lt
r{
nB, LloydminsterTypeCrude; 30cs at 1OOo C; 3.5 at 2OO oC
"s
o = 0.069m27day;ReservoirTemperature= 12oC il
ed by van Lookeren's q
i
e phenomenon shown tl
evidentif the valueof ltl
20 tI
[,
tially the entireVerti- ill
The flow of draining tf
(9
dl ltl
ru
r(
rr
9ro --- Parameteris kh
il!
rd
of steamtemperature
ll valuesof a and Z1q.
10 in darcymetres
I
i{
from thesediagrams ril
200 300 Figure 7.38 Effect of SteamTempera-

at a higher pressurethan oC
rductionwell more rapidly SteamTemperature ture and kh on Bz
ure within the production
rnageheadavailablemore Heat Penetration as a Function of Distance Along Interface
immediatevicinity of the Figure 7.39 showsthe interfacepositionscalculatedusing the sameapproachfor

t*een the injectorand the a caseinvolvinga confinedwell. Although the curvesare similar to thoseof Fig-
:renceis the resistance to ure 7.12,it will be found, on carefulexamination,that the productionrate is some-
heconceptof the continu- what lower, particularlyinitially.
so that oil is withdrawnat
ithout allowinglive steam
The reasonfor the lower rate is that the heatpenetrationbeyondthe interface
rductionof oil from below is lower than that correspondingto the steadystate.l2The fraction of the steady-
more accurately,cresting r2Thisis particularly true
near the start where it is assumedthat the reservoiris cold beyond
the initial verticalhot olane.
y Drainage Chap.7 Avoidingthe Steady-stateHeat-distributionAssumption 331

o
0-8 a
.G a
CE
o o
(}r
tG 0.6 --
g
a
o
t, o
a
G 0.4 a
() !
E
o
C
o
a
g
a
E
o
0 0,2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Horizontaldistance
fuh
Figure 7.39 Positionof Interfacefor a Confined Well
from the nen
stateheatpenetrationthat is achievedis plottedagainstthe verticalpositionon the 7.34.After th
interfacefor a dimensionless time of 0.3 and for l, = 8 in Figure 7.40. exceedsthe n
The fraction of the steady-stateheat penetrationachievedis above0.8 over ized that duri
most of the interfaceand is muchlower near the well. It is this deviationfrom the drainagerate
steady-stateheat penetrationthat makesthe drainagerate somewhatlessthan that curve for the r
predictedby the earlier equations. larities in thc
Figure 7.41 comparesthe drainageratespredicted from the earlier equations calculation.
with thosecalculatedfrom the curvesin Figure 7.39.The three dotted curves in
this diagramare the sameas thosein Figure 7.13.The solid curve showsthe rate Predicted Ol
tr The steamcc
o
matedusingt
E 100
In gena
o
tr
t80 1. The hea
.U 2. The hea
o
r60 p€ratun
o This as
IE
@+o actuall-
3. The hea
t
t6
o
calcula
620 4. The hc
o method
bs0 Figure 7.40 Heat Penetration Along ttlt is rc|l
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 the Interface as Percent of Steady (T^ Tn)/lTs'
-
Vertical Height Along Interface y/h State:,* : 0.3; 83 : 8 with the oil bcy
332 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Avoiding the S

*
Q :,/Z
Originaltheory
a
o
(U
TandrainQ* : y't.s
E _----*_
o \'----
ED{ ^
\r.. Tandrainwith
E depletion
G
o
o
v,
o
c Nonsteady-state
theory
-9
v,
c
withB, : A
o
-E
o
0
12 1.4 0 0.5 1.0 +
DimensionlessTime rl
Figure 7.41 Comparisonof PredictedProductionRates {

lr
from the newer theory. It startsmuch lower and then reachesthe level predictedby I
tical positionon the
ure 7.40.
7.34. After this, it fallsbecauseof depletion.Although the solidcurvein Fig,neT.41 I
l
exceedsthe rate predictedby equation7.35aoverpart of the range,it shouldbe real- q
rd is above0.8 over
; deviationfrom the
ized that during this period,the reservoiris lessdepletedbecauseof the earlierlow r
drainage rate. If the curves had been plotted againstthe fractional recovery, the (
en'hatlessthan that curvefor the new theorywould havefallen belowthe other throughout.The irregu- ,l
larities in the curve from the new theory are due to instabilitiesin the methodof
he earlierequations
reedotted curvesin
calculation. x
d
q
r{
urve showsthe rate PredictedOil-Steam Ratios
I!
The steamconsumptionfor the processesdescribedin this chaptermay be esti- ri
matedusingthe equationsdevelopedin Chapter2. i
In general,steamis required to provide the following:
1. The heat to raise the steamchamberfrom Ta to Ts.

2. The heat required to raise the produced oil from Zn to the production tem-
perature. It may be assumedthat this is the sameas the steamtemperature.
This assumptionis somewhatpessimisticbecausethe oil leavingthe systemis
actuallybelow the steamtemperature.13
3. The heat lossesto the overburdenabove the steamchamber.These may be
calculatedusingequation2.28.
4. The heat in the reservoir beyond the advancing front. An approximate
method of evaluatingthis is to assumethat it is equal to the heat loss to the
eat Penetration Along 13Itis relatively simple to show that the mixing temperatureof the draining oil is given by
s Percent of Steady (T^ Til/Qs - D : ml@ + L). It seemslikely that the draining condensatewill also intermingle
-
B.=8 with the oil beyondthe interfaceand reachthis sametemperature.
Drainage Chap.7 Avoidingthe Steady-stateHeat-distributionAssumption 333

overburden.Alternatively,equation2.48 can be employedusing an average
valuefor U. A more accuratemethodinvolvesthe useof the heat-penetration
function describedby Butler (1984).It will be found that whicheverof the
The heat to the reservoirincreasesrapidly at first as heat penetratesthe side
o
approximatelythe same. !
a
The heatlossesfor the unconfinedwell of Figure7.34 areplottedagainsttime a

a
in Figure 7.42. !g
In this diagramthe cumulativeheatrequirementsare convertedto dimension- 9
a
c
lessvaluesby meansof the following equation: a
E
u.
cl
qi= (7.s0)
h2pC(75 - Tp)
In usingthis equation,the value of pC shouldbe for the reservoiror for the over-
burden, as appropriate.In Figure 7.39 the curve for the cumulativeheat to the
chambergivesthe total heatto the chamberplusthe producedoil if the valueof pC
is for the fully saturatedreservoir. tl3rrr
The curvefor the chambermay alsobe lookedon asa curvefor the cumulative Thrc\c
producedoil in appropriateunits. It is the integralof the production-ratecurve. Srstel
The heat to the reservoirincreasesrapidly at first as heat penetratesthe side markedll' and
of the initial hot plane.The rate of heat supplyto the reservoirdecreasesafter this chamber.Thc
initial period and then growsas the extentof the heatedinterfaceincreases. increases.
The heat requirementsfor the confinedwell of Figure 7.39 areshownin Fig- A comp
ure 7.43 as thinner lines; the thicker lines are for the unconfinedwell and are ure 7.44.
taken from Figure 7.42. In this fi
Lines for the confined well deviate starting at the point where the steam that is usedto
chambermeetsthe one growingfrom the neighboringwell. At this point the rates for the confin
of increaseof the heat loss to the overburdenand to the reservoirdecreasevery
Effect of Ste
Table7.-lshor
performanceI
o
=
F t'o OJ NA
o F
o
.9 Lrl
tr
o
F
o tr n4
tr
E o.s Q)
o
o
' )p na
v,z
=
:l
DimensionlessTime
Figure7.42 Production HeatDistribution
RateandCumulative D
334 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Avoiding the Stl

d using an average
he heat-penetration
*'hicheverof the
penetratesthe side
o
:
F 1.0
plottedagainsttime o
o
g
c
ertedto dimension- .9
ao
c
-E o.t
o
(7.s0)
'oir or for the over-
ulative heat to the 0 0.5 1.0
ril if the valueof pC Dimensionless Time
Figure 7.43 Effect of Well Confinement on Cumulative Heat Requirements
: for the cumulative Thicker Lines are for Unconfined Systemand Thinner Lines are for Confined
rction-ratecurve. System.
penetratesthe side markedly and proportionatelymore so than the decreasein the growth of the
decreases after this chamber.The net result is that the thermal efficiencyfor the confined well case
ace increases. increases.
9 are shownin Fig- A comparisonof the thermal efficiencyfor the two casesis shown in Fig-
rfined well and are ure 7.44.
In this figure the thermal efficiency representsthe fraction of the steamheat
rt where the steam that is usedto heat the steamchamberand product.The efficiencyis much larger
this point the rates for the confinedcase;the effect is very significant.
rvoir decreasevery
Effect of Steam Pressure
Table7.4 showsthe effect of varying the operatingsteampressureon the predicted

I
performance.In eachof the three calculationsshown,the reservoirwasassumedto
I
I
) o
c B3:8 a-
Confined w:2h
.Q) u.o
I .9
Heatin I LrJ
erburdenl
-41I E
E 0.4
L
Q)
Unconfined
II F
c)
II .F
o
o .2
,l E
1.0
0
00.5 1 Figure 7.44 Effect of Well Confine-
bution Dimensionless
Time %a t /h2 ment on Thermal Efficiency
Drainage Chap.7 Avoidingthe Steady-stateHeat-distributionAssumption 33s

TABLE 7,4 Effectof Steam Pressureon the Performanceand ThermalEfficiencyof an Unconfined 3.55MPa (t
HorizontalWell
steadystatc I
Steampressure,MPa 0.45 2.0 5.7 Cold Lr
Steamtemperature,"C 148 213 272 senso that tl
Yearsto produce 92 m3fm 8.7 3.8 1A
quirementn
Averagerate, m3/m D 0.029 0.068 0.104 field. In or&
Thermal efficiency 0.37 0.49 0.56 meability'pr
Oil-steamratio 0.37 0.36 0.34 field pressun
Bz 4 8 1,2 In ttrc I
(from Butler 1985) Figure 7.4fl
lowed.Durin
Figure 7.{6 s
havethe propertiesshown at the bottom of the table;thesepropertiescorrespond ment for c
to a reservoirsimilar to that at Cold Lake. within the rq
The effect of operatingat higher steampressuresis to raisethe temperatureof in Figure 7.{
the steamchamber;this allowsthe oil to drain morerapidly.Becauseof the shorter photograpts
time involvedin the operationat the highestpressure,the thermal efficiencyis also ure 7.46 is so
highest,i.e., a smallerfraction of the injectedheat is lost to the overburdenand the fingering
reservoirbeyondthe steamchamber. The wavy nI
There is, however,a counteractingeffect that offsets the improved efficiency which drew t
at high pressure.This resultsfrom the increasedheatneededto raisethe systemto and is not si
steamtemperature;this is higher simplybecausethe steamtemperatureis higher. It was fr
The net result is that the overall oil-steamratios in Table7.4 are almostindepen- preheatingrl
dent of the steampressureemployed.There may, however,be significant economic adjustmentit
advantagesin operating at higher pressuresbecauseof the faster production that rate and thc 1
is obtained. mentaldata.
Calculationswere basedon following parameters:
SteamQuality = 9.7 P,""= 2040kgl^'
Tn = 6"C Crock= 963J/kg"C
H =22m Cor: 2093Jlkg'C
d = 0.35 Kot : 1.73J/s m"C
AS, = 9.61 pos : 2400kg/-'
k : 0.5 x 10-12m2 Coa: 837J/kg"C
K,", = 1.3 /s m "C z = 100cs at 99"C
SAGD RESULTSFROM SCALED LABORATORYRESERVOIRMODELS OPERATING

AT BOTH HIGH AND LOW PRESSURES
Chung and Butler (1989b)describeexperimentalstudiesof the Steam-Assisted
Gravity DrainageProcesswhich were carriedout in two-dimensional verticallabo-
ratory scaledmodels.Someof the experimentswere carried out with steampres-
suresnear to atmosphericand others,using a strongerapparatus,with a pressureof
336 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 SAGD Res.*ts

Eiencvof an Unconfined 3.55 MPa (507 psia). The resultswere comparedwith predictionsfrom the non-
steadystate theory which was describedpreviously (Butler 1985).
5.7 Cold Lake Bitumen was employedand the experimentalconditionswere cho-
272 sen so that the value of ,83would be the samein the model as in the field. This re-
2.4 quirement meansthat a coarserpacking is required in the model than that in the
0.104 field. In order to model the samefield conditions it is necessaryto use higher per-
0.56 meability packing for low pressureexperimentsthan for ones carried out at the
0.34 field pressureand temperature.
l2 In the first experimentsa preheatedvertical injection well was employed(see
Figure 7.45) and steamwas circulated within the well before production was al-
lowed. During the production period steamwas injected at the top of the reservoir.
Figure 7.46 showsphotographsof the steamchamberat various stagesof develop-
ropertiescorrespond ment for one of the experimentsand Figure 7.47 showsthe position of isotherms
within the reservoirfor the sametimes. It is interestingto comparethe photographs
e the temperatureof in Figure 7.46 for a steamchamberspreadingfrom a central hot well to the initial
rcauseof the shorter photographsin Figure 7.15 which show a rising chamber. The interface in Fig-
malefficiencyis also /,
ure 7.46 is stableand advancesin a steadyand systematicmanner as contrastedto
the overburdenand {
the fingering displacementwhich occurs above the rising chamberin Figure 7.15.
The wavy nature of the isothermsin Figure 7.47is causedby the computerprogram 4
improved efficiency
o raisethe systemto
which drew the contours from the limited temperaturemeasurementinformation ;'{
and is not significant. r{
mperatureis higher. It was found necessaryto modify the theory slightly to allow for the reservoir
are almostindepen- preheatingwhich occurred during the initial steamcirculationperiod. With this
significanteconomic adjustmentit was found that the theoretical predictions of both the oil production
ster production that rate and the position of the interface were in excellentagreementwith the experi-
,
mentaldata. i
i
kg/m'
l-l
/kg'C lff
"i
fkg'c
I/sm'C
kgl^'
lkg"C
s at 99'C
)ELS OPERATING
'
the Steam-Assisted
nsionalvertical labo-
HORIZONTAL Figure 7.45 PreheatedVertical Steam
out with steampres- PRODUCTION
WELL Injector usedin Model Experiments
us,with a pressureof (from Chung and Butler 1989b)
y Drainage Chap.7 SAGD Resultsfrom ScaledLaboratoryReservoirModels

*S min. 60 mln*
9S nin. 1P0min.
Figurt 7f
Figure 7.46 Photographsof SteamChamberDevelopingAbout a PreheatedVertical In-
Figurc 7.4
iectionWell in a Low PressureExperimentwith a TransparentCell Wall (from Chungand Chungend
Butler 1989b)
The oil production rate is compared to the theoretical predictions in This ga

Figure7.48.Two theoreticalcurvesare shown.The dottedcurve is the theoretical pilot at AG
curve which is obtainedif it is assumedthat the reservoiris all at the initial tem- facility consis
peratureat the start of production.The solid curve makes an allowancefor the In the steam
preheatingbeforeproduction.Figure 7.49 shows,for the sameexperiment,a com- wards from tl
parisonof the position of the interfaceas determinedfrom photographswith the well in eachp
predictedvalues.The agreementwith the measureddata is satisfactory.
In experimentsof this type the oil-steamratiosare far lower than thosewhich o1:
would be found in the field becauseof the excessiveheatlossesfrom the largever-
tical surfacesof the two-dimensionalmodel.It is howeverquite practicableto pre-
dict the oil-steamratiosfor the field situationand examplesof this are given in the
o,
paper(Chungand Butler 1989b). qt
A similar agreementbetweentheoreticalpredictionsand experimentaldata
e,200
was alsofound for the high pressureexperiments.Figure 7.50showsa comparison c

o
for a high pressurerun. o
Experimentswere also conductedusing multi-well modelsat both high and !t

o 100 Co5 tr.-r
low pressures and againthe resultswere similar.Figure 7.51showsisothermsfrom tt
a high pressure model experimentin which five parallelhorizontalwell pairs were o

modeled. The model representsa two-dimensionalsectionthroughthe reservoir.In
theseexperiments the steamwas injectedfrom five injectionwells eachof which
was locatedimmediatelyabovea producer.
338 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 SAGD Reglte

lO min. 20 min. 60 min.
T
{1
H
120min. 90 min. l2O min q

r
reheatedVerticalIn- Figure 7,47 Temperature Distribution within the Reservoir for the Experiment of
Figure 7.42. Isotherms are Labelled in "C. Cell Dimensionsare Marked in cm (from ll
lall (from Chungand h
Chung and Butler 1989b)
tr
c
etical predictions in This geometricarrangementis similar to that employedin the steamchamber :u
urve is the theoretical pilot at AOSTRA's UndergroundTest Facility (Edmundset al. 1987).This test
1
all at the initial tem- facility consistsof tunnelsimmediatelybelow a sectionof the Athabascareservoir. t
In the steamchamberpilot three pairs of parallel deviatedwells are drilled, up- ft

an allowancefor the ll
re experiment,a com- wards from the tunnels and then horizontallyinto the reservoir.The production
photographs with the well in eachpair lies near to the baseof the reservoirand its steaminjectionwell is
,atisfactory.
Scaled time, years
ru'er than thosewhich o .r 5
sesfrom the largever- 300 .15 C
P.sdicled and expetimental
rite practicableto pre- tt\.oor'
resulls tot a preheated E
v€rtical inleclor
rf this are given in the a E
gt
o
ot ..?
rnd experimentaldata t
200
i0 showsa comparison c o'.. .9

.9 ,' \'.....
o .i\ o \ ... !
' o
rdelsat both high and T' 'loo
o j
i
; \ \ oN'
t - \ - - - . _ .
o.o5 E
cold f.acture \ a
showsisothermsfrom CI
a o
izontalwell pairs were o t
-9
(! Figure 7.48 Predicted and Experi-
roughthe reservoir.In I
mental Oil Production Rates for a Low
o(h
rn wells eachof which 2 Pressure Experiment (from Chung and
Time,hours Butler 1989b)
ity Drainage ChaP.7 SAGD Resultsfrom ScaledLaboratoryReservoirModels 339

E
o
+i
E
.9 ro
o
I
Figure 7.49 A Comparisonof the Pre-

dicted and ExperimentalPositionsof
51015 the Interface (from Chung and Butler
Half well spacing,cm 1989b)
parallel and slightly above.The project was adoptedby an industry steeringcom-

mittee following a proposalmadeby the author to AOSTRA in 1984(Butler 1984).
The project has been constructed and operated and it has been very successful;
there are plans to developan expandedproject.
One of the factors studied in the laboratorywork was the effect of the steam
chambersinterfering with each other before they grew to the top of the reservoir.
This can happenif the wellsare locatedwith a closehorizontalspacing.The ability
to drill closelyspacedwells economicallymight possiblybe the majorjustification
for a commercialtunnel-basedbitumen recoveryproject. Projectswith large spac-
ingswould be more economicalusingwells drilled from the surface.la
o
19 zoo a
G
a aaaa-
a
.9 .\.
o t t.\.'
= a
€ loo
o-.o Figurr
o
m e n t .!
o Figure 7.50 A Comparison of the Pre- Separe
dicted and ExperimentalOil Produc- Steam
tion Ratesfor a High Pressure Chamb
123 Experiment (from Chung and Butler Exccp
Time,hours 1989b) (from (
toThereis doubt as to whether the cost of developingundergroundmine-workingsas a base two alternate es
for the constructionof horizontal wells is economicallyjustifiable. A significant part of the mine refugeroom to br
cost is the provisionof safeworking conditions,escaperoutesand the like, for the undergroundfa- the mine appro-
cility in the event of a well failure or of a steamor hot oil leak. At the AOSTRA projectthere are surfacewhich ha
340 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Oil Production t

10min.
, Comparisonof the Pre-

rrimental Positionsof
from Chung and Butler
;
dustry steeringcom- {
n 1984(Butler 1984). I{
,€en very successful;
{
e effect of the steam
r
ill
h
top of the reservoir. 60 min.
s
I spacing.The ability n
re major justification
pcts with large spac-
i
urface.to
I
i
q
. 90 min.
Figure 7.51 TemperatureDistribution for a High Pressure5 Well-pair Experi-
ment. Steamis InjectedJustAbove Each of the Five ProductionWellsThrough
\ Comparisonof the Pre- SeparateInjectors.The Upper Part of the Figure ShowsFive SeparateRising
perimentalOil Produc- Steam Chambers.At 60 Minutes These Have CoalescedTo Form a Separate
a High Pressure Chamber.By 90 Minutes EssentiallyAll of the Model is Saturatedwith Steam
rom Chung and Butler Except for Colder SpotsBetweenthe ProductionWellsand the Ends of the Cell
(from Chung and Butler 1989b).
mine-workingsas a base two alternate escaperoutes throughout; these are based upon dual mine shafts. There is also a
nificant part of the mine refugeroom to be occupiedby personneltrappedwithin the mine. A major factor that detractsfrom
:. for the undergroundfa- the mine approachis the substantialimprovementin the cost of drilling horizontalwells from the
OSTRA project there are surfacewhich has occurred during recentyears.
ry Drainage Chap.7 Oil Productionafter StoppingSteam lnjection 341

Scaled time, years OIL PRODUCTION A
12
200
E In the steam-
o of the prodtjt1
3
) rso )'a' this operation
..A^ A ot
6_ ; .â ix_r the rocks u ith
. ,,
|E
at
A rL ^ \i^
e---r 70
^ steam is produ
.9
S roo " . t ] ] . _ort -a-, - - Aa a o boundaries.11
.9 " a. r . [- a o.os! The pru
o Figure 7.52 Oil ProductionRatesfor
a t -''! that in a confi
3uo
,a."o,, = High PressureExperimentswith
Well spacing 11.7 cm .. " u ! mately the tim
o Varied Horizontal SpacingsBetween
a.o.! -g the adjacent r
o 'a'a-rr_e. AdjacentWells.The Curve for 11.'7cm
o lowing the ces
sO Spacingis for the Experimentwhich is
Depictedin Figure7.47(from Chung fore, altho,'gh
Time,hours and Butler 1989b) production ral
of 60, 90. and
Curvesshor tl
E Formatlon lleight 2O m
bers interming
o
.} ,oo
E
Wsll Spacing 67 m
.9 150
(,
!
9 roo
IL
o
.z
-g 50 Figure 7.53 PredictedCumulative Oil
tr Productionfor the Field at AOSTRA's
-
o UTF Site for VariousHorizontal Well
4 Spacings;FormationHeight 20 m (from
Time, years Chung and Butler 1989b)
-._Q?tq!9rnce*a|llgjlgamrchimbers occurred in the experiment depicted in

Figure7.51.This coalescence did not resultin a reducedrateof productionper well
ashad beenfeared.In fact the experimentindicateda higherrate of productionper
well after the interferencethan from wells which were more widely separatedfor
i
\ the sametime in the experiment.
Figure7.52showsthe rate of productionas a function of time for variouswell
spacings. In eachexperimentit took aboutoneyearof time (scaledto the Athabasca
reservoirconditions)for the steamchamberto reachthe top of the reservoir.How-
ever for the most closelyspacedwells represented by the solid circlesthe rate was
somewhathigher and the peak rate which correspondsto the chambersreaching
the top of the reservoirwas achievedearlierthan in the other experiments.
The cumulativeproductionfor the Athabascafield conditionswhich would
be predictedfrom theseexperimentsis shownin Figure 7.53.This diagramcorre-
spondsto a steamtemperatureof 200"C (i.e. steamat 1.6 MPa or 232 psia).
342 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Recovervof Hg

OIL PRODUCTION
AFTERSTOPPINGSTEAM INJECTION
In the steam-assisted gravity drainageprocess,it is possible,toward the latter part
of the productivelife, to continueproductionof oil without steaminjection.During
this operation,the pressurein the steamchamberfalls as the systemcools.Heat in
the rockswithin the steamchamberis transferredto waterin the pores,and further
steamis produced.This heat is transferredfrom within the steamchamberto the
boundaries,whereit heatsthe oil and promotesgravity drainage.
The processhas been studiedby Fergusonand Butler (198s).They showed
I ProductionRatesfor that in a confineddevelopment,the steaminjectionshouldbe stoppedat approxi-
.xperiments with
matelythe time that the adjacentsteamchambersmeeteachother halfwaybetween
al Spacings Between
The Curve for 11.7cm the adjacentwells.Under thesecircumstances, the productionof oil obtainedfol-
LeExperimentwhich is lowing the cessationof steaminjectionis approximately507oof that producedbe-
tre 7.47 (from Chung fore, although the rate drops off fairly rapidly. Figure 7.54 showsthe predicted
DI productionrate as a function of time for a Cold Lake reservoirwith half-spacings
of 60, 90, and 120m. The rate risesrapidly and rhenfalls off with time. The three
curvesshowthe rate predictedif the steamis shut off at the time the steamcham-
bers intermingle (the confinement time). ;
tl
0 200 ;u
ll
5 150
rt
IJ F
F r{
(r I
100
z \w= 120m Figure 7.54 Predictedproduction $t
I 90\
:dictedCumulativeOil
F Rate for ParallelHorizontal Wells in ilrt
he Field at AOSTRA's 50 Cold Lake Reservoir
rious Horizontal Well
:) il
Well Length 1000m; ReservoirHeight fr
rtion Height 20 m (from 30 m; Injectionto Time of Confine- ll
E
:r 1989b) o- ment; ParameterW : Well Half- I
12 16 20 ?4 28 Spacingin Meters (from Fergusonand
YEARS Butler 1988)
)erimentdepictedin o
f productionper well o.z+
Q W=60m
ateof productionper E
widely separatedfor = o.20
lrj
120
time for variouswell fi o.re
J
rledto the Athabasca
o o.lz
f the reservoir.How- trJ
I circlesthe rate was P o.oe Figure 7.55 Predicted Oil-Steam
e chambersreaching E Ratio for Parallel Horizontal Wells in
r experiments. j o.oe Cold Lake Reservoir
Reservoir Height 30 m; Injection to
rditionswhich would l
This diagramcorre-
(J oo' Time of Confinement; Parameter
8121620 ?4 28 W : Well Half-Spacing in Meters
a or 232psia). TIME (yeors) (from Ferguson and Butler 1988)
y Drainage Chap.7 Recoveryof Heavy Oil above Water 343

0.3
J o
6 9F
IInjectionfl
ifl
E =o . e Figure 7.56 Cumulative Oil-Steam 1((
=Ft Ratio versusRecoveryfor Parallel
)a
() STEAMINJECTION Horizontal Wells in Cold Lake Reser-
P R E S S U RI E
OMPo voir ReservoirHeight 30 m; Parame-
0.1 ters: Injection Time as Percentof /., \
o 23 50 75 100 Half-well Spacingin Meters (from Produlr
( %
R E C O V E R Y o f m o b i l eo i l )
Figure7.55.In eachcase,the COSR increases

Fergusonand Butler 1988)
The cumulative oil-steam ratio is shown for the same three cases in ry u
>
rapidlyafter the steamis shutoff; oil
is producedduring this period without the further consumptionof steam.Higher
oil-steamratiosare obtainedwith the closerwell spacingsbecauseof the morerapid
production and reducedtime for heat loss. The generallylow level of oil-to-steam Y,/,/,
-<<
ratiosthat are shownin Figure 7.55and 7.56reflect the choiceof conditionsused
' for the case-in particular, an extremelyhigh steam-injection pressure(10 MPa)
3.
with its associated extremetemperaturei:fftl. It is thoughtthit muchmore eco-
nomic OSRswould have beenfound if a lower injectiontemperaturehad been as-
sumed.Nevertheless, similar trendswould be expected.
In Figure7.56 the cumulativeoil-steamratio is plottedagainstthe percentre-
coveryof mobile oil (the mobile oil lying abovethe productionwells).Curves are
shown for the samethree well spacingsand also for the time at which the steam
ry Figrrt 1
injectionwas stopped.This time is expressedas a percentageof the time of con- an Aclit
finement.For eachwell spacing,the overallrecoveryincreases asthe time of steam-
ing increases, and the cumulativeoil-steamratio risesto rather flat maxima in the
vicinity of t" = 1; at this point the recoveryof the mobile oil is about75Vo. top of the f
a growiry t
higherthan
RECOVERYOF HEAVY OIL ABOVE WATER throttling t
The s
The thicker conventionalheavy oil reservoirsin Saskatchewan and Alberta fre- gramsin Fi
quentlycontainsubstantialaquifersat the base.This water tendsto limit the appli-
after a tirr
cabilityof conventionalsteamrecoverytechniquesbecauseof the extra heatload it
Up until t[
creates.If steam is introduced above reservoir pressureit tends to flow into the
chamberhr
water layer and excessiveheat can be lost. Similarly cold water may be drawn to-
ids have bo
wards the production well and consumevaluableheat.
As th
Conventionalcold production in thesereservoirsis usually not economicalbe-
producedfl
causeconing of water to the production wells results rapidly in excessivewater-oil
allow oil al
ratios. The use of SAGD to produce these reservoirscan be attractive becauseof
be controll
the possibilityof controllingthe pressurewithin the productionwell to be almost
aquifer.uo
equal to that within the aquifer. Under these conditions the oil can be produced
the genera
without drawing much water, other than the condensatefrom the steam,into the
aroundthc
producingwell. The processis shownschematicallyin Figure 7.57.
its radialfl
As is shown in the first diagram of Figure 7.57, (or as was discussedon
trol stratq
pages322 to 325 for an intermediateelevation)steamis injected into a well at the
longer eco
34 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Recoveryd
Overburden
InjectionWell
'umulative
Oil-Steam 1. Stream
.ecoveryfor Parallel Lines
lls in Cold Lake Reser-
Height30 m; Parame-
Trme as Percentof 1.,
ing in Meters(from
Butler1988)
ame three cases in Underburden

: steam is shut off; oil
ion of steam.Higher
ruseof the more rapid
, level of oil-to-steam
ce of conditionsused
)n pressure(10 MPa)
that muchmore eco-
)€raturehad been as-
gainstthe percentre-
on wells).Curves are
I
e at which the steam Figure 7.57 Diagram ShowingProductionof ConventionalHeavy Oil which Lies above
e of the time of con- an Active Aquifer using Downward Steamfloodingand SteamAssistedGravity Drainage
' asthe time of steam-
er flat maximain the
top of the formation.In the first phaseof the processoil is displaceddownwardsby
is about 75Vo.
a growing steamchamber.During this phasethe steampressureis substantially
higherthan the reservoirpressureand the productionwell pressureis controlledby
throttling to preventwater from the aquiferflowing to the well.
The steamzone advancesdownwardsas shown in the secondand third dia-
r.an and Alberta fre- gramsin Figure 7.57. It advancesmore quickly alongthe central streamline, and
ndsto limit the appli- after a time of perhapsoneyear steamarrivesin the vicinity of the productionwell.
the extra heatload it Up until this the producedoil and the accompanyingcondensatefrom the steam
:nds to flow into the chamberhavebeenflowing throughrelativelycold reservoirand the producedflu-
ter may be drawn to- ids havebeencold.
As the steamchamberapproachesthe production well the temperatureof the
lh not economicalbe- producedfluid risesrapidly.At this point the productionwell shouldbe throttled to
in excessive water-oil allow oil and water to be producedwithout steam.The steaminjectionrate should
attractivebecauseof be controlledso that the pressurewithin the steamchamberbalancesthat of the
:ion well to be almost aquifer.Under theseconditions,the injectionwell pressurewill be somewhatabove
: oil can be produced the general steamchamber pressurebecauseof the near well bore pressuredrop
m the steam,into the around the injectionwell, and the productionwell pressurewill be lower becauseof
= 7. 5 7 . its radialflow pressuredrop. The SAGD processphaseis continued,usingthis con-
as was discussedon trol strategy,as shown in the fourth diagramof the figure, until the OSR is no
:ted into a well at the lonsereconomic.
ry Drainage Chap.7 Recoveryof Heavy Oil above Water 345

*'
a)a
E:6
E};
coc
F;$
o Aa
x.: i
rr.l > 9
=-s
:ot
€E9
I I=
=Xts
QE V
';o:
=\.,
-od*
,a7
- aH
y.g a
=o.I
-r'.v
Fi p
-q oray <
rFF
tFgo
oo y/.:
ii.f,^
346
Jtd
F}
9rf
v)J6
F O
E >a
: o€
;t6 dJa
U)E u
!EC)
E}:
\ =!-l
?r CQ
:F:
:E^ ll
E e U
h!= lt
a Aa Y 9,=
sco d
x.: tr
Et;g 6zd il
-;:r!
oXb i{
rI
€ eg
Z'- F = 33 I
9 TB 99; F
=xh Ll
q
oH
It
v q3Q=
cB
tl
rtl
F.vt x- o
'Eoa
i
t,
=15
-o{-
!oF :* } l
@ , Q -
!t
5< E IT
o RoP ooE
; E.E t
:Htrt
{
l
i =x
-J.Y
'Ev FO
-r t 9
oo
< fir 9J
r;{
o d.^
EJ1 i: t=2
S(€oo
Eo9.g u! d
i:/Fn i:s *
]-
].
t-
4
347
The processhasbeenstudiedin a seriesof 12 scaledlaboratorymodelexperi-
mentsby Sugiantoand Butler (1989)and encouragingresultswere obtaineO.Higtr
recoveriesof oil with little water productionother than that of the steamconden-
satewere achieved.
The extrapolatedresults indicated that a typical Lloydminster formation
(14 m thick) shouldproduce over 1.60m3/d (1000B/d) from a horizontal well 500 m
in length.
Studiesof the effectofvarying the verticalelevationof the horizontalproduc-
tion well showedthat satisfactoryoperationcould be achievedwith the welllocated
somewhatabovethe water interface. Howeverwhen this strategyis adoptedthe oil
locatedbetweenthe well and the aquifer can not be producedbecauseit cannot
drain by gravity.[n someexperimentsthe well was locateddeliberatelyat the bot-
tom of the formation and thus at the baseof the aquifer.This arrangementwas
found to give good resultswith little productionfrom the aquiferif the initial pro-
ductionwas throttled to allow displacementof water from around the production
well as oil was forced downwardsby the advancingsteamfront. In this mode of op-
erationthere is little heatingof the aquiferby injectedsteam.
Figures7.58 and 7.59 show the temperaturedistributionsmeasuredduring
two companionexperiments,one without a bottom water layer (seethe left-hand
diagramsin eachof the figures)and one with an activewater level (seethe right-
hand diagrams).In the experimentswith bottomwater,watercould flow freelyinto
and out of the bottom of the model through tubesconnectedto an externalcon-
stantpressurevesselcontainingcold water.By adjustingthe injectionpressurein the Fi3rrr 1
reservoirit was possibleto operatewith little flow of water to or from the model. Half of
It is apparentfrom the position of the isothermsin the two figuresthat the Yang et
operationwith bottom water was conductedwith very little heat passinginto the
bottom water zone. An oil recovery of 87VoOOIP was the highestwhich was slopeis neo
achievedin experimentswithout bottom water. The recoveryachievablewith a reservoir-P
waterzonepresentwassomewhatlessthan that obtainablewith a waterfree system this type.
but satisfactory;the highestrecoveryobtainedwith a bottom waterlayer was797o. The e
The reasonfor the lower oil recoveriesin the experimentswith bottom water was ler to depa
that someoil was forcedinto the water layer. that shoc.n
EFFECTSOF RESERVOIR
HETEROGENEITIES
Scaledmodel studiesof the effect of some reservoir heterogeneitieson the SAGD
processhavebeenreportedby Yangand Butler (1939).They investigated the effects
of reservoirscontaining horizontal layersof material of different permeabilitiesand
also the effect of horizontalshalebarriers.
When a higherpermeabilitylayer lies near the baseof the reservoirthere is a
tendencyfor the steamchamberto underminethe layer above as by the photo-
graphsin Figure 7.60.Howeverheat is transferredupwardsinto the lower perme-
ability layer as the process proceeds and this tend to limit the 'degreeof
undermining.
When a layer of lower permeability lies at the baseof the reservoir then the
interface curves become steeperin the lower permeabilitysection;this steeper
348 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Effects d R

torv model experi-
re obtained. High
lhe steam conden-
minster formation
izontal well 500 m
horizontal produc-
th the well located
is adopted the oil
becauseit cannot
€rately at the bot-
arrangementwas
r if the initial pro-
nd the production
n this mode of op-
measured during It
rsee the left-hand
r el (seethe right- ll
it
ld flow freely into {t
il
r an external con-
I
ion pressurein the Figure 7.60 Positionsof Interface During ScaledVisual Model Experiment with Upper It
: from the model. Half of Model Packedwith 2 mm GlassBeadsand Lower Half with 3 mm Beads(from
ll
Yang and Butler 1989)
o figures that the u
t passinginto the ll
riehestwhich was slopeis neededin orderto accommodate the higherflow from the upperpart of the t
achievablewith a reservoir.Positionsof the interfaceare shownin Figure 7.67for an experimentof il
,t
\\ ater free system this type. t
ter layer was 79Va. The effectof horizontalbarriersin the reservoirwasfound by Yangand But-
bottom water was ler to dependupon the geometryof the particular situation.Shortbarrierssuchas
that shown in the photographsin Figure 7.62 had relativelysmall effects.As the
ties on the SAGD

tisatedthe effects
rermeabilitiesand
eservoirthereis a
as by the photo-
the lower perme- Lowpermeability
belowbrokenline Figure 7.61 Positions of Interface
and highpermeability
above. During Scaled Visual Model Experi-
it the degree of
ment with Upper Half of Model Packed
with 3 mm Glass Beads and Lower
reservoirthen the 0 10 20 Half with 2 mm Beads (from Yang and
'tion: this steeper distancein cm.
Horizontal Butler 1989)
'ainage Chap. 7 Effects of Reservoir Heterogeneities 349

(c) (d) -.Lr
Figure
zontai B:r:x
Figure 7.62 Positions of Interface during Scaled Model Experiment with a short Hori-
zontal Barrier in the Left-Hand Side of the Reservoir (from yang and Butler 19g9)
there qas t
steamchamberreachedthe barrier it spreadunderneath,but heat was also trans- drainage p
ferred through the barrier to the reservoirabove;becauseof this transferredheat from a ner
the oil abovecould continueto drain and the barrier had no long term effect. the produ
Long barriersin somelocations,such as that shown in the photographsin dou nr'rard
Figure 7.63,had only a limited effect. In this experimentboth the oil abovethe
barrier and that belowwereproduced.An importanteffectwasthat heatwastrans- 800
ferred through the baffle and as a result only a small inclinationof the interface
E
abovethe baffle was sufficientto allow productionfrom above.Nevertheless, as 3 soo
may be seenfrom Figure 7.64,the overallproductionwas retardedas comparedto
that in a companionrun without a barrier.
Different resultswere obtainedwith the geometryshown in Figure 7.65 and 8 +oo
:
7.66. rn this experimenta long barrier extendedacrossmost of the width of the
model abovethe injectionand productionwells.A normal steamchamberrose to { zoo
the undersideof the barrier and then spreadsidewaysas if the barrierwerethe top E
o
of the reservoir.when it reachedthe end of the barrier howeverthe drainagepro-
cessstalledand no steamchamberformed in the upper half of the model.The oil
above,although it graduallybecameheated,could not fall downwardsbecause
350 GravityDrainage
Steam-Assisted Chap.7 Formation t
(c) (d)
Figure 7.63 Positions of Interface during Scaled Model Experiment with a Long Hori- u
zontal Barrier in the Right-Hand Side of the Reservoir (from Y4ng and Butler 19_89) ||
I ShortHori-
r 1989)
i
therewasno continuoussteamchamberand no densitydifferenceto allow a gravity I
h
Leat was also trans- drainageprocess.The oil abovethe barrier could be producedby injectingsteam I
from a new well locatedin the upper zoneat the top of the reservoirdirectly above Id
ris transferredheat
,ngterm effect. the producer.With this arrangementthe injectedsteamcould sweepthe heatedoil ir
the photographsin downwardsrelativelyeasily.

r the oil abovethe
hat heatwastrans- r Withoutbarrier
on of the interface = a Withbarrier
e. Nevertheless, as 3 ooo
led as comparedto -
8 qoo
in Figure 7.65 and
o
rf the width of the
m chamberrose to E zoo Figure 7.64 Cumulative Recoveryof
E
,arrierwere the top
o Oil from the Experimentof Figure 7.63
r the drainagepro- Comparedto that from an Experiment
the model.The oil 2 without a Barrier (from Yang and
ownwardsbecause Timein hours Butler 1989)
)rainage Chap.7 Formationof WO Emulsionswithin the Reservoir 351

FORMATIONOF WA
The formatir
tions.The m
cussedbl" Jar
emulsionfan
steamis the o
tumen to sprc
by the condcl
..t For snrd
*a small radiusc
HE supersaturat
oF
F.] b abovethe vq
this supersat
.E; degreeof sry
water to csrd
od)
there is consi
o
+E
densewithort
I
srE emulsion forn
So coolerbiturnc
X=
=# din and Butla
dispersewatcr
-9X they are watd
=v Experim
portedby'Cho
=v
9E
o'.
(1988).Jamal
3F stronglyoil-*r
oo ratios of emut
Htr
mentswhich e
oo
The measure
oo Measurg
2e Butler (1988ar
at both low ar
loF
\o= when there crl
F;X
ing. This is co
5!
.90F sincethere is r
frF
rise into the cr
Figure 7.
ucts from tr*'o
of 153kPa (2
oo both experinr
connater*'ate
that the packi
pressureruns
tively high dur
the steamcha
352
of |l
Formation
FORMATION
OFWO EMULSIONS
WITHINTHERESERVOIR
The formation of water-in-oil emulsionsis very commonin thermal recoveryopera-
tions.The mechanismof formationof emulsionswithin the reservoirhasbeendis-
cussedby Jamaluddinand Butler (1988).They considerthat the main causeof
emulsionformationwithin the reservoirduring recoveryprocesses which involve
steamis the condensationof steamon cooler bitumen surfaces.The tendencyof bi-
tumen to spreadon water surfacescausessmall dropletsof water which are created
by the condensation of steamto becomeburied within the bulk of the bitumen.
For small water droplets to form it is necessary,becauseof the effect of the
small radius of curvature of the droplet on vapour pressure,for the steam to be
99P supersaturated (i.e. the partial pressureof the water vapor needsto be somewhat
oF
rb abovethe vapor pressureof liquid water at the temperatureof the condensate).It is
this supersaturation which providesthe driving force for the emulsification.The
>! degreeof supersaturationwhich can be achieveddependsupon how easyit is for
water to condenseelsewhere.In particular if the reservoir rock is water-wet then
o60
there is considerablewater availablewith a flat surface on which steamcan con-
ha
*E
densewithout droplet formation. From this reasoningit would be expectedthat
aE emulsionformation would be greatestin circumstances where steamcan contact
-9o coolerbitumensurfaceswithout contactingrelativelyflat water surfaces.Jamalud-
!=
9Q
>= din and Butler show from a thermodynamic argument that the work required to
dispersewaterwithin circular capillariesis lessif the capillariesare oil wet than if
they are water-wet.
3- - 3E
boo Experimentaldata which are in support of the above ideas have been re-
ported by Chungand Butler (1988and 1989a)as well as by Jamaluddinand Butler
e2 (1988).Jamaluddinand Butler showedthat when oil is displacedby steamfrom a
o'.
HF stronglyoil-wet packedbed (Teflon beadsor toluene-washed, dried sand)higher
oo ratios of emulsifiedwater to oil were found in the productthan in similar experi-
:c mentswhich employedwater-wetsand (sandwashedprior to run with detergent).
oo
= e
The measuredratiosfor theseexperimentsare shownin Figure 7.67.
.Y; Measurementsof the emulsified-wateroil ratio were reported by Chung and
2e Butler (1988and 1989a)for the productsfrom scaledSAGD experimentscarried out
at both low and high pressures.It was found that more emulsificationwas found
h'F
9H when there was a rising steamchamberthan when the steamchamberwas spread-
rm
O_ ing. This is consistentwith the theoreticalideaswhich were describedpreviously
=|€ sincethere is more opportunity for steamto contactbitumen as the steamfingers
.10 F
EN
rise into the cold reservoir.
Figure 7.68showsa comparisonof the emulsified-water oil ratiosfor the prod-
ucts from two companionexperiments;one was carried out with a steampressure
of 153kPa (22 psia)and the other with a steampressureof 790 kPa (115psia).In
both experimentsthe modelwas saturatedinitially with bitumenand therewas no
connatewater.It wasfilled by upwardsflooding of the dry packingand it is likely
that the packingwas oil-wet initially. The resultsfrom the high pressureand low
pressureruns were very similar. In both, the emulsifiedwater-oil ratio was rela-
tively high during the period when the steamchamberwas rising and then it fell as
the steamchamberspreadsidewards.The low initial valuesof the ratio are the re-
Formationof $O Emulsionswithin the Reservoir

o
o
b
o
a
3
g
a
I
:
E
o
o
-9
a
tr
Fi3rrt
p€ruE
tained
sult of rhe po
(c) (d) experiments
Figure 7.66 Photographs of Experiment Shown in Figure 7.65 (from Yang and Butler The resu
1989) run in which I
'6 1.0 C
o
o !
OIL-WET t
E
b 0.8 1o a
G 1A E
3
1' 0.6 o
o WATER-WET g
'6 .-tI
AA b
= o.4 + ta
E
o
II. I
'
o Teflonpacking
E o.z A Toluene-washedsand o
o I Detergent-washed .9
4 Water-saturated
sand t
IE G
E0
50 100 150
Time in minutes
Figrrc i
Figure 7.67 The Effect of SandPretreatmenton the Ratio of EmulsifiedWater perirncr
to Oil in the Productfrom SAGD Experimentswith Cold Lake Crude Bitumen menttL
(from Jamaluddinand Butler 1988) Saruret

Steam-Assisted Chap.7 Well Bore ResB
o Steam Grain
pressuresize
L 0.8
o kPa mm
(E o 153 2.0
= r 790 0.85
rr 0.6
o
6
= o.4
E
o
o o.2
o
(u
0
2 4
Time in hours
Figure 7.68 Ratio of Emulsified Water to Oil in the product from SAGD Ex-
perimentswith SteamInjectedJust abovethe production well. Reservoircon-
tained No water at the start of the Experiments(from chung and Butler 19g9a)
sult of the productionof the bitumenwhich waswithin the well at the start of the
experiments.
Yang and Butler
The resultsfrom run 1 of Figure7.68 arecomparedwith thosefrom a similar
run in which the packinghad a saturationof 12.5%of connatewater at the start
5 1.0
l-Ft
I
f
E 0.8 I
o
s -----=l!r----1r..- .
r \-
=(J 0.6 rrrll
I
o \
I b 0.4 i.. r
I
o
.t1 ' irr-rl!-r-.r.i .
=
E 0.2
o
Eo
24
150 Time in hours
Figure 7.69 Ratio of Emulsified Water to Oil in the Product from SAGD Ex-
Emulsified Water perimentswith SteamInjectedJustAbove the ProductionWell. In One Experi-
e Crude Bitumen ment the ReservoirwasDry Initially and in the Other It Contained72.5VoWater
Saturation(from Chung and Butler 1989a)
ity Drainage Chap.7 Well Bore Resistance

1.0 applications/
Hatschek's
Equation
a bore has been,
u o l l re : 1 - " 1 / 3 as occurringil
o
0.8
+o wherex is the volume
fractionof water
I
i) Gravitr r
r. has been
o 0.6 ii) Flo* of
o hereis tt
=
(E
iii) The pres
!, 0.4 to achie
o
f
the *ell-
aD
(U
q) Ong and Butk
= o.2 slopein the h
Figure 7.70 Comparisonof Viscosities
pressurediffer
of Cold Lake EmulsionsPredictedus- smallunlessth
0 ing Hatschek'sEquationwith Meas- cold then then
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.0
predicted vatue of Jamaluddin and An inter
It ollr e ;'r",Ln*:l(rrom sider the well
havingrelativ
(seeFigure 7.69).Although the resultsof this secondexperimentshow the same
sure gradient(
trends the connatewater had alarge effect and much lower levelsof emulsification
laboratorvrno(
wereobserved.This is in agreement with the theoreticalideaswhich werediscussed
simplegeome
previously.l5
The viscositiesof water-in-oilemulsionsare higherthan thoseof the baseoil.
A convenient,approximateequationto predict the viscosityis that of Hatschek
(1911);this is given below,
coNcLUsroNs
tt": tt,/(l- xll3) (7.s1)
In this chapte
where ;.r,, is the viscosityof the emulsion
This processir
Po is the viscosityof the pure oil at the sametemperature
near to the bor
and
jectionwells.lt
x is the volumefraction of water in the emulsion.
productionratc
Emulsionviscositiespredictedfrom this equationare comparedto measuredvalues The proc
for Cold Lake crude emulsionsin Figure 7.70.In Chapter8, Figure 8.25,which is of the improva
taken from Chung and Butler 1989,showsmeasuredvaluesof viscositiesof Cold tal wells, much
Lake crude emulsionsas a function of temoerature. operateat satr
manceand he[
WELL BORERESISTANCE The proo
oils. Although
Although in the analysisin this chapterit is assumedthat the pressurewithin the promising indk
horizontalproductionwell is constantthere is a need to considerthis in practical promisingfield
15Inthe experiment area,havejoin
with a high permeabilityreservoirlayer below a lower permeabilitylayer
that wasdescribedon page348 and illustratedin Figure 7.60,morewater emulsificationand a lower In Athatx
drainagerate were found than in the experimentwith the high permeabilitylayer at the top. It is is believedtha
thoughtthat this differencewascausedby the greatercontactof steamwith bitumenwhich occurred ning stages.Th
becauseof the underminins effect. steamfloodinr
356 Steam-AssistedGravity Drainage Chap.7 Conclusions
applications.An analysisof the effect of pressuredrop along the horizontal well
bore hasbeendescribedby Ong and Butler (1989).They consideredthree processes
as occurringin series:
i) Gravity drainagearound the steamchamber.The rate at which this occurs
hasbeendiscussedpreviously.
ii) Flow of oil from below the chamberto the productionwell. The resistance
here is that due to the radial convergingflow.
iii) The pressuredrop along the length of the well bore. The pressuregradient
to achievethis increasesfrom zero at one end to a maximum at the outlet of
the well.
.
ong and Butler show that the effect of the well bore pressuredrop is to causea
slopein the bottom of the steamchamberalongthe well. This slopereflectsthe
pressuredifferencealongthe well. In practicalfield situationsthe effect is relatively
Comparisonof Viscosities
EmulsionsPredictedus- small unlessthe oil viscositywithin the well is high becauseit is cold. If the well is
's
Equationwith Meas- cold then there is an advantagein heatingit by circulatingsteamor otherwise.
from Jamaluddinand An interestingfinding in their paperis that it is particularlyimportantto con-
sider the well bore pressuredrop in three-dimensionalscaledlaboratorymodels r
:iment show the same
having relatively long horizontal wells.A well scaledto have the samerelative pres- l
rl
sure gradient(measuredas the slopeof the bottom of the steamchamber)in the rl
evelsof emulsification laboratorymodel should have a diameter larger than that which would come from
; whichwerediscussed 1
simplegeometricscaling. 'i
r thoseof the baseoil.
1
{l
y is that of Hatschek 4
il
CONCLUSIONS f
(7.s1) ,l
In this chapterthe SteamAssistedGravity DrainageProcesshas been described. ff
emperature
This processinvolvesthe use of one or more horizontalproductionwells located :
,ion.
near to the bottom of the reservoirwith steamintroducedabovefrom separatein-
jection wells. It hasbeen shown that suchan arrangementcan lead to satisfactory 1
productionrateswith good recoveryand oil-to-steamratios.
'ed to measuredvalues
The processis a logicalextensionof conventionalsteamfloodingbut, because
, Figure 8.25,which is of the improvedcontactwith the reservoirwhich is achievedby the useof horizon-
of viscositiesof Cold tal wells, much higher ratesper productionwell can be obtained.It is possibleto
operateat satisfactoryrateswithout steam-coning.Becauseof this, better confor-
manceand hencerecoverycan be obtainedthuswith conventionalsteamflooding.
The processcan be usedfor the productionof bitumenor conventionalheavy
oils. Although extensivefield demonstrationdata are not yet available there are
[e pressurewithin the promisingindicationsof success which are in line with expectations.Recentlytwo
rsiderthis in practical promisingfield demonstrations, one in Athabascaand one in the Lloydminster
area,havejoined the long-standingEssopilots which are at Cold Lake.
a lower permeabilitylayer
emulsification and a lower
In AthabascaAOSTRA hasbeentestingthe processat their UTF site and it
bility layerat the top. It is is believedthat the resultsare successful.An expansionis said to be in the plan-
th bitumenwhichoccurred ning stages.The AOSTRA demonstrationis believedto be the most promisingfield
steamfloodingoperationthat hasbeenconductedyet in the Athabascafield.
ity Drainage Chap. 7 Conclusions 357
The SceptreResourcesprojectin the Tangleflagsfield near Lloydminsteris Cnurc. K i{ :
alsovery promising.Very high productionrateshavebeenobtainedwith reasonable A s s i s t e ;( i : , :
waterto oil ratiosand steamrequirements. The resultsare notablenot only because FourthL \ lT
of the very high production rates (up to 1000B/d or more of oil from a producer V o l .- 1 :I ; : - : : -
which is 420m long)but becausethey are obtainedin a field which, with conven- DrerRrcu. -l ii
tional production,is uneconomicbecauseof excessivewater productionfrom the 935-9li \-; -
underlyingaquifer. Dvxsrn r. ll T
7978).
Eptvruro:.\ R .
O i l a n dO : v
BIBLIOGRAPHY gar!'(19\-
Fencusor.F R i
Bezernn,G. E. and MaRrrw, I. A., "EssoResources ^r e-t -i n_o_-F_- ,-.-' . :- ..
HorizontalHole Projectat Cold Lake,"
Sept.-O.: . -e
CIM 79-30-10, 30th Annual TechnicalMeetingof the PetroleumSocietyof CIM (1979).
G n r n p r r .P . , T - ' : ;
ButLEn, R. M.: "New Interpretationof the Meaningof the Exponent"m" in the Gravity
Drainagc P: ..:
DrainageTheory for ContinuouslySteamedWells,"AOSTRA J. of Research,2, 67-71
(1985). FlarscHrx. E . {
JeueLuoo;r. \
ButLen, R.M.,'A SteamChamberPilot for AOSTRA's UndergroundTest Facility," pre-
W a t e r - i n - O :I :
sentedat AOSTRA's UTF-IndustryMeetingin the GlenbowMuseumAuditorium, Cal-
gary (May 8, 1984). Josur, S. D -::.1
BurLER,R. M., 'A New Approachto the Modellingof Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage,"
D r a i n a g eL ' r : : i
JCPT, 42-51.(May-June 1985). ONc, Ter. S ::..
Burr-en,R.M., "Rise of InterferingSteamChambers,"JCPT, Yol.26, No. 3, 70-75 (May- Drainagc. -r( I
June 1987). Pnars,M.. '.{ (':
ButLen, R. M. and Perela, G., "TheoreticalEstimationof BreakthroughTime and Instan- SucIANTo.S. i:J
taneousShapeof SteamFront During VerticalSteamflooding,"AOSTRA J. of Research, with Bott,.,:: \
Vol. 5, No. 4 (1989),pp.359-382. (March--A.pr:.-"
Burr-en,R. M., McNen, G. S., and Lo, H.Y., "TheoreticalStudieson the Gravity Drainage TEnwrlrrcrri. P I
of Heavy Oil During SteamHeatinE,"Can.l. Chem.Eng., 59: 455-460(August1981). perimenta: r:i
ButLrR, R. M. and SrerHeNs,D. J., "The Gravity Drainageof Steam-Heated Heavy Oil to AIME IJ$. ),-
ParallelHorizontalWells,"JCPT, 90-96 (April-June 1981). YeNc, Gurn'. i. .r
Burlen, R.M., SrepHeNs, D.J., and Werss,M., "The VerticalGrowth of SteamChambers coverv br S:r.:
in the In-Situ Thermal Recoveryof Heavy Oils," Proc. 30th. Can. Chem. Eng. Conf., A n n . T e c h .\ l : i
4: 1152-1160,(October 19-22, 1980).
Burlrn, R. M. and Yee, C.T., 'A TheoreticalStudyof SteamCondensation in the Presence
of Non-Condensable Gasesin PorousSolids,".4OSTR A J. of Research,3, no.1: 1-14 (Sep-
tember1986).
ButLen, R. M. and Yee, C.T., 'An ExperimentalStudyof SteamCondensation in the Pres-
sureof Non-Condensable Gasesin PorousSolids,",4OSZR A J. of Research,3, no. 1,:15-24
(September 1986).
CaRlwEt-t-,W.T. and PensoNs,R. L., "Gravity Drainage Theory," Trans.AIME 179,
t99-2r1 (1949).
CnuNc,K. H. and Burr-en,R. M., "GeometricalEffect of SteamInjectionon the Formation
of Emulsionsin the Steam-Assisted Gravity DrainageProcess,"JCPT, Yol. 27, No. 1
(January-February1988).
CHuNc,K. H. and BurLEn, R. M., "In-Situ Emulsificationby the Condensation
of Steamin
Contactwith Bitumen,"ICPT, Vol. 28, No. 1 (January-February (1989).
358 GravityDrainage
Steam-Assisted Chap.7 Bibliography
near Lloydminster is CHuNc,K.H. and Burlrn, R.M.,'A Theoreticaland ExperimentalStudy of Steam-
ained with reasonable AssistedGravity DrainageProcess,"in R. F. Meyersand E. J. wiggins (Editors),The
able not only because Fourth UNITAR/UNDP International Conferenceon Heavy Crude and Tar Sands,
Vol. 4: In-Situ Recovery,AOSTRA, Edmonton,(1989b),pp. 191-210.
I oil from a producer
x'hich, with conven- Drrrnrcu, J. K., "The Kern River Horizontalwell SteamPilot," spE ReservoirEngineering,
935-944 (August 1988).
production from the
DyrsrRA, H., "The Predictionof Oil Recoveryby Gravity Drainage,""fp?l 818-830(May
1978).
Eorr.ruNos,N. R., WoNc,A., McConrr.recr, M. E. and Succrrr, J.C., "Fourth Annual Heavy
Oil and Oil SandsTechnicalSymposium,"Universityof Calgary,February18, 1987,Cal-
gary (1987).
FeRcusoN,F. R. S. and Burr-nn, R. M., "Steam-Assisted Gravity DrainageModel Incorpo-
rating Energy Recoveryfrom a Cooling SteamChamber,"JCPT, Yol.27, No.5,75-83,
r Projectat Cold Lake,"
Sept.-Oct.,1988.
iociety of CIM (1979).
GRInrtN,P. J. and Tnontvnwrorr, P. N., "LaboratoryStudiesof the Steam-Assisted Gravity
ent "m" in the Gravity Drainage Process,"AOSTRA J. of Research,2, no. 4: 197-203(1986).
of Research, 2,67-71
HanscuEr,E., Kolloid-Z.,8, 34 (1911).
JeuaLUDDrN,A.K.M. and BurLen, R.M., "Factors Affecting the Formation of
,undTest Facility," pre-
Water-in-OilEmulsionsDuring Thermal Recovery,",4OSTRA J. of Research(May, 1988). N
rseumAuditorium, Cal-
Josru, S.D. and Tnnnr-relo, C. B., "Laboratory Studies of Thermally Aided Gravity
DrainageUsingHorizontalWells,",4OSTRAJ. of Research,2, no. 1: 11-19(1985).
il
fll
stedGravity Drainage," :if
ONc, Tne, S. and Burr-pn, R. M., "Wellbore Flow Resistancein Steam-Assisted Gravity
16, No. 3, 70-75 (May-
Drainage,"JCPT,YoL29, No. 2 (March-April 1990). 1
'1
Pnars,M., 'A CurrentAppraisalof Thermal Recovery,"JPT, \129-1136(August1978). rl
4
roughTime and Instan- Suct,lNto, S. and BurleR, R. M., "The Productionof ConventionalHeavy Oil Reservoirs
d{
IOSTRA J. of Research, with Bottom Water Using Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage,"JCPT, YoL. 29, No. 2 u
(March-April 1990). n
1
TrnwrLLrceR,P.L., Wrlsny, L. E., Halr-, H. N., Bnroces,P. M., and MorsE,R. A., 'An Ex-
fit
rn the Gravity Drainage t!
;5-450(August1981). perimental and Theoretical Investigationof Gravity Drainage Performance,"Trans. ll
rm-HeatedHeavy Oil to
AIME 146,28-53(1951). :
YaNG,GurHua,and Burlen, R.M., "Effectsof ReservoirHeterogeneities
on HeavyOil Re- rt
wth of SteamChambers coveryby Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage,"PaperNo. 89-40-72,presentedat the 40th

Ann. Tech.Mtg. of the PetroleumSocietyof CIM (May 28-31 1989).
)an. Chem. Eng. Conf,
ensationin the Presence

v c h , 3 , n o . 1 : 1 - 1 4( S e p -
ondensationin the Pres-

3, no.l: 15-24
?.esearch,
ry." Trans. AIME 179,
iectionon the Formation

" JCPT, Vol. 27, No. 1
of Steamin
.ondensation
(1989).
ty Drainage Chap.7 Bibliography 359

It s.-,..n
extended hca
I n g e n e r a l ": r
1. Fire tub
that are
fuel arc
flou thr
In scrme
throu€:h
2. \t\ater tr
Sfeqm Recovery Equipment f lou ins
the outs
snd Focilifies Fire tub

i n s t a l l a t i o n :e
are limited rr
fire tube:.
F i g u r e:
i n 1 8 7 7 .\ a t u
inclined tulre
from the liqu
INTRODUCTION
boiler in orJe
In this chapterthe equipmentand surfacefacilitiesneededfor thermalrecoveryare N{odern
discussed-the equipmentfor steamgenerationand steamdistribution,the wells, shown in Fre
the facilitiesfor treatingthe crude,and, finally, the processes water tube tr
involvedin treating
producedwater to make it suitablefor recyclingto steamgenerators.
In a typical steamrecoveryoperation,the volumeof producedwater may be
aboutthree to five times largerthan the volumeof producedoil. As a result,tlere
are very significantcapital and operatingcostsfor the water-treatingand water-
handlingfacilities.Sincethe performanceand servicefactor of the whole project
dependsupon the satisfactoryhandlingof water and generationof steam,lt i, uital
to developgood designsand operatingprocedures. For thesereasons,a goodunder-
standingof the water reuseprocessis essentialif oil recoveryis to be successful
technicallyand economically.
STEAM GENERATION
The main roots of the industrialrevolutionare to be found in the discoveryand

developmentof practicalsteampower in England at the end of the seventeenth
century.
Early steamboilerssuchas the one shownin Figure8.1wereof simpledesign
and were limited in capacityand pressureby the small sizeof the steelplatesavail-
able.There were many explosionsand accidentsas a result of improperoperating
practicesand design.
360 Steam Gerpra

It soon becameapparentto boiler designersthat it was necessaryto provide
extendedheat-transfersurface area in order to build boilers of increasedcapacity.
In general,two approacheswere followed:
1. Fire tubes.in which combustionoccurswithin the insideof one or moretubes
that are submerged belowthe surfaceof the waterin the boilervessel.Air and
fuel are introduced into one end of thesetubes,and the combustionproducts
flow throughthe remainderof the tube; this providesadditionalheattransfer.
\n sornecases,ttre convectirretreat tranrsteris extended,b; passirrgthe t\ue gas
through the boiler within a set of parallelsmallerdiametertubes.
2. Water tube boilers in which the water is heatedand boiled with the water
ment flowing insidetubesthat are exposedto the fire and combustionproductson
the outside.
Fire tube boilersare usedfor smallerinstallations,particularlylower-pressure
installationsand for portableusessuchas railway locomotives.Their applications
are limited by the needto build a high-pressure vessellargeenoughto contain the
fire tubes.
Figure8.2 showsa crosssectionof an earlywatertube boiler,which wasbuilt
in 1877.Natural convectioncausedwater to circulateto the bottom of the bank of
inclined tubesand the boiling mixture of water and steamto rise. Steamseparated
from the liquid water in the upper drum. Blowdownwaterwas removedfrom the
boiler in order to limit the concentrationof dissolvedsolids.
r thermalrecoveryare Modern, large,high-pressure boilers are of the water tube type. The boiler
listribution, the wells, shown in Figure 8.3 showsthe type of constructionemployedin a large,modern
esinvolvedin treating water tube boiler. This boiler seneratessteamwithin vertical tubesthat form the
nerators.
roducedwater may be
Loil. As a result,there
er-treatingand water-
r of the whole project
ion of steam,it is vital
reasons,a goodunder-
:ry is to be successful
Lin the discoveryand

nd of the seventeenth
rn'ereof simpledesign
f the steelplatesavail-
of improperoperating Figure 8.1 HaycockBoiler (1720)
(from Babcockand Wilcox 1972)
Steam Generation 361

a
t
a
o
c
E
o
Fi3rn
$'ikq
Figure 8.2 coal-Fired, Babcock and wircox water Tube Boiler (1g77)(from wall of the c
Babcockand Wilcox 1972) steamis supe
Heat is
ation from tl
may be caus
atedby purq
Water tr
and they'can
The dir
externalll'ry
scale repres
steam.The q
The three up
different lera
Near th
ing point. th
is being heat
and a largert
larger heat flt
ference betlr
transfer coef
Figure 8.3 Stirling Boiler for 925 psi
and 900"FSteamTemperature.This
As bdU
Boiler Is Fired By PulverizedCoal. mechanism d
The Walls of the CombustionCham- form at the b
Tempering ber Are Lined With Water Tubes by a layer of
Which Absorb Radiation from rhe 'The
rcq
Flames.SensibleHeat from the Com-
the liquid is gsr
bustion Gas Product Is AbsorbedIn
are formed colb
ConvectionTube Banks (from Babcock
b e p o s s i b l et o b r
and Wilcox 1972)
of the liquid hrl
362 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.g Steam Gersl

. Practical
tubeoutletconditions
Tubewalltemperature
o
I i+ll
a!
o
-ll9!I"-1t-rlYl--i-----i*j-- onQ i
CL -__i/ \. i
-lte_d-I'_e_aJjl:u]--j-__-______
E Low heatflu5- - -i- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -., -\
o
| \- FluidTemperature
0 100
SteamQuality7o
(afterBabcock
Figure8,4 BoilerTubeFluidandTubeWallTemperatures and
Wilcox1972)
wall of the combustionchamberand also in an independentbank of tubes.The

1877)(from
steamis superheated in a separatesectionof tubes.
Heat is transferredthroughthe surfaceof the boiler tubesboth by direct radi-
ation from the fire and by convectionfrom the hot gases.Flow through the tubes
may be causedby naturalcirculation,as in the designshownhere,or it may be cre- I
tr
atedby pumping.
Watertube boilersare fired usingany of the commonfuels-gas, oil, or coal; I
and they can alsobe adaptedfor specialfuels suchas refinerycoke. I
The diagramin Figure 8.4 showsthe temperaturealonga tube that is heated E
(
externallyby a furnace;wateris flowing insidethe tube and boiling.The horizontal {
!t
scale representsthe cumulativeheat transfer representedby the quality of the E
steam.The ordinatedepictsthe temperatureof the tube wall and alsoof the fluid. H
P
The three upper broken curvesshow the metal temperatureof the tube for three d
different levelsof heat flux. f

Near the entranceto the tube, assumingthat the water entersbelow its boil- r{
ing point, the temperatureof the tube risesalongwith that of the liquid water that
is being heated.The temperatureof the tube wall is higher than that of the fluid,
and a larger temperaturedifferencebetweenthe wall and the fluid is requiredfor a
largerheat flux. At the point wherethe water beginsto boil,r the temperaturedif-
ferencebetweenthe wall and the fluid decreases becauseof the increasedheat-
transfer coefficient that resultsfrom the agitation due to the boiling.
ng Boilerfor 925 psi As boiling continues,there comesa point along the tube where the boiling
Temperature. This
mechanismchangesfrom that of nucleateboiling, where separatebubblesof vapor
; PulverizedCoal.
CombustionCham- form at the hot surface,to that of film boiling, where the surfacebecomescovered
ith Water Tubes by a layer of vapor through which the heat must be transferred.At this point a
:diationfrom the lThe temperaturegradientat the heatingsurfacecausesthe liquid to boil at the surfacebefore
Heatfrom the Com- the liquid is generallyheatedto the boiling point. At moderateheat fluxes, the bubblesof vapor that
uct Is AbsorbedIn are formed collapseas they rnix with the bulk of the liquid. At extremelyhigh heat fluxes, it would
Banks(from Babcock be possibleto havea completefilm of vapor coveringthe inner wall of the tube eventhough the bulk
of the liquid has not reachedthe boiling point; this is not a desirablecondition.
Facilities Chap.8 Steam Generation 363

o Practical
tubeoutletconditions
Tubewalltemoerature
qt
t
(!
+f
o
CL
E
o
F
100
Steam Quality 7o
Figure 8,4 Boiler Tube Fluid and Tube Wall Temperatures(after Babcockand
Wilcox 1972)
wall of the combustionchamberand also in an independentbank of tubes.The

r1877)(from
steamis superheated in a separatesectionof tubes.
Heat is transferredthroughthe surfaceof the boiler tubesboth by direct radi-
ation from the fire and by convectionfrom the hot gases.Flow through the tubes
may be causedby naturalcirculation,as in the designshownhere,or it may be cre-
atedby pumping.
Watertube boilersare fired usingany of the commonfuels-gas, oil, or coal;
and they can also be adaptedfor specialfuels such as refinery coke.
The diagramin Figure 8.4 showsthe temperaturealonga tube that is heated
externallyby a furnace;wateris flowing insidethe tube and boiling.The horizontal
scale representsthe cumulativeheat transfer representedby the quality of the
steam.The ordinatedepictsthe temperatureof the tube wall and alsoof the fluid.
The three upper broken curves show the metal temperatureof the tube for three
different levelsof heat flux.
Near the entranceto the tube, assumingthat the water entersbelow its boil-
ing point, the temperatureof the tube risesalongwith that of the liquid water that
is being heated.The temperatureof the tube wall is higher than that of the fluid,
and a larger temperaturedifferencebetweenthe wall and the fluid is requiredfor a
largerheat flux. At the point wherethe waterbeginsto boil,l the temperaturedif-
ferencebetweenthe wall and the fluid decreases becauseof the increasedheat-
transfer coefficient that resultsfrom the agitation due to the boiling.
ng Boilerfor 925psi As boiling continues,there comesa point along the tube where the boiling
Temperature. This where separatebubblesof vapor
mechanismchangesfrom that of nucleateboiling,
; PulverizedCoal.
CombustionCham- form at the hot surface,to that of film boiling, where the surfacebecomescovered
rth Water Tubes by a layer of vapor through which the heat must be transferred.At this point a
rdiationfrom the lThe temperaturegradientat the heatingsurfacecausesthe liquid to boil at the surfacebefore
Heat from the Com- the liquid is generallyheatedto the boiling point. At moderateheat fluxes, the bubblesofvapor that
uct Is AbsorbedIn are formed collapseas they rnix with the bulk of the liquid. At extremelyhigh heat f luxes,it would
Banks(from Babcock be possibleto havea completefilm of vapor coveringthe inner wall of the tube eventhough the bulk
of the liquid has not reachedthe boiling point; this is not a desirablecondition.
Facilities Chap.8 Steam Generation 363

much larger temperaturedifference is required to maintain the heat flux: as a re- TABLEE2 r
sult, the temperatureof the boiler tube tends to rise rapidly. The film of vapor f
forms an insulating blanket through which the heat must be tiansferred. The point
wherethe boiling mechanismchangesis known as the departure
from nucleatiboil- Drum
ing (DNB).
pressure
Boilers are normally designedto maintain nucleateboiling within the tubesin
MPat I
which evaporationis occurring. For large heat fluxes, this limits the evaporation -
per passto low values.In once-throughoil field steamgenerators,the evaporation 0.1-2.2 |
(in one pass)is higher than in typical drum-type boilerJ,but the heat flux is much 2.2-3.2 |
3.242 |
lower. The expenseof the additional heat-transfersurfacethat is required is offset
4.2-5.3 |
by the mechanical and operating simplicity. Typical heat fluxes are given in
5.3-6.3 |
Table8.1. 6.3-7.0 |
7.0-10.4 |
TABLE8.1 Typical 10.4-13.9 |
Heat Flux in kBT t2 h{r)in RadiantSection
tTo converl
llt
High capacitypower boilers g0-190(2) 2Minimumterd
Oil field generators 15- 1g(3) regard to silbr
(t)1 3Atkalinityu
kBtu6t'h = 3.1546kWm2. aZero in tbccc r
of tube wall. Low_ervalue is for pulverized coal firing and upper value is
iT* fuel oil
for :,1 (Blokh
H?]::]""*j"t"a
1988);seealso Delibert (1987). amount of tofd
I (3)Based treatment uscd
on tube area3l-in. oD on 6-in. spacing(Kerby, Kense,and peacheyr9g4).
The lower flux in oil field steamgeneratorsmakes them much more tolerant The co
to the overheatingcausedby the depositionof scaleon the heatingtubes.Scalede- When oxyga
posits due to such causesas water hardness provide a heat-trinsfer resistance ferric oxi&;
betweenthe wall and the water.The heatflux flowing throughthis resistancepro- senceof oryl
ducesan increasedtemperaturedrop that is proportional to the resistanceuni to
the flux' Although this effect is lessin oil field generators,it is still very important
to soften the feedwaterto minimize scaleformation. There is, however,consider-
able toleranceto other dissolvedsolids suchas sodium chloride. It is recomn
The feedwaterflow rate to a steamgeneratormust be kept within a certain to 3 MPa pr
range.Low velocities,for a givenfiring rate,resultin excessive Appr€o
vaporization,DNB,
and tube failure. On the other side, high feed rates result in low-quality steamand in boiler fecd
tube erosion. versesolutil
poundsdecrt
and Mg(OHl
EFFECTOF WATERIMPURITIES heatingsurfi
Silica ir
The quality of feedwateremployedfor conventionalsteamboilers is frequently
.the depositsco
critical to their operation if corrosion and scale formation are to be avoided.
Table8.2 gives specificationsfor feedwaterand for the water within the boiler that 2A
cc
have been recommendedby the ASME Committee on Water in Thermal power
are shut do?t a
Systems.These recommendationsare for typical water tube boilers; oil field steam in contact rhl
generatorsare much more tolerant becauseof the lower heat flux. recommendcd 1
364 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Effect of \ir!

e heat flux; as a re- TABLE 8,2 RecommendedFeedwaterGuidelinesfor Modern IndustrialWater Tube Boilers for
The film of vapor ReliableContinuousOperations(from Kirk-Othmer1978-84)
rnsferred.The point Boiler feedwater Boiler water
zfrom nucleateboil-
Drum Total Total Specific
pressure lron, Copper, hardness, Silica alkalinity2, conductance,
lwithin the tubesin MPal ppm Fe ppm Cu ppm CaCO3 ppm SiO2 ppm CaCO3 pS/cm
rits the evaporation
0.1-2.2 0.100 0.050 0.300 150 7003 7000
Jrs, the evaporation 2.21.2 0.050 0.025 0.300 90 60d 6000
te heat flux is much 3.24.2 0.030 0.020 0.200 40 5003 5000
is required is offset 4.2-5.3 0.025 0.020 0.200 30 4003 4000
luxes are given in 5.3-6.3 0.020 0.015 0.100 20 3003 3000
6.3-'7.0 0.020 0.015 0.050 8 2003 2000
7.0-10.4 0.010 0.010 0.000 2 04 150
10.4-13.9 0.010 0.010 0.000 1 04 100
1To
convert MPa to psi, multiply by 145.
'Minimum level of OH alkalinity in boilers <6.9 MPa (1000psi) mustbe individually specifiedwith
regardto silica solubility and other componentsof internal treatment.
tAlkalinity not to exceed107oof specificconductance.
aZerc in these casesrefers to free sodium or potassiumhydroxide alkalinity. Somesmall variable
iring and uppervalueis amountof total alkalinity is presentand measurablewith the assumedcongruentcontrol or volatile
treatmentused at thesehigh pressures. F
r 1984). I
I
The control of dissolved oxygen is necessaryin order to avoid corrosion.2 I
much more tolerant
ing tubes.Scalede-
When oxygen is presentat appreciableconcentrations,it reactswith steel to form I
ferric oxide; this does not protect the steel; and corrosion is excessive.In the ab- {
-transfer resistance *
senceof oxygen,a protective layer of magnetiteis formed. ft
this resistance
pro- i
3Fe*4HzO:Fe:O++4Hz
Leresistanceand to
still very important Magnetite
I
4
d
however,consider-
It is recommendedthat the oxygenconcentrationshouldbe kept below 0.04 ppm up {
rpt within a certain to 3 MPa pressureand below 0.007ppm for pressuresup to 14 MPa. {
Appreciablehardness(dissolvedsaltsof calcium and magnesium)is disastrous
vaporization,DNB,
in boiler feedwatersbecausethesecompoundsdeposit scaleas a result of their in-
r-quality steamand
versesolubilitycurves.The solubilitiesof calcium and magnesiumhardnesscom-
poundsdecreasewith increasingtemperatureand thesecompounds,notably CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2,tend to precipitatewhere the temperatureis highest-i.e., at the
heatingsurface.
Silica is undesirablein boiler feedwaterbecauseof its tendencyto form scale
roilers is frequently depositsconsistingof inorganic silicates.However,with oil field steamgeneratorsit
are to be avoided.
ithin the boiler that 24 common potential problem is the boiler corrosionthat can occur when steamgenerators
in Thermal Power are shut down and idle. Precautionsmustbe taken to ensurethat water containingair doesnot come
Llen;oil field steam in contactwith the boiler internals during suchperiods.Steamgeneratormanufacturerswill supply
ux. recommendedguidelinesfor boiler layup.
Facilities Chap.8 Effect of Water lmpurities 36s

is possibleto tolerate considerabledissolvedsilica provided that the water
is soft3
(so that the formation-ofcalcium and magnesiumiilicate compounds
is avoided),
the pH is alkaline(sothat the silica can remainin solutionas siiicateions),
and ttre Cold water
iron content is very low (so that iron silicatesare not formed). [t is necessary
to feed
maintainthe feedwateralkalineand oxygenfree so that iron soiutionis minimized.
Iron shouldbe consideredas a hardnession and treatedas such.
In conventionalboilers dissolvedsolids becomeconcentratedin the water
within the boiler and they are controlledby the blowdownof water.Maximum
con_
centrationsof dissolvedand total solidsrecommendedby the ABMA (data
from
Delibert 1987)are given in the followins table:
TABLE8.3
Steam Total Suspended

pressure solids solids
Psrg ppm ppm
0-300 3500 300
301+50 3000 2s0
451-600 2500 150 remainingd
601-750 2000 100 stage.This I
751-900 1500 60
901-1000 The re
1250 40
1001-1500 1000
trolledbl th
20
1501-2000 '750 into a harm
10
2001+ 500 5 it is comrm
consumedb
I
In once-throughoil field steamgenerators,where the solidsdissolvedin the

feedwaterleaveconcentratedin the liquid part of the wet-steamproduct,the con-
centrationsof dissolvedsolidsare typically much higher than those given in the At hig
precedingtable. sulphitecan
sulphurdio
residuallert
DEAERATION
AND OXYGENCONTROL
calll' a leve
The oxygenconcentrationin all boiler feedwatermustbe minimized to reducecor- unsuitable b
rosion.It is usualto do this by first heatingand strippingthe waterwith live steam the practic
in a deaeratorto removedissolvedsases. actsu'ith or
Figure 8.5 showsa schematic-diagram of a spray-traydeaerator.It consistsof
a countercurrentscrubbingsystemin which low-pressuresteamcontactsthe feed-
water in two stages.Much, but not all, of the steamis condensedin the top spray
chamber,wherethe incomingfeedwateris raisedto its boiling point.atvtosiof tne This a
3The Hou'ever. lt
hardnessshouldbe lessthan 1 ppm and preferablylessthan 0.5 ppm measuredasCaCO:.
oln the hazards
many boilerhouses,the steamusedin deaerationcomesfrom the exhaustfrom steamtur-
binesdriving the feed pumpsand other boilerhouseauxiliaries.Using steam-drivenpumps handle but I
can maKe
the boilerhousea dependablesourceof steameven in the event of a failure of the elecirical power Anoth
supply.
generator.s
366 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.g Deaerationa

'lat the water is soft3 Ventsteam
npoundsis avoided), andgas
;ilicateions),and the Cold water
l). It is necessaryto feed Nearlyall steam
rlution is minimized. condensesto heat
ch. waterto B.Pt
rtrated in the water
Risingsteamstnps
ater.Maximum con- dissolvedgases
: ABMA (data from from water
rended
rlids
pm Deaeratedwater Figure8.5 Diagramof a Spray:Tray
at B.ft. BoilerFeedwater
Deaerator
o0
:50
50 remainingdissolvedgasis strippedby contactwith the incomingsteamin the lower
00 stage.This sectionoften containstraysor baffles.
aa) The residualtracesof oxygenin the watercomingfrom the deaeratorare con-
{0 trolled by the additionof a chemicalthat will reactwith the oxygento convertit
:0 boilers(belowabout1000psi, or 7 MPa)
into a harmlessproduct.With low-pressure
l0
it is commonto employsodium sulphite as the reactivechemical.The oxygenis
consumedby the oxidationof this compoundto sodiumsulphate.
2NazSO:* 02 = 2 NazSO+
lids dissolvedin the Sodiumsulphite SodiumsulPhate
rm product, the con-
l those given in the At higherpressures (and,hence,highersteamtemperatures) the useof sodium
sulphite can presenta problembecauseit decomposesto form hydrogensulfide and
sulphur dioxide. In conventionaldrum-type boilers,it is common to maintain a
residuallevelof sodiumsulphitein the waterto ensurethe removalof oxygen;typi-
cally a levelof about40 ppm is maintained.Above 1000psi (546'F),this practiceis
unsuitablebecauseof the decompositionof the sodiumsulphite.In thesecases,it is
mizedto reducecor- Hydrazinere-
the practiceto use the chemicalhydrazineas the oxygenscavenger.
;aterwith live steam
actswith oxygento form nitrogenand water.
rerator.[t consistsof NzH+* Oz = Nz + 2H2O
n contactsthe feed- Hydrazine
sed in the top spray
This approachcan be and also hasbeenusedwith oil field steamgenerators.
I point.4Most of the
However,there is a problembecauseof the carcinogenicnature of hydrazineand
rpm measuredasCaCOr.
the hazardsthat this involves.One solution is to use chemicalsthat are safe to
exhaustfrom steamtur-
-drivenpumpscan make handlebut that liberatehydrazinewithin the boiler.
: of the electricalpower Another approachis to use sodium sulphite by addingit well upstreamof the
generator,which alsoprotectsthe water-treatingequipmentfrom corrosion,and to
I Facilities Chap.8 Deaerationand OxygenControl 367

rs on\1 a -te;r; stsra\\residua\
a&ust t\e quantrg so \\a\ \\ere
r["-iii"sqi'l Yt|r'l':
e"i,?** '::T]^q:":J:i::'"i:
is ttrermativ before.itentersthesteam
il;;;G;h
t' ltfie)
h temgeratures'
s$\$t:sssl1$1""0,$
onfurrrrouo!c[booo0
t0
Ttrcgl
OIL FIELDSTEAM GENERATORS For an cild
somewhato
Figure 8.6 is a diagram of a typical horizontal oil field steamgenerator.Feedwater 23s Blddl
under pressureis usuallypreheatedin a heatexchangerto a temperaturehigh enough Genca
to prevent condensationof water from the flue gas on the exterior of the tubes in when oil (ur
the convectionsection. With hot recyclewater feed, preheatingis unnecessary. flue gasest
Condensationis avoidedto prevent corrosion of the tubes. In the convection sodium cart
section,the flue gasesexchangeheat with the water. The partially heatedfeed There is a g
passesback through the exchangerand then to the heating tube that iurrounds the mental proG
combustionzone. If the feedwateris preheatedby steam deaerationor otherwise, producedrr
then the preheatexchangeris usuallyomitted. Bertness (19
In the radiant section heat transferred to the water boils about 60 to BTVoof sodiumhydl
the water to give the steamproduct.The horizontalcylindricalfurnace has,typi- Horiza
cally,a length-to-diameter ratio of 3:1 to 4:1. cutawayvier
The figure also shows a typical heat and material balance for an oil field
steamgenerator.A generatorhaving a duty of 50 million Btu/h, suchas that shown,
is the largestthat has been employedin oil field practice until recently,when units
having about three times this capacitywere placed in service by Esio Resources
Canadain their field at Cold Lake (peachey1984).
The unit shown in Figure 8.6 has a single 3-in.-diameterboiler tube; the
largerunits recentlybuilt by CE-Natcoand Struthers:TlWfor Essohavethree 3-in.
FLUEGAS
STEAM
400 F 204 C
51.7 k tb/hr
col,tvEcTtoN 2200 psig 15.3 MPo
SECTION 75 % quolily
3" dio tube (76 mm)
Fe€dlE/
HeatEx.rr.rlgF
AIR
15 Z XS
9000 cFM
FUEL +.sr#7=
254 FOEB/D to
40 nf /D 12000cFM
HEATEXCHANGER S.t nlTs
FEEDWAIER 447 F to preheot woter to ovoid
51.7 k tb/hr 2J1 C
condensotionon convectiontubes
80F 27C
3547 B/D STEAMGENEMTOR50 MBtu/hr or _14.65 MW
51,7 k tb/hr = 3547 B/D : sI3 nl /aoy
Figure 8.6 SteamGenerator50 x 10"Btu/h (14.675MW)

Figurt t 7
368 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Oil Field Stsr

I amountwithin the tubesin parallel. Larger units are possible,provided that it is not required to trans-
is convertedto sul- port the fabricatedequipmentalongnormal highways;it is this transportationlimi-
lerator,and thus the tation that has determinedthe sizeof the Essounits.
The generatorshown in Figure 8.6 produces3547B/d of 75Voquality steam.
For an oil-steamratio of 0.3 (a fairly high value),this would be sufficient to produce
somewhatover 1000 B/d of oil; the generator requires the equivalent of about
lenerator.Feedwater 235 B/d of heavy oil as fuel.
rcraturehigh enough Generatorsof this generaltype burn either gas or oil as fuel. In California,
erior of the tubesin when oil (usually the produced crude) is employedas fuel, it is usual to scrub the
g is unnecessary. flue gasesto remove sulphur dioxide. Typical installations use caustic soda or
:s. In the convection sodium carbonatesolutionsfor scrubbing;however,this is costly and troublesome.
rartially heatedfeed There is a growing tendencyto use natural gas as fuel as this reducesthe environ-
e that surroundsthe mental protectionproblems.The removalof Soz from stackgasesby scrubbingwith
:rationor otherwise, producedwater (containingaddedalkali if required)is describedby snavelyand
Bertness (1975).wendt (1978) has reviewed the operation of a scrubber using
, about 60 to 80Eoof sodiumhydroxidesolutions.
al furnacehas, typi- Horizontal oil field generatorsare the most common types used. A general
cutawayview of a typical horizontalgeneratoris given in Figure 8.7.
rnce for an oil field
. suchasthat shown,
recently,when units
: by Esso Resources
rter boiler tube; the

lsso havethree 3-in.
/nr
1 1 5 . 5M P o
lity
-.l]-
AIR
-X-,( 1 5z x s
9000 cFM
43 r# /s
/o to
/O 12000CFM
5.7 nf/s
Figure 8.7 CutawayDiagram of Horizontal SteamGenerator(courtesyNatco)
Facilities Chap.8 Oil Field Steam Generators 369

Steam (lfl
One of the u
is that of thc t
is to measurc
to analy'zea I
used as the tr
for analysir 1
sodiumis m
In takiq
crackedopca
water to leatc
ration. Tlresct
the collectio
Figure g.g photographof part of a Natco
Horizontal Steam Generatorwith Anotbcr
a capacity of 160,000lb/h Being Transported
to Bp,s Thermal RecoverySite
in the cold Lake o'Field (courtesyof Totr"n ploy an orifn
ServicesLimited, cargaryand
Edmonton) For a giveno
Figure8.8 is a photographof the main sec.tion the qualityd
of a 160,000lb/h
-' steamgenera_
tor beingtransportedto a pilot site in the readingand tl
I cold Lake oil riia.-
steam. A cofirE
;|""j:.1?:Yr;,?1"3,'1::lllough hasbeenreviewed
senerators by
RX-:::ll IlTy], Kirby,
tYq5). andpeachey
{:lrr, (1e8a) revilwffiHH:
.sw('u rll9 means
the control d
maintainingthe efficierrcv volvesa ratb
of o' fieri ,t"ur g.n".atorsin a very
:Tjf$;;i:"and
practical paper. flow proporti
needto preventcondensation on the convectionsectiontubesin order to
. .The Convectkn S
avoid corrosionwas mentionedearlier.The dew
point of the combustiongasesde_
pendsupon the sulphurcontentof the fuel-largei Figure8.1& C
sulphu, resurtin higher
dew points. "onr"ni, a typical stea
The main reasonfor the effect of fuer sulphur ally finned ia
content on the dew point is the
presenceof so: in the flue gas.This is usuallynot fu
extremelysolublein water and forms sul_
phuric acid' In contrast'Soz, which is tion, overhea
the main ,llphu, oxide influe gas,is much
lesssolubleand has rittre effect on the dew perature at th
point. The effect of so: on the dew
point can be predictedby a correlationgiven and the elimir
by verhoff and Banchero (r974):
(l/Toi = 0.002276- 0.00002943 The co
tn(ps,6) - 0.000085g ln(pH,soo) mining the th
+ 0.00000620 ln(pgr6) In(pn,soo) heat from th
*h"'"#::jl,:jT partial
pressures,p, tubesclean.l
T11|115correlation
1"dlh:. is trrit arein mmHg.
:1""R1"::.,i."X thedistiibuti",
betweenSOr and SOz::r:g-lli:
is viriable. "ir".itulphur u
The following recommendedminimum wall FTD T
.. . temperaturesto avoid condensa-
tion in economizersburning fuel oil have
been read from a chart given by Babcock
and Wilcox (1972\:
Wt% Sulphur in fuel oil: 0.1 z1 ^J 4 6

Minimum temperature"F: 240 240 249 2$ 260
370 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Oil FieldSteen

Steam Ouality
One of the measurements which shouldbe madein the controlof a steamgenerator

is that of the quality of the steambeingproduced.A commonmethodof doingthis
is to measurethe chloridecontentof the feedwaterby chemicalanalysisand then
to analyzea sampleof the condensate in the steam(seeFigureg.9).Sodiumcan be
usedas the tracer elementinsteadof chlorine using atomic absorptiontechniques
for analysis.The steamquality is calculatedby assumingthat the chlorideor the
sodiumis nonvolatile.
In taking a sampleof the liquid associated with the steam,the valveshouldbe
crackedopen enoughto maintain a flow at a rate that will allow only condensed
waterto leavethe system.It is necessary to cool the collectedsampleto avoidevapo-
ration.Thesesamplesystemswork bestif they are left to drip continuouslybetween
the collectionof samples.
leneratorwith Another way to measurethe quality of the steamleavinga generatoris to em-
RecoverySite ploy an orifice flowmeter (Palm, Anderson,and Kirkpatrick 196g;wilson 1975).
J. Calgaryand
For a given massflow the readingfrom an orifice meter is stronglydependentupon
the quality of the steam.The quality of the steammay be deieimined from this
0 lb/h steamgenera- reading and the water feed rate to the generator.
A common method of adjustingthe quality of the producedsteaminvolves
been reviewed by the control of the ratio of fuel flow to feedwaterflow. A practical arrangementin-
reviewedthe means volves a ratio controller, which measuresthe feedwaterflow and controls the fuel
generatorsin a very
flow proportionally.
on tubesin order to Convection Section
ombustiongasesde-
entsresultin higher Figure8.10ashowsa schematicdiagramof a convectionsection,or economizer,for
a typical steamgenerator.The tubes, exceptfor the lower couple of rows, are usu-
the dew point is the ally finned in order to improve the heat-transfercoefficient.The lower tubesare
rater and forms sul- usuallynot finned becausewith the very high gastemperaturesfound in this sec-
in flue gas,is much tion, overheatingof the fins would otherwiseoccur.Also becauseof the high tem-
of SO: on the dew peratureat the bottom of the convectionsection,the gasvelocitytendsto be high,
lanchero(1974): and the eliminationof the fins can be desirablefor pressure-drop reasons.
The convectionsection, or economizer,plays a very important role in deter-
i ln(pursoo) mining the thermal efficiencyof the steamgenerator.It is the unit that recovers
heat from the flue gas on its way to the stack.It is essentialto keep the finned
tubes clean. Many early designsof steam generatorshad undersizedeconomizers
re in mm Hg.
tion of fuel sulphur
BOILER WETSTEAM
FEEDWATER PRODUCT
to avoid condensa-
rt givenby Babcock
{6
z euority= (1 -plE-q!I!999-) x r0oz
:.i3 260
Figure8.9 SteamQualityfromWaterAnalyses
Facilities Chap.8 Oil FieldSteam Generators 371

equivalentto
authorsgiic
generatiqt-
Radiant SG
Figure8.1ft
nally backH
Figure 8.10 SteamGeneratorCon-
struction chamberwitl
a) Field SteamGenerator-Convection tially in a si
Section wherethereI
A. Convectionbox The rd
B. Bare shield tubes
bustionchan
C. Finned tubes
D. Hog trough receiveconsi
E. Flue gas inlet from radiant sec- The bq
tion which passc
F. Stack cleanand in r
G . Girder
its accompa
H . Flue gas exit
I . One-half tube diameterbetween
Vertical SE
tube and sidewall.
(Courtesyof FosterWheelerFired
Another srylr
HeatersLtd., Calgary)
vertical Mit(
and wastedheat in the flue gas. A well-designedand well-operatedeconomizer Wilcox. Thb
should be able to cool the flue gas to about 340'F. Someearly units, after yearsof also usedat I
operation, gave stack gas temperaturesof 650'F to 800'F even though they were As wdl
producing steam satisfactorily. A decreasein stack gas temperature of 100'F is coal-firedun
The rna
cally upwar&
closely-sprc(
diation from
chamberare
outsideof rba
The syn
that contrihl
rical locatio
flame impirg
STEAM DISTRIBUN
Figure 8,10 b) Field SteamGenerator-Radiant Section It is normal p

A. Air inlet duct groupedtogg
B. Forced draft fan doingthis is t
C. Burner can be treatq
D. Radiant coil
E. Casingstiffener
A facta
F. One tube diameterspacingbetweentube and wall insulation. tralized and <
(CourtesyFosterWheelerFired HeatersLtd., Calgary) worker time i
372 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Steam Distrh

equivalentto a fuel savingsof about 3Vo(Kerby, Kense, and Peachey1984).These
authorsgive an excellentdiscussionof meansfor improving the efficiency of steam
generation.
Radiant Section
Figure 8.10bshowsa sectionthrough the radiant section.The tubesrun longitudi-
nally backward and forward around the perimeter of the cylindrical combustion
:am GeneratorCon-
chamberwith a spacingbetweencentersof about 6 in. They are connectedsequen-
ienerator- Convection tially in a single pass (exceptin the new large Natco and Struthers:TlWunits,
where there are three or four parallel passes).
n box The tubes are supportedby hangersawayfrom the insulatedwall of the com-
d tubes
bustion chamber.With this construction,the backsof the tubes awayfrom the fire
)es
receiveconsiderableenergyby reflection from the hot insulation.
rlet from radiant sec- The burner for the generatoris mounted axially and producesa long flame,
which passesdown the center of the chamber.It is important to keep the burner
cleanand in adjustmentso that direct impingementof the flame on the tubes,with
its accompanying high local heat flux, will not occur.
rlt
ube diameter between
Vertical Steam Generators
rdewall.
;ter Wheeler Fired I
Another style of generatorthat has found popularity, particularly with Shell, is the i
rlgary)
vertical Mitchell Engineering (ME) generator manufactured by Babcock and I
p€rated economizer Wilcox. This equipmentwas developedfor Shell'soperationsin Venezuelaand is il

units, after yearsof also used at their thermal recoverypilot at PeaceRiver, Alberta. I
n though they were As well as conventionalfluid-fueled units. Babcock and Wilcox also offer a
erature of 100'F is coal-firedunit.
The main distinguishingfeaturesof thesegenerators is that the firing is verti-
cally upwardswith a singleburner.The boiler tube is in the form of two concentric,
closely-spaced helicalcoils surroundingthe flame. The inner coil absorbsdirect ra-
diation from the flame. The combustion gasesfrom the top of the combustion
chamberare directeddownwardbetweenthe two coils and then upward,past the
outsideof the outer coil: the outer coil forms the convectionsection.
The symmetricaldesignof the verticalsteamgeneratoris an attractivefeature
that contributesto evenheatingand stressingof the boilertubes.Also, the symmet-
rical location of the burner pointing upward gives easieralignmentand reduced
flame impingement.
STEAM DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
It is normal practicein larger projectsto use a number of oil field steamgenerators
groupedtogetherto provide sufficient capacity.In California, one of the reasonsfor
doing this is to allow the flue gasfrom severalgeneratorsto be collectedso that it
can be treatedin a singlescrubber.
A factor of generalsignificanceis that the operationof the systemcan be cen-
;ulation.
tralized and combinedwith the operation of central water-treatingfacilities. Less
worker time is required to operatea centralizedfacility.
Facilities Chap.8 Steam DistributionSystem

It is normal to provide separateoil and steamlines and to run theseto indi-
vidual wells or groupsof wells from the centralplant(s).
A feature of steamdistribution systemsis the need to allow for the thermal
expansionof the pipeline.Figure 8.11showsthe expansionloopsthat were usedin
Esso'sLeming pilot and a more recentdesign.
The measurementof the flow of wet steamusing orifice or flow nozzlemeters
is discussed by Miller (1983).
A problemassociated with the distributionof steamin thermalprojectsis that
of the division of Iiquid and vapor flow at pipe junctions.There is alwaysa ten-
dencyfor unevendivision;as a result,somewellswill tend to get steamof a differ_
ent quality from others(Hong 1978;Sabaand Lahey 19g4).
This problemhas beenwidely recognized,but there are, as yet, no generally
acceptedsolutions. Gulf canada developeda dividing system that has been
reported to give improved results,but it is complicatedand has not yet found gen-
eral use.
Another systemfor splitting wet steamflows has been describedby Konak
(1985and 1986).The principleis shownin Figure g.12.
CLUSTEREDD€V!
This method dependson the observationthat, under the usual steam-flow
conditions,the water tendsto flow as an annulusjust within the perimeterof the A grouingr
pipe' If the pipe is horizontal,this water ring tendsto be thicker ai the bottom. As to locaterb
a result,a line connectedinto the bottom of the main pipe tendsto producewetter was develo
steamthan the average,and a top connection,drier steam.In the Konak devicethe the well co
two streamsare blendedto give the desiredquality.This can be automatedby using wells of ,50
a steam-qualitymeter downstream. The r
A very promisingdevelopmentis the neutron-scattering steam-qualitymeter Figure8.1-
that was describedby Lim of Esso Resources(Lim 1985).An americium/berylium reservoir.Tl
sourceis placedbesidethe steampipe; this emitsfast neutrons,which penetraiethe centersof tl
pipe. Neutronsare scatteredby hydrogenatomsmuchmorethan by other elements. rangedin tr
The scatteredneutronsthat leavethe pipe at right anglesare measured,and their Subse
flux is an indicationof the quality of the steam.A largerflux of scatteredneutrons of clustere
indicatesa higher proton density,i.e., a lower steamquality. Metersoperatingon design.
this principlehavebeen constructed,and Lim describesintlresting and promising The u
results.An instrumentthat dependsupon the sameprinciplehasbJendeJcribedb! above-grou
Woiceshynet al. (1985). alsoreduce
able envirm
I 6 . 2 mI This is impo
l-l
Figure
drillingcosl
_i relativelviru
EI ing 12rrells
@l
t
ModitiedAlyeska
OriginaiLeming
zee Expansion
THERMALWELL.C
ExpansionLoops
LooP configuration
- (square)
A ty'picalco
Figure 8.11 Cold Lake SteamLine ExpansionLoops (after peacheyand Nod- is cemente
well 1981)
zone is perf
374 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 ThermalWeA

to run theseto indi-
Vapor-richstream
rllow for the thermal
)ps that were usedin
rr flow nozzlemeters
Main steam header
ermal projectsis that
hereis alwaysa ten-
get steamof a differ-
. as yet, no generally Liquid-richstream

stem that has been
asnot yet found gen-
Figure 8.12 Esso'sWet SteamSplitter (after Konak 1985)
describedby Konak
CLUSTEREDDEVIATEDWELLS
he usual steam-flow
the perimeterof the A growingtrend in steamprojectsis to drill deviatedratherthan verticalwells and
ier at the bottom. As to locatethe well headsin groupsin closeproximity to eachother. This practice
rdsto producewetter was developedby EssoResourcesin their Leming pilot at Cold Lake. In this pilot
:heKonak devicethe the well completionsformed hexagonalpatterns,with a distancebetweenadjacent
e automatedby using wells of 500 to 600ft.
The well layout for the original part of the Leming pilot is shown in
steam-qualitymeter Figure 8.13.The diagramshowsthe locationof the completionsof the wells in the
americium/berylium reservoir.The headsof the wells and the pumpsare locatedin groupsof 7 at the
. *'hich penetratethe centersof the hexagonalcells(exceptfor the J pattern,which involvedL3wells ar-
rn by other elements. rangedin two concentrichexagons).
tl
measured,and their Subsequent expansionsof the Leming pilot have involvedthe sameprinciple tl
of clustered,deviatedwells. Figure 8.14 is a perspectiveview of such a pattern ftl

of scatteredneutrons
\leters operatingon design. d{
4l
estingand promising The use of clusteredwells greatlyreducesthe length and complexityof the
Lasbeendescribedby above-ground facilities-roads, steamand productionlines, and power lines. This
alsoreducesthe areathat mustbe clearedand thus makesthe projectmore accept-
able environmentally.Also, the manifold facilities can be locatedmore flexibly.
This is importantin areaswheremuch of the ground is muskeg.
Figure8.15showsthe effectof varyingthe numberof wellsper satelliteon the
drilling costand on the overallcostof the well facilities.The costswerefound to be
relativelyinsensitiveto the numberof wells per satellite,at leastfor satelliteshav-
ing 12 wells or more.
THERMALWELL.COMPLETIONS
A typical completionfor Cold Lake wells is shownin Figure 8.16.The 7-in. casing
rt'hev and Nod- is cementedto the surfacewith 50Vosilica flour thermal cement.The producing
zone is perforatedwith six shotsper meter; an insert pump and 3]-in. tubing are
1 Facilities Chap.8 ThermalWell-Completions 375

3mJ
LemlngArea g
c
6
o
o
I ax!
IJ
n|
:q
o
;l(pJ
o
CL
d
mlle
l Figure 8.13 Bottom Hole Location for o
'
Esso'sLeming Pilot (after Buckles o
R a h g e 3W 4 M 1979)
employed.A 5-in. slottedliner is placedinsidethe perforationsto keep sandfrom

the pump.
Figrrc
During injection,steamflows down the annulusbetweenthe casingand tub-
tafter I
ing. It would be preferableto inject down the tubing to keep the casingcooler, but
this is not done by Esso canada becauseof the difficulty presentedby the high-
temperaturepackerthat would be requiredto isolatethe casing.one of the prob-
lemsin usingthermalpackersin steamstimulationis the needto bypassthe packer
Pad Limits
Figure 8.14 Esso Design for a Cold Lake Steam Stimulation Well Pad (after Figrrt
Peacheyand Nodwell 1981) 1 9 E lI
376 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 ThermalWdl{

300,000
@
i OL
o
o
o
I200.000
r.J
ol liftand surfacefacilities
.s
A
.o
I100,000 A
o Drillingonly
CL
o
ttom Hole Location for o
ilot (after Buckles o
0
0102030
; to keep sand from Number of Wells Per Satellite
Figure 8.15 Unit Well Cost at Cold Lake. Letters Identify Particular Satellites
the casingand tub- (after Peacheyand Nodwell 1981)
e casingcooler,but
sentedby the high-
g. One of the prob-
o bypassthe packer
BASICWELL
Limits CONFIGURATION
r'ell Pad (after Figure 8.16 Cold Lake SteamStimulation Wells (after Peachey and Nodwell
1981)
gt7
Facilities Chap.8 Thermal Well-Completions
so that gas can be vented to the annulusduring the pumpingperiod (Gatesand
Holmes1967).
The coefficient of thermal expansionof steel is about 7 x 10-6per degree
Fahrenheitof temperaturechange.Thus,for example,if the temperaturebfu
"aiing
that is 1500ft (457 m) in length is raisedby 600'F (333'C),then the increasein
lengthwould be 6.3 tt (1.92m) if it were unconstrained.There are three possible
solutionsto this problem:
I
-t
1. Use high-strengthcasingand restrainthe movementby cementingthe well

throughoutits length.In this example,the compressive
stress*ould b"
{
t = (*)t = (#) es x 106)=
122,ooo
psi
whereE is Young'smodulus.In casessuchas this the yield point of the steel
will be exceededand the steelwill yield under the compreisivestress.As a
result,if the well is cooledlater, it will be under tension.
2. Prestressthe casingof the well during cementingby applyingan initial ten-
sion to offsetthe compressive stresses that will be causedlatei by heating.To
do this, a quick-settingcementmixture is placednext to the bottom liVo of
the well, with a slower-setting mixture above.Tensionis appliedto the well
by pullingwith the rig after the lowercementhassetbut beforethe upperma-
terial hardens.
3. Allow the casingto expandand the wellheadto rise. One way of doing this
involvescoveringall the pipe exceptfor the lowest10Voof its iengthwiitr Ui-
tumen. The wellheadis allowed to rise abovethe surfaceof the ground bv =:!i
usingswivelconnections("Chicksans")similar to thoseusedin loajine racks. a: ii
>-':e
This techniqueis not usedanymore.
Peacheyand Nodwell no longerfavor the use of the extremehigh-strengthsteels
that would be necessaryto avoid inelasticyield, since thesematerialsare suscep- i
t
tible to catastrophicfailure due to sulphidestress-corrosioncracking.Insteadthey a
believethat L-80 or MN-80 casingwith specialcollarsis mostsuitable.The inelastic o
,F
yield of the casingmaterialthat occurson heatingseemsto be acceptable. It is im-
portant that the well cementshouldprovide essentiallycompleteradial supportto d
the casingto reducethe tendencyof bucklingunder the compressive stress. F

-9
A surveyof thermalwell completionpractices(FarouqAli and Meldau 1979)
E
is reproducedin Table8.4.A generalreviewof thermalwell tompletionsis givenby
Gatesand Holmes(Gatesand Holmes1967). =q)
The designof steam-injection wells is discussedin a paperby Willwhite and =
c
Dietrich (1967). E
0)
3
F
TEMPERATURE
LOGGING a
€
ul
Techniquesfor logging the temperatureprofile in thermal recoverywells were dis- J
co
cussedby Leschyshynand Seyer(1989).They found that consistentmeasurements
378 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8

ng period (Gatesand
o ^â^qa
t 7 x 10-6per degree o zz9z2zz99

:mperatureof a casing
, then the increasein
ere are three possible oI)
Lrr FitrFr
9YFFYYFFF
>= Ft--tFF5Fr'-
-o ,h)-nichct)Z;X o F F,. FP
.L-li\Jr,r:.I-
rv cementingthe well U rbd);a>it{
F ca o-- ax
stresswould be
oo
q
) psi d - -=n o n n o 5 o noonnooo
(J hh-roOhV)€/ioO
* g P 2JJ262 ' un Sr €2h nJO,€2€ 2 2 2
I
rl
ield point of the steel

au)
C)
npressivestress.As a bo
n. T o
r ooSo,ciootr-tr-6
l.l9N.lNii-
bo> n
rplying an initial ten- E-E
6\OGiO\OOt\Oci6
NOCI<t6mNNN
rd laterby heating.To o
N
rr €
S nS' *\ ô X
nSn 6S S
to the bottom 10Voof U)
is appliedto the well oz)
N- x€x.e9-eg
: beforethe upper ma- (h'e € O\O\€
oo
o_^
FOOOOAOOn
z+N:*iitc.l
J :
)ne way of doing this O)
" of its lengthwith bi- !,1 o L- ooooooooo 4u
X
A - ^t
o)
ace of the ground by .=.d69,4 6*o-vJnooogv?v-i =i E 5 E ; , E 8' F E 3
usedin loadingracks.
:.q 9ge
z
N- -N- =A
I i,89 # s# 5 o
z
e high-strengthsteels o
materialsare suscep-
:racking.Insteadthey o
q)
O\alh\OcO.iOhn
*idiNOar)O
sseiss55g
suitable.The inelastic {:
o 6
e acceptable. It is im- E^
'5sss5€se
.L h5., ; oX
rleteradial supportto Y (, Y 6 o - A i- q)
pressivestress. 'E i 5T F: E: E:
;: :;. ;: =Ed oEF 51= oT U :
Ali and Meldau 1979) E g>di:>8oa>
o Sa
rmpletionsis givenby
=0t g b=
per by Willwhite and = E^ iN6+h\Ot'-0Ocl\
6
E .;gi H{ €I e=
l-.=,,4a^
ay
G ojr
OJ ; t;e =<.j(.,.9 i- ii =c
- :::;o5qH;5 z.v
i>a'F>3ou> S=
a
o .<
vo'
uJ
:overy wells were dis- to
;0
dNo$h\Ot'-ooo\ ^J Lli
.q
-
sistent measurements
d Facilities Chap.8 379

can be made if the temperaturemeasuringtool is at the
bottom end of the logging I
string' The designof the roggingtool is discussedin
their paper.
when they emproyeda conventional,"stackable,'temperature-rogging
which the sensingelementwas containedwithin un tool in
op"n sectionin the centerof
the tool, it was found that the logs obtained were
uuriubt. and dependedon the
direction of logging (up or down)lnd on the rate of
,n*"-"rrt of the toor. This
was causedby the thermal capacityof the fluid that
was urong'uy
i;:1f# "ur.i"i
CONTROLOF HEAT LOSS IN STEAM.INJECTION

WELLS
The effect of using the tubing for injection of steam
with insulation betweenit and
the casingwas.discussedin chaptei z. rnl, is desirable
from the point of view of
reducingheat losses,providing higher-quality steam
at the sandfaie and reducing
the mechanicalstresseswittrin thi casing.ih, lutt",
is a particularly important
factor if it is planned to employexistingwills that
are not designedr- irr"iiJ-"p-
eration in a thermal project. The current practicesin
reducingwell bore heat losses
havebeenreviewedby Meldau (1gSg).
In manycases'becauseof the complicationof using STEATI
SELECTIVE
a thermalpackerand be-
causeof the need.tovent gasesup the annulusbetweerithe
tubing and the casing SeveralmeaE
during cyclic production,operationwith no insulation
has been used; the casing specific horia
must be designedto operateat the steamtemperature.
This approachis common in that have bec
the Cold Lake area.
pack with a o
Someoperatorsinject steamdown the tubing and inject
a small amount of gas, ure 8.19).Thit
either natural gasor nitrogen,down the annulus-in
order to preventheat transfer so the pluggiq
by refluxing in the annrrlus-i.e., by liquid waterboiling
on ,t hot tubing and con_ The usc
densingon the casing.This has blen done uoth witriuare "
tubing and, more reof steam duril
cently,with insulatedtubing (Meldau 19gg;Cormier
l9g7).
Insulationby isolatingthe annuluswith a packerand
venting the annulusis
often usedas a simpleform of insulation in steamfloodr; ARTIFICIALLIFT
tt i, is com-"mon pi"fii." in
california. If the annurusis vented,any_steam leaking at the packe.oi.oupiing.
passesthrough the annuluswithout condensation. Artificial lift i
The use of insulatedtrrbingis quite practicalas a steam prodtd
meansof savingheat and pumping is ru
reducingcasingtemperature.Howevei,it is expensive;
costsare of the order of $25 Conveo
to $35 U.S. per foot (Meldau 19gg).
The general arrangement for the use of insulated for lifting cil
tubing is shown in metal-to-rnet
Figure8.17.
As is shownin Figure 8.18,insulatedtubing is constructed ventional nig
with a hollowwall practice.The t
with the annulusfilled with layersof foil (to ,"iu." radiation
losses)and ceramic The c'tt
fiber' The insulation spaceis evacuated.A major problem
with earlier versionsof significantpt
in-sulated tubing was the heat lossthat occurrei uittr" couplings
betweensections wear can be t
of the insulatedtube. The probrem is aggravate d by reftixing; this involves the
boiling of water in contact with the hot ioupling roitowlo around the pc
by its condensationon
the casing.The heatloss.hasbeengreatlyreoucejuy uning tAn inscrt
thl couprings*ith ;;
lation. Typical constructionis shownin Fisure g.lti. string. It is s..I
380 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Artificial Lift

Chap.8
m end of the logging
€r.
ature-loggingtool in
-^4
rion in the centerof
nd dependedon the
:nt of the tool. This
wascarried alongby
ationbetweenit and
==l Thermalpacker
joint
and expansion
the point of view of
rdface and reducing
rticularly important -- Figure 8.17 Use of InsulatedTubing
for SteamInjection (after Meldau 1988)
;nedfor thermalop-
well bore heatlosses
STEAMINJECTION
SELECTIVE
rmal packerand be-
rbingand the casing Severalmeanshave been developedto allow the selectiveinjection of steaminto
en used;the casing specifichorizontal layers.Borregales(1977) and Burkill (1977)describemethods
rroachis commonin that have been usedin Venezuela.These allow the partial pluggingof the gravel
pack with a cement material that is forced through a specialport collar (seeFig-
;mall amountof gas, ure 8.19).This equipmentallowsports in a blank sectionof the liner to be opened
revent heat transfer so the plugging agentcan be squeezedinto the gravel'
hot tubing and con- The use of speciallysized and placedperforationsto allow selectiveinjection
rbing and, more reof steamdurins a steamfloodis describedby Gates and Brewer (1975).
xting the annulusis

ARTIFICIALLIFT
commonpracticein
packeror couplings in both steamfloodingand cyclicsteamprojects.In cyclic
Artificial lift is necessary
steam production, reservoir pressuredrives the fluids up the well initially, but
of savingheat and pumping is required when the reservoir pressurefalls'
: of the order of 925 conventional pump jacks with tubing insert pumpst are generally employed
for lifting oil from ihermal wells (Peacheyand Nodwell 1981).The pumps have a
ubing is shown in metal-to-metalpiston sealthat will withstand high temperaturesin placeof the con-
ventional nipple seals.Longer and slower strokes are employed than in normal
J with a hollowwall practice.Thi constructionof a typical pump is shownin the diagramin Figure8.20.
losses)and ceramic The wear of the couplingsusedwith conventionalsuckerrods has presenteda
r earlierversionsof significant problem, partiiularly when pumping deviated wells. The effect of this
qs betweensections wear can be reducedby rotating the rods during operation.This spreadsthe wear
f: this involvesthe around the perimeterof the couplingsrather than allowing it to concentrateat one
its condensationon
5An insert pump can be run into the hole as a completeassemblyon the end of the suckerrod
;ouplingswith insu-
string. It is seatedwithin a sealthat is previouslyinstalledin the tubing'
381
Facilities Artificial Lift
Chap.8
SELECTTVE SrEu ragn
Buttress
ilti Tubing
txro rtC Lt8 lltl
c o up li n g
I n s ul a t io n
Insulation
T H E RM A L
P A CK E R
I nsert
Foil layers
? Csramicfiber
N
Vacuum
#
Coupling
$ l i n er
I
Buttress
Tubing
coupling
I 27l8"N.80
4 1 / 2 "K - 5 5
I
I
Figure 8.18 Typical InsulatedTubing
and Coupling (after Meldau 1988) tional oil fields
the 1500operar
location.The rotationis achievedby a mechanicaldeviceon the pumpjack that im-
parts a slight rotation during eachstroke.
. Another approachto reducingcouplingwear is to usea type of couplingcon-
taining smallwheelsthat roll on the surfaceof the well tubing.Theseare available
with plasticwheelsfor operationbelow250"Fand with steelwheelsand journalsfor
high-temperature operation(DDS Calgary).
Another meansfor alleviating the problemof suckerrod wear involvesthe use
of a continuoussuckerrod without couplings(Corod).6This continuoussuckerrod Trt
is suppliedin long lengthsin large-diameter (18-ft)coils, and theseare weldedinto
still longerlengthsat the site as the rod is installedinto the well. Figure 8.21illus-
trates the procedurefor feeding the rod from the transportationreei into the well.
Another featureof Corod that reduceswear is that it can be madewith a flat-
tenedratherthan a circular crosssection.If the oval sectionis used,it is chosenso
that the flattenedfaceshaveapproximatelythe sameradiusof curvatureasthe tub-
ing in which it is installed;this increasesthe areaof contactand reducesthe wear. I
Pump maintenanceis a major sourceof expensein many heavyoil projects.
Elgert, Chambers,and Suzuki (1989)report that at the Essocyclicsteamprojectin
cold Lake, averagepump life was only 200d, as comparedto 1 to 2 y in conven-
oCorod6
is a registeredtrademarkof corod ManufacturingLtd., Nisku, Alberta.
382 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 ArtificialLifl

SELECTIV€ STEAM IIIJECTDI SEL€CTIVE S1EAT INJECTION
ftro T|€ LOtrenzoilE INTO T}€ t'PPEi ZONE
Tubing
THERUAL
PACX€R
Figure 8,19 SelectiveInjectionof

Steam(after Borregales1977)
tional oil fields.Pump repairsand relatedservicework cost $2 million per year for lr
the 1500operatingwells in the project. ll
!l
) pumpjack that im- rl
rt
Sucker rod rl
'pe of couplingcon- tf
lt
Theseare available Tubing
In
:els and journals for tl
Plunger
ear involvesthe use ti
ntinuoussuckerrod Travellingvalve j
ese are welded into

ll. Figure8.21illus-
n reel into the well. Barrel
rc madewith a flat-
used,it is chosenso
Seal
urvatureasthe tub-
Standingvalve
d reducesthe wear.
r heavy oil projects.
;lic steamprojectin
Rising Plunger Fallmg Plunger
I to 2 y in conven- Standing valve oPen Travellmg valve oqen
(u. Alberta. Figure 8.20 Diagrarnof Tubing Insert Pump
Facilities Chap,8 ArtificialLift 383

In manl th
nificantpm
T . R -'
Californiar
in this field
the special1
This p
l. Therc
carria
2. The sl
contiE
enced
SURFACEDROD IN REEL tects tl
3. The p
the flu
ing in I
diamd
4. The di
Huskyl
prodrr
The pl
conventiond
THECORODSYSTEM the smalhr 1
Figure 8.21 The Instailation of continuous Sucker Rod (courtesy the new pul
of corod
ManufacturingLtd.)
The sa
scaleis the c
small and is
Their analysisof the problemindicatedthat the primary causesof pump fail- Small amouo
ure were related to the followins: slowlyin thc
The ch
Sand flowing into the wells, particularly during flowback and particularly heavyoil wd
during the first cycle. the producti<
2. ScalescontainingCaCO: and SiOzadheringto pump barrels. valve. After
through ancl
Theseproblemshave beenalleviatedby thesemeasures: by forcinga g
plungerpiscr
1. Throttling the productionduring initial blowbackto reducesandproduction.
A choke-operatingguideline has been developedfor well operation in which shuttingoff tl
rising liquid.
the well chokeis progressively openedas the AP acrossthe chokedecreases.
In the c
2. Using chromium-platedpump barrels.These are resistantto corrosion,and
ductionand tl
scaledoesnot adhereto the smooth surface.It is not practical to use chromi-
cally. The lil
um-platedplungersinside chromium-platedbarrelsbeiausethe two hard ma-
chamber.Th
terials gall. However, Esso has found that plungers with a sprayednickel
Anothcr
coating work effectively with chromium-platedbarrels.
by downholcI
Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.g ArtificialLift

In many thermal recoveryprojectsthe production of sandwith the oil is a very
sig-
nificant problem.Somereservoirsare particularlyprone to this problem
T. R. vonde (1979)describesthe production or o" apt cai canyon crude in
California where the averageproduction contains27 wt% of sand.Someproduction
in this field has containedas much as70vo.To handlethis, Husky has developed
the specialpump shown inFigure 8.22.
This pump has the following features:
1. There are two tubing strings.one carriesdiluent to the pump and the other
carriesthe diluted productionto the surface.
2. The suckerrod is containedwithin the diluent tubing and doesnot comeinto
contactwith the productionstream.This avoidsthe slow fall that is experi-
encedwhen the rod must move through the viscousproduct, and it also pro-
tects the rod and plunger from the abrasiveaction oi the sand.
3. The pump deliversfluid to the surface on the downstroke(most pumps pull
the fluid upward;this one pushesit). In order to minimize compressive load-
ing in the suckerrod, a counterweightconsistingof 2900to 3g5bkg of 2-in.-
diametersteelbars is fastenedto the end of the suckerrod.
4. The diluent flow is controlled by adjustingthe addition rate atthe surface.In
Husky's application at cat canyon, the rate is controlled to give a 12. Apr
product.
The pump is consideredsuccessfur and, althoughits cost is more than for a t

conventionalpump,the extra is saidto be paid for by the reducedmaintenanceand ll
the smallerpower requirement.It is reportedthat, in one lease,installingfive of il
ril
rrtesyof corod the new pumps increasedproduction from 200 to 700 B/d of oil. '1
The sandproblemjust describedis an extremecase.At the other end of the tt
Il
scaleis the experienceof Essoat Cold Lake, wheresandproductionis usuallyvery ri
small and is handledby the small sectionof a slottedliner shown in figure 4.19. Itr
&
Smallamountsof fine solids,which are carriedwith the crude,tend to accumulate ri
causesof pump fail- slowlyin the separatorsand tanks, and theserequireoccasionalcleaning.
The chamber-liftprincipleis anothermeansthat has been usedfor pumping
,ack and particularly heavyoil wells (Elfarr 1976).rnthis technique,a downholechamberconnectedto
the production tubing is allowed to fill with produced fluid through a nonreturn
valve. After the chamber has filled, the fluid contents are displacedupward
rrrels.
through anothernonreturn valve, through the productiontubing, and to the surface
by forcing a gasinto the top of the chamber.The gasthus repla-esthe conventional
plungerpiston.After the dischargecycle,the pressureis reducedin the chamberby
uce sandproduction. shutting off the gas supply and allowing excessgas to blow to the surfacewith thl
ll operationin which rising liquid.
the chokedecreases. In the chamberlift systemtwo tubing strings are employed:one for the pro-
rnt to corrosion,and duction and the other to transfer the lifting gasdown to the pump chamberperiôai-
rcticalto usechromi- cally. The lift is assistedby the buoyant effect of the eihauited gas from the
usethe two hard ma- chamber.The pump has beenusedsuccessfully in the slocum field in Texas.
ith a sprayednickel Another lifting techniquewhich has been tried is the use of pumps operated
by downholehydraulicmotors.The CanterralTennecoin situ pilot in Athabascahas
d Facilities Chap.8 ArtificialLift 385

CONVENTIONAL HEP unit.r
TYPE X T Y P EY
DILUENTPUMP the Hrdrabc
orlr.rfrt lxf,cl|or An irq
tI'O PUIP
o[Utrr liJ€cllor
the dor.r'n-
al
t
nto lozlLt a ductionnbcr
;
H0(L0f the needto t
sucrtl = casesthereh
Portr a
stRn6 very cold*c
J
toLLol s\JcxtR
f,00 srnlrc
IMPROVINGWELL I
In cyclicsea
sPRil€ Keelirq
I rA't0,!01 CHECTY LVE
tuLL lult peratureand
cyclicsteam1
rn'_
TUBIIG As prod
surefall as in
PI,IP SEAI
6
reservoirpre$
sPirs Loltf,o
clfct vllvE
SE L
ing this perb
2' PUIP
nulusof the r
EARi€L HOLLOI afterthis rhe
XI
OILU€ PULL
cH^r6€R R00 flowing b1 irs
0rLrftl
PORIS gasis separat
I !/{. PUIP
urffL
ratelyup thc
2tE
C ?t rt. ryt' PUIP tl the pumping
ttttfL E intL c|{cr
VALYT 2 Va' maintained-
PLUIGEi
orLUErl I
txtt
YALY€
PORT gr
sTAr0n6
vrlv€
ttTirxct
YALYE
'll'
t/ \l
t\
ll
0nouL
sPtY tozzlt
tr rLrtlrt0t
F'Si---\]
Figure 8.22 Husky Diluent Pump (from Vonde 1977)
used Kobe downhole hydraulic pumps; these have also been used at the Suncor
World Wide Energy pilot at Fort Kent.
Another developmentof interest is the use of drivers, driven by hydraulic Figrrr I
cylinders,in place of conventionalcrank-drivenpump jacks. One of theseis the LakcR
386 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 lmproving Wel I

HEP unit, which is manufacturedin Calgaryby ForemostEngineering;another
IVEIITIONAL is
IENT PUMP the Hydrabeamunit; a third is the curtis Hoover Hydraulic Fump raik.
An importantpotentialadvantageof this type of driver is its ability to adjust
the down- and upstroketiming independently. This is imporrantwith heavyoil
ductionwherethe speedof the downstroke,due to the viscousnatureof the oil iro-and
the needto avoidcompressive bucklingof the rod, can be a limiting factor.In some
casesthere havebeenproblemswith hydraulicallyoperatedpumpingequipment
in
very cold weather.
IMPROVINGWELL PERFORMANCE
In cyclic steamprojects,eachwell is subjectedto a seriesof changinqconditions.

Keeling (1985)has discussedmeansfor improving well perfor-ma-nce. The tem-
peratureand pressureof a typical well during the productioncycle in the Esso
cyclic steamprojectat Cold Lake are shownin Figure g.23.
As production continues,the wellheadtemperatureand the bottom hole pres-
surefall as indicated.Initially, the entire productionfrom the well flows, driven bv
reservoirpressure,throughthe tubing and a choketo the productionflowline. Dui-
ing this period, there is considerable steamin the produit. At somepoint the an-
nulusof the well is connectedto the flowline, and the gasflows separitely.Shortly
after this the productionpump is seatedand pumpingsiarts.At thii point th" gu, i,
flowing by itself to the productionline, and the oit ir ueinglifted by ir,. purnpltn"
gasis separatedfrom the producedliquidsat the bottom of the weli and ilowi sepa- i
rately up the annulus.This separationof the gas at the bottom of the well makes il
the pumping much more efficient and allows a lower bottom hole pressureto be til
ru
maintained.
:1
!tl
MPa oc i{
l#- Vent gas divertedto flow line from annulus
9auge j.iT- Oil pumpingstarted tl'
\ II k- Vent gas compressionstarted

t:
2 ll
\!i ll
\i i
it \l WellheadTemperature
\i
1
i\
100
Bottom hole
- lressure
,sedat the Suncor Flow I Oitpumped

Time (up to 250 days total)
riven by hydraulic andpressure
Figure8.23 well remperature Duringproductioncyclefor cold
)ne of theseis the LakeReservoir(fromKeeling1985)
:acilities Chap.8 lmprovingWell Performance 387

When the wellheadpressurefalls to the point where gasflow into the produc-
tion line is no longerpossible,the vent gas-compression systemis startedand the
gas is compressedseParatelY.
A flow plan showingthe compressionsystememployedby Esso at Cold Lake
is shown in Figure 8.24; it is the result of considerabledevelopment.
The casinghead product from the wells flows to the vent gas separator.The
liquid that separatesis pumped to the product line. The gas from the separatoris
cooled,and someof the liquid is condensedin an exchanger.The cooledstream
passesto anotherseparator.The liquid from this separatoris pumpedto join the
plant product stream. The gas from the secondseparatorpassesto a liquid ring
compressor; the compressed gas,after passingthrough a knockoutdrum to remove
the compressor liquid, joins the remainderof the productstream'
Oni of the problemsin designinga well-gas-compression facility such as this
is the variability of the amount of gas in the well feed stream from the wells.
Figure8.25showsthe flow of gasto be treated in such a plant as a function of time.
In order to handle the variability of flow, Esso'sdesign calls for two compres- the oil. A rar
sors.Both compressorsare used in the first two cycles;after that, the secondcom- ply oil field r
pressorbecomesan on-line sPare. what worksr
Whrer-
of demulsifi
FLUIDS
TREATINGPRODUCED
The productionfrom steamedheavyoil wells is usually a mixture of hot oil and wa-
ter with somegas.In many casesit containssubstantialportionsof solidssuchas FEE)
clay and sand. The production is nearly always emulsified; some of the water is +
emulsifiedin the oil and someof the oil is emulsifiedin the water. Pi
Figure 8.26 showsa typical schemeof the treatmentof the productionfrom c{
thermal recoveryoPerations.
A demulsifieichemical is addedbefore the production streamfrom the wells
reachesthe treatment plant; this promotesthe separationof dropletsof water from
fi3rrc
_ ]J J-_--i- J- J and \o
lEmulsrm
in-oil emulsionr.
oil, and oil-in-re
water. Attemp{r l
Figure 8.24 Esso'sCold Lake Casing flow by the addrt
Gas-Compression Scheme(from Keel- d i s c u s s e di n C h q
ing 1985) allow pipelinc tn
Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Treating ftodr

388
# into the produc-
is startedand the
Essoat Cold Lake

lent.
Figure 8.25 Expected Flow of Vent
3asseparator.The Vapor in Esso'sCold Lake Commercial
m the separatoris Project (from Keeling 1985).
fhe cooledstream The Diagram Showsthe Vapor Flow
umpedto join the from a Gas CompressionFacility Serv-
ing a Pad of 20 Wells.The Wells are
:s to a liquid ring Steamed10 at a Time. The Numbers
rt drum to remove abovethe PeaksRefer to the Produc-
t. tion Cycle.There Are Two Peaksfor
acility suchas this Each Cycle, Correspondingto the
m from the wells. Two Batchesof l0 Wells Goins on
YEARS Production
a functionof time.
s for two compres- the oil. A variety of demulsifierchemicalsis availablefrom the companiesthat sup-
t, the secondcom- ply oil field additives.There is an art in selectingthe bestone, and it is found that
what works well in one location is unsuitablein another.
Water-in-oil emulsionsare more viscousthan the oil itself,Tand the addition
of demulsifier at the wells can reduce the pressuredrop in the gathering lines as
: of hot oil and wa-

t;
rs of solids such as
me of the water is
it
rll
rt€f .
rfl
re production from ,r
'1
gamfrom the wells r!l
I
plets of water from I
I
ELECTROSTATIC
TRFATER
Figure 8.26 ProductionTreatmentUsed by Esso at Cold Lake (after Peachey

and Nodwell 1981)
TEmulsions
are dispersionsof one liquid in another.There is a largedifferencebetweenwater-
in-oil emulsions,where the oil is the continuousphaseand which have higher viscositiesthan the
oil, and oil-in-wateremulsions,which are lessviscousthan the oil althoughmgre viscousthan the
water. Attempts have been made to createoil-in-water emulsionswithin the rbservoirto promote
so'sCold Lake Casing flow by the addition of chemicalssuch as causticsoda to the steam(Doscheret al. 1963).As was
n Scheme(from Keel- discussedin Chapter1, there is currently interestin making concentratedoil-in-wateremulsionsto
allow pipeline transportationof very heavyoils.
Facilities Chap. 8 TreatingProducedFluids 389

well as allowingpremixingof the demulsifier.Premixingalsogivesthe demulsifier
more time to act.
Figure 8.27 showsthe measuredviscositiesof Cold Lake crude containing
various fractions of emulsifiedwater as functions of temperature.
At the plant, the streamis cooled and introducedinto a baffled horizontal
separatorvessel.The oil, which still containsemulsifiedwater(about3Va),is cooled
further and treatedin an electrostatictreaterto producethe final bitumenproduct
(0.5%BS & W) and morewater,which can be sentto the recycleplant or disposed
of otherwise.Figure 8.28 is a diagramof a modern electrostatictreater.Electro-
statictreatersare often combinedwith a fired heater(it is then a "heatertreater")
to raise the temperatureof the oil. This is required for conventionalproduction
which is cold. In thermal projects,it is more commonfor the oil to be cooled.
Electrostatictreatersutilize an electricalfield betweenimmersedelectrode
grids to promotecoalescence of the suspendedwater droplets.The role of the coa-
lescershouldbe confinedto removingsmallresidualamountsof waterfrom the oil
ratherthan largequantities.The separationdependsupon the effect of the electri-
cal field in causinga motionof the waterdroplets.Althoughboth AC and DC fields
have been used,AC is more popular becauseit is simpler,althoughperhapsnot
quite so effective.More recenttechnologyusesboth AC and DC fieldsin the same
unit-the so-calleddual polarity treater such as that shown in Figure 8.28. The
electrodesin this equipmentare connectedto the electricalpower in the manner
shownin Figure8.28.
Electrostaticfields promotedropletcoalescingbecause
1. The waterdropletsbecomepolarizedand tend to alignthemselves in the elec-

trical field, with one sideof the dropletpositivelychargedand the other,nega-
tively charged.There is thus a tendencyfor dropletsto attracteachother; this
promotescoalescence.
woter/Oilvolumerotio
Emulsjfied
0.015.(cold.Lokebitumen)
0.19(R'un1)
0.30'(Run2)
0.30'(Run 2
frun 2)
0.70Gun
i
l=
o
8 toooo
.q
\ FEr
l.- \ Eu
:-:\l Fior
natc
Sra
r rth
Temperoture,'C 2. The dr
Figure 8.27 Effect of Emulsifiedwater on the viscosity of cold Lake Bitumen electr
(from Chung and Butler 1988) droplc
390 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Treatirpftoc

ivesthe demulsifier
e crude containing
'e.
r baffled horizontal
tbout3Vo),is cooled
ral bitumenproduct
le plant or disposed
tic treater.Electro-
t a "heatertreater")
entionalproduction
il to be cooled.
immersedelectrode
fhe role of the coa-
rf water from the oil
effectof the electri-
rh AC and DC fields
though perhapsnot
C fieldsin the same
in Figure8.28.The
o*,er in the manner
DUAL POLARITYDESALTER
emselves in the elec-

and the other,nega-
tracteachother: this
WATEROUT
E M U L S I O NI N
Figure 8.28 Diagram of a Dual-Polarity ElectrostaticTreater. Water in Oil

Emulsion Feed Is Introduced Beneaththe Inverted Distributor Trough and It
Flows Upwards Between the Vertical Electrodes.These are Charged Alter-
nately + and - by the Electrical SystemShown in the Lower Right. At the
SameTime an Alternating Voltageis Applied to the Whole Electrode System
with Respectto Ground (CourtesyNatco)
2. The dropletstend to have electricalchargesinitially and to migrate in the

J Lake Bitumen electricalfield. However,there is a differencein the velocitywith which large
dropletsand smaller onesmigrate, and there is an increasedtendencyfor col-
d Facilities ChaP.8 TreatingProducedFluids 391

->ioperotingl whereI
i Ronge I Pr
Leming P.
Produced I
o Leming Woter lL'
L
(J
I
Other r
o APt Oil
I
I SI units shor
I
q) \20 I
For the
o t./ I
I
(n \ i dropletsintcr
i
I
by a factr fi
0.9 \ I
I
\ I
I
Figure 8.29 Densitiesof Cold Lake
0 100 200 Oil and Water (after Peacheyand Nod-
where F = 6
Temperotureo C well 1981)
As rhc t
to increasett
lision. Also, particularly in a DC field, dropletshaving oppositeelectrical
maximum,:lt
chargesmove in oppositedirectionsand tend to collidewith eachother.
settlingrare-
3. The electrical field may weaken the film of emulsifier on the surface of the
Both fr
droplets.This promotescoalescence upon collision.
This is parriq
If there is too much water suspendedin the oil, then the dropletsmay form chains If the addirir
betweenthe electrodesand producea short circuit. Adjustmentsthat can be made be dilutedro r
to the operationof an electrostatictreater include the spacingof the grids and the add diluenrlo
appliedvoltage. formance {cq
The temperatureof operationof the separatingfacilities is important as it pipelinecorry
controlsthe densitydifferencebetweenthe oil and the water(Figure8.29)and also than 0.5%in r
the oil viscosity(Figure8.30).Both of theseaffect the rate of settling' the pipelines
The rate at which water droplets settle from oil is determinedby Stokeslaw.
This may be written for a singlesphericalwater droplet as: PRODUCTIONTREA
2 R2(p,- p)g
Y == (8.1) Figure8.31sh
9 l"o
at Cat Canlu
Somewhatorr
which is firred
out periodiceX
emulsiontre-
3% BS& \r.
6
o
o MAKEUPWATERSII
Evenif rhefir
907a),there ri
that has beeo I
100 200 Figure 830 Viscosity of Cold Lake ume. There ri
Temperatureo g Oil (after Peacheyand Nodwell 1981) and cooling p
392 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Maker.p WaE !

where V is falling viscosity of water droplets (m/s)
pw is density of water (kg/m')
po is density of oil (kg/m3)
g is accelerationdue to gravity (9.81m/s'z)
po is oil viscosity(Pa . s)
Other sets of dimensionallyconsistentunits can be used in place of the
SI units shown.
For the caseof an actual emulsion, the velocity is lower becausethe falling
dropletsinterfere with eachother. The effect may be calculatedby multiplying 8.1
by a factor f'5 (Steinour 1944).
-
v : +R2(P' P)EF, (8.2)
9 l"o
sitiesof Cold Lake
ter Peacheyand Nod- whereF5 : 62119-i rztt-a;and e : volume
fractionof oil in the emulsion.
As the temperatureis raised,the viscosityof the oil decreases, and this tends
to increasethe settling velocity. However, the density difference passesthrough a
oppositeelectrical
maximum, and there is thus an optimum temperaturethat provides the maximum
ith eachother.
settlingrate.
the surfaceof the Both factorsjust mentionedcan be improvedby addingdiluent to the system.
This is particularlyvaluableif the densitiesof the bitumenand waterarevery close.
ts may form chains If the addition of diluent is practicable,as it is, for example,when the bitumen is to
s that can be made be diluted to transport it eventually through a pipeline, then it is very desirableto
rf the grids and the add diluent to the mixture before separatingthe water. This will increasethe per-
formance (capacity and/or product quality) of the separation equipment. Most
; is important as it pipeline companiesrequire BS & W to be less than lVo by volume and usually less
igure8.29)and also than 0.5Voin order to prevent corrosion and to reducethe frequencyof pigging in
€ttling. the pipelines.
ined by Stokeslaw.
PRODUCTION
TREATMENTWITH HIGHSAND PRODUCTION
(8.1) Figure 8.31showsthe facilities used by Husky in the treatment of their production
at Cat Canyon. The averageproduction from this project contains 27 wtTo sand.
Somewhatover half of the sand is separatedin the direct-fired desandervessel,
which is fitted with a conicalbottom and containshydraulicjets to flush the sand
out periodically. The remainder of the sand is removed from the bottom of the
emulsiontreater.The producedoil containslessthan 0.2 wtVosand and lessthan
3VoBS &W.
MAKEUP WATERSUPPLY
Even if the fraction of the producedwater that is recycledis very high (greaterthan
907o),there will still be a need for makeup water supply.In the reservoir, the oil
that has been removedis normally replacedby injectedwater of an equivalentvol-
icosity of Cold Lake ume. There will alsobe a need for additional water in a recoveryprojectfor service
et and Nodwell1981) and coolingpurposes.
I Facilities ChaP. 8 MakeupWater Supply 393
Produced U
TAX€-UP
PROCESS WA'ER Analy'sesof
I
L._ _.- _ _. a correspol

once-throrr
E: TABLE 8.5 q
l1
Al
Oil and (
8
Gl
!
dl TDS
sl;
SS
tl Ca
tfc
't
tZ 3
tl
r \{g
ti I SANO 8 WATER ' t Na. K
iJ I 1..'- otJp sYstEM- |
lr CI
r.., !
{FJ
I so.
rcr comt L[€ I ArRACTUATED
UAPHRAil HCO,
4'rEsr Lrir€ ar-r Sxlll RJHP
PRESCJR€ }tGE
PROqffIOTT MANIFOLO Sulphrd
sio:
wAtER r{JECTrOr,r
- - IO REOUCE LINE Tempcil
PNESSLRE
pH
BROOKSZONE 'tF El..trut

A TREATING FAcrury
C'ATHERING
*'."B.rI63Ii* ( 2 ) K"ro n a k
and Gr
(3)Suspende
Figure E.31 Processfor TreatingHigh-Sand-ContentHeavy Crude (from Vonde 1979) d ol
as total organt
Conventional sourcesof water supply such as from undergroundreservoirs,

The pn
rivers,and lakesare normallyused.However,other water suppliesmay be consid-
dissolvedsol
eredif thereis a shortageof waterin the area.For exampleSuncor,in their thermal
the water at
recoveryproject at Bonneville,Alberta, useswastewatereffluent from a nearby
from the lea
municipality.
material.
Freshwateris normallytreatedby chlorineoxidation,lime/sodasoftening,fil-
In the t
tration, ion exchange,and deaeration(Kloepfer,Card, and Kus i983).
to removeth
ica, althoug
RECYCLINGPRODUCEDWATER iron content
Thesecondit
In the previous section it was shown how the production from steam recovery vent the foru
projects can be separatedinto a marketable oil product and a produced water TableE
stream.In manycasesit is desirableto treat this water so that it may be recycledto basca.The a
the steamgenerators. impuritiesan
Recyclingwater reducesthe impact of the thermal recoveryprojecton the en- The lor
vironment; it not only provides an acceptablemeansfor disposingof the tainted peratures of t
produced-waterstream,but it also greatly reducesthe needfor fresh water. In areas Essopilot at
wherewateris scarce,as in California,this reductionin the needfor freshwater is It seemslikel
a very significant factor. Another advantageof water recycling is that the heat in concentrali
the recycledwater reducesthe heat requirementfor steamgenerationsomewhat. becomemore
394 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Recycling

ftc
ProducedWater Analyses
UAKE-UP
PROC€SSWAIER Analysesof a typical producedwater samplefrom the Essopilot at cold Lake and
!
_-._l-._ -.- - -1 a correspondingtreated produced water sample that is suitable for feeding to a
once-through,oil field steamgeneratorare given in Table8.5.
TABLE 8.5 Compositionof Producedand TreatedRecycleWater{l)at The LemingCold Lake Pilgt(2)

;;l
-E--- - 1 6
II.ER I
F UNTREATED ppm TREATED
^-\. i: :tl Oil and Grease 5,000-10,000 0-100(3)
:0 clflr.l Fl ;
TDS 4,000-10,000
srmra I I o:i 4,000-10,000
rx SS 10-120 0-5
---te ll
IU
:F
---r _15 Ca 4M0 0-1
Mg 4-8 0-1
Na, K 1,000-4,000 1,00H,000
CI 2,00M,000 2,000-6,000
SO+ 4U200 4V200
HCO: 10H00 0-r0
Sulphide 10+0 5-10
sio2 150-300 15-30
Temperature("C) 80=90 80-90
pH 7-8 8-9
(l)From
ElectrostaticTreatersand Water RecvclePilot
(2)Konak
and Grisard(1979).
(3)Suspended
m Vonde 1979) oil (usuallynear 0). There are alsoabout250 ppm dissolvedorganicmaterialsmeasured
as total organic carbon (TOC\.
dergroundreservoirs,
The producedwater containsrelativelylarge quantitiesof dispersedoil. The
l
rpliesmay be consid-
dissolvedsolidsare largelysodium chloride,arisingfrom the reservoirwater, but
:l
ncor,in their thermal ii
the water also containsappreciableamountsof hardnesssalts and silica, arising
:luent from a nearby
from the leachingof the reservoirrocks.There is alsosubstantialdissolvedorganic
material.
ne,/soda
softening,fil-
In the treatmentof this materialfor feed for steamgeneration,it is necessary
us 1983).
to removethe suspended oil and the hardness.It is alsodesirableto reducethe sil-
ica, althoughconsiderablesilica can be toleratedif the calcium,magnesium,and
iron contentsare kept low and if the wateris alkalinewhenit is fed to the generator.
Theseconditionswill tend to keep the silica in solutionas sodiumsilicateand pre-
trom steamrecovery vent the formationof insolubleiron, magnesium,and calciumsilicatescales.
rd a produced water Table8.6 showsan analysisof producedwater from the Texacopilot in Atha-
it maybe recycledto basca.The analysisis similar to that from Cold Lake but the concentrations of the
impuritiesare lower.
ery projecton the en- The lower silica contentmay reflect the lower solubilityof silica at the tem-
posingof the tainted peraturesof the steamedreservoir;the Texacopilot is at a shallowerdepththan the
r freshwater.In areas Essopilot at Cold Lake, and one would expectthe injectionpressuresto be lower.
reedfor freshwater is It seemslikely that the lower levelof dissolvedsolids(salt)arisesbecauseof a lower
ng is that the heat in concentrationin the reservoirconnatewater-possibly the original seawaterhas
nerationsomewhat. becomemore diluted by surfacewater.
d Facilities Chap.8 RecyclingProducedWater 395

TABLE 8.6 ProducedWater Analysisfrom TexacoSteamfloodingPilot Near McMurrayAthabasca
ferencein Ed
Qu"ntitutiu" AnulysesofDissolved u Ptodrr.tion Wut"t"' ing was direo
Sodium 529 largeutility'ty
Potassium 11 ties and veqvI
Calcium 56 The pm
Magnesium 20 treatmentof t
Chloride 820 the steamin I
Sulfate 80 cussedprevid
Aluminium <1
erabledissolx
Iron <2
also remo\'6 t
Silicon 47
tation *'ith u
(t)Milligrams
of soluteper liter of solution at 23'C. A sirnpl
(Burchfield and Hepler, 1979) plant expans
summarizedir
duction faciliti
The water analysesshownfrom the Getty plant at Kern River, California,in
ing three parr
Table8.7 showevenlessdissolvedsalt but are otherwiserather similar.
TABLE 8.7 Water Analysesfrom Getty's Kern River Operation TABLE

8.8 Or
JUNCTION WATER PLANT (mglkg) cul
PHYSICAL ?LANT PHYSICAL PLANT
CONSTITUENTS INLET IGf,
OUTLET
l@
Bicarbonates,HCO3 278 IGF
Chlorides,Cl 185 200 rld
Sulfates,SOa 82 65 lor r
Sulfides,S 0.0 0.0 &
Nitrates,NOa 0.0 0.0 Tr
Silica,SiOz 125 111 sa
Boron, B 1.3 1.2 pl
Sodium,Na 190 260 o
Iron, Fe J.J 0.1 Sr
Hardnessas CaCO3 tt3 0.3 o
Total dissolvedsolids 622 793
(Peachey and llor
pH value at25'C 7.2 7.4
Conductivity: micromhos/cmat 25'C 950 1150
Resistivity:ohm-metersat 25"C 10.8 8.9
The waE
OIL AND GREASES
flotation cell.l
Freon extractables(solubleand insoluble) 50 20 pends upoo th
Millipore (insoluble) 20 0 located near tl
(Carrell 1979) and carn" thc
as a foam. TL
ter is treated s
Treating RecycledWater
" I hls pftlc
Various schemesfor the treatment of recycledwater were investigatedduring the
treatmentof tGC
developmentof the design for the large commercial plant at Cold Lake that was
The buildupof H
proposedby Esso.Thesewere discussed by Whalley and Wilsonat the Unitar Con- of the facilitbr-
396 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Recyclir€ ftod
$cMurrav Athabasca ferencein Edmontonin 1979(Whalleyand Wilson 1979).Much of this earlythink-
on Water(l) ing was directed toward the developmentof schemesthat would allow the use of
Iargeutility-type boilers becauseof the ability to build thesewith very large capaci-
ties and very high thermal efficiencies.
The processfinally adopted(Figure 8.32)for use at Cold Lake involvesthe
treatment of the recycledwater to remove oil and hardnessand the generationof
the steam in multiple, once-through,oil field steam generators.As has been dis-
cussedpreviously,theseoperatewith low heat flux and are able to tolerateconsid-
erabledissolvedsolids,provided that the water is soft. The processadoptedby Esso
also removesmuch of the silica from the feedwaterby adsorptionand/or coprecipi-
tation with magnesiumhydroxidein the hot lime treater.
A simplifiedflowplan of the treatmentsystemusedby Essoin their Leming
plant expansionis given in Figure 8.33,and operatingconditionsfor the plant are
summarizedin Table8.8. As has been mentionedpreviously,the commercialpro-
duction facilities employedby Esso employonce-throughsteamgeneratorscontain-
rer, California,in
ing three paralleltube passes,which generateabout 160,000lb/h of steameach.
,imilar.
TABLE 8.8 OperatingConditionsfor Esso'sLemingWater RecyclePlant
-ANT (mg/kg) CURRENT REUSE PLANT OPERATION

PHYSICAL PLANT
IGF inlet rate fiom3/h
OUTLET
IGF inlet suspendedoil 200ppm
278 IGF outlet suspendedoil 21ppm
200 Hot lime treater inlet suspendedoil 9 ppm
65 Ion exchangereffluent:
0.0 Rate 1oom3lh
0.0 Total hardness 0.2ppm
111 Silica 26 ppm
1.2 pH 9.1
260 Chloride 1600-2200 ppm
0.1 Sulphides 20 ppm
0.3 Oxygen 5 ppb
793
(Peacheyand Nodwell 1981;
7.4
I 150
8.9
The water from the primary separationof the oil is treated in an inducedgas
flotation cell.8An apparatusof this type is shown in Figure 8.34. Its operation de-
20 pendsupon the dispersionof small bubblesof gasby meansof centrifugal impellers
0 locatednear the bottom of the contactstages.The bubblesof gasrise to the surface
and carry the oil with them as adheringdroplets.At the surfacethey are removed
as a foam. The equipmentshown contains four separationstages,in which the wa-
ter is treatedsuccessivelv.
tThis processis commonly referred to as inducedair

;tigatedduring the flotation in other applications.In the
treatmentof recyclewater, it is desirableto use a natural gas rather than air to reducecorrosion.
old Lake that was The buildup of HzS in the gaswithin the processis a problemthat needsconsiderationin the design
at the Unitar Con- of the facilities.
:acilities Chap.8 RecyclingProducedWater 397
--
: HARON€55
POI,ISHING
'oJ,ll,i'lo,Ti^';'tf srtAM
i,t'lf$'."'
Figure 8.32 Conventional Oilfield Steam Generators (from Whallev and
Wilson 1979)
Figrrl I
The water leavingthe inducedgas flotation cell is filtered and treatedin a llt
hot-limetreater.In the hot-limetreatmentprocess,the water is softenedand silica
is reducedby adsorptionand coprecipitationwith magnesiumhydroxide.A diagram
of a hot-limetreater(of the type usedby Essoresourcesat cold Lake) is shownin Dependingupt
Figure 8.35.The equipmentshown softensthe water, removesmuch of the silica. necessar!'to I
and alsoremovesdissolvedgases;a separatedeaeratoris not required. carbonateor ti
calcium is removedfrom solution as calcium carbonate,and magnesiumis as sodaash(so
precipitatedas magnesiumhydroxide.The chemicalreactionsare as follows: feed, additime
Ca(HCOr)z+ Ca(OH), : 2 CaCOt I + zHzO
Feed----J'
Coagulanl-J
Dirtybackwash
from secondary
filters and ion
exchangers
Caustic
Sodaash
Lime
Mso
Figure E.33 Flowplan for Leming Water RecyclePlant (after peacheyand Nod- Sludge Recyde hn
well 1981) I
398 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 RecyclingProdr

t5H
,FTT
NI D
Anr
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l) iii._l--.
- RAMT
,.. . IURNET
, to7. t
- ouAllTY LEGEND
{ SrtAr FiTil werea
ffi orr
Whalley and f-__-l ens
Figure 8.34 Four-StageInducedGas Flotation Cell (CourtesyNatco)
sd and treatedin a Mg(HCOr)z+ Ca(OH), : MgCO: * CaCO: I + 2 H2O

softenedand silica MgCO3 + Ca(OH)r: Mg(OH), J + CaCO3 J
'droxide.A diagram
d Lake) is shownin Dependingupon the concentrations of the ionic speciesin the feed,it is sometimes
muchof the silica, necessaryto add other reactantsbesideslime to the hot-lime treater.lnsufficient
:quired. carbonateor bicarbonateion in the feed is augmentedby the addition of carbonate
and magnesiumis as sodaash (sodiumcarbonate).Similarly,if there is insufficientmagnesiumin the
rre as follows: feed, additionalmagnesiumoxide may be addedto adsorbsilica.
Soda ash
Feed Magnesiumoxide
Coagulant Gases to vent
Sludge + Watetpumpedfrom
Recycle I dirtybackwashcompt
Lime into reactionzone
Dirtybackwash bypump notshovn
fromsecondary
Final
deaeation
secondaryfilters
Cleanbackwash Productstorage
ct|angers
'1 ,esin) niee nte
^-
I-l I rg tt2
slearn
generalion
:hey and Nod- Figure 835 Sludge-ContactHot-

Sludge Product ProcessSoftener(after Bridle 1986)
Facilities Chap.8 RecyclingProducedWater 399

The successfuloperationof a hot-lime treater requiresthe maintenanceof
a sludge inventory of a proper consistency.chemicals may be added to promote
coagulation. bt
It is also very important to control the amount of oil in the feed to very low
levels(lessthan 20 ppm). Failure to do this resultsin a putty-like sludge,which is
ineffectiveas a contactingmedium.
Followingthe hotJime treatment,the water is filtered to removesludgethat
has beencarried over and is then given a "polish," or softeningtreatment,ln two
stagesof ion exchangers.
Conventionalion exchangetreatmentof water for boiler feed involvescontact
with sodium"zeolite"resin.Although this resin is commonlycalledzeolite,it is no
longermade from zeolite mineralsbut is usuallya sulphonatedcross-linkedpoly-
styreneresin.Calciumand magnesiumionsin the water exchangewith the sodium
ions in the resin.As a result,the calciumand magnesiumin the waterare replaced
by sodium.When the resinis spent,it is regenerated by contactwith a sodiumchlo- ftr
ride solution.This is the sameprocessusedin domesticwater softening.
With low dissolvedsolidsthe followinereactionsoccur:
A reclc
Softening: 2 R - N a * + C a * * : R z - C a * *+ 2 N a + 230 individu
(equipments
2 R-Na* * Mg** : Rr-Mg** + 2Na* ceousearth-(
R e g e n e r a t i o nR: z - C a * ** 2 N a + : 2 R - N a * + Ca** tion of the r
(1979)for Ga
In theseequationsR- representsthe sulphonateanionsin the polymeric resin
material.
The zeolite softeningprocesslosesits effect when the water that is to be soft-
enedcontainsa high concentrationof sodiumions. In this circumstancethe equi- ProducdH
frmgra{
librium of the softening reaction is suppressedby the sodium ions already in
oil ratsscpd
solution,and the capacityof the sodiumform of the resin to removecalcium and
magnesiumions is greatly reduced.This problem preventszeolite softening from
I
beingeffectiveat Cold Lake. --J oetra
The softeningof high-brine-contentwater can be carried out using a weak -T
I
carboxylic acid resin in which the acidic groups on the resin are carboxyiic rather I
than sulphonicacid groups.The disadvantage of this resin is that it is much more
difficult and costly to regenerate.A two-stageregenerationwith acid and then caus-
-T
l-
I Sedin'€fletL
tic is requiredrather than the simplereactionwith brine. The processand the re-
,--_l-
generationare shown by the following chemical equations:
-T
I Fbtr'Oa
Softening 2 R-Na* + Ca** : R z - C a * * + 2 N a *

2 R-Na* * Mg** = R r - M g * t * 2 N a * -T
I
I
DiatomarA
PressueC& F
Regeneration:
Caoon EdI't
1. With acid Rz-Ca** + Z}l+ : 2 R - H * + C a * * I
2. With caustic 2 R-H* + 2 NaOH = 2 R N a * + 2 H r O

Getty, at Kern River, has a very large water-recycleoperation using the pro- Steam g6FtE
Fe€d
cesssequenceshownin Figure 8.36.
400 RecyclirgProd
Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8
Oxygen
the maintenanceof Chomicals
rc added to promote
the feed to very low

'like sludge,which is Depuralot
) removesludgethat Fegdwaierto
steam
ng treatment,in two
Callon Dlatomaceousearth
leedinvolvescontact exchangel cake fllter
;alledzeolite,it is no
:d cross-linkedpoly-
ngewith the sodium
rewater are replaced
with a sodiumchlo- Figure 8.36 Getty's water-Recycleprocessat Kern River (after carrell 1979)
softening.
A recyclerate of 80,000tonnesper day is usedand the plant supplieswater to
230 individual steam generators.The processinvolves deoiling with a depurator
(equipmentsimilar to an IGF), further flotation, and filtration through diatoma-
ceousearth. Conventionalzeolite softeningis employedbecausethe salt concentra-
tion of the water is relatively low. Impurity concentrationsreported by Carrell
(1979)for Getty'soperationare shownin Figure 8.37.
r the polymericresin
lnsoluble Suspended Hardness
ter that is to be soft- Oil Solids as CaCOa
cumstancethe equi- ppm pPm ppm
um ions already in
removecalcium and 110
olite softening from
:d out using a weak

re carboxylic rather
rhat it is much more
r acid and then caus-
processand the re-
Figure E37 Compositionof Streams

Steam generator in Getty'sWater-RecycleProcess(after
ation using the pro-
Feed Carrell 1979)
RecyclingProducedWater 401
I Facilities Chap.8
Wastewater Management In gcl
sources.Th
In a large steamrecoveryproject, there is a considerablecomplexityin the handling
disposalof 1
of the various water streams.The situation for the Esso project at Cold Lake has
scheduliryI
beendescribedby L.A. Courtnage(1987).Figure 8.38givesan idea of the factors
equipmentf
that have to be considered.
Esso'sTtsr
COLD LAKE AREA WATER SALANCE
Esso hasdcr
fiESH WATEI FRE3H WATEi involveshet
lowedby'tL
in Figure8J
FIETH WATET rTESX WATET Heatiq
surfacesthd
hot-limepro
that it is des
pH of the el
WAIEi ocxctallo]a Lim and Kq
I rtE x
PT@UCCD WAITI
Experimenld0
I Dl3?o3AL ExcE33
ttooucED WATER
DrsPoa^t
C:
r:t
nELO tioDucEo wA?El REDUCINGTOTAL I
The water-ro
oExEt^noil and hardnes
days of wata
tloDucED WATEI solvedsolids
DIsFO3AL up the bulk o
3
ld
b normal curdi
a
z In its co
I containing*
NELO PRODUCED WA?Ei
containing25
out problems
OEXEiATIOX
utrtt
Figure 8,38 Water Flows for Esso's Cold Lake Facilities. Leming and May are
Esso's Pilot Facilities; Maskwa and Mahihkan are Commercial Facilities (after
Courtnage 1987)
402 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 ReducingTote

In general, water is supplied from recycle and from various freshwater
sources.The systemmust be managedto minimize freshwaterusageand minimize
exityin the handling disposalof produced water (in deep disposalwells). There is also a considerable
ct at Cold Lake has schedulingproblem involved becauseof the necessityat times to shut down major
n idea of the factors equipmentfor repairs.There can be both planned and unplanned shutdowns.
Esso'sThermal Softening Process
Essohas describeda process(Lim and Konak 1985)for the softeningof water that
',64\ involvesheatingthe water to a high temperatureby direct mixing with steam,fol-
rrFFuvr \
.:;16;-,/ lowedby the removalof the precipitatedsolid by filtration. The principleis shown
-/ in Figure 8.39.
rlfl
Heating the feedwaterby using direct steamavoidsthe scalingof heat-transfer
surfacesthat would occur otherwise.Removalof somesilica alsooccurs,as in the
I hot-limeprocessby coprecipitationwith magnesiumhydroxide.The inventorsfind
L_] that it is desirableto add causticsodaor sodiumcarbonateto the feed to bring the
?uxT | 3?E v pH of the effluent into the range9 to 10. Someexperimentalresultsreportedby
Lim and Konak are given next.
I oex:rrnol
r'
I noouc:o wattl
ExperimentalData Reportedfor ThermalSofteningProcess
us?oalr. AverageData from SevenTests

l* ReactorTemperature211"C;Effluent pH 9.7
I Feed ppm Productppm
J
REDUCING
TOTALDISSOLVED
SOLIDS
The water-recycleprocessthat has been describedremovesoil, dissolvedoxygen,
and hardnessbut doesnot reducethe total dissolvedsolids (TDS). From the early
days of water recycling, there has been much concern over the level of total dis-
solvedsolids that can be toleratedin steamgeneratorfeed. Sodium chloride makes
up the bulk of thesesolids.This has a high solubilityand will not crystallizeunder
normal conditions.
In its commercialoperationsat Cold Lake, Essois successfully recyclingwater
containingabout 8000ppm of TDS. Thielen et al. (1988)demonstratedthat water
containing25,000ppm of total dissolvedsolidscan be usedto generatesteam,with-
out problems,in a test rig that simulatesan oil field steamgenerator.
ng and May are

Facilities (after Figure 8.39 Esso'sThermal Softening
Process(from Lim and Konak 1985)
d Facilities Chap.8 ReducingTotal DissolvedSolids 403

The removal of most of the total dissolvedsolids from water of even higher GAS STANT{'
salinity can be done by methodssuch as evaporation,reverseosmosis,electrodialy- BUNilE
sis, and freeze desalination. This field has been reviewed by Zaidi, Kok, and
Schmidt (1988);they have arrived at the following cost estimatesfor the production
of 3000m3/d of once-throughoil field steamgeneratorfeed. I
T
I
-| \ -- |
I
coMBUSnOn =
With Capital Without Capital ArR
Depreciation Depreciation
+
I
Vapor compressionevaporation
Electrodialysis
2.07
1.66
1.01 I
Freezedesalination I.JJ
1.05
0.80
I
!
It
(Zaidi, Kok, and Schmidt 1988)
\
For a water-to-oil ratio of 3 to 5, the costsof desalinationjust given would be $4 to

$10per cubic meter of oil product.
I
--vvRF-
ALTERNATESTEAM GENERATORS IL- srr
Coal-FiredSteam Generators (SourcerLNS Ari! Gr
TransAltaR6or6 t
In areaswhere coal is abundantit may be a more economicfuel for the generation
of steamthan gas or oil. There has been considerableinterest in this possibility in plete in 1991
Alberta and a number of ongoingjoint industry governmentstudieshave been de- phur, are 03
scribed (Alberta Energy 1989). existingemirr
Two approachesare being followed. The first approachis the designof a new
coal-burning, oil field steam generatorwhich will have a capacity of 180 million Downhole Sl
BTU/h and which will use feedwatercontaining a high concentrationof dissolved There has bcr
solids.Reactivesolidswill be injected into the furnace to absorb about40Voof the
field steamga
sulphur in the coal fuel. The secondapproachinvolves the designof a coal burner duction of cd
which can be addedto existingoil field steamgeneratorsas a retrofit. This too will duction in ver
involve a reduction of sulphur emissionsby employing a new type of slagging
There a
burner in which part of the sulphur is removedin the slag.
Both approachesinvolve the useof pulverizedcoal. The first was proposedby 1. Low-pra
CombustionEngineering Canada and would involve the coal being pulverized so relativdy
that 70Vowould pass through a 200 mesh screen.The secondapproachwas pro- ini:ctio
posedby Struthers:IlW; it would use micronizedcoal (i.e. coal ground so that 90%o late the I
of the coal would passthrough a 325 mesh sieve).A new Low NO^/SO, (LNSB) 2. High-pre
burner that has been developedby Rockwell International will be used.A diagram rectlywil
showinghow this burner would be connectedto a conventionalhorizontal oil-field tion well
steamgeneratoris shown in Figure 8.40.A project to demonstratethe operability of
An inpo
the concept has been initiated at the Esso operations at Cold Lake by the
oxygen rath6
TransAlta ResourcesInvestmentCorporation. The project is expectedto be com-
that the resuh
Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8
AlternateSteor
ater of even higher
mosis,electrodialy-
y Zaidi, Kok, and
r for the production
Cubic Meter
Without Capital
Depreciation
1.01
1.05
0.80
iven wouldbe $4 to
STEAMGENERATOR
SKID
Figure 8.40 Low NO-/So- Burner
Shown Retrofitted to a Horizontal
{Source:LNS Burneron EOF SteamGeneratorFeasibilityStudy, SteamGenerator(from Alberta
TransAltaFesourcesInvestmentCorporation,19BB) Energy)
:l for the generation
in this possibilityin plete in 1991,192.
The emissiongoalsfor the programfor coal containing 0.36Vosul-
udieshave been de- phur, are 0.3 lb of Soz and 0.2 lb of No, per million BTU; thesecompareto the
existingemissionregulationsof 0.6 SOzand 0.6 NO" (0.2NO" for gasfuel).
the designof a new
rcity of L80 million Downhole Steam Generation
rtration of dissolved There has been a significant effort to develop downhole steam generatorsfor oil
rb about 40Voof.the field steamgeneration.One of the main advantagesseenfor this approachis the re-
ign of a coal burner duction of well bore heat lossesand, becauseof this, improved economicsfor pro-
rtrofit. This too will duction in very deep deposits.
rw type of slagging There are two basic approaches:
int wasproposedby 1. Low-pressurecombustion,in which the downholecombustionis carried out at

being pulverized so relatively low pressureand in which the flue gas products are vented up the
I approachwas pro- injection well. This approachrequiresa heat exchangerdown the well to iso-
ground sothat90Va late the low-pressurecombustionzone from the high-pressuresteam.
w NO"/SO" (LNSB) 2. High-pressurecombustion,in which the productsof combustionare mixed di-
be used.A diagram rectly with the steamand passinto the reservoirto be collectedat the produc-
rl horizontal oil-field tion wells.
atethe operabilityof An important possiblevariation of the secondapproachinvolves the use of
Cold Lake by the oxygen rather than air for the combustion.This also has the potential advantage
lxpectedto be com- that the resulting high concentrationof carbon dioxide may improve the effect of
I Facilities Chap.8 Alternate Steam Generators
the steamin recoveringoil. Considerations similar to this also apply to the use of S e rc : r ;
oxygenfor in situ combustionand to the wet oxidation steamgenerators,such as encedT . ::. rr
the Zimpro equipmentthat is discussedlater. low the ;,':::ir
A majoradvantageseenfor the useof downholesteamgenerators with the di- s m a l l - di r r : . u c:
rect injectionof the flue gasinto the reservoiris that the sulphurand nitrogenox- face is a i:.*J
ideswill be absorbedin the reservoir,either as anionsin the water or by the rocks \ ; - , ,- ;
- l u ( ' F - - ^
directly; flue gasscrubbingis avoided. a period r,: .c

Figure 8,41 showsa cross-sectional diagramof the high-pressuredownhole flame ha: *;c:
steamgeneratordevelopedby Sandia National Laboratoriesin the DOE "Deep adding J :.. l(
Steam"projectdescribedby B.W. Marshall (1982). method: u,':i
The wallsof the generatorare cooledby the feedwaterthat flows from the an- C h e m i c a ,O :
nulus aroundthe "combustioncan" onto the wall at the lower part of the combus- T- f - n r -.'
"--"
tion chamber.Here it evaporates,and the steam mingles with the flue gases. w h e r ei t i r , : ; ; r
Versionsfor using either air or oxygenhave been studied.Dieselfuel was used as c o m p l i c a t c . i::
fuel in the prototypemodel. may bectr::r l
tion. rrhert ::r
Orldlror
Fluidized Bed
T h e u s et r : : . u
of steam lh,1: :
fuel is adcc; :
m e a n so i t h . ; c
atlon Zona
500
lr
c.
Coollaj U.lot
o
L
rroo 3 a t \l
Flor t rl
3 E
b
o
o 300 -31
E
o a,
t
F g
tt?*
ttrExstox , E 200 -z 2,
a o
etr oryeon o
I I t-
a!' aa' o (l
L
D a.c' a.t' 100 ! t'
It' a' UJ
Lc
o o
Figure 8.41 Sandia'sHigh PressureDownholeSteamGenerator(from Marshall Figurt I
1982\ s h a i .- +
406 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 AlternateStea.

applyto the use of Severecorrosionresultingfrom the action of the sulphur dioxideswas experi-
generators,
such as enced.This wascontrolledby the direct additionof causticsodato the producibe-
low the combustionzone. The causticwas conveyedto the generatorin a separate
eratorswith the di- small-diametertube. The needto install severalseparatetubing stringsto the sur-
rr and nitrogenox- face is a disadvantageof the downhole generatorapproach.
rteror by the rocks A downholegeneratorof this type hasoperatedsuccessfully in Californiafor
a period of severalmonths;performanceis shown in Figure g.42. Ignition of the
pressuredownhole flame hasbeenobtainedboth by meansof an electricglow plug or, alternatively,by
'botir
n the DOE "Deep addinga hypergolic(self-igniting)liquid, triethyl borane,to the dieselfuel;
methods worked. Another high-pressuredownhole generator developed by the
f lowsfrom the an- ChemicalOil RecoveryCo. (Eson 1982)is shownin Figure 8.43.
rart of the combus- up until now, downhole steam generation has not advanced to the point
rth the flue gases. whereit is acceptedasa commercialalternative.The equipmentthat hasevolvedis
el fuel was used as complicatedand not competitive.Although the use of downholesteamgenerators
may becomepracticalfor steamflooding,it is unlikely to be so for steamstimula-
tion, wherethe periodicrequirementfor steamwould make it more expensive.
FluidizedBed Combustion Boilers
The use of fluidized bed combustionboilers is another approachto the generation
of steamthat may be of value in the recoveryof heavyoil. In theseboilers,solid
fuel is addedto a bed of solid particles,which are maintainedin a fluid statebv
meansof the combustionair stream.
500 TEIPERATURE
lr
c
ft roo Et t
e .P
a
b E
t goo= 3
E
o .l
t
F
€o
to zooo3
J oAY t-IOYEIBER 30,t08t
o o
L sTEAI OUAUTY-aOA
a
roo C I
tu
o
Tlmo,dryr to
from Marshall Figure 8.42 Performanceof Sandia'sDownhole SteamGenerator(from Mar-
shall 1982)
Facilities Chap.8 Alternate Steam Generators

flrt -
gatar
ro ccond
a?EAr alo
corluallofl
rtooucla
firo ratttolt
Figure 8.43 ChemicalOil RecoveryCompany'sDownhole Generator(from Eson 1982)

Ftt{
Limestoneis also addedto the combustionzone bed; it reactswith the sul-
col
phur oxidesthat resultfrom the combustionof the fuel to yield calciumsulphate,
and this is removedas a byproduct.It is necessary to add limestonein excessof the
stoichiometricquantity required to react with the sulphur.
Three types of fluid bed combustorsare beingdeveloped:
1. Atmospheric-pressure combustors,in which the fluidized bed operatesat a

pressureslightly aboveatmospheric.
2. High-pressure combustors, in which the gasesleavingthe combustionfurnace
are used to drive a gas turbine. Although this approachis attractivefor the
generationof increasedpower becauseof its higherpotentialefficiency,there
has been trouble in obtaining reliable mechanicalturbine operation because
of the entrainedsolidsin the gasstream.
3. A multi-solid fluidized bed generator,which is being developedby Battelle;
this equipment is being promoted by Struthers Wells for the generationof
steamfor thermal recovery(Berry 1979).
A schematicflowplan for a multi-solid fluid bed combustionboiler is shown in

Figure 8.44. Fluidized silica particles are usedto conveyheat from the combustion
zone to the external boiler. These silica particles circulate from the combustion
zone to the external boiler and then back to the construction zone when they be-
come reheated.Separationfrom the fly ash is obtainedbecauseof the considerably
higher densityof the silica ascomparedto that of the fly ash.The surpluslimestone
and calcium sulphateare removedas a separatestreamfrom the fly-ash collector.
Although more lime is used in this processthan would be required for a wet
slurry flue gas treatment system,it is simpler to disposeof the dry solid product.
Possibleusesfor the wasteinclude agricultural liming, a neutralizing agentfor mu-
FIF
nicipal wastewatertreatment, and aggregatefor construction and road building. Are I
Other companiesinvolved in fluidized bed combustion(mostlywith a view Z*
to power generation) are Babcock Wilcox, BP, Riley Stoker Corp. (Worcester,
Mass.), Foster Wheeler, Fluidyne Engineering, and JohnstonBoiler Co. (Ferrys- rectedinto tl
burg, Mich.). directly to d
ture of cnd
Vapor Therm Steam Generators generator(n
mended by
The Vapor Therm steam generationprocess(Sperry 1981)has been developedby provide usc
Carmel Energy Inc. The principle is shown in Figure 8.45. somecas€st
An air and fuel mixture under a pressureslightly higher than the required ventional g!
steampressureis burned in an external combustionchamber,and the gasesare di- contain a il
AlternateSE
I Fluc
9a*3
to ?conomirar
H
.?EAI AIO
cor!ul'llofl
rroDUCla
irto flllorr
n Eson 1982)
Fly-arh Entraincd
reactswith the sul- collectot
bed
d calciumsulphate,
ionein excessof the
FlyrCr
bed operatesat a
combustionfurnace
is attractivefor the
Extcrnrl
tial efficiency,there boiler
e operationbecause
velopedby Battelle; Distributor

plate Dcnro
rr the generationof bod
Air
r boiler is shown in
t
:romthe combustion
rom the combustion
zonewhen they be-
e of the considerably
he surpluslimestone Distributor
rhefly-ashcollector. plate
>erequired for a wet
re dry solid product.
alizing agentfor mu-
Figure E,44 Battelle'sFluid Bed CombustionBoiler. Fluidized Solids Which
rnd road building. Are Retainedwithin the Plant Circulate and Carry Heat from the Combustion
(mostlywith a view Zone to the External Boiler (from Berry 1979)
:r Corp. (Worcester,
r Boiler Co. (Ferrys- rectedinto the pool of boilingwater.The mixture of steamand flue gasis conveyed
directly to the wells that are being steamed.The fuel that hasbeenusedis a mix-
ture of crude oil and diesel fuel. There have been severalsuccessfultests of the
generatoron a relatively small scale,and it is availablecommercially.It is recom-
mended by Sperry for use where the high-pressureinert gas in the steam can
s been developedby provide useful drive in pressure.depletedreservoirs.Sperry also suggeststhat in
somecasesthe output from the generatorcan be combinedwith steamfrom a con-
er than the required ventional generatorto give a cheapermixture, which may, for some applications,
and the gasesare di- contain a more optimum amount of inert gas.
I Facilities Chap.8 Alternate Steam Generators 409
F!€. S- ]*tr
pump walerpump
Fuelcontrolvalve
orv35\ -ra J
c0ntr0ller Tnc ;c
line Pressirre
Inioction w a t e r . r rh : ; h
Almoilhcdc Alr ry$om lo wells conlrol
within thc .r
ir
bypass
valve callr to ::cr
Air compressors Timsrconlrolled
anddnvers Thc pr
blorvdownvalve
types anJ .ri
Code s u l p h a t e :a n
& Control
vatves @ ritters duces lt-lF.
iryectron*
Chemical
,,0.* ur,u* .Q eumos Di:;r,h;
|
OI OX\9cli ltr
& Reliefvalves tt Checkvalves
product. -{h
@ Strainers
and it ha. itr
e x p e n s lc\ .
A cr:tx
Figure 8.45 Carmel Energy'sVapor Therm Process(from Sperry 1981)
can be shrr\r
t h a n s i m i . er
For the Vapor Therm processto be widely utilized, it will be necessaryto o x r ' _ q e nu. h r
demonstratethat the addedcostof air compression
and the usuallymore expensive p r o c e s s c$. h
fuel arejustified by improvedrecoveryperformance.It is an interestingidea. include h:el
g e D € f 3i 0
tn
The Zimpro-AECSteam Generator
The Zimpro-AEC steamgenerationis anotherprocessin which steammixed with
flue gas is producedfor injection into the reservoir.However,unlike the Vapor
Therm approach,this can utilize solid and other poor-qualityfuels. AI-sr R: .'.L r ,
-
Poor-qualityfuels that come to mind for Canadianbitumen projectsinclude R e c c t;r: i ,
coal, petroleumcoke, coker cycle oil, residualcrude, and high-melting-pointas- (19re
phalt. To be ableto disposeof suchmaterialsin an integratedin situ projectshould BAts( (x \ i:.:
allow significantreductionsin the cost of upgrading. (19-:
-
The principleof the processis shownin Figure8.46.It is basedupon technol- B e n n r .R I
ogy that is well known in the disposalof aqueouseffluentssuchassewageand pulp Bttz Ha,:;tt
mill effluents.Many commercialdisposalplantsare in operation.Fuel,water,and BroxH. .{ G .
oxygen(or air) are introducedcontinuouslyinto a reactormaintainedat the steam B O R R L Ti.:: : r .
pressure. I irc--:.i.; I
410 Steam RecoveryEquipmentand Facilities Chap.8 Bibliog.ao. '

Flow so*r
tc tlrso0sAl
to wells
;. 5mosro
-5.-N:D+> Figure 8.46 Zimpro'sWet-Air Oxidation Process(from AEC/Zimpro)
;JH,,
|"ils controlvalve
The conditionswithin the reactor are such that it is largely full of liquid
water, which boils as a result of the oxidationof the fuel. The heat is liberated
within the liquid phase.Unreactivesolidsand somewater are blown down periodi-
cally to preventaccumulation.
' mntr0lle{t
The processhas the advantageof beingableto consumea wide rangeof fuel
0100wn valve
types and of avoidingpollution by sulphuroxides;the sulphurleavesas dissolved
sulphatesand sulphiteswithin the water.The processcan useuntreatedwater,pro-
/Fr Frlters dtces I00Voquality steam,and is potentiallyvery energyefficient.
.\ Disadvantages of the processare the needto compressall the combustionair
bi
Pumps
ta valves
Check
or oxygento the steampressureand the corrosivityof the steam-carbondioxide
product. Also, the reactorhas to be built from specialcorrosion-resistant alloys,
and it has to havethick walls to withstandthe high pressure;thesefactorsmake it
expensive. li
A critical factor in determiningthe successof this processwill be whetherit ll
fl
can be shownthat the steam-carbondioxidemixture is moreeffectivefor recovery
:r 1981)
than simplesteam.Also, it will haveto competewith wet, in situ combustionusing In
oxygen, which also generatesa mixture of steam and carbon dioxide. Other rJ
ll be necessary
to I
lv moreexpensive processes whosesuccessdependslargelyon the effectiveness of steam-gas mixtures
;restingidea. include high-pressuredownhole steam generationand Carmel's Vapor Therm
generation.
steammixedwith BIBLIOGRAPHY
unlike the Vapor
els. ENencv,"Development
Ar-BpRra Boilerfor SteamInjectionin HeavyOil
of a Coal-Fired
'n projectsinclude Recovery," AlbertaOfficeof CoalResearch andTechnology, PubNo I/293,Edmonton,
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(r97D.
isedupon technol- Benny,R. I., "Fluid-BedGetsthe Nod,"Chem.Eng.,60-62(Oct.8,1979). O 1979SPE.
s sewageand pulp Bnrz Handbookof IndustrialWaterConditioning,8th Ed., Trevose,
Penn.: (1980).
r. Fuel,water,and BLoru,A.G., HeatTransfer in Steam Hemisphere
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Weuor, R. E., "Review of StackGas ScrubberOperatingExperiencein an Oil-Fired Steam
Generator," SPE,7125(1978).
WuaLLev, M. J. and WILSoN,T. M., "Water Conservationin a SteamStimulationProject,"
1stUNITAR Conference,Edmonton,Alberta (June4-12, 1979),reportedin The Future
of Heavy Crudesand Tar Sandq New York: McGraw-Hill (1981),734-738.
WtLLwHItr, G. P. and DIetnIcu, W. K., "DesignCriteria for Completionof SteamInjection
Wells,"JPT, 15-22 (January1967).
WILsoN,T. M., "SteamQuality and Metering," Preprint 26th Ann. Tech. Mtg. of the Pet.
Soc.of CIM, Banff, Alberta, June 11-13,(1975).
In Si
WorcesHyN,G., ManrrN,W., MoNrrN,J., YueN,P., and MeNzeNo,J., "SteamQuality Mea-
surementsby NeutronTransmission,"3rd UNITAR/UNDP InternationalConferenceon
HeavyCrude and Tar Sands,Long Beach,Calif, July22-31, 1985.pub. by AOSTRA, Ed-
monton (July 1988).
WoIcesHvN,G. E., YueN, P. S., JosN,H., and M,qNzaNo-Rurs, J. J., "Measurement
of Steam
Quality, Mass Flow Rate and Enthalpy Using CombinedDensitometerand Nozzle," SPEI
DOE 14907(re86).
Zxor, A., Kor, S. and Scsrurpr,J.W.,"ProcessOptionsfor Recycleof High TDS Produced
Waterduring In Situ Recoveryof HeavyOil," in R. F. Meyersand E. J. Wiggins(Editors), INTRODUCTrc)
The Fourth UNITAR/UNDP InternationalConferenceon Heavy Crude and Tar Sands,
Vol3: Mining, Drilling, AOSTRA, Edmonton,(1989),pp 449-465. In steamfl
without prr
erator,in tl
A significa
and overbu
depleted.
Estim
heat losses
and from th
in the fuel i
TABLE
9.1 !
SteamGencn
Transmissio
Flow do,rn r,
Flow in rescr
condensa
(trl-oss =
l-Ct
\\'ithi
steam temp
front. Beca
the front hi
r.Gravity Sand-Laden
, Edmonton,Alberta
'ar Sands,New York:
in an Oil-Fired Steam
StimulationProject,"
rportedin The Future
f738.
ion of SteamInjection
ech. Mtg. of the Pet. In Siru Combustion

, "SteamQuality Mea-
ttional Conferenceon
ub. by AOSTRA, Ed-
'{easurementof Steam
ter and Nozzle," SPEI
f High TDS Produced

.-J. Wiggins(Editors), INTRODUCTION
Crude and Tar Sands,
In steamflooding,a considerableamount of the energygeneratedby the fuel is lost
without providinguseful heat in the reservoir.There are lossesin the steamgen-
erator,in the steamtransmissionlines,from the well bore, and to the overburden.
A significantfactor is that in steamflooding,it is necessaryto keep the reservoir
and overburdenheatedbehind the condensationfront even after the oil has been
depleted.
Estimatesof the rangesof the variousheatlossesare shownin Table9.1.The
heat lossesfrom the steam-generation facilities, from the steam distribution lines,
and from the well borewithin the overburdencan amountto over half of the energy
in the fuel and even in favorablecircumstances,to about one-quarterof the energy.
TABLE 9.1 Steamflooding-ThermalEfficiencyBasisHeatingValueof Fuel = 100
VoEf.ficiency ApproximateRange
of Step Cumulative
SteamGenerator 75-85 75-85
Transmissionto well(t) 75-95 56-81
Flow down well to reservoir 80-95 45-77
Flow in reservoirto
condensationfront 25-75 I 1-58
(r)Loss-
270 Btulh ft of insulated6-in. pipe.
Within the reservoir, it is necessaryfor the steam-sweptregion to remain at

steamtemperatureso that the steamcan condenseat the advancingcondensation
front. Becauseof this, the heat lossesfrom the steam-sweptregion continue after
the front has passed.
Facilities Chap.8 415
With in situ combustionthe situation is different in that there are no heat to fire the bd
lossesuntil the oxygenin the injectedgasreactswith the fuel at the fire front. Heat the oxygen-O
behind the front preheatsthe advancingair, and there is thus someconservationof the steamofl
heat. This effect is enhancedin wet combustionby the addition of water to the in- 23% to 39%o
jected air. The water coolsthe sweptreservoirbehind the front, boils, and then sup- For oq6
plies steamthat passesthrough the combustionfront and condensesfarther along, air injectim.l
where it preheatsthe reservoir aheadof the front. be compresr
In situ combustionthus has featuresthat give it the potential for being more liquificatim I
efficient and economical.The fuel for in situ combustioncomesfrom the residual small compo
material in the reservoir and there is no need to supplycombustionfuel. However, Inamd
it is necessaryto provide energyto compressthe air and if oxygenis used,to sepa- to about lfr) p
rate the oxygenfrom the air:.This energyfor compressionor, in the caseof oxygen, (Newton 1979
for separationand compressionis much lessthan that requiredfor steamgeneration. to that for sct
In Table 9.2, the fuel requirements(excludingthe in situ combustionfuel) for Thecd
in situ combustionwith air or with pure oxygenare comparedto that for thermal to $1 for in rl
recovery using steam. The basis for the comparisonis the supply of a constant bersdo not tJ
amount of heat, 1 million Btu, to the reservoir.The quantity of steamgeneration In qic
fuel is comparedto that required to compressthe air or to separateand compress widely used d
the oxygen. It is assumedthat the compressedair or oxygen must be supplied at production ir
1000psig. In lHl
The column headedefficiency in the table relatesthe amount of heat supplied of 6525 !fl.
to the reservoirto the amount of energy,assumedto be suppliedas natural gasfuel qo
(101,000
California.
In situ q
TABLE 9.2 Fuel Requirementsto Supply 1 Million Btu to Sand Faceat 1000psig in controlliq
steamfronts, t
EFFICIENCY FUEL REQUIRED ENERGY COST thelessth€rc I
Vo Millions of Btu $/Million Btu in Res.a
Steam(r) 45-:77 L.J-Z.Z 2.6-4.4
Air in situ combustion(2) 190 0.5 1.0
Oz in situ combustion(3) 315 U.J 0.6
(l)Based
on Table 9.1.
(2Assuming
compressordriven by gas engine:
o Engine efficiency 34Vobasedon LHV of 908 Btu/SCF for CH+;
o Compressordrive requirement6.35 HP h/1000SCF; ,m
o Heat of combustion100Btu/SCF of air (476Btu/SCF of 02).
(3)The
rnechanicalenergyrequiredto separate1000SCF of air is approximately2.9 HP-h.
02 requiredto generate1 million Btu is 2101SCF.
This can be producedby separating210U0.21= 10,004SCF air.
x
Work Equivalent
HPh Fuel Btu
Air separation 29.0 2r7,t60
02 compression 13.3 99,904
317,064
(a)Fuel
cost assumedto be $2/Million Btu. Capital costsare not included.
416 ln Situ Combustion Chap.9 Introductiqt

here are no heat to fire the boiler, to fuel an engineto compressthe air or to separateand compress
refire front. Heat the oxygen.On this basis,the in situ combustionoptions comparevery favorablyto
reconservationof the steam option. In this comparison air in situ combustionrequires only about
rf waterto the in- 23Voto 39Voof the fuel neededfor steam'
ils, and then sup- For oxygeninjection, the potential fuel savingsare evengreaterthan thosefor
sesfarther along, air injection. The reasonfor this is that only about one-fifth as much gas needsto
be compressedto 1000psig. Although it is also necessaryto separatethe air by
ial for being more liquification and distillation, the energy requirementsfor doing this are relatively
from the residual small comparedto those for high-pressurecompression'
on fuel. However, In a modern tonnageair separationplant, the air feed needsto be compressed
n is used,to sepa- to about 100psia, and this work suppliesessentiallyall of the energyfor separation
re caseof oxygen, (Newton 1979).Acomparisonof the energyrequiredfor the compressionof the Oz
steamgeneration. to that for separationis shown in the footnotesto the table.
mbustionfuel) for The cosi of the energyfor supplying1 million Btu to the reservoiris only $0.60
) that for thermal to $1 for in situ combustionas comparedto $2.60to $4.40for steam.Thesenum-
ply of a constant bers do not take into accounteither the capital costsor the nonfuel operatingcosts.
'steam In spite of the potential advantagesfor in situ combustion, it is much less
generation
rate and compress widely used than steam.Figure 9.1 showsthe resultsof a survey of thermal EOR
ust be supplied at production in the USA.
In 1988there were nine commercialU.S. ISC projects,having a total capacity
nt of heat supplied of 6525 B/d. The largest U.s. steam projects were those of Shell, Belridge
(101,000B/d) and Texaco Kern River (87,600 B/d), both in Kern county,
as natural gasfuel
California.
In situ combustionhas found lesssuccessthan steambecauseof the difficulty
in controlling the process.Fire fronts tend to advancemuch more erratically than
psig
steamfronts, and it is much harder to obtain an even sweepof the reservoir.Never-
ENERGY COST thelessthere are successfulin situ combustionprojects'
S/MillionBtu in Res.a
2.6-4.4
1.0 L O RI N U S A
T H E R M AE
0.6 kB/D
Doto 3ource Oil ond Gos J' Apill 18' 19EE
I ISC
77 Sleom
:lv 2.9 HP-h.
Equivalent
FuelBtu
?17,160
'1988
99,904 1980 1982 1984 1986
317.064 Yeor
Figure 9.1 Oil ProductionUsing Thermal EOR in USA
lntroduction 417
nbustion Chap.9
DRY COMBUSTION In the i
perature Flril
Description of Phenomena illOI€ prO0trul
Figure 9.2 showstypical temperatureand saturationprofilesfor a dry combustion almost at'.ca

processcarriedout in a laboratorycombustiontube.The term dry meansthat water The rr
other po:.:hi
is not introducedintentionallyinto the reservoir.The gassaturationat a distance
Parrish ,19r]
aheadof the front is high enoughto allow the combustiongasesto flow to the pro-
(see,for cr.'r
duction end without undue pressuredrop. This is frequentlyalreadythe casein
I n r c re t
laboratoryexperimentswhere the tube has been filled by packing.Somedistance
same manner
beyondthe front, water is condensing,and the oil is sweptforward by the gasand
reversed. -..-.t
steam.If the initial gas saturationis high, the oil displacessomeof the gas and
can be comp
forms an oil bank. If there is a low gassaturation,the initial gasflow tendsto dis-
place oil and build gas saturation.Under these circumstances, injectivity for air then carrr l::i
The com'ouq
may be very low.
Such .: ;
Immediatelybeyondthe combustionzone,residualoil losesvolatile material
v i s c o u st ' i t u n
and cracksthermally,leavingbehinda carbonaceous, nonvolatiledeposit,coke.It is
does not h.rrr
this coke that providesthe fuel to reactwith the injectedair. At the fire front, the
Ther* :
temperatureis at maximum. Upstreamof the front, the temperaturefalls because
SAGD prNi!
of the coolingeffectof the injectedair. Downstreambeyondthe front, the tempera-
SAGD prrxc'
ture falls as the heat carried forward by the flowing gasis consumedheatingthe
w h e r e a si r ; i
reservoirand residualoil and by supplyingthe heatsof crackingand evaporation.
ber has tr.rLtl
TgVEfS€ CON:]I
f hp nrnri.,.---
T€mp€rature profile
cold reserr.':
Un fo;l u
Propagation
of tho tront
u s u a l l v p r o re
I
I
near to lhc :r
i s d e s c r i b e ii ;
for oil sand..
Combustisr
c
o There harc b
.,
.;
I ttl 6
bustion tuhct
Saturalion profil6
In oriicr
lll of the comi"u
with reier\ rli
I
6
B
t
Figure 9.2 Temperature and Saturation Profiles in Dry Forward Combustion (from
Latil 1980)
418 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 DryCombrs:

In the condensationregion beyond the fire front, there is frequently a tem-
perature plateauthat correspondsto the condensationof the steam.This is much
more pronouncedwhen considerablewater is present;in dry combustionit may be
for a dry combustion almostabsent.
dry meansthat water The processshown in Figure 9.2 is known asforward dry combustion.An-
:uration at a distance other possibilitycalled reversecombustion(Tranthamand Marx (1966;Berry and
es to flow to the pro- Parrish (1960) has received attention and has been investigatedexperimentally
(see,for example,the laboratory studiesdescribedin Wilson et al. 1963).
i already the case in
;king. Somedistance In reversecombustion,as shown in Figure 9.3, the processis startedin the
rward by the gas and samemanner as for forward combustion,and then the direction of air injection is
some of the gas and reversed,so that the original injector becomesthe producerand vice versa.This
gasflow tends to dis- can be comparedto smokinga cigaretteby lighting it in the normal manner and
es, injectivity for air then carryingon the combustionby blowinginto the cigaretteratherthan sucking.
The combustionzone movesup the cigarettebut againstthe flow of air.
osesvolatile material Sucha processwasthoughtto be particularlysuitedfor the productionofvery
viscousbitumensand tar becausethe producedfluid remainsmuch hotter and it
ile deposit,coke.It is
At the fire front. the doesnot haveto be forcedthrough the unheatedreservoiras in Figure 9.2.
)€rature falls because There is an analogybetween the reversecombustiondescribedhere and the
lrefront, the tempera- SAGD process(seechapter 7), in which the injectoris closeto the producer.In the
onsumedheating the SAGD process,the produced oil remains hot as it flows to the production well,
ing and evaporation. whereasin conventionalsteamflooding,oil that is displacedfrom the steamcham-
ber hasto flow througha coolerreservoirto reachthe productionwell. Similarly,in
reversecombustion,the displacedoil flows through the hot burned zone to reach
the producer. In forward combustion,the displacedoil must be forced through a
cold reservoirto reachthe productionwell. This is very difficult in cold tar sands.
Unfortunately, practical attemptsto use the reversecombustionprocesshave I
usually proven to be unsuccessfulbecauseof the formation of new flame fronts
nearto the injector.Theseare ignitedby spontaneous combustionin a mannerthat
f
l!
is describedlater.Reversecombustionis an ingeniousideawith attractiveincentives
f3
for oil sands,but it has turned out to be unsuccessful(Dietz and weijdema 1968). N
N
...............,..---...__..--- lr
x Gombustion Tubes
There have beenmany studiesof in situ combustionin the laboratoryusing com-

6
bustiontubes.A recentdesignis shownin Figure 9.4 (Moore et al. 1987).
d
In order to minimize the effect of the heatcapacityand thermal conductivity
of the combustiontube, it is constructedwith a very thin wall. The tube is filled
with reservoirmaterial, and air or oxygen is passedthrough it. Combustionis
Produced
fiu
fluids
d Combustion (from Figure 9.3 The ReverseCombustion

ConceDt
lombustion Chap. 9 Dry Combustion 419

L WATER STORAGE BURETTE
2 . W A T E RP U M P *ro
3. C O M B U S T I O NT U B E o
()
4. PRESSUREJACKET g
5. HIGH PRESSURESEPARATOR lt
6. T E U P E R A T U R EC O N T R O L L E D
LOW PRESSURESEPARATOR
:.
!
CONDENSER o
GAS SAMPLINGVALVE o
PROCESS GAS CHROTATOGRAPH !
WET TEST METER
ir
E
o
6
o
cl
L+{ PRESSURE
REGULATOR
-E.
O pRessune
olucg o
o.
-{ CONTROLVALVE] MASS I
E SENSOR J FLOW o
S cnEcxvlwE
;2.
O FILTER t'
3
--FN HoKE vALvE g
a
I caeuuanv E
t reEole vluve
Figure 9.4 University of Calgary in Situ CombustionApparatus (from Moore titr.r

et al. 1987) ancco
Usin3 t
started from one end, and the progressof the combustion is followed by means Lcogr
of thermocouplesand produced gas analyses.Ignition is usually accomplishedby MINT
Matcr
meansof an electricresistanceheater.
The thin-walled combustion tube is contained within a strong outer vessel
that can withstandthe desiredoperatingpressure.The annularspacebetweenthe Figures
tube and the pressurevesselis filled with insulationand with a gasunder a pressure obtainedin e
high enoughto support the weak inner tube. 21'API oil.
A major considerationis the minimization of heat loss from the tube so that Figure 9
the adiabaticconditions within a large reservoir can be simulated.In some tubes very sharp gn
this heat lossis minimizedby insulationalone;in others,short compensating elec- istic. A tempe
trical heatersare placedoutsidethe inner tube and controlledin order to minimize tion of water, r
the temperaturedifferences.A problem with this sort of systemis causedby the the steampla
possibilityof leading,or "helping," the combustionif the externalheatersget too ally to the air.
hot. Sincethe axial temperaturegradientscan be quite steep,it is desirable,if ex- As may I
ternal heatersare to be employed,to use numeroussmall heatersso that the inter- rate movesal
nal gradient can be duplicated. slowlythan th
The designof the adiabaticcompensatingheatershas been studiedby Leaute The prod
and Collyer (1984).They haveshownthat it is important to use a high gradeof in- main point of
sulationbetweenthe heatersand the tube and to employnarrow heaters.The large ing of the dl
effects of thesevariablesare shown in Figure 9.5, which is taken from their paper. ahead of thc r
It is usually found desirableto employhigher front velocitiesin the laboratory creasedoil sat
than would be found in the field so that the heat lossproblem in the laboratoryap- voir were nea
paratuscan be minimized. gas saturatio
It is customaryto operatecombustiontubesin a vertical position so that grav- tion end. [n tl
ity will not causeoveride.Another approachthat has beenusedis to make the tube the gas flood I
horizontalbut to rotateit so that the effectsofgravity are canceledout (Latil 1980). beyond a stea
420 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Comhrstir
O R A G EB U R E T T E
IP N 100
,X TUBE 0)
.IACKET
iSURE SEPARATOR
URE CONTROLLED EBo
SURE SEPARATOR 6
R 6
.ING VALVE o
6A5 CHROTATOGRAPH
'
HETER
*60
E
c,
tt,
o
RESSUREREGULATOR
.E 40
RESSUREGAUGE o
O}ITROLVALVEI MASS
ENSOR J FLOTY a
I€CK VALVE
ILTER
3ro
OKE VALVE E
APILLARY
EEOLE VALVE 0.05 0.'l 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Combustion Front Velocity (ftlh)
ls (from Moore Figure 9.5 CalculatedEffect of Heater Width and Insulationon the Perform-
ance of an Electrically Heated 3-in. Diameter Adiabatic Combustion Tube.
Using a MathematicalModel the Authors Investigatedthe Effect of Varying the
s followed by means Length of the HeatedZones and of Using a SuperiorInsulation(Johns-Manville
MINK) Which Has One-Thirdof the Thermal Conductivityof the Standard
ally accomplishedby
Material (after Leaute and Collyer 1984).
a strong outer vessel

ar spacebetweenthe Figures 9.6 through 9.10 from Penberthyand Ramey (1966)show results
r gasunder a pressure obtainedin a classiccombustiontube experimentusing a 5-darcysandpackand a
21'API oil.
rromthe tube so that Figure 9.6 showstemperaturemeasurements from a typical experiment.The
rlated.In sometubes very sharp gradient aheadof the advancingcombustionfront is a notablecharacter-
rt compensatingelec- istic.A temperatureplateauaheadof the front, which corresponds to the condensa-
in order to minimize tion of water,can alsobe seen.This is causedby the connatewater in the sample;
tem is causedby the the steamplateaubecomesvery much more pronouncedif water is addedintention-
ternalheatersget too ally to the air.
, it is desirable,if ex- As may be seenfrom Figure 9.7, the burning front for a constantair injection
ters so that the inter- rate moves at a steadyand essentiallyconstant rate down the tube; it movesmore
slowlythan the steamfront.
:enstudiedby Leaute The producedgasrate and the injectionpressureare shownin Figure9.8.The
se a high gradeof in- main point of interesthere is the buildup in pressuregradientcausedby the bank-
ow heaters.The large ing of the oil aheadof the combustionfront. In this example,the gas saturation
ken from their paper. ahead of the combustionzone decreasesas oil is forced down the tube. The in-
itiesin the laboratory creasedoil saturationrepresents a "bank." If the initial gassaturationin the reser-
in the laboratoryap- voir were nearly zero, then the pressuregradientwould be high initially, and the
gas saturationwould increaseto accommodatethe flow of flue gas to the produc-
positionso that grav- tion end. [n this case,oil would flow almost immediately,reflecting the effect of
d is to makethe tube the gasflood beyond the combustionfront. This is analogousto the waterflooding
;eledout (Latil 1980). beyond a steam-condensation front that was discussedin Chapter 5.
)ombustion Chap.9 Dry Combustion 421
'lK'.-_-
I
|tltct oft lt 2.aa xlt. I t\
rf \Fd
I
I
I
=|
\ al
E-
u-^r
ol
'l
Hlg''llilt "!ff 1*."ig6.'i1iff*'
I
I
o
hl
r.l
.t | ,x.Ecrrc
I
E IJ a ^l FnE33Jrt r
a . 'l
<.-
a
Ll al I
'h*--
5 s'
tG I
t ll*
oll'
tt E
td I
o sult for onedil
! a
x 3Y[/II 'LATEru
I
I of problemsce
\ The cuu
I
I is a considera
I
build a bank br
mostly upon ri
uST itc€ FRot 9Ata0FACE,tlcltEs this has to be I
delay in produ
Figure 9.6 Temperaturesalong Axis of Combustion Tube at Various Times (from discussedlater
Penberthyand Ramey 1966)
Alexande/s Fl
Figure 9.9 showsthe producedgasanalysesfor the sameexperiments.Once Another type o
combustionis underway,the compositiondoesnot changevery much.Only a small the firef lood p<
amountof unreactedoxygenis presentin the producedgases.This is a commonre- In this 4
insertedin a h
rate by an eloc
=
U-
f,
o
z
:.
E
L
o
Figure 9.7 Positionof Burning and

SteamFronts (from Penberthyand
Ramey 1966)
422 In Situ Combustion Chap. 9 Dry Combustirt

OAS RATE
PROOUCED
G
r
I
6 9,
I
tG !t
G
t
o PRESSURE o
6
I \ U
G
c
Figure 9.8 Gas ProductionRate and

Injection and ProductionPressures
J.r5 versusTime (from Penberthyand
RI.[I TITE. HR3 Ramev 1966)
sult for one-dimensional combustiontubes,but in the field there can be a number

of problemscausedby the bypassingof unreactedair to the production wells.
The cumulativeproductionsof oil and water are shownin Figure 9.10.There
is a considerable delaybeforeoil appearsat the outlet.This is causedby the needto
build a bank beforethe oil can flow to the productionwell. The delayis dependent
mostly upon the amount of gas saturationpresentin the original reservoir,since
this has to be filled beforeappreciableflow to the producercan be achieved.This
delayin productioncan alsooccur in field projectsand shouldbe anticipated;it is
rious Times (from discussedlater in this chapter.
Alexander's Fireflood Pot
I experiments.once Another type of apparatusthat has proved useful in in situ combustionresearchis
much.Only a small the fireflood pol shown in Figure 9.11.
l-hisis a commonre- In this apparatus,air flows radially inward through a core sampleto a tube
insertedin a hole drilled in its center.The whole apparatusis heatedat a controlled
rate by an electrical resistanceelementwound around the external pressurecon-
F
z
U
E
a
U
t
;
E
q
G
t
8
q
0
sition of Burningand
from Penberthyand a56 Figure 9.9 ProducedGas Composition
RUN I r M E , H O U R S (from Penberthvand Ramev 1966)
rmbustion Chap.9 Dry Combustion 423

5
J
6
c
.<
)t
)
z
g15
6
or0
rt
2a
o
a
o [-.-
d
F
a
F
e
6
= Figure 9.10 Liquid Productionand
Oil Gravity (from Penberthyand
Ramey 1966)
l
G
V
There are sg
ever,the!'an
tainmentvessel.A typical experimentinvolvesraisingthis temperatureat 200"F/h be written frt
up to a maximum combustiontemperatureof 800"F.Resulting gas analysesfor an analysisof tt
experimentare plotted in Figure 9.12. on a dr1'bas
providethrec
Calculationof H/C Ratio for Fuel tions from tb
Stoichiometriccalculationscan providethe H/C atomicratio for the fuel that is be- simpleto do
ing consumedin combustiontubes.lTo do this we proceedas follows: Exampleof S
Supposethat the balancedchemicalequationfor the combustionprocesscan
be representedby: The flue gas
C H , + S ( O ,+ 3 . 7 6 N r ): a C O z + b C O * c H z O + d O 2 * e N z Carbm
Fuel Air Carbm
Oxygso
Nitroge
Find the ap1

fed per kilog
reaction.
1. Obtain
Figure 9.11 Fireflood Pot (from 2. Calcula

Alexander,Martin, and Dew 1962)
lThis technique can be applied usefully to other combustionareas-for example,for the
analysesof the operationsof steamgeneratorsor processfurnaces.Such studiesare frequentlydi- tcas aar
rectedtoward the estimationof the excesscombustionair. Large excesses of air introducedinto a
furnace result in low thermal efficiencybecauseof the heat carried from the furnace by the heated water vapor Hr
excessair. on a dry basir.
424 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Comh.rsti

tf
)
o
U
2
600 r
F
F-
o
I
t
ro
:
o
400 I
z
o
9
o
U
o
2ooE
Figure 9.12 Temperatureand Gas
o o
G o Analysis for an Experiment Using a
o 0 Fireflood Pot (from Alexander,
stot520?5-
rquidProductionand TIME - HOURS Martin. and Dew 1962)
cm Penberthyand
There are qqvenunkno=rylls-in the precedingequation:n) S, Q,b, c, d, and e. How-
ever,they are not all unrelated.Four algebraicequationsinvolvingthe variablescan
nPeratureat 200'F/h be written from the materialbalancesfor eachof the four elements.In addition,an
I gasanalysesfor an analysisof the flue gasfor COz,CO, and Oz is normally available.This is usually
on a dry basis-i.e., the concentrationof water is excluded.Thesethree analyses
providethree morealgebraicequations,which can be solvedtogetherwith the equa-
tions from the materialbalancesto give all sevenof the unknownvariables.This is
rr the fuel that is be- simpleto do in practicalcases;an exampleis given next.
follows: Exampleof StoichiometricCalculationfor CombustionProcess
nbustionprocesscan
for a combustionprocessis
The flue gasanalysis2
dO:+eN2 Carbondioxide 14.0%
Carbonmonoxide 3.0Vo
Oxygen 0.2Vo
Nitrogen (by diff) 82.8Vo
Find the apparent H/C ratio n and the number of standard cubic meters of air
fed per kilogram of fuel burned. Write an overall stoichiometricequationfor the
reaction.
1. Obtain S from ratio of C:N in feed and productsby settingtheseequal:
r 0.14+ 0.03
=
3365 0328
S :1..2954
rireflood Pot (from 2. Calculatee from nitrogenbalance:

rrtin. and Dew 1962)
e:3.76x1.2954
as-for example, for the : 4.8706
studies are frequently di- 2Gasanalysesare usuallyreportedon a volumebasis.This is the sameas a mole basis.Since
r of air introduced into a
hc furnace by the heated water vapor normally condenses,it is usuallynot includedin the analysis.The analysisis said to be
on a dry basis.
Dry Combustion 425

ornbustion Chap.9
3. Calculatea, b, and d from ratios of gascomponentsto N2:
The arr
0.r4 factors that il
o= = 0.8235
4.8706
'mx l. The pro
. 0.03 cracked
,:0f2g x4.8706=0.1765 til r,rittx
lrith in
. 0.002 paraffin
o= = 0.0118
4.8706
Ug2gx 2. The cm
4. Writea materialbalancefor oxygenandsolvefor c: pores irs
tlon arr
0.8235
+ 0.1765 c thar is n
1.2954= +r+0.0118
2 tion in t
is also d
- 0.8235- 0.0118)
c = 2(1..2954 - 0.1765
the frrl
= 0.7437
In summan'.
5. obtain n from the hydrogenbalanceand completethe problem: also bv the cr
Figures
n = 2c = 1.4874= 1.49 (for example) upon fuel ara
Figure 9
kg moles air/kgfuel : L2954x .=O''9 = reservoir mat(
t2 + ].49
ing the initial
: 0.451 tively clean O
Volumeof air/kg fuel = 0.457 x 22.4m3 at NTp the improved
also be seen I
: 10.24 plotted *'ith a
The overallstoichiometricequationmay be written: the steam pla
Figure 9
CHr.on+ 1.2954(02
+ 3.76Nz) = 0.8235CO2 + 0.t765CO + 0.7437H,O more fuel trec
+ 0.0119
02 + 4.9706N2 This is a
against the G
The Alberta ERCB definesstandardconditionsas 1 atmosphereand 15.c. Volume
of air at standardconditionsper kilogram of fuel are
rE
10.24x 288
= 10.80m3 .+:=
rm,
| .ln
273 l-' s
rf'-
>c
In the former British system,standardtemperaturewas 60.F; 15"c is equivalent JA
to 59'F. ?o
Fuel Deposition
i:
<z J
The most importantmeasurement
,o
;< l-*
that comesfrom a combustiontube or fireflood
pot run is that of the fuel production.This is frequentlyexpressedas the weightof
fuel per unit volume of reservoiror, alternatively,as the weight of fuel pei unit
d
J
FV
l-
odr-J-
weightof reservoirrock. It is calculatedfrom a materialbalanie. ool
426 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Drv Combustr

The availableexperimentaldata can be largelyexplainedby consideringtwo
factorsthat influencethe fuel availability:
1. The propensityof the particular crudeoil to depositcoke as it is heatedand
cracked.Light crudescontainlargerproportionsof volatilematerialsthat dis-
til without forming coke.As a result,thesecrude oils give relativelylessfuel
with in situ combustionthan do heavy crudes. Also, the residuesfrom
paraffiniccrudestend to give higheryieldsof crackedproductsand lesscoke.
2. The conditionsthat affect the saturationof the crudeoil within the reservoir
poresas the combustionfrcint advances.Theseincludethe initial oil satura-
tion and the effect of steammoving oil aheadof the coke-formingzone.Oil
that is movedaheadby the flood doesnot contributeto the fuel (coke)forma-
tion in the crackingzone.The movementof oil aheadof the combustionfront
is also dependentupon the nature of the reservoirmatrix, so this too affects
i_5 the fuel production.
In summary,the formation of fuel is determinedby the nature of the crude and

alsoby the conditionsunder which the fuel is formed.
oblem:
Figures9.13through 9.16showthe effect of someof the significantvariables
example) upon fuel availabilityas measuredby Alexander,Martin, and Dew (1962).
Figure 9.13showsthe effect of initial oil saturationfor a numberof different
reservoirmaterials(both coresand crushedcores)usinga2L.8'API crude.Increas-
ing the initial oil saturationtends,in general,to raisethe fuel availability.The rela-
tively clean Ottawa sandgivesmuch lessfuel at the higher saturationsbecauseof
the improveddisplacement of the crude aheadof the combustionfront. This may
also be seenfrom Figure 9.14,where data for the sameseriesof experimentsare
plottedwith an abscissa equalto the residualoil saturationthat was left behind by
the steamplateauaheadof the combustionfront.
Figure9.15showsthe effectof the crudeoil type. Low'API crudesgive much
+ 0.7437H2O more fuel becauseof their greatertendencyto form coke.
This is alsoshownin Figure 9.L6,wherethe fuel availabilityhasbeenplotted
asainstthe Conradsoncarbonfor the different crude oils. Conradsoncarbon is a
s and 15'C.Volume
cRuo€orl - 2t.B'APl
P O R O UM
S E O I U M8 E O U I P M E N T
o
i i!!ii:H{{1"{i:,iit\:mmm,
6 OYTAIA SATO - FFP ^./
)
a 8ER€A sAtDsroilE-LorGTUaE ot-
o a orTAw sANo-Lorc tuBE
>E -/"
iqi ooto
l5'C is equivalent o//
ts
3:
<z
,o
E9
;<
rn tube or fireflood 3
sed as the weight of Figure 9,13 Effect'of Initial Oil
lht of fuel per unit Saturationon Fuel Availability (from
2.O 10 60 8.O lO.O
WT. PERCEI{T
INITIALOIL SATURATIOT{, Alexander,Martin, and Dew 1962)
nhrustion Chap.9 Dry Combustion 427

0Ru0E otl - 2t.fi'aPl
P O R O U SM E O I U M 8 E O U I P M E N T
O 8€REA SAI{DSTONE- FFP
o cuRIIs coR€ rAT.L- FFP
6 OITASA gAI{D - FFP
o a aEREA sAitoslof{E - uollc tuge .
o I OTTAWA SAI{D - LOI{G TUSE
>E
F
J3
€o
i9
t<\
<z
EP
a<
ta
Figure 9.14 Effect of ResidualOil

o.o 2.o 40 6.0 8.O tO.O tz.O
Saturationon Fuel Availability (from
RESIOUALOIL SATURATION.
WT. PERCENT Alexander,Martin, and Dew 1962)
The or,
direct measureof the percentageof coke that is laid down by the crude oil in a (total from p
standardhigh-temperature cokingtest(ASTM 1985).This testis usedextensivelyin At the peat
the designof petroleumrefining equipmentsuchas cokers.High Conradsoncarbon Previc
crudesgive high fuel availabilities. from the ane
of the ox1'gr
Low-TemperatureOxidation not true. Pa
can react aff
when crude oils are contactedat high temperatures with oxygen,the productsare Alexao
mostly carbon oxides and water. However, at low temperatures,reactionsoccur in of experimc
which the oxygentendsto combineand remainwith the crude and alsoto causeit resultsare pl
to polymerizeby oxidativedehydrogenation type reactions.A particularlyundesir- ent H/C ratk
ableresultof thesereactionsis that they increasethe viscosityof the crude oil. High q
Figure 9.17showsthe effectof preoxidizingthe crudeat a lower temperature combustionI
beforemeasuringthe fuel availability by combustionat 800'F. There is a very strong within the n
effect with a maximum at about 425"F.Above this, the fuel availability (measured With ct
in the subsequent oxidationat 800'F)dropsoff becausethe fuel is alreadypartially is a real indi
converted to gaseousproducts in the preoxidation. At 425"F the polymerization correlationd
causedby the preoxidationgreatlyincreasesthe fuel availability. normalhigh
3.0
OTTAIVA SAND 3 zs7--
\ . LONGTUBE RESULTS 6l
-z \ sE Z^z o|l
>g
fat \o B
NI
; I
-J
ao Y: r c- ll -
jo x^
<\
>z
<o
.o \ o b : r oll r-
o\ :=
JC LO
U<
J(J
.\{ J @
=E
|
I
o
J
o o--$
36 o'l-
eq I
>J I
Figure 9.15 Fuel Availability versus {l
o'o6 to "API (from Alexander,Martin, and
J O OL--L-
20 30 E0@
CRUOEo r L G R A V | T Y' A
, Pl Dew 1962)
428 In Situ Combustion Dry Combust

Chap,
-z
>t ,/
l- a
J
i /o
?e
JY
a
>z
\ or/"
<o
-
ôt/
U<
fo
L
o
-ev6' O T T A W AS A N D
J
Figure 9.16 Fuel Availability versus

o5r015 CCR (from Alexander,Martin and
:ct of ResidualOil @NRADSOI{ RE9IOUE,
CAREON WT.1 Dew 1962)
el Availability (from
rn. and Dew 1962)
The overall effect is shown in Figure 9.18,where the grossfuel availability
' the (total from pre and final oxidations)is plotted againstthe preoxidationtemperature.
crude oil in a
At the peak condition, the availabiilty of fuel is increasedabout three times.
usedextensivelyin
Previouslyit was shown how the H/C ratio for the fuel could be determined
t Conradsoncarbon
from the analysisof the gaseous product.In this calculation,it wasassumedthat all
of the oxygennot in the product as COz and CO had reactedto form water. This is
not true, particularly for low-temperatureoxidations, becausepart of the oxygen
can reactand remainwith the crude and coke.
n, the productsare Alexander, Martin, and Dew measuredthe "apparent" H/C ratio for a series
, reactionsoccur in of experimentscarried out with a range of maximum reactiontemperatures;the
and alsoto causeit resultsare plotted in Figure 9.19.For reactiontemperaturesbelow 650'4 the appar-
articularlyundesir- entHlC ratio for the fuel is even larger than the ratio for the whole original crude.
of the crude oil. High apparentHlC ratios(i.e., low COz in flue gas)are an indicationof a low
lower temperature combustion temperature and may be used as an indicator of what is happening
lere is a very strong within the reservoir.
illability (measured With combustiontemperaturesof the order of 800'F, the apparentH/C ratio
is alreadypartially is a real indicationof the type of fuel that is beingconsumed.Figure 9.20 showsa
the polymerization correlation of the total air requirementsagainstfuel availability for a wide rangeof
normal high-temperaturecombustions.The averageis 189SCF/lb of carbonburned.
:
6
-9zo
6<
UO
N.
:6
=J
X
- oo
o\
>z
f6
=G
q-j
<
fa
ae Figure 9.17 Effect of Low
TemperatureOxidation on Fuel
.fuailability versus J
Availability (from Alexander,Martin,
nder.Martin, and too 200 300 400 500 6@ . F700 800 900
O X I O A T I OTNE M P E R A T U. R E and Dew 1962)
Dry Combustion 429

rhrstion Chap.9
r- <9 It
J6 ;o
=
>G
o
:'s o
HE
r-8
J-
qz
:E
<r
FO
.-G
\-oo_ oo
F
cro
E@
(9J
Figure 9.18 Effect of Preoxidation
o oo 2oo 3oo 4oo 5oo 600 7oo Boo goo roo iioo on Gross Fuel Availability (from
O X I O A T I O NT E M P E R A T U R E . ' F Alexander,Martin, and Dew 1962)
Figure9.2f is typical of a numberof resultsthat havebeenpublishedby work- voir in

ers at IFP. Theseresultswere obtainedin an experimentin which a sampleof the produd
reservoirmaterial was heatedat a 100"C/h in a laboratoryapparatuswith air pass- 2. The fir
ing throughit. The markeddifferencebetweenthe oxygenconsumedand thaipro- tempen
duced as CO2 and CO indicates the prevalence of low-temperatureoxidation
These t
around 250"C.
that havebcr
A significantdifferencebetweenlaboratoryand field resultsis that the con-
centrationof CO found in the field is much lessthan that in the laboratory.This
has the effect of increasing,somewhat,the air requirementsneededin the field.
In Situ Combustion Experiments Using Oil Sands
Leaute and Collyer (1984)have studiedthe effect of initial reservoirtemperaturein

a seriesof combustiontube experimentsusing Cold Lake bitumen and dry condi-
tions. From this work there are two very interestingfindings:
1. With low reservoirtemperatureswhere the unheatedbitumen is essentially
immobile,there is little mingling of the mobilizedbitumenwith the bitumen
downstreamof the combustionfront; insteadit movesthroush the cold reser-
o
F
G
o
-
J
t!
3
t!
9
=
o
F
F
z
U
t
fc
Figure 9,19 Apparent H/C Ratio of
200 400 600 800 tooo t200 Fuel (from Alexander,Martin, and Figurt iI
coMBUSTt0N oF
TEMPERATURE, Dew 1962) of019SG
430 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Comh.rst

O FFP RESULTS
r LONG TUEE RESULTS
-.5
=
o
P
Hg
qo
-9
J\
<E
FA
I oo
F
I
I Figure 9.20 Effect of Fuel Availability
on Air Requirements.LaboratoryTests
t of Preoxidation I above650'F (from Alexander,Martin,
lability(from
F U E L A V A I L A B I L I T Y , L B , C A R B O N/ I O O L 8 . R O C X and Dew 1962)
and Dew 1962)
voir in fingers.This was found from measurements of the viscosityof the

,rblishedby work- productwith time. The data are shownin Figure 9.22.
h a sampleof the
tus with air pass- 2. The fuel load is very dependentupon the initial reservoirtemperature;higher
temperatures resultin lessfuel laydown.This is shownin Figure 9.23.
nedand that pro-
rrature oxidation These resultsindicate that better resultsshouldbe obtainedfrom oil sands
that havebeenpreheated.The workersfrom Essoconcludethat in situ combustion
s is that the con-
laboratory.This
ed in the field.
Tcmpcrolurc /.
,ir temperaturein htvtoryjz;/
n and dry condi- ! I
a $
,o
ren is essentially
rith the bitumen
T - 02 Contumad
--- COe producrd
(o
th the cold reser- -- CO producrd
-\\
Timr.hq|n
ent H/C Ratio of
ler. Martin, and Figure 9.21 Comparisonof oz consumed and coz and co ProducedDuring oxidation
of 0.89 SG Crude Oil (from Burger and Sahuquet1972)
Chap.9 Dry Combustion 431

()
ut
800 . Decreas
(o
o Rise in tr
. Decrect
'= 600
delaf in I
o
E absorpti
.= 400
@
\1 Moss ah
o
o -1 -5 0- o/C\
within a c)cli!
o 200 ers themsehG
o-
7oo Figure 9.22 Effect of Preheat large Rumani
Temperatureon Viscosity of Produced
(Aldea, Turta'
o Bitumen (after Leaute and Collyer
o
(, 0 Anottrcr
o 0 100 200 300 400 soo 1984).Parameteris the Preheat
Cumulative
Productionof Bitumenin g Temoerature. The oxidatio
and the hear1
should be employedin oil sand reservoirsthat have been first produced and pre-
reservoir grad
heatedby steaming.Later in this chapter field projectsare disiussed in which in
and eventuall
situ combustionis used to produce bitumen from reservoirsthat have been pro-
This rr
ducedinitially by cyclic steamstimulation.
1920suhen ai
lgnition that causedth
The autc
The combustionprocessis frequentlyinitiated by heatingthe reservoiraroundthe reservoiris el
injection well by meansof an external source of heat. Both electrical and gas it and then to
heatershave been employed,and each method is successful.lnformation on igni- ample.Counil
tion methodsis given in a paperby J.T. Moss,who is one of the pioneersin itris tion in the fd
area(Moss 1965).Also seeWhite and Moss (1983). secondar)'cf
. In electricalignition, a heatingelementwith a power capacityof 10 to 40 kw Alrhor4i
is lowered into the well on the end of an armored power supply cable through a there are exa!
pressureseal.Means should be provided for measuringthe downhole temperaiure project in Scl
in the vicinity of the heater.Air injectionis commencedat a low rate,and power is lots usinga gl
suppliedto the heateruntil ignition is obtained.Mossdiscusses variousmeins that patternslhat t
can be usedto determinewhetherignition has occurred: depletionof tl
The kiu
o Rise in temperatureof the air abovethat expectedfor the given input of elec-
and Weillemr
trical power.
surementsof I
35 The;-rq
ro)
30
whereK
.9
o
A
Fru
o
n
By relatingtb
G
9zo the reserroir
o the time reqtr
lt Figure 9.23 Effect of Formation propertiesd
15 Temperatureon Fuel Load for Cold
40 80 120 160 200 Lake Crude (after Leaute and Collyer
og
FormationBase Temperature 1984)
432 In Situ Combustion Chap. 9 Dry Comhsri
r Decreasedair injectivity.
o Rise in temperaturedetectedin observationwell(s) near to the injector.
. Decreasein oxygencontent of gasproducedfrom producers.There is often a
delayin the correspondingrise in carbon dioxide contentbecauseof reservoir
absorptioneffects.
Moss alsodescribesgasburnersusedfor ignition. The burnersare contained

within a cyclindricalheatshieldto protectthe well from direct radiation.The burn-
ers themselvesmay be ignited using a chemical which flames spontaneously.The
'fect of Preheat
large Rumanian in situ combustionprojects employ electrical heatersfor ignition
r Viscosityof Produced (Aldea, Turta, and Zamfir 1988).
Leauteand Collyer
:r is the Preheat Another meansof achievingignition is to rely upon the autoignitionof the oil.
The oxidation rate of an oil is often significant at the original reservoirtemperature,
and the heat produced by this low-temperatureoxidation is sufficient to heat the
;t produced and pre- reservoir gradually.As the temperaturerises the oxidation reaction rate increases
iscussedin which in and eventually the temperatureruns away to give high temperaturecombustion.
that have been pro- This mechanismcausedthe accidentalignition of oil reservoirsduring the
1920swhen air was being injectedfor pressuremaintenance.[t is theseaccidents
that causedthe discoveryof the in situ combustionprocess(Ramey1971).
The autooxidationprocessis much more rapid if the initial temperatureof the
reservoiraroundthe reservoir is elevated.One way of doing this is to steamthe reservoir first to heat
h electrical and gas it and then to inject air. This is a reliablemeansfor achievingignition (see,for ex-
Informationon igni- ample,Counihan 1977).As wasmentionedearlier,attemptsto usereversecombus-
the pioneersin this tion in the field fail becauseof the spontaneous ignition that occurs;this resultsin
secondarycombustion fronts near to the injection well.
racityof 10 to 40 kW Although ignition can generally be achieved in a straightforward manner,
rply cablethrough a there are examples where it has beenvery difficult to achieve.In the GoldenLake
rwnholetemperature projectin Saskatchewan, Husky Oil had little difficulty in igniting their initial pi-
rw rate,and power is lots using a gas heater.However, they subsequentlyfailed to ignite two additional
s variousmeansthat patternsthat borderedon the originalones.They ascribethe difficulty to the partial
depletionof the patterns before ignition was attempted(Miller and Jacques1987).
The kinetics of the spontaneousignition processhavebeenstudiedby Tadema
: giveninput of elec- and Weijdemaof Shell (Tademaand Weijdema1970).Figure 9.24 showstheir mea-
surementsof the oxidation rate of severalcrude oils as a function of temperature.
They representthe straightlines that are shownby the Arrhenius equation9.1.
K = AoPle-B/r (e.1)
whereK is mass 02 consumed per unit time per mass of oil
Ao, B, n are constantsthat dependon oil and sand
P, is 02 partial pressure
By relating the rate of heat releaseto the heat neededto raise the temperatureof
the reservoir,they were able to derive the approximateequation9.2. This predicts
the time required for the spontaneousignition of the reservoiras a function of the
lfect of Formation propertiesof the oil and reservoir and of the initial reservoir temperature.
r Fuel Load for Cold
ter Leauteand Collyer p(1o(. + zTofB)eBffo
tt= (e.2)
QS"p.HAoPiB/To
rmbustion Chap. 9 433
Dry Combustion
o, TABLE9.. Sr
6-s -5
CD Crude oil mixed with sand
-v Formationtc+c
at 100 atm air pressure
N D Formation Frert
o O1 partial prcrcr
9e € do
E tt
o n
6
E H, kCalrkgO;
c Porositl'.d
-9 -7 -7
6 Oil saturauo. S.
E
Water saturetn
x
o p',kg/mt
o p r C r ,k C a l ' m !t
_r -8
€t
-8 !-
€
olJ 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0024 0.0026 0.qt28 0.0030 Ignition tirncs rr
Calculated
Observed
Reciprocalof Absolute Temperaturein K'l
Figure 9.24 Oxidation Rate of Various Oils as a Function of Temperature (after
Tadema and Weijdema 1970)
The agrr
from Table 9.{
where /i is ignition time in seconds temperatufes
ptCt is heat capacity/unitvolume formation
Ts is absoluteinitial formation temperature Effect of Reserw
As, B, n are as in (9.1)
H is heat of reaction per unit massof Oz
Temperaturc.'C
O is porosity
Ignitiontimc. dr!
S, is oil saturation
po is oil density
It is appr
Typical valuesof the constants-40,B, and n for different crude oil-sand mix- time requircdt
tures are given in Table 9.3.
A comparisonof the ignition time that was measuredin two field testswith Temperatur r
those predicted from equation 9.2 is given in Table 9.4.
One of the im
the combustirr
TABLE9.3 Values
of.4o,B, andn erated.This bc
bustion tempc
CRUDE Ao
front both aba
A 3,080 8,860 0.46 The folh
B 925 8,640 0.57 flux is very larl
c 498 8,880 0.79
of the total. an
D 84,800 10,270 0.48
perature.In th
E I,2TO 8,680 0.45
just be equal t
F 7,380 9,480 0.31
rise is given b1
434 ln Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Comhrsfb

TABLE 9.4 SpontaneouslgnitionTimes for Two Oilfields
SOUTH BELRIDGE VENEZUELA

FormationtemperatureIe, 'K 303.8 312.2
Formationpressure,atm 15.3 29.6
02 partial pressure,atm 3.20 6.18
Ao 3080 l2t0
B 8860 8680
n 0.46 0.45
H, kCal/kg 02 2940 2940
Porosity,f 0.37 0.34
Oil saturation,5, 0.60 0.66
Water saturation,S, 0.37 0.34
p-kg/m' 970 980
orCr,kCalfm3'C 553 5Z'7
0.0028 0.0030 Ignition times in days

Calculated 99 49
Observed 106 35
il K'l
perature(after
The agreementis very satisfactory.Using the data for the Venezuelancase

from Table9.4, the ignition time has been calculatedassumingdifferent reservoir
temperatures,
with the following results.
Effect of ReservoirTemperatureon AutoignitionTime

(Samepropertiesas for Venezuelacase)
Temperature,"C 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ignition time, days 706 266 r07 46 21, 10
It is apparentthat a small amount of reservoirheatingwill greatly reducethe

crude oil-sand mix- time required to obtain autoignition.
two field testswith Temperatureat the Gombustion Front
One of the important variablesin an in situ combustionprocessis the air flux at

the combustionfront. Air arriving at the front reactswith the fuel, and heat is gen-
erated.This heat raisesthe rocks in the vicinity of the combustionfront to the com-
bustion temperature and also suppliesthe heat that is conducted away from the
front both aheadand also vertically.
0.46 The following discussionis based upon a paper by Ramey (1959).If the air
0.57 flux is very large, then the heat lost by conductionwill be a relatively small fraction
0.79 of the total, and the combustionfront temperaturewill approachthe adiabatictem-
0.48 perature.In this circumstancethe heat of reactionper unit volume of reservoirwill
0.45
just be equal to the sensibleheat gained by the rocks. This adiabatictemperature
0.31
rise is given by equation9.3.
mbustion Chap.9 Dry Combustion 435

- f,=Y
?in"" (e.3) r
T.l'ilr
-
where 2,"" is adiabaticmaximum temperature
Ti is initial temperature
LH is heat of combustionof fuel
pC is reservoir heat capacityper unit of volume
W is fuel concentrationper unit volume
It is important to note that, other thingsbeing equal,the temperaturerise is
proportional to the fuel concentration.This implies that if the fuel concentrationis
too low, it may not be possibleto raisethe rock to the requiredcombustiontempera-
ture evenif all of the other conditionsare adequate.This can be a problemin at-
tempts to use in situ combustion to produce oil from reservoirs having low oil
saturation.Calculatedvaluesof ?lnu"- Ti are given in Table 9.5.
TABLE 9.5 TypicalValuesol T^", - Ti
AssumeAtI = 18000Btu/lb and pC : 35 Btuft3 'F

Fuel Load 7 T^^" - Ti
lbft3 .F
tion 9.3)is pl
0 0 the front frcx
0.5 257 and t is the tr
1.0 514 T*.o cu
r.l7 600
1.5 771 1. The bn
2.0 1029 i . e . .V
vances
front rt
Effect of Conductive Cooling upon the Combustion air-inje
Temperature 2. The so
proximr
In general,the temperaturerise will be lower than calculatedfrom equation9.3 be-
constan
causeof the effect of the conductiveheat losses.If the rate of heat generationis low
spondin
becauseof a low air flux, then the relative effect of the heat loss will be greater,
and the temperature of the combustion front will be lower. If the flux is low Figures
enough,the temperatureof the front will fall to the point where vigorouscombus- the effectsof
tion can no longerbe sustainedand only low temperatureoxidation will occur. The perature rise
"fire" will be extinguished.This effect can be analyzedmathematicallyby writing ofvertical trc
a differential equationthat equatesthe heat conductionfrom the front plus the heat the reservoi
used to raise the front temperatureto the heat evolvedby combustion. temperatureI
Ramey consideredtwo cases.[n both, the combustionfront is consideredto ter. Also. the
be growing radially from a vertical injector. In the first case,the flame front is con- differentvert
sideredto be an infinite vertical cylinder (i.e., vertical conductionlossesare ig- This res
nored);in the second,the vertical lossesare included. outward frort
Figure 9.25 showscalculatedresultsfor the infinite vertical case.The tem- the reservoir
perature rise at the front (as a fraction of the adiabaticrise calculatedfrom equa- guishedin th
436 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Combust

1.0
(e.3) T -I
Tmor-T Constont front
vefocity i.e. r1/t
Constontrr2l t
0.5
i.e. oir rote
r temperaturerise is
luel concentrationis
:ombustiontempera-
For infinitely high front
be a problem in at-
roirs having low oil
0
0. 2 10 100 1000
\'ht
Figure 9.25 Temperatureat Fire-Front(after Ramey 1959)
tion 9.3)is plottedagainsta dimensionless number,r| fat, wherer1is the distanceof

the front from the startinglocation, a is the thermal diffusivity of the reservoir,
and I is the time from the start.
Two curvesare shown:
L. The broken curve is for the casewhere the velocity of the front is constant;
i.e., V = rsft is constant.In this casethe abscissais Vr1fa.As the front ad-
vances, the temperature approaches7,"". In order to achieve the constant
front velocity,which is assumedin this case,it would be necessaryto raisethe
air-injection rate in proportion to /.
2, The solid curve in Figure 9.25 is for a constant value of rflt. This is ap-
proxirnatelyequivalentto the casewhere the air-injection rate is maintained
rom equation9.3 be- constant. In this case the flame-front temperatureremains constant corre-
eat generationis low spondingto the value of the ordinatewhich is determinedbyr|/at.
losswill be greater,
. If the flux is low Figures9.26-9.29showthe resultsof Ramey'scalculationsfor the casewhere
rre vigorouscombus- the effectsof vertical conductionare included.The figures give the calculatedtem-
rtion will occur.The peraturerise for four different horizontal planesin the reservoir.The largesteffect
:maticallyby writing of vertical heat lossis for the casecorrespondingto the top (and also the bottom) of
re front plus the heat the reservoir;the resultsfor this caseare shown in Figure 9.29.The calculated
nbustion. temperaturerise is much smallerfor this casethan for the planesnearerto the cen-
ront is consideredto ter. Also, the curvesfor the other planesare very similar to eachother (note the
reflame front is con- differentvertical scales).
uction lossesare ig- This resultintroducesthe importantpossibilitythat as the flame front moves
outward from the injection well, the vertical heat lossesat the top and bottom of
tical case.The tem- the reservoirmay causethe combustionto be extinguishedthere beforeit is extin-
alculatedfrom equa- guishedin the center.
rmbustion Chap.9 Dry Combustion 437

DASHEOLINES ARE
LINES OF CONSTANT
Ar V\k
ID L.INES ARE
LINES OF CONSTANT
AB . V'al<
CONSTANT VEL ITY SOURqE, l-O
rgd - a-t
Figure 9.26 DimensionlessTemperatureRise for a Heat Sourceof Finite Height Moving Figrnll
at ConstantVelocity-Temperatureat Center PlaneEdge (z = 0). (from Ramey 1959) at Coocr
to thc E{
LINE3 ARE o1ffi

LINES OF CONSTANT
A' vQ /< lLtlc!
lA'Y
o.t
ttoj.?-'l:-
e1p
il,t
"l I
I
D LIN€S ARE
LINES OF CONSTANT
AB - Vlrx.
T
"Y
CONSTANT VE LOCITY S O U R C . E ,l - O.5
0/4 - s-r
%
Figure 9.27 DimensionlessTemperatureRise for a Heat Sourceof Finite Height Moving
at Constant Velocity-Temperature Halfway Between Center Plane and Edge (z = 0.5) Figrnf!
(from Ramey 1959) at Cmir
438 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Cornhrcli

LINES ARE
IES ARE CONSTANT
CONSTANT
souRcF,Z' 0.75
E' Z.-O
Y{r ! -
inite Height Moving Figure 9,28 DimensionlessTemperatureRise for a Heat Sourceof Finite Height Moving
rm Ramev 1959) at ConstantVelocity-TemperatureThree-Quartersof the Distancefrom the CenterPlane
to the Edge (z -- 0.75)(from Ramey 1959)
OASHEDLINES ARE
LINES OF CONSTANT
Ar VQ l<- :\
'{9
INES ARE SOLID LINES ARE

)F @NSTANT LINES OF CONSTANT
k, AB . V:llx'
I T Y S O U B C E ,l - |
Finite Height Moving

96 ' a-'
: and Edge (z = 0.5) Figure 9.29 DimensionlessTemperatureRise for a Heat Sourceof Finite Height Moving
at ConstantVelocity-Temperatureat the Edge (z = 1) (from Ramey 1959)
bmbustion ChaP.9 Dry Combustion 439

Examplesof the Useof Ramey'sSolutions maintainedco
stant as th€ fn
Figure 9.30 showsthe combustion-fronttemperaturescalculatedby Rameyfor the
For a frnt
advance,at a constant rate, of an infinitely high, cylindrical combustionfront for
it is lowesrat I
the conditionsshown.As the front advancesthe temperatureincreasesbecauseof
the decreasingheat flux loss in front of the cylinder; the cylinder curvature is de- Figure9-
creasing,and an increasingtemperatureis required to conduct the heat away. In tion of the ad
eachcasethe front approachesZru" as an asymptote. effect of vertic
abscissa is thc
Curves are drawn for severalfuel loads.The higher the fuel load, the higher
is the temperatureof the front. For the front to advanceat all, it is necessaryfor it the front ten?
to reachthe ignition temperature. highestat the r
For example, if it is assumedthat the temperature has to be greater than minesr;:;t: it i
400'F for ignition to occur, then, as shownby the dotted line on the diagram,the
front would have to have a radius of greaterthan 0.9 ft in order for it to be able to
advanceif the fuel load is 1..5lblft3.External heat would have to be applied to
The hai
"kindle the fire" in order to move the 400"Fisotherm0.9 ft from the well.
(it would be at
The curves in Figure 9.30 do not allow for the effect of convection on the
the limit at nt
temperatureof the combustionfront. The reader is referred to Ramey'spaper for
the combusriq
an analysisof this. The effect is to reducethe amountof fuel requiredto attain a
particular front temperature.For the caseshownin Figure 9.30,Rameycalculates a radiusof abo
declinenearer
that the fuel concentrationcould be reducedby 78%.
combustionbe
The curvesjust discussedare for an infinite well with a constantrate of ad-
In practi
vanceof the combustionfront. In order to sustainthe constantradial velocity,the
becauseof the
air-injectionratewould haveto be increasedcontinuously.If the air-injectionrate is
causesandbla
beingstudied
F
l.,
I
LJ
E,
t
F
g
LJ
o aH - rtooo tTu/Ll
: c - o.30tTurg6-r7
| - r20 Lt/cu FT
n -. too'r
|lJ
F Figure 9.30 Effect of Fuel
Y O.5 FIIDAY
- - O.5 SCI iTl0AY Concentrationon the Temperatureof Temper
a CombustionFront of Infinite Height heat sqrt
tO to Moving Radially at a ConstantVelocity inversely
R A D ] A L L O C A T I O N O F HEAT SOURCET F E E T (from Ramey 1959) b
440 ln Situ Combustion Chap.9 Dry Combustir

maintained constant,then the front temperaturefor an infinite front remainscon-
stant as the front advances.
d by Rameyfor the
For a finite front, the temperaturefalls with a constantair-injection rate, and
ombustionfront for
it is lowestat the top and bottom of the reservoir.
ncreases becauseof
Figure 9.31showsthe calculatedtemperatureof the front (expressedas a frac-
der curvatureis de-
tion of the adiabatic temperaturerise) for such a case.This diagram includes the
rt the heat away.In
effect of vertical heat losses,and it may be seenthat, at any particular radius (the
abscissais the ratio of the radius from the well to the half-reservoirheight a),
uel load, the higher
the front temperatureis lowest at the very top and bottom (i.e., where Z : 1) and
it is necessaryfor it
highestat the center plane. [n this figure the parameterU is a constantthat deter-
minesrj /t; it is defined by equation9.4.
to be greaterthan
on the diagram,the
r for it to be able to
r1= (2Ut)112 (e.4)
ve to be applied to
The horizontaldotted line in Figure 9.31indicates,for a particular example
rm the well. (it would be at a different vertical location if the fuel concentrationwere different),
f convectionon the
the limit at which hightemperaturecombustioncould continue.[n the caseshown,
r Rameyb paper for
the combustionprocesswould declineat the very top and bottomof the reservoirat
requiredto attain a
a radiusof abouteight times the reservoirhalf-height,and at largerradii, it would
0, Rameycalculates
declinenearerto the centerof the reservoir.In orderto maintainhigh temperature
combustionbeyondthis, it would be necessaryto increasethe air-supplyrate.
constant rate of ad-
ln practicalcasesthere may be difficulty in increasingthe air-injectionrate
t radialvelocity,the
becauseof the excessive gasvelocitythat is createdat the productionwells;this can
: air-iniectionrate is
causesandblast-type erosiondamage.Another solution,and one that is increasingly
beingstudied,is to use enrichedair or oxygen.This allowshigher heat-generation
Ar{rP
oilGngloxL:3s
OIST^NCE FIOY
C O N S T A N TF U E L
CONCEI{TRATION
_E_- E - l
fect of Fuel a Figure 9.31 Effect of Vertical Height
rn the Temperatureof Temperaturerise ratio at a moving on the Temperatureof a Combustion
:ront of Infinite Height Front of Finite Height Moving with a
heat sourceof finite heightand velocity
y at a ConstantVelocity inverselyproportionalto radial source Velocity InverselyProportionalto the
)59) locationand U/a of 10. Radius (from Ramey 1959)
rnbustion Chap. 9 Dry Combustion 441

rates at the combustioninterface and, as a result, allows larger spacingbetween TABLE 9.6 Changg h O
wells without excessivegas production rates. FIELD. LOCATION

Figure9.32is similar to Figure9.30,exceptthat it includesthe effectof verti- Operator
cal heat conductionand is drawn for a constantfuel load of 1.5 lbft3; the front ve-
locity is assumedconstantat 0.5 ft/d. In this caseit would be necessaryto, in some South Belridge,Califanir
GeneralPetroleum
manneror other, raisethe upper and lower boundariesof the reservoirto abovethe
ignition temperature(400'F) at a radius of 7 ft in order to have the front extend West Newport, Califonir
vertically through the reservoir. GeneralCrude
Properties of ProducedOil East Venezuela

Mene Grande
One of the featuresof in situ combustionis that there is someimprovementin the
Kyrock, Kentucky
propertiesof the oil. The material that is burned is essentiallycoke, whereasthe oil
Gulf Oil
producedconsistsof unchangedoil that has been displacedfrom the reservoir di- South Oklahoma
luted with distilled and crackedmaterials.This mixture usuallyhas a significantly Magnolia
lower density(higher API gravity) and a lower viscositythan the original oil; it con-
tains a smallerproportionof high boiling materials. Asphalt Ridge,Utah
Inspectionson producedoils from firefloods are comparedwith those for the U.S. DOE(')
original oil in Table9.6. (t)Changes
in other propcr!
WET COMBUSTION
In the previous discussion,it has been shown how in situ combustioncan be used (Chu 1982)
to produce a combustionfront, which, as it advancesthrough the reservoir,drives
the oil aheadof it and consumesthe residualcoke that is laid down as fuel.
One of the main parametersin this processis the fuel concentration,which is In the d
determinedby the natureof the crudeoil and by the conditions.Oil that hasbeen need for heat I
driven forward or convertedto crackedvolatile material cannot remain as coke to to be more fir
be burned. generatedrco
pletely depleA
ôrâ.t rc corraut?ro.. n",3-.j1g1-:r._- The t*o
for dry con$r
3 much heat is I
a
d
There is a smr
3
t
from combrrd
tion front, co
3
U
I
In wet cc
t
|. tinuous or, wil
tor.tttrt.^ru.t wells are used
/,-r.{r
-" - " "'-c6*b1tr(ttrt"' 3- !l!!-: Somed
a CO.t. - Ll LarCU ,t
o t COra - tFlrU/|'l
I YlL. - C.l rtlo^t
Without watcr
3
a aAL Oltt-Otrt'rD^V
tt - rao !a/cu tl evaporatedin
. - o.lO |tvrLl
tttlCtt ttt - lOtt
" liquid water fl
Figure 9.32 Temperaturesfor combustionfn
aAoraL orSt^rcc ?lov riJgctrox wELL. ?Et? CombustionFront within a Finite the combusir
Temperaturesat the combustion ReservoirWhich Is Advancingwith a
the front whca
front, sampleproblem. ConstantVelocity (from Ramey 1959)
Wet Combusti
42 In Situ Combustion Chap. 9
TABLE 9.6 Changesin Oil Propertiesafter Firefloods
rger spacingbetween
FIELD, LOCATION .API TEMPERAIURE VISCOSITYcp
les the effectofverti- Operator Before After .F Before After
.5 lbft3; the front ve-
South Belridge,California t2.9 1/ a
87 2,700 800
necessary to, in some
GeneralPetroleum L20 540 200
neservoirto abovethe 160 1,20 54
tave the front extend West Newport, California 15.2 20.0 60 4 5R5 269
GeneralCrude 100 777 7l
2t0 32 10
East Venezuela 9.5 t2.2
Mene Grande Then10.5
e improvementin the
Kyrock, Kentucky 10.4 1,4.5 60 90,000 2,000
coke. whereasthe oil Gulf Oil 210 r20 27
irom the reservoir di- South Oklahoma 15.4 20.4 66 5,000 800
lly has a significantly Magnolia After 1 month
be originaloil; it con- 5,000
Asphalt Ridge, Utah 14.2 20.3
red with those for the u.s.DoE(')
(t)Changes
in other properties:
Before After
Pour point, 'F r40 25
1000+ 'F wtTo 62 35
nbustion can be used (Chu 1982)
t the reservoir,drives
d down as fuel.
mcentration,which is ln the dry combustionprocess,the air requirementis not determinedby the
)ns.Oil that hasbeen needfor heat but ratherby the availabilityof fuel. With heavycrudes,there tends
rct remain as coke to to be morefuel than is requiredsimplyto heatthe reservoir.Also, muchof the heat
generatedremainsbehind the combustionfront in the rocks that have been com-
pletelydepleted.
The two diagramsin the upperleft part of Figure9.33showidealizedprofiles
for dry combustion.The temperatureis high behind the combustionfront, and
much heat is being left behind. No water vaporizesbehind the combustionfront.
There is a small temperatureplateauaheadof the front, where somewater products
from combustion,togetherwith connatewatervaporizedbythe advancingcombus-
tion front. condense.
In wet combustion,water is addedto the air. This additioncan be either con-
tinuousor, with essentiallythe sameresult, intermittent. [n somecases,separate
wells are used for water injection.
Someof the addedwater remains in the burned zone as water saturation.
Without water addition,the burned rockswould be dry, sincethe connatewater is
evaporatedin front of the combustionzone. If sufficient water is addedto the air,
liquid water flows toward the combustionfront, and as the water approaches the
Temperaturesfor combustionfront, it evaporates;this cools the rocks. Heat is transported through
Frontwithin a Finite the combustionfront by the steam,largely as latent heat. Heat is releasedaheadof
hich ls Advancingwith a
the front when the steamcondenses.
ocitl' (from Ramey 1959)
Wet Combustion 443

lombustion Chap.9
extendsfar bg
of the effecro
sumedin th l
If the I
q
"o diagramin tL
combustim et
Someunburq
temperatureq
Distonce ----l> Wheos
the processb
Combustion&
ratios, liquid t
/ z- Evooorotion describedrtr
Figure 9
wet combustir
NORMAL for dry cofi
Laboratory F
Figure9.35sh
Figure 9.33 Effect of Water Addition was injected ir
were measutca
Normal wet combustionis shown by the two diagramsin the upper right part
of the figure. Steampassesthrough the front and later condenses.The steammoves
oil aheadof the combustionfront as well as movinq heat. There are thus two bene-
ficial effects:
o The rocks are preheatedbefore the combustionfront reachesthem, and this
tends to increasethe temperature of the combustion front ([ is higher in
equation9.3).
o The steamreducesthe concentrationof residualoil remainingin the path of
the advancingcombustionfront. This resultsin a substantialreduction in the
fuel concentrationand reducesthe air required to burn through a given vol- I
ume of reservoir.This effect tends to lower the temperatureof the combus-
tion front (Ifzis lower in equation9.3).
Also, becauseof the displacementcausedby the steamaheadof the front, it may
not be necessaryto burn all the way through the reservoirin order to achieveeffec-
tive recovery.In the extreme,wet combustioncan be looked upon as a meansof
generatingsteam within the reservoir rather than in a surface steam generator. u
When sufficient fuel has beenburned to generatethe steamrequired for the recov-
ery, then the processcan be terminated,leavingthe remainingresidualoil uncoked
and unburned.
Itt.
The lower left diagramsin Figure 9.33 show the condition obtained if the
amount of water is increasedto the point where the evaporationfront just trails the
combustionfront. [n this condition the maximum amount of steam is generated 0
without liquid water reachingthe combustionzone. The combustionzone is not it-
self being cooled by the direct evaporationof water. The steamcondensationzone I'[ut'l
Latil lll
4M ln Situ Combustion Chap.9

Wet Comhstb
extendsfar beyondthe combustionfront, and the fuel laydownis decreasedbecause
rStron
nsotion of the effect of the steamin reducingthe residual.Essentiallyall the oxygenis con-
l- sumedin the high-temperaturecombustionprocessat the front.
lf the water-to-airratio is increasedstill further, the situationshown in the
diagramin the lower right-handcorneris produced.Now liquid watercan enterthe
combustionzone, and this zone is cooled below the levels found with lesswater.
Someunburnedfuel is left behind. In this condition there can be excessivelow-
temperaturecombustionand production of viscoustars.
When someliquid water entersthe combustionzone and vaporizescompletely,
the processis describedaspartially quenchedcombustion.At higher water-to-air
ratios, liquid water passesright through the oxidation zone, and the operationis
describedasquenchedcombustion,or superwetcombustion.
T]
gJ- Figure 9.34 showstypical temperatureand saturationprofiles for a normal
wet combustionprocess.It may be comparedwith the similar diagramgiven earlier
, OUENCHEDI for dry combustion(Figure9.1).
-- Laboratory Results
91-
Figure9.35showstemperatures measuredin a combustiontube run in which water
was injectedinto the air feed partway through the experiment.The temperatures
were measuredby a seriesof thermocouplesplaced along the path of the combus-
r the upper right part
ses.The steammoves
re are thus two bene-
nchesthem, and this

front (4 is higher in
rainingin the path of

t
ntial reductionin the E
through a given vol- t '-6
ature of the combus- E t
ig
d of the front, it may
rrderto achieveeffec-
I upon as a meansof
iace steam generator.
equiredfor the recov- E
g residualoil uncoked 3
o
s
lition obtainedif the t
on front just trails the

rf steam is generated
bustionzone is not it-
Figure 9.34 Temperature and Saturation Profiles for Wet Combustion (from
rm condensationzone
Latil 1980)
bmbustion Chap.9 Wet Combustion 445

Rua !2
l,. t.ot
raL. |.Fd}l llrmni d cailnrara
lalach-
I
I
.rala?
r)
.a
I
ta
a
t
lraa.tn|.|
Figure 935 Tcq

Figure 9.35 Temperaturesas a Function of Time for Various Locations along (from Burger ll t
CombustionTube (from Burger and Sahuquet1973)
tion. As the combustionfront approachedeachmeasurementpoint, the temperature

increased,reacheda maximum,and then fell as the front passedalong.
Severalfeaturesshouldbe noticed:
o The width of the high-temperaturezone decreasedmarkedly when the water
was added.
o Water addition did not greatly affect the peak temperature.Presumably,the
two effectsof water on the combustionfront temperaturethat were discussed
previouslyalmost compensatedeachother.
I
i
o A distinct steamplateauformed when the water was added.
I
The sametemperaturemeasurements are plotted as instantaneoustemperaturepro- E
files in Figure 9.36, and the sameobservationscan be made from an examination
of this diagram.
Figure 9.37showsanalytical data for the producedgasfrom the sameexperi-
IT
ment. The gas composition showed no change as a result of the water addition.
This indicatesthat the fuel was of the samecompositionwith water addition as it
waswithout it.
Although the composition of the fuel did not changewith the addition of
water,there was a large changein the quantity of fuel. This is shown in Figure 9.38,
wherethe positionsof the combustionfront, the condensationfront, and the vapori- Figure 937 Cq
zation front are plotted againsttime. At the point where the water was added,the Sahuquet1973)
46 In Situ Combustion Chap,9 Wet Comh.stin
lnr.rrrer l. gll
Figure 9.36 Temperatures as a Function of the Distance along the CombustionTube

rns along (from Burger and Sahuquet1973)
fnt, the temperature

ed along.
edly when the water
ure. Presumably,the
) that were discussed
led.
oustemperaturepro-
tom an examination
om the sameexperi-
i the water addition.
t water addition as it
with the addition of

rhownin Figure9.38, Tha.lnll
front, and the vapori- Figure 937 Composition of Produced Gas from CombustionTube (from Burger and
waterwas added,the Sahuquet1973)
ornbustion Chap.9 Wet Combustion 47

and materia
Brsrnninsof I / / the rocks ld
rotrinircfion I / / addedis abo
I i li R u n8 2 of air).
The ct
| // Chiu (l988f.
tlt
E t50
ct the poresbd
a tion zoneby
c coodrnrolion fmnf
o mum $ater-
ll
comburlion fnonl estimatedfn
o
E
voporirotion front pies 8ff2 of t
o
c roo
.9
o
o
o-
wherc/
I
I
I
I
Chiu also ce
//'/ steamzone-
Timr,houn plus the hea
60 70 jectedwater
Figure 9.38 Effect of WaterAddition upon the Velocitiesof the Condensation,
percentageo
Combustion,and VaporizationFronts (from Burger and Sahuquet1972) so doesthis
percentage b
condensationfront acceleratedas more heat was transported ahead of the front.
The additional steamhad the effect of reducingthe residualoil left in the path of
the combustionfront, and, as this decreasedthe availablefuel, the burn could I
movefastereventhough the air rate was kept constant. :

Similar resultshave been reported by Josephand Pusch(1980)for a field pilot
6
studyin the Bellevuefield in Louisiana.The test, carriedout by Cities Servicein-
3
volvedtwo side-by-side five-spotpatterns.One of thesepatternswas operateddry
and the other, wet. Someresultsfrom this paperare shownin Figure 9.39,where
o
the heated reservoirvolumes are comparedas a function of the volume of air in-
jected.[t wasconcludedthat with wet combustion,higherrecoveriesof oil could be I
expectedbecauseof better volumetric sweep,that the air volume required to pro- o

o
cessa given reservoirvolume was reducedby 63%, and that lesstime would be re-
quired becauseof the lower air requirement.
o
Water-to-Air Ratio !
The ratio of water to air that shouldbe usedin wet combustiondependsupon such
factorsas the fuel concentration,the water content alreadypresentin the reservoir,
e
and the possibility of water intruding into the combustionregion from outside the
pattern. In principle, the amount of water to be addedcan be calculatedfrom heat
M8 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Wet Cornhrsl

and materi
Brglnningof I the rocksI
woftn injtction
I
! R u n8 2
addedi; ah
! of airr.
The c
E t50
,l Chiu r l9EE
a, the poresh
, tion zone !
C
o
condanrction fr!|rf
mum \r'ate
conburlion front
o
c
estimatedfi
voporirotion fFonf pies 8{r? o{
o
c roo
.9
6
o
ii/
o
xherc
Chiu also c
/ steam zon€.
Timl,hounr
plus the trca
40 50 60 70 {)
jected$atcf
Figure 9.38 Effect of WaterAddition upon the Velocitiesof the Condensation, percenlage (
Combustion,and VaporizationFronts (from Burger and Sahuquet1972) so does thb
percentaeet
condensationfront acceleratedas more heat was transported ahead of the front.
The additionalsteamhad the effect of reducingthe residualoil left in the path of
the combustionfront, and, as this decreasedthe availablefuel, the burn could
movefastereventhough the air rate was kept constant.
Similar resultshavebeenreportedby Josephand Pusch(1980)for a field pilot
studyin the Bellevuefield in Louisiana.The test,carriedout by Cities Servicein-
volvedtwo side-by-side five-spotpatterns.One of thesepatternswas operateddry
and the other, wet. Someresultsfrom this paper are shownin Figure 9.39,where t
the heatedreservoirvolumesare comparedas a function of the volume of air in-
jected.It wasconcludedthat with wet combustion,higherrecoveriesof oil could be I
expectedbecauseof better volumetricsweep,that the air volume requiredto pro-

cessa given reservoirvolumewasreducedby 63Vo,and that lesstime would be re-
quiredbecauseof the lower air requirement.
Water-to-Air Ratio t
The ratio of water to air that shouldbe usedin wet combustiondependsupon such
factorsas the fuel concentration,the water content alreadypresentin the reservoir,
and the possibilityof water intruding into the combustionregionfrom outsidethe -
pattern. In principle, the amount of water to be addedcan be calculatedfrom heat
448 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Wet Comhrst

and material balancesusing the objectiveof removingmost of the excessheat from
the rocks left behind the combustionfront. In many cases,the amount of water
addedis about200Io 250B per million SCF of air (0.92to 1.15lb waterper pound
of air).
The choice of the water-to-air ratio to be employed has been discussedby
Chiu (1988).If low water-additionratesare employed,the addedwaterpartially fills
the poresbehind the combustionfront and doesnot removeheat from the combus-
tion zone by forming steamto condensebeyondthe combustionfront. The mini-
mum water-to-air ratio required for water to be available for evaporationcan be
estimatedfrom the followingequation;this assumesthat, at the limit, water occu-
pies 80Voof the pore volume behind the front.
n-"= uffi6 (chiu

1e88) (e.s)
whereR,o is the massof water per unit volumeof air
Ro, is the volumeof air requiredto burn a unit volumeof reservoir
6 is the porosity
Bs is the formation volume factor of the air behind the front
pw is the densityof water.
Chiu also calculatesthe heat carried forward from the combustionfront into the
steamzone.This is equalto the heatin the dry gasat the combustiontemperature
plus the heat in the watervapor-both the vapor from the vaporizationof the in-
jectedwater and that from the water formed by combustion.He expressesthis as a
Condensation, percentageof the heat of combustion.As the quantity of injected water increases,
| 1972) so doesthis percentage. At the limiting conditionfor normalwet combustion,this
percentagebecomeslffiVo.This is an absoluteupper limit. Chiu recommendsthat
aheadof the front.
ril left in the path of
uel, the burn could 1o'
30
1980)for a field pilot

I
by Cities Servicein-
rnswas operateddry
n Figure 9.39,where 'o
o
he volumeof air in- F
veriesof oil could be =

rme required to pro- o
:sstime would be re- U

F
u t0
:
F
U
n dependsupon such
:sentin the reservoir. Figure 9.39 Comparisonof Heated
UMSC'
Volumes for Side-by-SideWet and Dry
lion from outsidethe
lo 20 Five-SpotPatterns(from Josephand
calculatedfrom heat CUMULATIVE AIR IT{JECTEO Pusch 1980)
cmbustion Chap.9 Wet Combustion 449

the percentageof the heat of combustioncarried forward to the steamzone should
not exceed85% and that combustiontube experimentsshould be conductedto
showthat this is workablefor a particular reservoirsituation.
Figures9.40 and 9.41show the resultsof Chiu'scalculationsof the water-to-
air ratio requiredto carry variouspercentages of the heat of combustionforward
for typical reservoirconditions.Figure 9.40showsthe water-oilratio as a function
of the air requirementfor air ISC. Figure 9.41showsthe effect of using enriched
air for a particularreservoir.
IN SITU COMBUSTIONIN TAR SANDS
A processfor utilizing in situ combustionwithin tar sanddepositsmust overcome

two fundamentalobstacles:
o There is little or no initial injectivity in tar sanddeposits.
o The low volatility of bitumen, togetherwith its asphalticnature, makesthe In the f
fuel depositionload very high. The depositioncan amountto Z to 3 lbft3 of producebitu
reservoir,whereast lb/ft3 would be sufficientto raisethe reservoirto 500'F. Apart I
information ,
There havebeensomeattemptsto producebitumenfrom tar sandsby in situ com- AOSTRA. h
bustionwithout prior heating.AMOCO operatedseveralpilots at GregoireLake in When r
Athabasca.Their processis describedin a paperby Jenkinsand Kirkpatrick (1979). reservoir.tlt
lt involvedthe injectionof air into wellslocatedwithin invertedfive-spots.The for- may alrea$-
mation was ignited by first injectingsteamand then air. The processwas carried tion, combud
out in three phases. front advanc
In the first phaseof the process,the objectivewas to heat the reservoirby front adranc
combustion.Injection was continueduntil the combustionfront approachedthe may fall. Lr
productionwells.Relativelylittle bitumenwasproducedduring this phase. from the nm
In the secondphase,air injectionwas stoppedand the reservoirpressurewas in the cased
loweredby allowing productionat the productionwells. It was thought that this tial availablc
productionwasassistedby the flashingof connatewaterto steamwithin the heated This pn
reservoir. usingin situ
meansof pro
cyclic steamr
'i\*:
\NIi.
l\
SupaNot Combudion
nomic produ
ing the reser
-- This co
€ 3oo
g16 Companvin
v
kt 11.5'APIcrr
E
ai 200 t
: Westernpill
6 Figure 9.40 Effect of Air waspredicte
s Requirementupon the Water-Air Ratio
"."-"t than 30cZ.Tl
Requiredto Achieve Various
: , loo
Percentagesof Carry Forward of Heat
ing designprt
i Dry Comburrion ;
i , :
of Combustion.The ParameterIs the cessful.and i
:
I
Percentof Heat of CombustionThat Is possibleb1 o
r6{, 200 250 300 360 400 Carried Forward to the SteamZone as high as tlu
m aeouneuerr h.(sn/m'l (from Chiu 1988).
was conclud
450 In Situ Combustion Chap. 9
In Situ Corrb.
eam zone should
be conducted to
; of the water-to- 1200
nbustion forward ro
rtio as a function 5 |m
rf using enriched E. l(n

=I
E
t
G
!o0 g
E Figure 9.41 Effect of OxygenUpon
! 2
aoo the Water-Air Ratio Requiredto Carry
ForwardVarious Percentages of the
m
Heat of Combustion.The ParameterIs
is must overcome o + o the Percentof Heat of Combustion
m ,ro 60 tO ()o
That Is Carried Forward to the Steam
oxtcCl{ Mou PEaCEiIT Zone (from Chiu 1988)
In the final stageof the process,air and waterwereinjectedsimultaneously to

ature,makesthe
producebitumenby wet combustion.
to 2 to 3 lbft3 of
Apart from the paper just referred to, there appearsto be little published
:servoirto 500'F.
information on the AMOCO project. An expandedpilot was built jointly with
ls by in situ com- AOSTRA, but it was apparentlyunsuccessful.
GregoireLake in When in situ combustionoccurs in an initially cold, bitumen-containing
,irkpatrick(1979). reservoir,the gas presumablyflows along relativelythin permeablepaths.These
!'e-spots.The for- may alreadyexist in the reservoir,or they may be formedby fracturing.With igni-
lcesswas carried tion, combustioncan occur alongthe surfacesof thesepaths,with a combustion
front advancingat right anglesto the direction of flow. However,as the combustion
: the reservoirby front advances, the supplyof air to it will tend to decline,and the front temperature
t approachedthe may fall. Under these circumstances,low-temperatureoxidation may take over
his phase. from the normalcombustionprocesswith little mobilizationof the oil. Also, just as
'l'oir pressurewas in the caseof steamfloodingalonga fracture,there may be little pressuredifferen-
thought that this tial availableto drive the oil toward the producer.
*'ithin the heated This problemmay be overcomeby preheatingthe reservoirwith steambefore
using in situ combustion.It appearsto be practicalto use in situ combustionas a
meansof producingadditionaloil from a reservoirthat has been producedusing
cyclic steamstimulation.Cyclic steamingcan thus serveas a meansfor the eco-
nomicproductionof perhaps15%of the oil in placeaswell as a meansfor preheat-
ing the reservoirto allow the productionof further oil by combustion.
This combination of processeswas pioneeredby the Chanslor-WesternOil
Companyin the Midway Sunsetfield in California. This reservoircontains an
11.5"API crude oil, which can be producedby cyclic steaming.In the Chanslor-
Westernpilot, about I5Voof the oil in placewas producedby cyclic steaming,and it
:t of Air waspredictedthat the ultimate recoverywithout combustionwould havebeenless
I the Water-Air Ratio than 30Vo.The projectwas convertedto dry in situ combustionusing the engineer-
:r e Various
ing designproceduresdescribedby Nelsonand McNeil (1961).The project was suc-
rr.r Forwardof Heat
ne ParameterIs the cessful,and it was concludedthat oil was producedmore economicallythan was
iCombustionThat Is possibleby continuing the cyclic steamrecovery.The production rate was at least
o the SteamZone as high as that which could be obtainedby steamdrive in the samepattern,and it
was concluded that the in situ combustion processwas more economic in this
x.rstion Chap. 9 In Situ Combustionin Tar Sands 451
instance.An expandedproject involving 10 injection and 40 productionwells is op- Potentid Ar
eratedby SanteFe Energy on the samelease.The project is describedas promising f. Elinir
and is producing 1000B/d of oil, of which 800 is enhancedrecovery production givea o
(Aalund 1988).
Fctin
BP ResourcesCanada (Donnelly, Hallam, and Duckett 1985; Nzekwu, tinr.I
Hallam, and Williams 1988)is following a similar approachat its combustionpilot speiq
at MargueriteLake in the Cold Lake oil sandsdepositin Alberta. [n its process, inirt.
BP first producedoil from the tar sandsby steamstimulation; this required the ini- for sla
tial steaminjection to be at abovefracturing pressure.After a number of cyclesof couE3|
steamstimulation,the operationwas convertedto in situ combustion.Initially, BP
2. The cq
used air in situ combustion,as in its original plans.Subsequently they converted
highcr,
from the use of air to oxygenand have now had considerableexperiencewith pure
the a!
oxygeninjection.
the vir
BP found that the combustionzone overridesthe reservoirand movesrapidly
analyr
along the fracture paths opened during cyclic steaming.To avoid production well
tively (l
damage,they developedcyclic techniquesin which the injection of oxygenis inter-
rupted. Water injection, either as slugsor intermittently, is important in controlling a
the temperatures and in distributingthe heat(Nzekwu,Hallam, and Williams1988).
The cyclic steamingphaseof the processrequires 5 to 7 y to produce 15 to
20Voof the original bitumen in place.It is anticipatedthat with combustion,the re-
coverywill be doubledto about 30 to 50Vo.BP startedpilot operationsat Marguerite li
Lake in 1977 and carried out cyclic steamexperiments,wet-air combustion,and,
since March 1983,enriched air and high-purity oxygencombustion.
7
A larger semicommercialoperation was built in 1983at nearby Wolf Lake; It
this started operationsin early 1985.This project has L92start-up wells that were
directionally drilled from 10 satellites;it is designedto produce 1100m3/d of bitu-
men. After the cyclic steamphase,it is planned to incorporatecomtustion (proba-
l:
bly using oxygen)in the early 1990s.
.t
Wet combustionhas considerablepotential and many advantageswhen used
with tar sands.It provides a meansfor reducingthe quantity of injected air that t
{
would be neededto consumethe very high fuel load that arisesbecauseof the com- a
position of the bitumen. Wet combustionproducesa steamfloodaheadof the com-
a
bustion front that drives oil ahead,and this reducesthe fuel load. [n addition, it is r5
probablypractical to look upon the wet in situ combustionmechanismas an in situ a
steamgenerator.This leadsto the concept of not burning completelythrough the a
(:'
reservoir,but stoppingafter adequatesteamfor recoveryhas been generated.Thus,
in practical bitumen, in situ combustionprojects,it is probably economicto leave
behind considerablevolumesof unburned reservoir. I
USE OF OXYGEN OR ENRICHEDAIR

rlgr
One of the most interestingcurrent areasof developmentin in situ combustionis and C
the use of enriched air or oxygenin place of air. This possibility was suggestedby 3one
SCt
H. Ramey (1954). reservoir.Slc-
For the useof oxygento becomean economic,commercialreality, it is neces- injectionof l([
sary for its advantagesto outweigh its disadvantages. As it is seenat present,the 0.7x ld SCE
may reducctha
following are the major advantagesand disadvantages.
In Situ Combustion Chap.9
Useof Oxtga
luctionwellsis op- Potential Advantages for the Use of Oxygen
ribed aspromising 1. Elimination of nitrogen reducesthe gasvelocity at the producingwells for a
covery production given oxygen-injectionrate. This in turn can allow a higher rate of oxygenin-
jection and can give much more rapid heat production and shortenproduction
:t 1985; Nzekwu, time. As has been mentioned previously,it is also possibleto use larger well
s combustionpilot spacing.With air, the rate of production of heat within the reservoirfrom an
rta. In its process, injection well is frequently lessthan can be achievedby using the samewell
s requiredthe ini- for steam injection. with oxygen injection, the rate of heat production be-
umberof cyclesof comesapproximatelyequal to that which is achievablewith steam.3
stion.Initially, BP
2. The concentrationof carbon dioxide in the gaswithin the reservoir is much
lly they converted
higher, and it hasbeen suggestedthat this will improve recoveryby increasing
rcriencewith pure
the amountof carbondioxidedissolvingin the crude;this will tend to lower
the viscosityand causeswelling.Figures9.42 and 9.43 comparethe flue gas
and movesrapidly
analysesfound in combustiontube experimentsusing air and oxygen,respec-
id productionwell
tively (Mossand Cady 1982).
of oxygenis inter-
tant in controlling
nd Williams1988).
r to produce 15 to
ombustion,the re-
ions at Marguerite
o
combustion,and, I
ton. {
78 &
rearby Wolf Lake; c
up wells that were o
.o
h
1100m3/dof bitu- |!
(,
ombustion(proba- I
35
lntageswhen used
aa o
rf injectedair that T
2og
ecauseof the com- ol
lrt
aheadof the com- +,
it c
J. In addition,it is -f
0g
anismas an in situ o o
6
rletelythrough the it q
(, d
n generated.Thus,
economicto leave
llne, hours
Figure 9.42 CombustionTube Run with Air 12' Lindbergh Crude (from Moss
situ combustionis and Cady 1982)
y was suggestedby 3OneSCF air generates
of about 100Btu when the oxygenwithin it reactswith the fuel in the
reservoir.Steaminjection gives about 1000Btu per pound of steam.Thus, to be equivalentto the
reality,it is neces- injection_of1000B/d of steam(350 x 106Btu/d), one would have to inject 3.5 x 106scF)/dof air, or
gen at present,the 0.7 x 10"SCF/dof 02. In practice,the higher efficiencyof utilization of the heat from combustion
may reducetheserequirements.
Use of Oxygenor EnrichedAir

rbustion Chap.9
100 well r
wirb
For c
I coz o
able I
-..r r- ..1
+,
6
nelly
2. Spec
1,
&
riqls
c tisr r
'l
..1 8t
o |{ Precr
>r 6
?l
U tro&
a I nece
c
{
|l l.r |.'':. nlv
rso lociri
l9&l:
.t I lt\ ,- t{
I ,L \i.r/ \/'v' ^/-\ E minil
.lli Y tion i
li r I 0E
o
3. The ir
air ct
l{
a the n
o
o 4. As is
with r
58 l0 L2
flno, hours The Cost t
Atr b,
There is al
Figure 9.43 CombustionTube Run with 02 12" Lindbergh Crude (from Moss The mosl c
and Cady 1982)
practicalf(t
3. The heatingvalue of the producedgaswill be much higher becauseit is not and fractio
diluted with nitrogen. Also, the high concentrationof carbon dioxide may Coolingis r
makethe gasusefulasa sourceof carbondioxide.It is possible,then, that the batic expa
producedgas may have a positivOrather than a negativeeconomicvalue. It comes fro0
could, for example,be possibleto separatethe COz for sale and utilize the 90 psig is s
resultanthigh-heating-value tail gas as a fuel. The combustionof the tail pressure(se
gas from conventional in' situ combustion is difficult and requires special for air liqu
equipment. O*r-g
4. Theremaybe lessoverridethan with air for the sameoxygen-injection ratebe- in insulate
causeof the reducedvolumeof gasand perhapsbecauseof its higherdensity. by BritishP
by Arco ar
PossibleDisadvantagesof the Use of Oxygen Roberts1S
The li
1. There is a hazard in using high-pressure, high-concentrationoxygenin cir- provide a s
cumstances whereit can be mixedwith hydrocarbons. A particularconcernis oxygen and
to eliminatemixing of oxygenwith oil in the injectionwell. This can occur if startup.arx
the pressurein the injectionwell is allowedto fall during operationand thus Systemsfu
allow oil to back up into the well. A likely causefor suchan eventwould be Duckerr(19
the failure of the oxygensupply.Precautionsthat can be usedto preventthis The o
includethe provisionof backupoxygenand meansfor injectingwaterinto the fifth of rhc
454 In Situ Combustion Chap.9

Useof Oxyg
well in the event of failure of the oxygen supply. The mechanicalproblems
with oxygen in situ combustionhave been largely solved in pilot operations.
For example,BP in their Cold Lake pilot has injected oxygenfor a consider-
able period and are contemplatingits use on a large commercialscale(Don-
o
..1 nelly, Hallam, and Duckett 1985).
+,
a 2. Specialprecautionsare also necessaryto handle oxygen.For example,precau-
& tions must be taken to avoid sourcesof ignition that could causethe combus-
c tion of ordinary steel pipe carrying high-pressureoxygen. Although these
r3 precautionsare well known in the conventionalhandling of oxygen,they in-
l{
rt troduce a new degreeof complexityinto oil field operations.It is, for example,
(,
I
c necessaryto minimize dust particlesand to stay within maximum line ve-
rso locities to avoid ignition from static electricity (Henningson and Duckett
1984;Hvizdos,Howard, and Roberts1983).The choiceof materialsthat will
l.
minimize corrosion problemsand be compatiblewith oxygenin situ combus-
B
T tion is discussedby Zawieruchaet al. (1988).
0t 3. The investmentcostfor oxygen-separation plantsis higherthan that for simple
o air compressors. This is partially-and in somecasescompletely-offset by
l{
a the reducedpower requirementto compressthe smallervolume of oxygen.
o
o 4. As is discussedlater, low-temperature oxidationseemsto occur more readily
I
with oxygenthan with air-particularly at higherpressures.
The Cost of Orygen
There is alreadya vast experiencein the manufactureof oxygen on a large scale.

: tfrom Moss The most economicmethod for manufacture,and the only developedone that is
practical for considerationfor large-scaleoperations,involvesthe liquefactionof air
er becauseit is not and fractional distillation to separatethe oxygen.The processis very efficient.
arbon dioxide may Cooling is achievedby countercurrentheat exchangewith the products and adia-
sible,then, that the batic expansionof the compressedfeed. The free energy to operate the process
economicvalue. It comes from the compressionof the feed. An input air pressureof about 75 to
saleand utilize the 90 psig is sufficient to drive the processand produce pure oxygen at atmospheric
rbustionof the tail pressure(seeTable9.2).Newton(1979)givesa concisedescriptionof the technology
nd requiresspecial for air liquefaction and fractionation.
Oxygenfor small combustionpilots is usuallytransportedto the site as liquid
in insulatedtrailers.Productionpilots of this type have been operatedin Canada
en-injectionratebe-
by British Petroleum,by Husky Oil, and by Dome Petroleum.There havebeentests
rf its higherdensity.
by Arco and by the GreenwichOil Companyin Texas(Hvizdos, Howard, and
Roberts1983).
The liquid oxygenis pumpedunderpressurethrough avaporizer.Itis usualto
ltion oxygenin cir- provide a similar facility for the vaporizationof liquid nitrogen so that a blend of
rarticularconcernis oxygen and nitrogen can be injected. A blend correspondingto air is used for
ll. This can occurif startup, and the oxygenconcentrationis increasedgraduallyas the burn progresses.
r operationand thus Systemsfor the supply of oxygen to fire floods are discussedby Henningsonand
r an eventwould be Duckett (1984).Figure 9.44 showsa systemsuitablefor a field pilot.
usedto preventthis The compressionof the oxygenfrom a separationplant requiresonly about a
:ctingwaterinto the fifth of the energythat would be required for the compressionof the sameamount
mbustion Chap.9 Use of Oxygenor EnrichedAir 455

YsrsrEr
uqro orvB€xarPzL
-5
,
:: l\
.- ' {
Ornur z!
s< -
OryDart : I
8la.e.
=z
ou
fui .0
6>
sqxt
9Y :i ...
36 ; t
;< s .!'..
:i
>r {
:c
l/lgodt FbrComola
tqhlrtg
Rathr-:
Figure 9.44 Liquid Oxygen Vaporization Systemfor In Situ Pilot Operations (from
l e a s t ,i n u s : ; l
Henningsonand Duckett 1984)
ima in the.c
other factr.n r
of oxygenas air. This savingin compression work can offset the work neededto
tration.It:ce
separatethe oxygenfrom air. pureox\qen.
Whetherthe overallenergyis lower or higherdependsupon the final delivery
An inte
pressure.Figure 9.45 (Hvizdos,Howard, and Roberts1983)showsa comparison
is given br k
of the power requirementsto produce4 million SCF/dof oxygenas air and as pure
c o m b u s t i o nr s
oxygen.At pressuresabove about 175 psia, the production of oxygen requires
c o m p a r et h c I
lesspower.
o r e n r i c h e d:
The costsfrom the samereferencearecomparedin Figure9.46.Which source
of oxygenis cheaperdependsnot only upon the pressurerequiredbut also on the The Effect o{
volume.This is becauseof the very substantialeconomyin scalein the manufacture with Oxygen
of oxygen;largeplantsare more economicalthan small ones.This is a significant
problemwhen it is desiredto experimenton a small pilot scalewith oxygento The precedrn
developthe method. The discontinuitiesin the curves of Figure 9.46 reflect the fected bv dc'g
economiesthat can be madein the costof air compression by switchingfrom recip- by Moore an'J
rocatingto turbocompressors if the requirementis large enough. case (Nloorc
tube, ther ra:
I t}_
i
I
\
' lrri I
nvvGEN RELAT IVE
OXYGEN I
COST
Figure 9.45 Electrical Energy to

Produce4MSCF/dof Oz or Air : I-+-
tc
40 60 100 200 Containing4MSCF/dof 02 (from
O E L I V E RPYR E S S UP
RSEI A Hvizdos, Howard and Roberts1983)
456 ln Situ Combustion Chap.9 Use of Oxvgre.

r s[
F;EI
;fi
hi
EgHI
t
;l
Figure 9.46 Differential Cost for Oxy-
gen Comparedto Air (from Hvizdos,
M M S C F DO F C O N T A I N E DO X Y G E N Howard, and Roberts1983)
Rather than produce pure oxygen there is some economy,in oxygen cost at
)perations (from least,in usingenrichedair. This is shownin Figure 9.47.Although there are min-
ima in these curves,the differencesare not very great, and it seemslikely that
other factorssuchas reservoirperformancewill determinethe best oxygenconcen-
re work neededto tration. It seemsreasonableto expectthat this will likely turn out to be essentially
pure oxygen.
n the final delivery An interestingdiscussionof the potential for in situ combustionusing oxygen
ows a comparison is given by Fairfield and White (1982).A state-of-the-artreview of oxygen in situ
as air and aspure combustionis presentedby Garon, Kumar, and Cala (1986).[n their review,they
rf oxygen requires comparethe physicalcharacteristicsof nine different field projectsthat use oxygen
or enrichedair.
l.tl6. Which source
ed but also on the The Effect of Pressureon Combustion Performance
in the manufacture with Oxygen
'his
is a significant
ile with oxygen to The precedingdiscussionof oxygencostspresumesthat burn performanceis unaf-
re 9.46 reflect the fected by degreeof oxygen enrichment. Combustiontube experimentsperformed
from recip- by Moore and Bennion at the University of Calgarysuggestthat this may not be the
ltchine case (Moore et al. 1987).Using a 4-in.-diameter,6-ft-long adiabaticcombustion
tube, they ran a seriesof dry combustiontube testsusing95%oxygen-enriched air
LI
RELATIVE
OXYGEN
cosT
s
:clricalEnergyto
,d of 02 or Air Figure 9.47 Effect of OxygenPurity
60 70 80 90 t00
CFld of Oz (from on Cost (from Hvizdos, Howard, and
d and Roberts1983) % O X Y G E NI N P R O D U C T Roberts1983)
nbustion Chap. Use of Oxygenor EnrichedAir 457

Effect of Pressureon Nelsm
Oxygenand FuelRequirements follo*'ing:
120 o Total ei
o Rate aa
(D
r Total I
E 110 #
c
B ro o . Rate d
.Y
E ' OPeratir
100E
c '=
o =(o Total RrC Lr
Eoo
o
.:
soe s L The fuel load
=
ct
o
6s ent porositf i
tr' 20 so Itr
X-:
o
5
o
where ll
IL 70E F
o
i: 10 a
o
19
60o a
The acre-fod
50 tional petrolcr
024681012
TotalPressure(MPa)
Figure 9.48 Effect of Pressureon Oxygen and Fuel Requirements-Combus- Air Retpircrn
tion and Tube Experimentswith AthabascaSandCore and95VaOz (from Moore
et al. 1987) The air consu
and this is pn
and Athabascaoil sandcore.Figure9.48showsthat the overalloxygenand fuel re- volume of res
quirementsappearedto increaselinearly with operating pressure,nearly doubling
over the rangeof 2700to 10,300kPa (400-1500psi). They attributedthis increase
to the preoxidizingeffect causedby the high oxygenpartial pressures.
This is con-
sistent with the observationsof Alexander, Martin, and Dew (1962)already pre-
where z{
sented (see Figure 9.17). Both Moore and Alexander noted that oxygen partial
pressurehad a much smallereffect on normal air (21%oxygen)combustionparame-
u
ters. Further observationson the relative performanceof oxygenand air in situ
w
combinationin a large number of combustiontube testsare summarizedby Moore, The total air r
Bennion,and Ursenbach(1988). per unit r-oluo
volumeis egu
DESIGNOF IN SITU COMBUSTIONPROJECTS sweepefficiea
of 62.6%strm
The practical design and sizing of facilities for in situ combustion projects have
beendiscussedby Nelsonand McNeil (1961)and by Gatesand Ramey(1980).These AN
are two excellentpapersthat will be of considerableassistanceto an engineerfaced
Air
with the planningand designof a new project.Chiu (1988)discusses a relatedana-
lytical model that extendsthe theory.
In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Designof h 9t
Nelson and McNeil describe means for making simple of the
following:
r Total air requirements.

. Rate and pressureat which the air must be supplied.
110 # r Total amountof oil that will be produced.
c o Rate at which the oil will be produced.
o
E r Operatingexpense.
100E
'=
=(o Total Fuel Load
eoes The fuel load measuredin a combustiontube test is adjustedto allow for the differ-
60 ent porosityin the reservoiras comparedto the laboratorysandpack.
oo Itc
X- lb fuel/acre-ft burned = 43,560WF (e.6)
o
whereW is lb fuelft3lab test
70E F is (1 - 6il1$ - 6,)
o
0^ is reservoirporosity
ooo 6o is sand-packporosity
The acre-footmeasureof reservoirvolume is often used when employing conven-
50 tional petroleum-measuring
units.
1 acre-ft = 43,560ft3
rents-Combus- Air Requirement

02 (from Moore
The air consumptionin the laboratorytube is expressedas SCF per pound of fuel,
and this is proratedas shown in equation9.6 to give the air requirementper unit
rll oxygenand fuel re- volume of reservoir.
;sure,nearly doubling
tributed this increase V^
rressures.This is con-
t=fiwF (e.7)
w (1962)already pre-
whereA is SCF airlCF reservoir
I that oxygenpartial
V, is SCF air in lab test
) combustionparame- We is total lb of fuel burned in lab test
xygenand air in situ
rmmarizedby Moore, The total air requiredfor the project is estimatedby multiplying the requirement
per unit volumeby the estimatedvolumeof the reservoirthat will be burned.This
volumeis equalto the volumeof the patternmultipliedby an estimatedvolumetric
sweepefficiency.For a five-spot,Nelsonand McNeil suggestthat a sweepefficiency
of 62.6Voshouldbe employed;this leadsto equation9.8.
rbustionprojects have
I Ramey(1980).These Air per acre-ft burned : 43,56041106
MScF/acre-ft burned
e to an engineerfaced Air per acre-ft pattern = 0.626 x 43,560A/106 (e.8)
iscusses a relatedana-
= 27,269A/106MscF/acre-ft pattern
)ombustion Chap.9 Designof In Situ Combustion

Projects 459
Air Rate and Pressure
Gat.'. e
The rate at which air is introduced controls the burning rate. to gire a n::'
this flur iilr
U=Au (e.e) reserrc-ri::i
where U is air flux SCFft'z d The erl
A is SCF air/CF reservoir tain a rni::nr
z is burning front advance,ftfd s i n c ei t r r : 1 .a
b e s to b t a : : e c
As hasbeen discussedpreviously,avery low burning rate is insufficient to maintain Asarr
combustion,and a very high rate causeserosionproblemsat the production wells. e q u a t i o nv : i l
The practical maximum gas rate at a production well seemsto be about 500,000to to the f lou .-l
600,000SCF/day. permeat'iiitr
It is commonto choosean injectionrate that will maintain, initially, a con- abilitl of 5-.
stant burning front velocity. A velocity of 0.5 ft/d is recommendedby Nelson and Equa:i.
McNeil. As the front advances,the air-injectionflow is increasedup to the capacity the marinut
of the compressor. Followingthis, the injectionis maintainedat the maximumrate. mum value.
During this main period, the rate of advancedecreasesbecauseof the increasing
area of the front.
Figure 9'49 shows how the air-injection rate and cumulative injection vary
with time. The gradualdecreasein the rate at the end of the production is required *here P
to minimize oxygenbypassing.[n a large multiple-patterndevelopment,the air ca- D
pacity that is madefree during this period can be utilized to start up a new pattern.
Nelson and McNeil discussthe schedulingof air for production from a number of rl
staggeredpattern operations. T
Nelsonand McNeil considerthe lowestburning velocity at which satisfactory j
combustioncan be obtained is about 0.125tt/d. The methodsof Ramev described :

earliercan alsobe usedto studythis.
t1
c
.9
{
InjectionRate Oil Displaced
o
.P
C'
o
(E A s s u m i n et h a
G E displaced ::ru-
tr o This is giren I
.9
.H
.z
+.
(g
o
o E
tr E
J
L
o * here
t'
c
(g
'T.\s:'::::
Time w e l la su p c : : : c
temnerer,rr. i -.
Figure 9.49 Air Injection Programm(after Nelsonand McNeil 1961)
( 1 9 7 7r)e 3 . : : sr r :
460 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Design of In ft
Gatesand Ramey(1980)considerthat the air capacityshouldbe great enough
to give a minimum burning rate of 0.15ft/d or an air flux of 2.15 scF/h ft2, but
this flux shouldbe calculatedas if the air were passingthrough only ] to ] of the
(e.e) reservoirthickness.a
The existenceof a limiting gas-production rateper well and the needto main-
tain a minimum burning advancerate tend to make the use of oxygenattractive,
sinceit will allow largerratesand wider patterns.The injectionpressurerequiredis
best obtained from actual field injection test data.
ufficient to maintain As a means of making a prior estimate, Nelson and McNeil recommended
he production wells. equation9.10.This requiresan estimateof the permeabilityof the cold formation
' be about 500,000to to the flow of gas,i.e., the permeabilityof the formationmultipliedby the relative
permeability.If there is no specificinformation, they suggestthat a relative perme-
rain, initially, a con- ability of 5Vocan be used.
:nded by Nelson and Equation 9.10gives the pressureat the time the air-injectionrate first reaches
ed up to the capacity the maximum value. This is the point where the pressurereachesits maxi-
rt the maximum rate. mum value.
rse of the increasing
P ? . = P*' zl.i'" p " z t \ f ' | 4 _ \ - 1 . 2 3 8 . l (e.10)
Llativeinjection vary \oro3/.1/ L'n\',,,r,r I
roduction is required where Pi, is injection well bottom hole pressure,psia
elopment,the air ca- P- is production well bottom hole pressure,psia
rrt up a new pattern. io is maximum air rate, SCF/d
rn from a number of Ita is air viscosityat Ty,cp
Tf is absoluteformation temperature,R
at which satisfactory a is well spacingfor the five spot pattern, ft
of Ramey described ty is time to reachmaximumrate, d
ks is effectivepermeabilityto air, mD
h is formationthickness,ft
rw is production well radius, ft
v1 is initial rate of advanceof burning front, ft/d
Oil Displaced
Assumingthat there is no oil left in the burned-outzone,then the amountof oil

displacedmust be equal to the original oil in place minus that consumedas fuel.
This is given by equation9.11.
Oil displaced= oil at start - fuel
= n.soo1:9i
'"'"""\ - y:\ B/acre-rt
-' (e.11)
s.ot 35o l
where So is fractional oil saturation
Qo is reservoirporosity, fraction
43,560 ftz facre
5.6r ft3/B
350 lb fue/B (assumed)
*The
temperature at the firefront for a given rate of advance dependsupon the fuel load as
well as upon the air rate. Thus a very heavy oil that gives a high fuel load will give a higher front
Neil 1961) temperaturefor the samerate of advance.Thus, for example,in the Midway Sunsetfield, Counihan
(1977)reports excellentcombustionresultswith a designrate of only 1 in./d.
omtustion Chap.9 Design of In Situ Combustion Projects 461
Gatesand Rameypointedout that, at an intermediatetime, the cumulativeamount
of oil producedcan be greateror lessthan the amount of oil displacedfrom the
burned zonebecauseof two opposingfactors: roo-
1. Oil aheadof the front may be displacedto the productionwell by other

mechanisms"includinghot water drive, steamdrive, hot gasdrive, vaporiza- : roo--
tion, misciblephasedisplacement,expansionand gravity drainage."These I
mechanismsare all made more effective by the elevatedtemperatures. f ?oo-
2. Oil may have to form a bank aheadof the combustionzone in order to fill
someof the gassaturationthat is presentinitially in the reservoir. e 'oo-
Basedon this conceptand usingexperimentaldatafrom the long-standing and suc- 0!

o
cessfulSouthBelridgepilot, Gatesand Rameydevelopedthe chart in Figure 9.50.
This correlationpredictsthe cumulativeoil productionas a function of the
fraction of the reservoirthat has been burned and the initial gas saturation.It is In prrti
basedupon considerabledata from cored wells at the pilot and also upon laboratory that the prodr
experimentsthat demonstrated the effect of initial gassaturation. uneconomic h
Figure 9.50 predictsthat there is a delayperiod before oil is producedthat the dottedlic
corresponds to the formation of the oil bank and that the initial production,when The calc
it eventuallyoccurs,is at a muchhigherrate than the average. A delayin the initial the combusir
productionof oil is shownby the data shownpreviouslyin Figure 9.10. gas,and allorr
In using the correlationit is necessaryto know the fuel concentration.This zone.The eto
may be obtained from combustiontube experimentsor, if these are not available, Gatesand Rel
from the correlationin Figure9.51.Figure 9.52 maybe usedto estimatethe air re- air and that it
quirementto burn the fuel. Figure 9.
Using the correlationin Figure 9.50,we can measurethe slopeof the appro- pared to predi
priate curve and calculate the instantaneousoil rate as a function of the fraction that the sprhc
burned.Using this informationand the fuel requirement,we can calculatethe in- when the prod
stantaneousair-oil ratio as a function of recovery.The resultsof such a calculation The rcad
for the SouthBelridgefield are shownin Figure 9.53. verv interesliq
The initial current air-oil ratio is muchlower than the averagerate shownby centrationfru
the dottedhorizontalline. The cumulativeratio is also lower than the averageex-
cept at the end, where it converges.
ll-
t
aq-
J lrl
U
5
L
o
q
tilfl4.
aas safuRAfloil
I at I t /xl t
a +
J
\ I 3 I
F
3 I
'/fiI f
t
F
3
J st : +
o //V 7 3
3
o ,/ o
It
/.
'/, o
>-
G
I
5
o
I
!
G /, Figure 9.50 Chart for Estimating Oil a i
J '/t Recoveryas a Function of the Percent I I
o /lt of the ReservoirBurned (from Gates
I
ol-
o
and Ramey 1980)
462 ln Situ Combustion Chap. 9 Designof In Sitt
cumulativeamount
displacedfrom the F
tion well by other

)
;as drive, vaporiza- @
i drainage."These
z
emperatures. o
ure in order to fill U
eservoir. E
Figure 9.51 Chart for Predicting

g-standingand suc- Fuel Concentration(from Gates
rart in Figure 9.50. OIL GRAVTTY. 'API and Ramev 1980)
s a function of the
gassaturation.It is ln practiceit is likely that the processwould not be taken to the very end but
lso upon laboratory that the production would be terminated when the current air-oil ratio reachedan
)n. uneconomiclevel.In this casethe final cumulativeratio would alsobe lower than
il is producedthat the dottedline.
rl production,when The calculationso far has assumedthat the oxygenis completelyconsumedin
' delayin the initial the combustionprocess.In practicethere is someunreactedoxygenin the produced
rre 9.10. gas, and allowanceshouldbe made for this in estimatingthe size of the burned
;oncentration.This zone. The excessair requirementsmay be estimatedfrom Figure 9.54; however,
€ are not available, Gatesand Rameyconsiderthat this figure may overestimatethe amountof excess
estimatethe air re- air and that it is conservative.
Figure 9.55 shows the experimental air-oil ratios from South Belridge com-
slope of the appro- pared to predictionsmadeusing the precedingmethod. Gatesand Rameypoint out
tion of the fraction that the spikesin the experimentaldata in this figure correspondlargely to periods
an calculatethe in- when the production wells at the pilot were partly shut in for mechanicalreasons.
,f sucha calculation The reader is referred to the original paper for further details, including a
very interestingdescriptionof severalparallel methodsfor estimatingthe fuel con-
:ragerate shown by centrationfrom the field data.
han the averageex-
F
E
d
I
J
2
o
)
J
I \
J
u
2
E
e
0
o
c.
t
o
U
art for EstimatingOil E
unction of the Percent c Figure 9.52 Air Requirementsper

'Burned (from Gates Acre-Foot of Reservoir (from Gates
rl cRuoE otl GRAYITY,.APt and Ramey 1980)
mbustion Chap. 9 Designof In Situ CombustionProjects 463
.o a
I I
t ]o.
o
F
;
t
G 20 lg.
J
o - _DlslLlc_E[ENr_\_ _-z_ _ _
W
a
; to <e
Figure 9.53 ComputedAir-Oil Ratio

for South BelridgeField (from Gates
o l L R E C O V E R Y - ? o OOFI L A T S T A R TL E S S F U E L and Ramey 1980)
Effect of Water-Air Ratio on Oil Recoveryper Volume Burned -.-p

The
The correlationof Gatesand Ramey(Figure9.50)for predictingthe oil recoveryas periment.::r
a function of the burned reservoirfraction and the initial gassaturationis for dry slightlr hrg:er
combustionin a particularreservoir.Different correlationsmaybe expectedfor dif- peak temptera
ferentsituations.For example,in wet combustion,oil is movedaheadby the steam, was coolinerl
and oil production occurs more rapidly. This phenomenonhas been studied by reasonfor rte
Moore et al. (1988)in a seriesof combustiontube testswith varyingratiosof water It can hr
to air. Someof their data are shownin Figures9.56-9.59. causedoil t.. i
Figure 9.56 showsthe effect of adding2 kglm3(ST) of water to the combus- tage of more !
tion air. Oil production starts when a smaller percentageof the core has been unburned fuel
burned, and for a given fraction burned, the oil recoveryis larger.Also, because t e d a g a i n s :l x
the fuel loadis lessfor wet combustion,lessair is requiredto achievethe samefrac- Furthcrr
tion burned.As a result, the curvesof percentoil recoveryversusquantity of air quantitr of ar
injected(Figure9.57)showan evenlargerdifference. problem de:.-n
Resultsfrom similar experimentsusingcoresof Athabascareservoirsandand bustion tut'c tr
bitumenthat were reconstitutedby flooding are shownin Figures9.58and 9.59.In a mathemati!-
this seriesof experiments,runs with much higher water-injectionratios are com- the quantitr o
pared to a dry run. volvesthe calc
fication of the
$
g
o
o
g
o
x
u
o 20 40 60 80 roo
Figure 9.54 ExcessAir from
OIL RECOVERY.'6OF LESS FIfL
OIL AT START
South BelridgePilot (from Gates
ExcEss^ri .mffii**--aer x roo* rcr.ritxyt and Ramey 1980)
464 In Situ Combustion Chap. 9 Designof In Srt

XOITHLY IN.'ECTEOAh .
o PR'UJC€O OIL RATIO
a
t
9
F
c
J
o
c
mputedAir-OilRatio Figure 9.55 South BelridgeCurrent

geField(fromGates oi.0ro60oo roo Air/Oil Ratio (from Gatesand
OIL IECOVERY.Tf OIL AT START LESS FI,EL Ramey 1980)
€d
The "optimal" water-airratio for this seriesof runswas about4.6.In this ex-
g the oil recoveryas periment, the averagepeak combustion front temperaturewas 608"c. This was
iaturation is for dry slightly higher than that for the dry run (569'c). on the other hand, the average
be expectedfor dif- peak temperaturefor the run with a ratio of 6.9 was only 225'C.In it, liquid water
aheadby the steam, was cooling the combustionzone,and unburnedfuel was left behind. This is the
as been studied by reasonfor the relatively low final recovery.
l ing ratios of water It can be seenfrom Figure 9.58that, as in Figure 9.56,the additionof water
causedoil to be recoveredsooner.However, in the superwetrun, the early advan-
ater to the combus- tage of more productionwas not maintained becauseof the material left behind as
the core has been unburned fuel. The difference is even more pronouncedwhen the recoveryis plot-
[ger. Also, because ted againstthe cumulativeair injectionin Figure 9.59.
hievethe samefrac- Further insight into the factorsthat affect the oil recoveryas a function of the
:ISusquantity of air quantity of air injected can be obtained from the mathematical analysis of the
problemdescribedby Chiu (1988).In his paper,Chiu showshow the resultsof com-
a reservoirsand and bustion tube testssuchas those shown in Figures9.56-9.59can be developedfrom
res9.58and 9.59.In a mathematicalmodel involving steamfloodingaheadof the combustionzone,with
tion ratios are com- the quantity of steambeing calculatedfrom a heat balance.The heat balance in-
volvesthe calculationof the vertical heat lossesfrom the steamzone using a modi-
fication of the Marx-Langenheimmethoddescribedin Chapter4.
100
t
o
o
(J
o
e
o
.{
Figure 9.56 Effect of Water-Air Ratio
rcessAir from on Oil Recovery;CombustionTube
Pilot(fromGates 200 400 Test with Packof AthabascaBitumen
t0) PVof Air Iniected and Silica Sand(after Moore et al.)
cmbustion Chap.9 Designof In Situ CombustionProjects 465

Parameter
is
Water/Air
Ratio
o xgim3 1s1
o
o
o
8so
=
o
o
s Figure 9.57 Effect of WaterAddition
upon Oil Recoveryas a Function of
CumulativeAir; InjectionTestswith
S0 100 AthabascaBitumen-Silica and Sand
c/oof VolumeBurned Pack(after Moore et al.)
FIELDPROJECT
RESULTS TABLE9.7 }:
Lloydminster,Golden Lake
As Fairfieldand White (1982)havediscussed, the Lloydminsterareacontainsmany

reservoirsof heavyoil containedin thin, Lower Cretaceous sands.The oils arevery
viscous,and the oil saturationis usuallyhigh; the sandsare very permeable.The
reservoirsare estimatedto contain a total of 50 to 70 billion barrelsof oil.
The Lloydminsteroils are lessviscousthan thosein the Cold Lake field to
the north, and primary productionis possible;well productivitiesof the order of
20 Bld are obtained,but the primary recoveryis only 3 to 8Vo.Becauseof the high
viscosityand the fingeringthat occurs,waterfloodingis not very effective;Fairfield
and White indicatethat the incrementalrecoveryfrom waterfloodingis of the order
of only 2Vo.
Figure 9.60 showsthat about 90Voof this oil occurs in sandsthinner than
20 ft, and 50Vooccxrsin sandslessthan 10ft. Becausethe sandsare so thin, steam
drive is generallynot applicable.For thermal efficiency reasons,a thicknessof
about25 ft or more is necessaryfor steamdrive to be practical.
In situ combustionis suitablefor sandsdown to about 10 ft in thicknessand
has promisefor allowing efficient recoveryof much of the Lloydminstercrude.It
hasthe advantages of usingcheaperenergythan steamrecovery,of not requiringall
( F a i r f i e l da n : \ A
of the reservoirto be maintainedat the thermal recoverytemperaturethroughout
the project,and of removingsomeof the most refractorymaterialas fuel.
100
wet 4.6 / lJ ^^
66u
tt
E
o .:
60u
o
o Suoer 1." =
Wetb,9 ..
tso Dryo o,^
o
o Parameteris a
* Water/AirRatio dzo
rg/m31sr1 Figure 9.58 Effect of Water-Air Ratio
on Oil RecoveryTestswith :
v0
50 100 ReconstitutedAthabascaTar Sand
o/oof VolumeBurned (after Moore et al.)
466 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 FieldProjectRe

e
o
o
o
t
o
;x Figure 9.59 Effect of Water Addition
iffect of WaterAddition upon Oil Recoveryas a Function of
rveryas a Function of CumulativeAir Injection Testswith
ir: InjectionTestswith 0 200 400 ReconstitutedAthabascaTar Sand
umen-Silicaand Sand PVof Alr Iniected (after Moore et al.)
rore et al.)
TABLE 9.7 Propertiesof GoldenLake Reservoir
Sand Sparky
Depth, ft 1600
'-r areacontarnsmany Net sand,ft
Original pilot LJ
nds. The oils are very Expansion#1 20.8
very permeable.The Porosity, Vo 35
barrelsof oil. Permeability,md
te Cold Lake field to Core data 1200
vities of the order of Calculatedfrom productiondata 8000
,. Becauseof the high Saturation,7o
:ry effective; Fairfield oil 82
Ioodingis of the order Watcr l8
Originalreservoirpressure. psig 510
Reservoirtemperature,"F 70
n sandsthinner than
Reservoirf luid properties
ndsare so thin, steam
Oil gravity, "API t2-13
asons,a thickness of Oil formation volume factor 1.01
)al. Solutiongas oil ratio, SCF)/B 45
l0 ft in thicknessand Dead oil viscosityat 70"F.,cp 6300
.loydminstercrude. It Live oil viscosityat 500psig,cp 3500
ry, of not requiring all (Fairfield and White 1982)
mperaturethroughout
terial as fuel. 100
o
E
rL
ao
o
.z
!:6 0
9+o
o
o
Ezo
Effect of Water-Air Ratio Figure 9.60 Oil in Placein the
ery Testswith
:
v0 Lloydminsterfields as a Function of
I AthabascaTar Sand 0 48 SandThickness(after Fairfield and
12
et al.) Sand Thicknessm white 1982)
Sombustion Chap. 9 Field Project Results 467

TABLE 9.8 CombustionCharacteristicsof GoldenLake ReservoirMaterial
Molecularweight (unit) I J.+
Atomic hydrogen- carbon ratio 1.4

Fuel, lbft3 1.93
Fuel, B/acre-ft 250
Unit air requirement at (100% efficiency)
SCF/lb carbon 200
SCF/lb fuel t79
scF/ft3 345
Water formed by combustion, Bfacre-f.t ))4
Oil displacedby combustionfront, B/acre-ft t957

TheoreticalAOR, dry combustion,kSCF/B 7.68
Water-airratio, B/MSCF 205
Residualoil saturation,steamzone:
Vo pore space(avg.) 22.6
B/acre-ft (avg.) 614
Displacement in steam zone, Bfacre-ft 1593
(Fairfield and White 1982)
Propertiesof the Golden Lake Reservoir and the combustioncharacteristics

are shownin Tables9.7 and 9.8.The oil hasa viscosityof 3500cp at reservoircon-
ditions. There is a large difference between the permeabilitiesmeasuredon core
samplesand those calculated from production data. This is thought to be due to
"worm holes" in the reservoir,possiblyformed as a result of sand production.
The well layout for the Golden Lake projectis shown in Figure 9.61.The orig-
inal five-spotpattern aroundwell 815-11was ignited in July 1969and expansion1,
consistingof two seven-spotpatterns,was ignited in 1974.Water injection was
startedat a designrate of 205 B per million SCF in 1972in the original pattern and
in July 1976in the expansionpattern.
tfuur
Productionresultsare shown in Figure 9.62 and are summarizedin Table 9.9. Fairfid
An analysisof the producedgasis given in Table9.10.
TABLE 9.9 GoldenLake Injectionand Production(81-09-30)
Cumulative Cumulative Burned oil Recovery TABLE9.10 G(

Air Water Volume Recovered Percent
Pattern Million SCF KB Percent(1) KB OOIP
Original Pattern 1240 165 t7.1 567 39.8

Expansion1
D7 Pattern 507 r07 4.4 438 18.3
B9 Pattern 562 116 J.t 378 t9.7
Total Expansion1 1069 223 5.0 816 19.0
(t)It
was anticipated that it would be economic to continue the burn until the burned volume
was about 20Vo.There are thus quite a few yearsof production aheadof even the original pattern
(Fairfieldand white 1982).
Gffffi
!
468 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 I Field Project Rc

I
13.4 1 0 1. 2 5a c Primarydrainagearea
2329 ac-n
l.+
1.93 c-15
:,50
100
20 ac
179 A-147 A-15
_u5 .7 B-15
t
17d 98.75ac
460 ac-fl
1 9 57 2049 ac-ft
7.68
D-9
r05
c-10
)2.6 30 ac
611
B-10 \ A . 1O T
1,s93 o- < a_v
,
623 ac-ft
rustioncharacteristics u-d
0 cp at reservoircon-
ies measuredon core ,
thought to be due to
sandproduction.
Figure9.61.The orig- .115
acres
,969and expansion1, 2386 ac-tt
\later injection was
e originalpatternand O--'--
Figure 9.61 Well Arrangementfor Husky'sPilot Projectsat Golden Lake (from

rmarizedin Table9.9. Fairfield and White 1982)
oil Recovery TABLE 9.10 GoldenLake ProducedGas Analvsis

Recovered Percent
Component Volume Percent
KB OOIP
567 39.8
Carbon dioxide 16.0
Carbon monoxide 0.4
{38 18.3
Methane t.2
378 t9.7
Nitrogen 81.4
816 19.0
Oxygen 0.0
Argon 1.0
until the burned volume
100.0
eren rhe originalpattern
lornbr.rstion Chap.9 Field Project Results 469

TABLE 9.8 combustion characteristicsof GoldenLake ReservoirMateriar
Molecular weight (unit) 13.4

Atomic hydrogen-carbon ratio 1.4
Fuel, lbft3 1.93
Fuel, B/acre-ft 250
Unit air requirement at (100Voefficiencv)
SCVIb carbon 200
SCF/lb fuel 179
scFrt3 345
Water formed by combustion, B/acre-ft laA
Oil displacedby combustionfront, B/acre-ft 1957

TheoreticalAOR, dry combustion,kSCF/B 7.68
Water-airratio, B/MSCF 205
Residualoil saturation,steamzone:
Vo pore space(avg.) 22.6
B/acre-ft (avg.) 614
Displacement in steam zone, B/acre-ft 1593
Propertiesof the Golden Lake Reservoir and the combustioncharacteristics

are shownin Tables9.7 and9.g.The oil hasa viscosityof 3500cp at reservoir
con_
ditions. There is a large difference between the permeabilitiesmeasured
on core
samplesand those calculated from production data. This is thought to
be due to
"worm holes" in the reservoir,possiblyformed as a result of sand production.
, The well layout for the Golden Lake project is shown in Figuri 9.61.The orig_
inal five-spotpattern aroundweil 815-11wasignited in July p(9 andexpansion
i,
consisting of two seven-spotpatterns, was ignited in r9i4. water injection
was
started at a designrate of 205B per million SCF in 7972|n the original pattern
and
in July 1976in the expansionpattern.
Productionresultsare shown in Figure 9.62 and are summarizedin Table 9.9. Ftrc
An analysisof the producedgasis given in Table9.10. F.irfi
TABLE 9.9 GoldenLake Injectionand production(81-09-301
Cumulative Cumulative Burned oil Recovery TABTT 9.IO C

Air Water Volume Recovered Percent
Pattern Million SCF KB Percent(l) KB OOIP
Original Pattern 1240 165 L7.l 561 39.8
Expansion1
D7 Pattern 507 107 4.4 438 18.3
89 Pattern 562 116 5.7 318 19.7
Total Expansion1 1069 223 5.0 816 19.0
(t)It
was anticipated that it would be economic to continue the burn until the burned
volume
was about 20Vo.There are thus quite a few yearsof production aheadof even the
original pattern
(Fairfield and White 1982).
(Fairficld eod tl
468 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Fa*t Prqsr ft

Sparkyformationoriginalpattern TrouHc
permeabilit;-t
drillingof a u
waterlaversh
be verl' prmi
E
Sandco
E the oil to be p
i E
.o E heavy rods an
C'
=
1000= Ven'hig
p c
e o ployed.and tb
o
o
E
:tr
The pc
Fairfieldand I
. Lo*er g
r Enharro
o Aserof!
and its s
A series
66 67 68 69 7A 71 72 79 75 76 T7 78 7g 80 81 Mehrotn
bitumeo
o Rapid co
o Valuable
o Lessorg
Sparkyformationexpansion#1 It appea
minstercrudei
10000 ideal type of n
the top of a di1
5000 of 30 to 5ff'r o
E
More reo
I E Miller and Jr
i
o 1000 !E scribedb1'Fair
Et
I'
e
CL
,rffi h'v'1 500
i
o
E
.:E
which were igr
culty in ignitiq
was shut dovo
o encounteredh
100
Getty's B€tr
50
This project is t
Drv
' l combustlonI
wet combustlon original pilot b
may be seenft
10
about 350 well
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
The rese
Figure 9.62 Productionfrom Golden Lake In Situ CombustionPilots. The Air Injection is broken up b
Is In kSCVd. (from Fairfield and White 1982) There is vertic
470 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 FieldProjectRa

Trouble was found with air short-circuiting from the injector through a high
permeabilitythief zone in the original pattern, and this eventuallyrequiredthe
drilling of a new injection well. Severalwell workoversand squeezejobs to shut off
10000 water layershave also been required.Nevertheless,the operationhasbeen found to
be very promising,and a secondexpansionhasbeencompleted.
so00 Sandcontrol is a continuing problem, and Husky has found it better to allow
the oil to be producedrather than to try to restrict it from the well bore. They use
T'
E heavyrods and large(3.5-in.)tubing.
1000 Very high permeability channelsform when high injection pressuresare em-
c ployed,and they limit the pressurein order to preventthese.
s00 o
E
F
The possibleadvantagesof using oxygen rather than air are emphasizedby
Fairfield and White:
100 o Lower gasvelocities

o Enhancedoil mobility (seeFigure 9.63)
50
o A set of generalizedcorrelationsfor predicting the solubility of carbon dioxide
and its effect on swellingand viscosityis given by simon and Grave (1965).
10 A series of papers by Mehrotra and Svrcek (Svrcek and Mehrotn 1982;
7A 80 81 Mehrotra and Svrcek 1984, 1985a,1985b,1985c)contain measurementsfor
bitumen-carbondioxide systems.
-t
o Rapid contactwith carbondioxide and swelling
o Valuableproducedgas
o Lessoverride
It appearsthat the in situ combustionapproachto the production of Lloyd-

minstercrudeis successfuland that the useof oxygenmay be very promising.The
----1oooo ideal type of reservoirfor this processis one in which oxygencould be injectedat
the top of a dipping reservoir,and the authorsconsiderthat recoveriesof the order
___15000 of 30 to 50Voof the oil in placeshouldbe practicable.
At More recent experienceat the Golden Lake fireflood project is describedby
|rl|A I E Miller and Jacques(1987).The pilot was expanded from the three patterns de-
---*-Jtooo E scribedby Fairfield and White by adding two further inverted seven-spotpatterns,
,r I I
i which were ignited in 7982,and three adjacentpatterns in 1985.There was diffi-
.9
;T=* E
.F
culty in igniting the lastthreepatterns,and this wasnot solvedby the time the pilot
was shut down in 1986becauseof the low price of oil. There were also problems
fl
___-l100
encounteredbecauseof the encroachmentof water into the pilot area.
Getty's BellevueField in Louisiana

--ls0
This project is the largestin situ combustionproject in the United States.Sincethe
rbn original pilot beganoperationsin 1963,it has been expandednumeroustimes, as
I may be seenfrom Figure 9.64.In 1978about 2900 B/d of oil was produced from
, ' lto
about 350 wells (most of it from 223 fireflooded wells).
79 80 81
The reservoiris shallow (depth is 300-420 ft) and relatively thin (20-90 ft). It
;. The Air Injection is broken up by numerousfaults and by a 4-ft layer of noncontinuouslimestone.
There is vertical communicationbetweenthe upper and lower zones.
rnbustion Chap.9 Field ProjectResults

IJts
f-]1967expansionA
@ 1970 rrpans,m B
f-l 1972
expanso tr
Ii973 exoans'u'tr
g
Remaining areassci€dra
for futuredeveloprr|?n
O Location 3
a Producing
weli t
I 1ma
O:e
126 e
O,e
0.9
\'"i 3. :
\l -"
F
1.",
I
20 rF o 0 !F {F sn
nnr. pl
Figure 9.63 Effect of COz on Viscosity of Lloydminster Crude (from Fairfield Figrrc lJ
and White 1982) ana. U-S
Cop;-ril
Field Exp.l
Although the project is very successful,it requires a very high air-to-oil 1963:
ratio-about 19,000SCF per barrel. The high air-to-oil ratio is believed to be due 1967:
to the crude depositingan abnormalamountof fuel, to the relatively low oil satura- 1970:
tion (about 52%\, and to the difficulty in moving all the heatedoil to the produc- I9T2:
tion wells becauseof the reservoir heterogeneities.
472 In Situ Combustion ChaP.9

FieldPrciqr
Legsnd
! 1962expansion A$74 expansion
Q 19zoexpansion Q$ts exgansion
f| t9z2exoansion Qfi76 expansion
flt973 expansion n tg77expansion

QlgTB rrp ntion
Remainingareas
scheduled
forfuturedevelopment
O Location well
@ Injection
Cities
a Producing
well t Abandonedwell
Service
Co.
Co,
Service
Cities
rfrom Fairfield Figure 9.64 Getty'sIn Situ CombustionProjectin BellevueField, BossierParish,Louisi-

ana, U.S.A. (from Bleakely 1978).Reprinted by permissionof Edgell Communications.
Copyright @ November,1978,PETROLEUM ENGINEER INTERNAIIONAL.
FieldExpansions
at Bellevue
a very high air-to-oil 1963: Pilot
r is believedto be due 1967: 1.-4 1973: 25-28 1976: 32
lativelylow oil satura- 1970: 5-8 1974: 29-31, 1977: 60-73 & 12I-123,except64
Ited oil to the produc- 1972: 9-24 1975: 36-47 1978: 85-88
1979: 52-55
Combustion Chap.9
Field ProjectResults 473
A major factor in the economicsuccessof the projectis the shallowdepth of The lin
the reservoirand the low reservoirpressure.This makeswells cheapto driil and of the count
reducescompression costs;the dischargepressureof the compressors is only about a 2000-cpri
100psi. Although the air consumptionis large,the compressed air is cheap. are shownT
The wells are drilled on inverted nine-spotpatterns.originally, the pattern A prh
sizeswerechosento give reservoirvolumesof 185acre-ftper pattern;i.e., the wells 1967.This h
were spacedfarther apart wherethe reservoirwas thinner. Somepatternswere as injectedand
small as 2.2 acresand others,as largeas 8.5 acres.slow responsewas found in the bustionin tl
large patterns,and thesewere infilled with additionalproducers.This gavemuch Oil pn
better results. 1974 to Effi
Originally dry injection was used; then, after about50Voof the theoretical Figure 9.66.
burn was achieved,air injectionwas stoppedand waterfloodingwas usedto scav- The in
engeand utilize the residualheat.This procedurehasnow beenmodifiedto include capacitvard
a period of simultaneous water and air injectionafter the dry operationand before 1979this*a
the waterflood. The rl
Getty expectsto recover60Voof the originaloil in placein the Bellevuefield During this
usingin situ combustion.To do this will requirethe combustionto 6 of 15Voof the m3/d1te.+n
oil in placeas fuel. operationis I
Cities ServiceCompanyhas a wet combustionprojectsimilar to that devel-
opedby Getty on their leasein the Bellevuefield; this leaselies directly to the east
of the Getty lease(Figure9.64).Josephand Pusch(1982)report that Cities Service
expectsto recovernearly 40Voof the oil in place.Well productivity is about20 to
30 B/d. [n their paperJosephand Puschalsoprovide an interestingbreakdownof
the operatingcostsfor the field, which, exclusiveof taxes,were$17.2j/B in 19g0-1.
In Situ Combustion Projects in Rumania

There are somevery interestingand largein situ combustionprojectsbeingcarried
out in Rumania (Gadelleet al. 1981;Turta and pantazi 1982;Carcoanar9g2:Aldea.
Turta, and Zamfir 1988).These four papersalso contain many related references.
TABLE 9.11 Suplacude BarcauReservoirProperties
Sandcharacter Unconsolidated
Depth 35-220 m
Effective thickness 4-24 m
Dip 5"-8.
Initial reservoirpressure 0.4-2.2MPa
Reservoirtemperature 18"C(at a depth of 80 m)
Porosity 0.32
Absolute permeability 1.7 p.m2
Oil specificgravity 0.96(16'APr)
Oil viscosity at 18'C 1.8-2Pa . s 16
(heavyasphalt-base crude oil)
(Turta and Zamfir 1988).
474 In Situ Combustion Chap,9 Field ProjectF

shallowdepth of The largestprojectis in the Suplacude Barcaufield, which is in the northwest
heapto drill and of the country.The reservoirconsistsof a high-quality,shallowsandsaturatedwith
sorsis only about a 2000-cpoil; the reservoirdips at 5 to 8'toward the south. Reservoirproperties
ir is cheap. are shownTable9.11.Figure 9.65showsa map of the field.
rally, the pattern A pilot testwasinitiated in 1964,and semi-industrialoperationwasstartedin
rrn; i.e.,the wells 1967.This has sincebeen expandedto the point where "given the amountsof air
patternswere as injectedand oil produced,this projectmay be consideredthe mostimportantcom-
wasfound in the bustionin the world" (Gadelleet al. 1981).
This gavemuch Oil production due to combustionhas increasedfrom 340 tld, (2200 B/d) in
1974to 800 t/d in 1977and to 1000t/d in 1979.Productionrates are plotted in
rf the theoretical Figure 9.66.
*'asusedto scav- The increasein productionwas achievedby the additionof air-compression
rdified to include capacityand by the extensionof the length of the combustionfront; at the end of
ration and before 1979this was more than 4 km long.
The numberof injectionwells was increasedfrom 11 in 1974to 38 in 1979.
:he Bellevuefield During this period the air-compression capacityrose from 0.55 million standard
o 6 of.l5Vo of the m3lagS.+ million SCF/d)to 1.8million. The air-to-oil ratio achievedin long-term
operationis between1500and 2000std m3/t (8.4 andlL2 kSCF/B)of oil.
lar to that devel-
irectly to the east
rat Cities Service
tr!
ity is about 20 to o .ri !al
ing breakdownof 'r,:i/ ato
o
o
att
a l0a
o
tl
o
||t
0
204
o
7.27/Bin 1980-1.
?a aa(,
o
at2
o O
o
9!
atl
o t0
o
6
o
!rI
o\
l?lt 20t
o org
aaa
Itl !tt
lcts beingcarried o l?a
o
a
nna 1982;Aldea, ta ||l
llatedreferences. o
,
I!
.)\ '.
@ o o
o
ed
o
It !T
_9_:
€8
7/1,,
l. att ti.. llt
@
..a
o 6+'",d o
to
E0m) a;-:--j ?\ 0t
ll
I 0|
I
o
_ o t,
PtlotArco IA lioboth
rl)
@ Arr or wotsr npction u.ll in Oct.1977
lOOn
o ftodtttidr nll an Oct.B77
Figure 9.65 Suplacude Barcau Field (from Gadelleet al. 1981)
rustion Chap.9 Field Project Results 475

START Ttr€sc
x gTU COIE Srbx
€c l. Decrc
t
r< 2. Stirrd
E
a
U
F
3. Creat
c 4. CorS
3
J
-
o
o F o An cil
I ()
C,
t
a
a
B o Profr
3to4
6 o Acid I
l, r !m co5,t!ttDr:
t
G
fr' llil96 air i{
. Prodt
I
Other largr
describedir
Of pet
oped for thr
schemethd
18 km in lc
Figure 9.66 Suplacude BarcauField Performance(from Carcoana1982) required(2t
eration.thc
Productionhistoryup to 1981is shownin Figure 9.66.In a more recentpaper
The R
(Aldea,Turta, andzamfir 1988),resultsup to 1985are described.At that time, the
situ comhr
oil production was 1400 tld, with an air-to-oil ratio of about 2250 m31Sf;/m3
(12,645SCF/B).In 1988,air injectionwas 3.5 million m31Sf;74into 120wells, and
production was from 600 wells. The combustionfront was 7.5 km long, and recov-
ery in the combustionfront areawas greater than 50vo.The project has many inter-
estingfeatures: I
o The operationis a line drive with air injectedat the upperedgeof the sloping U
c
reservoir;this is boundedby a fault, which forms the trap.
o Wateris injectedinto wellsbehind the combustionfront: 6-10 water injectors
with about 50 t/d per well. The paper containssomeinterestingcombustion
There
tube data,which showthat the air requirementis reducedby aboutone-third
Rumania.
for wet combustionas comparedto dry.
o Stableemulsionformation was associatedwith water injection,but this has
beenovercomeby a thermalchemicaltreatmentwith a final strippingdistilla-
tion (Aldea,Turta, and Zamfir 1988).
o The position of the combustionfront in the field is determinedby plotting
isothermalcontourmapsof the well headproductiontemperatures. Aaluso. L.l
A second
method involves the analysis of such data as oil and gas rates, 02 content Aorcsrrls-
of produced gas, and downhole temperaturesfrom north-south rows of pro- ture-Oxid
Res.Eng..
duction wells, i.e., for rows of wells approximatelynormal to the combus-
Alor.e- G, H
tion front.
tion of \
o Various methodsare used to control the developmentof the front.
Me1-ersao
476 In Situ Combustion Chap.9 Bibliography

These
1. Decreasingthe gas flow by throttling production

2. Stimulating specificwells using steam
3. Creating secondarycombustionfronts perpendicularto the main front
4. Combining air and water injection.
o An oil-based,weighted killing fluid is used for well workover.
o Productionwells are cooled as the combustionfront approachesby injecting
3 to 4 t/d of water.
o Acid treatment and prolongedwater injection have been used to restore the
air injectivity of partially pluggedinjection wells.
o Productiongasescontaining carbon monoxideare ventedthrough high stacks.
Other large Rumaniancombustionoperations,in variousstagesof development,are

describedin the paperscited.
Of particular interest is the enormousin situ combustionproject being devel-
oped for the Videle field in Rumania (Turta and Pantazi 1982).This is a line-drive
schemethat will burn downdip and that will have a combustionfront more than
18 km in length; an air-compressioncapacityof about 7 million std. m3/d will be
)ana 1982) required (247,203,000SCF/d).It is forecastthat, after about 45 to 50 years of op-
eration, the ultimate oil recoverywill be about 38 to 40Vo.
more recentpaper The Rumanian Suplacude Barcau project is very large comparedto EOR in
l. At that time,the situ combustionprojectselsewhere.
x 2250 m{Sr;/m3
into 120wells,and
m long, and recov-
Ecthasmanyinter- 1988Capacity, B/d
Surplacude Barcau 9200(Aldea,Turta,andZamfir, 1988)

U.S. total (9 projects) 652s(oil G.J, April 18,1988)
edgeof the sloping Canadatotal (8 projects) 8133
r-10water injectors
restingcombustion There are also nine other commercial in situ combustion operations in
b,vabout one-third Rumania.
ction, but this has

al strippingdistilla-
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ALoEe,G. H., Tunre, A. L., and Znurrn, M., "The In-Situ CombustionIndustrialExploita-
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AtnxeNoen, J. D., ManuN, w L., and Dnw, J. N., "FactorsAffecting Fuel Availability and l06l-lm
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Barta, L. and HnrLEn, L.G., "Kinetics and Energeticsof Oxidation of Athabasca Bitu-
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BuRGen,J.G. and Sanueurr, 8.c., "chemical Aspectsof In-Situ combustion-Heat of Enhas
Combustionand Kinetics," SPEJ,4L0-422, (October 1972).@ I97Z SpE. Lenu M.. /
Buncnn, J. G, and snuueuer, B. c., "Laboratory Researchon wet combustion," Jpr, lr37- Lreurr- R
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CancoaNe,A. N., "Enhanced Oil Recoveryin Rumania," SPE 10699(April 1982). Upgradrf
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CouNtuAN,T. M.,'A SuccessfulIn-Situ CombustionPilot in the Midway-SunsetField," SPE Moonr, Rt
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Dtnrz, D. N., "Wet Underground Combustion,State of the Art," JPT, 605-617(May 1970).
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Dtarz, D. N. and weuoeua, J., "Reversecombustion SeldomFeasible,"producersMonthly, Merhenirr
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Except where
consistentand
siredset of cq
In rhe fd
by the srmbot
L hogr
M m:rst
T tinr
H hear
0 terry
Definirkr
they are defir
cases,suchst*t
LOWERCASE
a,b.c
f
L
JL
480 ln Situ Combustion Chap.9

[e Cylindrical Heat
IIIIIE,216: ll5-122
AppendixI
Sffdlity, Swelling
hary 1%5).
rity Measurements
? Oil Gas 1.,77-N
h by Counterflow
r hocess on an In- Symbols

b-: Fennwell Books
ItlL,'Some Effects
re 1%3).
rEial Compatibility
iing High-Pressure
Except where indicated otherwise, the equationsin this book are dimensionally
consistentand they may be used by substitutingvaluesfor the variablesin any de-
sired set of consistentunits. The table on page2l lists somepossibleunit systems.
In the following list, the dimensionsof the quantities which are represented
by the symbolsare indicated using the following letters:
L length
M mass
T time
H heat
0 temperature
Definitions of somevariablesthat occur only locally are not included here if
they are defined in the text adjacentto the equationwhere they appear.In some
cases,such symbolsmay have specialmeaningsand require particular units.
LOWER CASE
a,b,c Arbitrary constants

-1
c CompressibilityPressure-1- LT2M
f Dimensionlessfunction of time
f,. Ratio of injected latent heat to injected total heat
ft Fractional flow at .L
*ustion Chap.9 481

f, Steamquality B
f. Fractionalflow of water (dimensionless) B,
f"r Fractionalflow of water just upstreamof front C
I Accelerationdue to gravity Cr
LT-2 (standardvalue is 9.80665ms-2) C,C,
8c Geothermal temperaturegradient 0L-1 Cr
h Reservoirheight L CCR
il,, Averagethicknessof steamchamberL E
ho,hc Heat transfer coefficientsfor radiation and convection. Et,
-1 -1
respectivelyHL-2T 0 Ex
k PermeabilityL2
kokr, ks EffectivepermeabilitiesL2
k,o, k,,, krg Relative permeabilities(dimensionless) F
k:",kk End point relative permeabilities(dimensionless) Ho
m Parameterwhich dependson oil viscosity temperaturecurve H^
Tn and Zs K
n Exponent(dimensionless) L
p Temporaryvariable, also used as arbitrary constant L
q Flow rate L3T-1 N
4, Cumulativevolumeof displacedoil L3 NR"
Qo,Q", Qs Oil, water and gasflow ratesL3T-1 osR
Qt Total flow rate L3T-1 APt
r Radius L P
r Thermal resistance0TlH P,
,s Interwell distanceL Po, Pn. Pq
t Time T
h,, P.,
Dimensionless time
tp
t' , t", and t* Dimensionless times usedin gravity drainagetheory
o
Q,
u Heat flux vector HL 2T-1
Q.
Xt!,2 DistanceL
Q'
X,I,Z also used as temporaryvariables
Q,,
xy Position of front L
Qn
7 Dimensionless distancedefinedby equation2.8
Q,,
R
UPPER
CASE
A Area L2 R
A Rate of increaseof areaL2T-1 R,, RO
AR van Lookeren'sdimensionlesssteaminjection number for Rrr, R.r
radial flow s
482 Symbols Apoendix 1 Symbols AC

B Dimensionlessheat factor (Equation 2.52)
Bi Dimensionless constantsBr, Bz,. . ., etc.
lfront C Heat capacityHM-tg-r
Cr Heat capacityat constantpressureHM-19-1
C,Ct Arbitrary constants
Cn Chuoke'sconstant(dimensionless)
CCR ConradsonCarbon Residue(ASTM Standardtest D 189)
E Young'smodulusML-1T-2
nd convection, E6 Fractionof injectedheatwhich remainsin the reservoir
En, Fractionof injectedheatwhich remainswithin the
steam-saturated
zone
F Function
sionless) Ho Total heat injectionrate HT-l
f'temperaturecurve Ht Latent heat injectionrate HT 1
K ThermalConductivityHT 1L-10-1
L Distancebetweenwell centresin equations4.I5 through4.32
r!'constant L Length L
N Number
NR, Rayleighnumber
OSR Oil steamratio
APs Pressuredrop acrossskin ML-1T-2
-2
P PressureforcelareaML-IT
P, CapillarypressureML-1T-2
Po,Po;,Pop Constantpressuresin equations4.10et seq.
P*uP*p Pressures at injector and producerML-IT-2
O Heat flow rate H/T
nagetheory Cumulativeheat flow H
e,
Q,i Cumulativeinjectedheat H
Q* Dimensionless oil drainagerate in SAGD definedin Figure 7.13
Qt, Cumulative heat lossH
Qn Cumulativeheat in steamchamberH
:ion 2'8 Cumulativetotal heat injectedH
Qrc
R Ratio of volumetricwater flow to steamflow, equation5.63
et seq.
R Radius L
Ri, Ro Distance from injector and producer L
on numberfor R*u R,p Radii of injector and producerwell boresL
S Skin factor (dimensionless)
iymbols Apoendix1 Symbols Appendix1 483

So Fractional oil saturation(dimensionless) p
So. Residualoil saturation(dimensionless) It
SOR Steamoil ratio a
AS, SO - SO' p
S" Fractionalwater saturation(dimensionless) a
S,r Irreducible water saturation(dimensionless) a
.1,/ Water saturationjust upstreamof water flood front o
S-, Averagewater saturationbehind front o'
$r Averagewater saturationbehind front at breakthroush p
Ss Fractionalgas saturation(dimensionless) €
S" Fractional steamsaturation i
S-,,S-o Averagewater and oil saturations u
T Temperature0 Vg
fs Steamtemperature0 vR
TR Undisturbed reservoir temperatureg 0
T* Dimensionless temperature 0
U Advancevelocityof movingfront LT-1 0
U Overall heat transfercoefficientHT-1L-20-1 s
V VelocityLT-l 5
V Volume L3 6
Vc Volume of steamchamber 4r
W Massflow per unit area MT rL-2
Subscripts
X Dimensionless variableusedby Marx and Langenheim
abs ab
Enthalpies
BT br
H Enthalpy per unit massHM-1 cco
H, h Enthalpy of steamand of water HM-l c ctl
U Internal energyper unit massHM I conv co
V Volumeper unit massL3M-1 cum cu
H. Enthalpy of steamper unit volume(of steam)HL-3 DD}i
H* Enthalpy of water per unit volume HL 3 ep.
Ho Enthalpy of oil per unit volume HL-3 eff ef1
H, Enthalpy of rock per unit volume HL-3 ffn
Greek 8ga
hln
d Thermal diffusivity L2T-1 H.r/ ho
(r1,d2,. . . constantsin someexpressions iiu
B Gravity term inj ini
B Coefficientof thermal expansiond-1 Lhg
484 Symbols Appendix 1 Symbols Ap

p Density ML-'
,lt Dimensionlessfunction of exponentrn
0 Fractionalporosity
p Density ML-3
o InterfacialtensionMT-:
-4
o Stefan-Boltzmann constantHT-rL 29
d front o Stefan-Boltzmann constantHT tL-29-4
a Effective interfacial tension MT 2
akthrough It DynamicviscosityML 'T-t
e Emissivity(dimensionless)
i Latent heat of evaporationHM t
-t
v KinematicviscosityL2T
VS Kinematicviscosityof oil at steamtemperatureL2T 1
Up Kinematicviscosityof oil at initial reservoirtemperatureL2T-'
0 Angle betweeninterfaceand horizontalradians
0 Ratio of volumetricheat capacities
0 Reservoirdip in Table4.2 and in equation5.1 et seq.
t Distancefrom front L
€* Dimensionless distancefrom front
D Gap L
,lt Dimensionless function definedin equation2.28
Subscripts
angenheim
abs absolute(temperature)
BT breakthrough
c cold
c critical
conv convective
cum cumulative
D Dimensionless
e perimeter
4f effective
{
J fronl
o
6
gas
h hot
H,V horizontaland vertical
i inside
inj injected
L liquid
rnbols Appendix 1 Symbols Appendix 1 485

L loss
o oil and outside
r rock
R
.t
reservoir
skin Appe
J stored
s steam
t total
w water
w well
Densi
Units and Conversion Factors
atm
B
atmosphere(760mm = 1,4.696 psia : I0l325Pa)
barrel (42 USG : 34.97IG = 0.15899m3)
Illster
Btu Britishthermalunit (1.055kJ = 778ft. lb.)
cp centipoise(0.01poise: 0.01g cm-' s-' : L mPa.s:
-r
2.419lbft-l h-1 : 58.06lb f d-1)
CS centistoke(0.01stoke: 0.01cm's-t : 1 x 10-6m' s-t)
OC
degreeCelsiusor Centigrade
OF
degreeFahrenheit Water at BoIt
d day (86,400s)
D darcy (0.9869p^' = 0.9869x 10-12m2)
ft feet (0.3048m) where p.
o gram (0.00220462lb) T
b
h hour (3600s) SaturatedStr

ha hectare(10,000m2 : 2.47I acres)
The specificvol
HP horsepower(550ft lb/s = 0.7457kW)
ing accuracyfir
K degreeKelvin ('C + 273.15) slightlygreaterI
kg kilogram (2.20462lb)
lb pound (mass)Q. $59237 kg)
lb pound (force)(4.448222N or kg ms-2)
m meter (3.2808ft)
md millidarcy (0.001D)
In theseequatio
p poise(g cm-' s-t) ume in ft3/lb.
Pa pascal(Nm-' :1,.45 x 10-apsi) The firsr c
psi poundsper squareinch (6.8948kPa) and Fiori 1987)
"R degreeRankin
Brine Solrtkn
st stoke(cm2s-1)
J tonne (1000kg = 2204.6lb.) The specificgn
w watts S.G.zorzo:l+
in ppm by weig
y year
486 Symbols Appendix1
Appendix2
Densities of Oif Reservoir

I$sterisls
S=
*t t-t)
Water at Boiling Point

p*: 7C[1.7- 0.1616f- 0.00262T'z
where p, is water density in kg/m3 at saturationpressure
T is temperaturein'C (10to 290'C).
Saturated Steam
The specificvolume of saturatedsteamcan be estimatedwith satisfactoryengineer-

ing accuracy from the following correlations. The maximum absolute error is
slightly greater than lVo.
50 < P < 500 V,=363'9P-o'es88
5 0 0< P < 1 5 0 0 4=@90.386/P)-0.04703
1500< P < 2500 4:(551.741P\ -0.0887
ln thesee-quations P is the steamsaturationpressurein psia andll is the steamvol-
ume in ft'/lb.
The iirst equationis from (Farouq Ali1974) and the others are from (Ejiogu
and Fiori 1987).
Brine Solutions
The specific gravity of aqueoussodium chloride solutions can be estimatedfrom
S.G.zorzo:|+ 7.5 x 10-7Wrr 0 <Wpp- < 260,000where Wpp isthesaltcontent
in ppm by weight (or mg/L).
487
nbols Appendix1
ReservoirOil
(p')"",= I :pt.s \
|,rrra* .o'i(999)kglmr 1000 -]
'l
The effectof temperatureon the densityof petroleumfractionsand crudeoils
can be predictedfrom the nomographshownin Figure A.2.I.
lj
A predictionof the effect of temperatureup to temperatures of 260"c can be I
madefrom the tablesfor petroleummeasurement publishedby ASTM (196g). coo -.{
For oils in the rangeof 0 to 15 "API, thesetablesgive the followingfactors: l
TemperatureoF 60 100 200 300 400 500

"C 15.6 37.8 93.3 148.9 204.4 260
p/p15.6
ASTM Tables: 1 0.9861 0.9520 0.9187 0.8864 0.8549
FigureA.2.lK:11.3
10 "API
1 0.982 0.951 0.920 0.88s 0.850
In the precedingtable, the values are comparedwith values read from

FigureA.2.I; the agreementis excellent.
Thesevaluescan be representedaccuratelyby the equation,
lr - 15\ /r - rsyl
p = p $I l l - 0 . 0 6 2 8 5 1 # f + O
- " ."o- -o"r\+ z o^l"' ,1 | u
L \ 1 o o/ 1 0 0I ) d
<
e
500
or by the simplerbut slightlylessaccurateformula, G
:
I r- .-\'l
-oo6m(r#)l
a=nrsll
where Z is in degreesCelsius.
The variation of the densitiesof four samplesof Athabascabitumen were
studiedby Bulkowski and Prill (1978)over the temperaturerange0 to 150"C.They
found that the resultswere in reasonable
agreementwith the ASTM tablesand de-
velopedthe followingcorrelationfor their data.
P=Po_0.627
wherep is the densityin kg/m3at T'C
po is the densityat 0'C.
Gewers(1965)reportedthe densitiesof samplesof Cold Lake and Athabasca
crudesover the temperaturerange0 to 150"C.His data can be represented
by the
equations
p = 1024- 0.6457 8.1 'API Athabascacrude
p = 1009- 0.6347 10.4'API Cold Lake crude
Again, theseresultsare in reasonableagreementwith the correlationsdescribed
previously. R
488 of Oil Reservoir

Densities Materiais Appendix2 Densities of (
1 0 0 01
l
actions and crude oils
l
tures of 260oCcan be l
coo-]
ty'ASTM (1968).
he following factors: l
400 500
204.4 260
0.8864 0.8549
0.885 0.850
th values read from
tion,
-- t ll s V l *. ?
g
m tl e
f
? qnn
o
d
u
: t
F 6
z
U
abascabitumen were DEG APi

rnge0 to 150'C.They
ASTM tablesand de-
I Lake and Athabasca

be representedby the
wATsoN K S
,
crude o.55
crude 0,50
0.45
0.40
;orrelationsdescribed
Figure.d2.l Density of Petroleum Fractions (from API 1976)
Densities of Oil Reservoir Materials Appendix 2 t$89
laterials Appendix 2
Rocks
The following are typical values for the density of the solid rock material
in
reservoirs.
Appr
kg/^'
Sandstone 2630
Carbonates 2680
Conversion Factors
Thert
The densitiesin the previoussectionsare expressed
in kilogramsper cubicmeters.
The valuescan be convertedto other units usingthe follo;ing f*torr. of oi
1000kg/m3 = 1 glcm' = 62.43 lb/ft3
BIBLIOGRAPHY
API, "TechnicalData Book-petroleum Refining," washington,D.c., Americanpetroleum

Institute(t976), 6.51.. Unconsolilil
ASTM' "PetroleumMeasurement Tables,"7th Printing,Philadelphia,AmericanSocietyfor
TestingMaterials(1968). The condrrrir
Bur-rowsrr, P. and PRTLL,G., "Researchcouncil of Alberta, Internal Report the individua
February
1978,"resultsreportedby D. B. Robinsonin "The Thermodynamicand rransport proper_ are approrim
ties of Bitumensand Heavy Oils,,,AOSTRA, Edmonton(1-9g4).
Errocu, G.c. and FroRr,M., "High-pressureSaturatedsteam correlations,,,Ipr,
1,5g5_
1590,December1987.
Fenouq ArI, S.M., "SteamInjection" in Secondaryand krtiary Oil Recoveryprocesses
p11b-
lished by the Interstateoil compact commission,oklahoma city, oklahoma (Sepiem-
ber 1974).
Grwens, c., Imperial oil Limited unpublisheddata from a 1965report quotedby T.
c.
Boberg,"Thermal Methodsof oil Recovery,"New york: John wile; (19gg).
The ther
In particular. ,
grains, and. as
content. An e
given by Cern
given next.
490 Densitiesof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix 2

lid rock material in
Appendix3
Thermsl Conductivity
ms per cubic meters.
g factors. of Oil Reservoirl$sterisls
. AmericanPetroleum
UnconsolidatedOil Sands
American Societyfor
The conductivityof oil sandmixturesmustfall in the rangeof the conductivitiesof
the individualcomponents-sand,water,oil and gas.Theseconductivitiesat 120"F
rnal Report February
are approximatelyas follows.
and TransportProper-
relations,"JPT, L585-
?coveryProcessespub- Thermal Conductivity

r, Oklahoma (Septem- $m "c
Sand 2.85to 7.7
eport quoted by T. C. Water 0.64
ry (1988). oil 0.093
Air 0.024
The thermal conductivity of the sandgrains dependsupon their composition.

In particular, qrrartzhas a much higher thermal conductivity than most other sand
grains, and, as a result, the averageconductivity is largelydeterminedby the quartz
content. An extensivelisting of the conductivities of a wide range of minerals is
given by Cermak (1967)and by Cermak and Ryback (1982);abstractedvalues are
given next.
rials Appendix 2 491

ThermalConductivitiesand SpecificHeatsof Rock-FormingMinerals
.{n :n1
Thermal Conductivity at Room Temperarure for a girel u
$m'c r a t i o ni s t : . r
Quartz 7.69 As r
":'l
Chert 4.53 have beee n
Flint 3.71 t h e s a n d: . s
^,,^-+- -- i -
Vitrous silica 1.36 qudr t4 d.ru
Calcite 3.57
Dolomite 5.50 -'g
Feldspars 2.3-2.5 Calculatec
(Cermakand Rybach1982)
1A
\ : :-
Somerton,Keese,and Chu (1974)found that the averagethermalconductivity
of the sandgrain materialcan be estimatedby using the fblowing equation(thi;
has beenconvertedto SI units).
Kn,= 2.86+ 4.95G$m"C (1)
whereG is the volumefraction of quartz in the solid.

The thermal conductivityof a porous reservoirsolid is less than that cal-
culatedfrom (1) becausethe pores are filled with fluids having a lower thermal Comparisan
with hedcl
conductivitythan that of the sandgrains.This effect is exaggerated in an uncon-
solidatedsandbecauseof the poor contactbetweenthe grains in the directionof Scott and Se
heatflow. As a result,the effectivethermalconductivityof unconsolidated sandsis oil and rr ate
dependentupon the thermal conductivityof the fluid in the pores.water, because and transre
it has a muchhigherconductivitythan oil or gas,greatlyenhancesthe overallcon- Thc- :a:
ductivity of an unconsolidated sand.Furthermore,in water-wetsand,a smallwater
saturationhas an exaggerated effect becausethe water tendsto bridge the inter- Pc'tr...;
granularcontactregions. Quar:r
The effectivethermalconductivityof dry sandsis increasedby a factorof 6 to \\'are:
8 when they are saturatedwith water or brine; in contrast,the conductivityof con- Oil -:r
solidatedrocks increasesby a much smallerfactor as a resultof water saturation.
Somertonet al. (I974)developedthe followingequationfor predictingthermal Sor::c::
conductivityof oil sandsas a functionof the natureof the sandgrains,the porosity,
and the water saturation.This equationhas been convertedto give the result in
SI units so as to be consistentwith the remainderof the materialin this section. and
Conversionfactors are given on page 497.
Kn = 1.273- 2.250 + 0.390Kr,S,05 e)

Set t ::rt
where K1 is the thermalconductivityof the compositematerialin W/m .C
6 is the fractionalporosity
Kn, is the averagethermal conductivityof the grain material
and
estimatedfrom equation 1
s. is the fractional water saturation
492 ThermalConductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix3 ThermalCorx

Mierals An important conclusionwhich Somertonet al. draw from their data is that,
for a given water saturation,it makes little differencewhether the remaining satu-
ration is oil or gas;equation2 canbe used for either case.
As an exampleof the use of equation2, the following thermal conductivities
have been predictedfor two oil sands,eachhaving a porosity of.35%. [n one case,
the sand is assumedto be pure qtafiz and in the other, a mixture containing30Vo
qxartz andT\Vo of other grains such as feldspars.
CalculatedThermalConductivityfor Oil Sandswith S = 9.35

Thermal Conductivity
$m'c
Water
Saturation l00Vo Qtafiz 30VoQuafiz
bermalconductivity 0.2 1.83 t.24
n'ing equation(this 0.4 2.39 1.55
0.6 2.81 t.79
0.8 3.17 1,.99
(1) 1.0 3.49 2.17
less than that cal- Comparison of Measured Thermal Conductivity of Tar Sand
ng a lower thermal with Prediction from Somerton's Formula
:rated in an uncon-
in the directionof Scott and Seto (1986)have reported measurementsof the thermal conductivity of
srsolidated sandsis oil and water saturatedcore samplesof Athabascatar sand using both steady-state
res. Water,because and transientheatingmethods.
ces the overall con- The samplethey used had the following properties:
sand,a smallwater
to bridge the inter- Porosity 0.35
Quartz contentof sand 0.97
d by a factor of 6 to Water saturation 0.267
;onductivityof con- Oil saturation 0.733
f water saturation.
r predictingthermal Somerton'sformulas would predict
grains,the porosity, Kn,= 2.86 + 4.85 x 0.97 = 7.56$m "C
o give the result in
rial in this section. and
., x 0.3s+ 0.3e0
x 7.s6v0.267
(2) :t:rt ;;.2s
Setting S, : 0 and to 1 gives
in $m'C
naterial
Kna,y= 0.49$m "C
ainmaterial and
K,rwet= 3'43 Wm "C
rials Appendix 3 Thermal Conductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix 3 493

Scott and Seto'smeasurements
are comparedto thesepredictionsin the fol- Cerma
lowing table. samplesu he
tivitiesrsprk
Valuesof ThermalConductivityWm "C creasein tix
trend. u hrch
Scott and Seto20'C paper or. air
Dry 0.49 0.43 0.44 '

COMPARISON Of
Oil saturated 2.01 )n
Watersaturated AND UNCONSO
J.+J 4.03(1) 3.47
(r)Thought
to be high by scott and Setobecauseof someconvectiveheat transfel In Fieure .{
saturated. u
porositr Tb
The agreementbetweenthe predictedand experimentalvaluesis excellent. dated sand: ,
ConsolidatedPorous Rocks relation prcd
the squaren
The thermal conductivitiesof consolidatedporousrocks are higher than thoseof tion fall: ha
unconsolidated sandsbecauseof the continuousnature of the rock matrix. Also, The:e
consolidatedrocks generallyhave lower porositiesthan sands,and their conduc- tivitr of .rxr
tivity is lessinfluencedby the natureof the pore fluids. The thermalconductivities more nearlr
of a large numberof sandstonematerialshave been measuredby cermak (1967). grain thermr
His measurements of the thermalconductivitiesof dried sandstonesare shownas a d u c t i ri t r r a r
function of porosity in Figure A.3.1. Although the data are scattered,there is a
Thermal Cq
trend for the thermal conductivityto decrease, as might be expected,with increas-
ing porosity.The scatterin the datareflectsthe varyingnaturJof the solid material These mar tt
as well as, the varying geometryof the pores.The interceptfor zero porosity in
FigureA.3.1 appearsto be ratherlower than might be expectedfrom equation1.
o L i n ei s K = 2 . 5 4 5- 6 . 5 60
o2
M
E"
-
.^l A
A
t^
t Al l
E
a:,
z it^^=:*ii i^^
:
t
E
o ^
o
-1
o
E
o.t
t
F
0L
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Fractional Porosity
Figure A.3.1 ThermalConductivityof Dry Sandstones
(Data from Cermak F i gr r
196'7) S::3r
494 ThermalConductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix3 Thermal Cqrd

predictionsin the fol- Cermak also measuredthe thermal conductivities of the same sandstone
sampleswhen saturatedwith water. The ratio of the wet to the dry thermal conduc-
tivities is plottedagainstporosityin FigureA.3.2. Eachcomparisonshowedan in-
creasein thermal conductivity with water saturation, and the data show a general
trend, which is representedby the exponential curve that comes from Cermak's
tt and Seto 20'C paper or, almost equally well, by the straight line.
Transient
0.44 COMPARISONOF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIESOF CONSOLIDATED

2.0 AND UNCONSOLIDATEDSANDSTONES
3.47
transfer. In Figure A.3.3, predicted curves for the thermal conductivitiesof dry and water
saturated, unconsolidated,and consolidatedsands are plotted as a function of
porosity. The larger effect of water saturation on the conductivity of unconsoli-
I valuesis excellent. dated sandsas comparedto that on consolidatedsandscan be seen.Somerton'scor-
relation predicts that the conductivity of unconsolidatedsandsvaries linearly with
the squareroot of the water saturation.As a result, the line for 25Vowater satura-
higher than thoseof tion falls halfway betweenthat for the dry sand the fully water-saturatedsand.
re rock matrix. Also, There are few data on the effect of partial water saturation on the conduc-
ls, and their conductivity of consolidatedsands.It is reasonableto assumethat this effect would be
hermalconductivities more nearly linear than for unconsolidatedsandsbecauseof the absenceof grain to
d by Cermak (1967). grain thermal resistance.A reasonableassumptionmight be that the thermal con-
stonesare shown as a ductivity varieslinearlywith water saturation.
scattered,there is a Thermal Gonductivity of Hydrocarbon Liquids
ipected,with increas-
: of the solid material Thesemay be estimatedfrom the followingcorrelation(Bland and Davidson1967)
I for zero porosity in
red from equation L. x, =Y(1 - o.ooos4z)
1.6 L
.....
L 'L
..,^
-o l.o
o
B
^ )i1
Y 4t
A
€(u 1 . 2 r^ ^^
t ^--{-
tr f -Rario=1+2.580
I
............
Ratio= expp.ae)
A
to^
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Fractional Porosity
r from Cermak FigureA.3.2 Effect of WaterSaturationon ThermalConductivity(Data for
fromCermak1967)
Sandstones
terials Appendix 3 Thermal Conductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix 3

o 3 CONSOLIDATED Kt
o UNCONSOLIDATED
E K.
Wet
g
2 LFSTq
W e tS = . 1 . 0
.e Dry
o
J
!t
tr Sw=oz5 l("
o
o 1
(g
D r yS * = 0 A.
E Kn" = 2'545Wm oC SI{ALE
o
g
F oo' t(.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
A't uror. Fractional Porosity K,
Figure A.3.3 Comparisonof CorrelatedThermal Conductivitiesfor Consoli- TherrnalCor
dated and UnconsolidatedSandstones
whereKr, is thermal conductivity, $m "C

d is specificgravity,60160.F
T is temperature,oC.
Hldrol
Bland and Davidsonlist their sourceof data as u.s. Bur. std. Misc. pub. 97. Helrur
\:trogt
Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Water r*atct
\lcrhrt
The thermal conductivityof liquid water at its boiling point can be estimatedfrom
Proper
Kn = 0.57 + 1.69x 10-3f - 6.01x 10-6Z2 Tolrn
S il t q 1
whereKa is in W/m'C Copp31
T is in'C (f : 0 to 300) AIumrr
Stecl
For example,if T : t50, Kh : 0.69$m "C.
\l'clod
The thermalconductivityof liquid waterreachesa maximumat a temperature Roch
of about 140'C. G l a r s rI
Insulllr
Thermal Conductivity of Over- and UnderburdenMaterials 'Scc
The thermal conductivitiesof overburdenmaterialsin Wm oC mav be estimated

from the following: CONVERSI
CLAYSTONES
ANDCONSOLIDATED
CLAYS I
Knd,y = 2.2 - 5.56) /r^-_^r^r
I Correlations
basedon data from
Kh*",= 2.2 - 1.56) Cermak(1967),6= 0 to 0.2
SILTSTONES
Br-aNo,t\. F. ar
Knd'v= 2'0 - 4'2OI Hill (1%'r
correlationsbasedon data from
l
K n * . , =2 . 0 - 0 . 5 i l C e r m a (k1 9 6 7 ) ,=d 0 t o 0 . 2 4 CEnuax.\1. -Cr
densitvand q
496 Thermal Conductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix 3

ThermalCondr
-l K66,y= 0.7
Kh*s1= 2.6 t".tlJ

I
FarouqAli (1974)'Q = 0'r9
LIMESTONE
,1ol
K n = 2 . 6 6 = 0 (from Cermak 1967)
fl
= l.7l
Kna,,
FarouqAli (1974)d = 0.19
Kn*o= 3'5)
-] SHALE
Kr,ory= 1.01
0.4 FarouqAli (1974)
K^*o: L1J
s for Consoli- Thermal Conductivities of MiscellaneousMaterials
W/m'c
Gas (1 atm.) Liquid Solid
Hydrogen 0.t79
Misc. Pub. 97. Helium 0.r43
Nitrogen 0.024
Water 0.024 0.60 2.22
Methane 0.033
n be estimatedfrom Propane 0.017 0.08
I Toluene 0.14
Silver 419
Copper 389
Aluminium 20r
Steel 46
Wood 0.r-0.2
rumat a temperature Rock 1.8
Glass(Pyrex) 1.1
InsulatingMaterials
(SeeAppendix 8) 0.02-0.12
C may be estimated
CONVERSIONFACTORS
1 $m "C = 0.5778Btu/h ft oF = 0.002388cal/s cm "C
a from
1.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BLANo, W F. and DavrosoN,R.L., PetroleumProcessingHandbook, New York: McGraw-

Hill (1967).
r from
Cnnvar, V., "Coefficient of thermal conductivity of somesediments,its dependenceon the
l-24
density and on water-contentof rocks," Chemieder Erde, 26:271-278 (1967).
rials Appendix 3 Thermal Conductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix 3 497

CERtrleK,V. and RyBecH, L., "Thermal Conductivity and specific heat of minerals and
rocks," in Landolt-Bornstein,Numerical Data and FunctionalRelationshipsin Scienceand
Technology,New Series,vol. 4, New York: Springer-Verlag(1982),305 ff.
FARoueAu, s.M., "Steam Injection," in secondaryand krtiary oil Recovery processes,
Oklahoma City, Okla.: InterstateOil CompactCommission,(1974).
HoucrN, O. A. and WersoN, K.M., ChemicalProcessPrinciples,vol. 1, 2d printing, New
York: John Wiley (1950),334.
App
'Scorr,
o J. D. and Sero, A. C., "Thermal Property Measurementson Oil Sands,,,
(November-December1986).
JCpT, 70-77
b SolrenroN,w. H., Kmse, J.A., and cuu, S.L., "Thermal Behaviour of unconsolidatedoil
Sands,"SPEJ, 513-521(October 1974).
v
/
n*t
.1"+-.{o Heol
g/nd I
SandstqE
wherc €
This cq
for the indivi
Carbonatc
This eq
carbonate ro
FigureA.4.1.
Clays
Curves for e r
brokenlines il
line for the fil
The diff
variationin ti
498 Thermal Conductivityof Oil ReservoirMaterials Appendix 3

; heat of minerals and
rionshipsin Scienceand
!05 ff.
7il Recovery Processes,
).
ol. 1, 2d printing, New
Appendix4
)il Sands,"/CPT, 70-77
r of UnconsolidatedOil
Hest Copocifies
oind Enlholpies
Sandstones
c, : 0.7't5+ 0.ffi17077- 1.909x t0-6T2

where C" is the heat capacity of rock material at T"C (0-300) measuredin
k{kg "C.
This equationrepresentsthe averagecurve shown in Figure A.4.1. The data
for the individual sandstonesshown are taken from Cassiset al. 1985.
Carbonate
- 1.438x 10-672
C" = 0.823+ 0.001511T
This equationis basedon that given by Cassiset al. (1985)for a sampleof the
carbonate rock from the Grosmount reservoir in Alberta. It is plotted in
FigureA.4.1,
Clays
Curves for a rangeof clay materialsare shown in Figure A.4.2 including some(the
broken lines in the figure) for dehydratedclays.Also shownin the figure is a dotted
line for the fine material that was separatedfrom a sampleof Athabascatar sand.
The differencesbetweenthe various clay samplesis probablydue largely to a
variation in their water contents.
aterials Appendix 3 499

For t1'gi
Linefor Grosmontcarbonate
C) 0.3
-- Cs = 0.823+ 0.001511
T - 1.438e-6I lJ-
1'2 \\ o
x It
I
\
,5 \ ---.- f
o This e$r
b 0.21
E1 E
(, Experim
G
CL G
.E CL menshave bct
o Broken lines are for 7
o
o
linesin Figure
E o.a
ditferent reseruoirs. Solid line
o.2 au
a)
I - f,- =
0 100 200 3oo The ag:r
Temperature o C zffi'C. Abore I
mental data gi
FigureA.4.1 Heatcapacities
of Reservoir
Solids(Datafromcassiset al r985) (: *0.03 kJ/k
Oils
Water
The heat capacityof hydrocarbonoils dependsupon the nature
of the oil and upon
temperature. The heat capa
A useful correlation for predicting the heat capacityof oils is1 excellentaccu
c,=lr + 0.0s5(K_11.7)ll(2.961_ 1.3315)+ (0.00614 _ 0.00231s)rl C.=

whereCo is the heat capacityof the oil, k/kg "C
K is the Watson characterizationfactoi of the oil
and
.S is the specificgravity at 60160.F
T is the temperature,oC C" = lll
- Normal Athabasca Fines C, is givenin I
The spec
equationover !
o t!
o- 1'2
og
J
.? 3 o
J gt o
5 o
'6 i= !
1 o
(!
a.
G
CL
7z
(! (u
C) o
o
o a
E o.e o e
I a
- c,
a
0 100 200 300 r
a
oC
Temperature r_
Figure A.4.2 Heat Capacitiesof Clays(Data from Cassiset al. 19g5)
rThis
correlationis due to Hougenand Watson(1950).The algebraicrepresentationaboveis Figun Ar
basedupon the equationgiven in British units in Bland and Davidson '1967). et al. lS
Heat Capacitiesand Enthalpies Appendix 4 Heat Capacities r

For typical heavycrude oils,K = 11.3.Also, by definition,
'.e
l! ^ I4I.5
o J=13G+'API
ll
=3
gl This equationpredicts the heat capacityas a linear function of temperature.
.25 >,
=o Experimental data for the heat capacitiesof 13 different heavy oils and bitu-
6
CL menshave been publishedby Cassiset al. (1985).They are plotted as fine dotted
6
o lines in FigureA.4.3. The averageof thesedata is given by
t.2 E
I - 4.046x10-672
C,=1.605 + 0.004361T 0"C < Z < 300.C
The agreementwith the Hougen and Watsoncorrelation is good up to about
200"C.Above this, the experimentaldata deviatebelow the correlation.The experi-
mental data given by Cassiset al. are stated to have an accuracy of. about -+5Vo
ssiset al. 1985) (= *0.03 krykg)at 300'C.
Water
e of the oil andupon The heatcapacityof liquid waterat saturationconditionscanbe represented,
with
excellentaccuracy,
by the equations
rils is'
C, = 4.182- 1.5x 10-47+ 3.44x 10-772+ 4.26x 10-8f3.
- 0.00231s)zl
10'c<T<240"C
il and
c, = 11.550- 0.0645187
+ 1.5097x10'472, 240"C< r <300"C
fEs
C, is givenin k{kg'C.
The specific heat of water cannot be representedaccuratelyby a quadratic
equationover a wide range of temperature.
lr
. - 0 . 3 oo
I o.7
-- = o
/} 3 o
"----S'zs @
J
ct) IL
.= ^^ -o
3 2.5
o tl fi =.
l (u
''-
f
r1
I
-'.0.2
CL
IE
I 6
d)
'6
IU -- 6
o
o CL
E2
u.5 s
2 I () o
5
II (s I
q)
o 0.4
300 I
1.5
0 100 200 300
ct al. 1985) o
Temperature C
Figure A.4.3 Heat Capacitiesof Bitumens and Heavy Oils (Data from Cassis
ric representationaboveis
et al. 1985)
167).
Appendix 4
Heat Capacities and Enthalpies Appendix 4 501
rhdpies
HeatCapacitiesof CommonGases Volumetrie ll
Thesemaybe predictedby the followingequation: t
The las r
Cp=a+br+#
Conversirxr R
where Co is in k{kg K
1 Btu/lb "F
T is in K = /oC * 273.1,5
and the coefficientsa, b, and c' (if used)are read from the following table.
BI-aNo,W. F. r
Molecular Applicable
Name Weight
Hill (l%7r.
TemperatureRangeK
Cassrs,R., Fr lu
Hydrogen 2.0158 13.75 0.001682 273-2,500 YeN, H.. -Sg
Oxygen 31.9988 1.08 0.000034 -24,560 300-5,000 Clays,De@
Nitrogen 28.0134 0.97 0.000149 300-3,000 163-173(lSS)
Air 28.8s 1.00 0.000123 - \ 1 ) l 300-3,000 HouceN, O. A. r
Carbon dioxide 44.00955 0.98 0.000261 - 18,600 273-t,200 (1e50).
Carbon monoxide 28.01055 0.99 0.000179 273-2,500
Methane 16.04275 1.39 0.003001 Pennv, R. H. al
273-t,200
Hill, New Ycl
The valuesof the coefficients are basedupon the data summarizedin Perry
and Chilton (1973).
Average Heat Capacities between T1 and 72.
If C: a * bT + cT2,then
e=a+b(!+r,) *,( T ? + T r r r + r 3
\L/\
If c = a -f uT + c'fT2, then
e =a. r(L#).**
Change in Enthalpy between Tt and Tz
LH=ol"ro, =a(rz-
n)+,(Uf) . ,(ry)
r,H= a(rz- n + b(A;!) ., (H)
s02 Heat Capacitiesand Enthalpies Appendix 4 Heat Capacitiesr

Volumetric Heat Capacitiesof ReservoirMaterial
pC = (I - 6)p,C, I gSnp.C, * QS"p"C"+ |Sspssg
The last term is usuallynegligible.
ConversionFactors
1 Btu/lb oF = 1 calfg"C = 1 kcaVkg oC = L CHU/lb .C = 4.t87 k/kg "C
o*'ins table.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BLaNo, w. F. and DevrosoN,R.L., PetroleumProcessingHandbook, New york: McGraw-

Applicable Hill (1967).
RangeK
Temperature
Cassrs,
R., Fur-Let,N., HerLER,L. G., McLeaN,R. J.C., Sreucr, A., SnrNrvasex,
N. S., and
2'73-2,500 YeN, H., "Specific Heat capacities of Bitumens and Heavy oils, Reservoir Minerals,
300-5,000 Clays, Dehydrated Clays, Asphaltenesand Cokes," AOSTRA J. of Research,l, no. 3:
300-3,000 163-173(1985).
300-3,000 HoucrN, o.A. and wansoN, K.M., Chemical Processprinciples, New york: John wiley
2'73-t,200 (1950).
273-2,500
Pennv, R. H. and cHrLroN, c.H., chemical EngineersHandbook, 5th Edition, McGraw-
2"t3-1.200
Hill, New York (1973).
rmmarizedin Perrv
rj - ri\
3)
L)
dpres Appendix4 Heat Capacitiesand Enthalpies Appendix 4 503

If ool-
a predictio
Ir freq
Appendix5 straishrlirE
d r a u nb 1 ' n
Atrho
stokes.it hl
tipoise.Fa t
a rangeof ti
Viscosities
I
For rne
peratureand
the viscositv
viscositv.Flo
of typical vi
givesthe bcr
There r
150'C.and d
Viscosity of Crude Oil to the terryc
The bn
The viscosityof crude oils can be representedas a function of temperaturewith ac- than thar fc
curacyby the equationl data plorcd
logrologio(z+ 0.7)] : mlogn(T + 273) + b i.e.,
where z is the kinematicviscosity,cs

T is the temperature,oC Examie
m 2 and b, are constantswhich are characteristicof the oil from relatird
This equationforms the basisof the ASTM viscosity-temperature graphpaper, catesthat ril
on which viscosity-temperaturecurves of hydrocarbonliquids plot as straight lines creasefor cil
(ASTM 1989).It has been used frequently to correlate,interpolate and extrapolate The correlad
experimentaldata for the viscosityof heavycrudesand bitumens. United Srarc
In order to define a line for a particular crude, it is necessaryto fix two oils can be er
parameters,suchas two points on the line or a singlepoint togetherwith the slope
of the line.
tThe history of this equationis describedby Wright (1968).Walther (1928)describedthe idea whereD
of plotting viscosityversustemperatureon a plot of log log(z)againstlog T.ln 1932,he modified this
n
to a plot of log log(z + 0.8) versuslog ?. The first ASTM chart issuedin 1932also used0.8 in the tThe a"tr
ordinatefunction. Although this equationwas identicalto the Walther formula, the ASTM commit- papers describ,r
tee credited its introduction to the work of MacCoull, who introduced the idea of plotting ica. The papcrl
log log(z + const.)againstlog 7 in a TexasCompanypublicationin 1921.Variousconstantsand ad- cally. For eacb
justableconstantshave been used in the subsequentversionsof the ASTM paper. The work by centipoiseor r r
Wright, which forms the basis for the current ASTM chart, uses 0.7 for viscositiesdown to h i g h d e g r e eo f o
y = 1.3 cs. Below that viscosity,a more complexexpressionis substitutedfor the constant0.7. constitution o( t
504 Viscosities
If only one measuredvalue is availablefor the viscosityof a heavycrude,then
a predictioncan be madeif the slopeof the viscosityline can be estimated.
It frequently happensthat the lines for a family of oils fall as nearly parallel
straightlines-i.e., have a commonvalue of m. This allows a viscosityline to be
drawn by making it parallel to lines for similar crude oils.
Although the ASTM graph paper refers to kinematic viscosities in centi-
stokes,it hasalsobeenusedby someauthorsto correlatedynamicviscositiesin cen-
tipoise.For example,Svrcekand Mehrotra (1938)have shown that the viscositiesof
a rangeof bitumenscan be representedfor temperaturesup to 130'Cby the relation
+ 0.7)] : b' - 3.63029lo9ro(T
logro[logro(& + 273)
oC
where Z is the temPerature,
b' is a constantfor eachoil
For mathematicalreasons,if the densityof the oil is a linear function of tem-

perature and the dynamic viscosity of the oil follows the precedingequation,then
ihe viscositycannot also plot as a straight line on the ASTM paper using kinematic
viscosity.However, the curve will be almost straight and, becauseof the precision
of typiial viscosity measurements,it is usually difficult to determinewhich graph
givesthe best straightline.
There are essentiallyno measuredviscosity data for heavy crude oils above
150"C,and this makesthe useof any correlationfor the extrapolationof viscosities
to the temperaturesused in thermal recoverysomewhatquestionable.
The beststraightline drawn on the kinematicviscositybasiswill be lesssteep
ItemPeraturewith ac- than that for the dynamic viscosity plot. The value of m for the Svrcek-Mehrotra
-3.5556;
data plotted as kinematic viscosity would be about 2Vo smaller,or m :
i.e.,
rb
+ 0'7)] - b - 3.5556logro(7+ 273)
logroflogro(z
Examination of the data for a wide range of asphalticheavy crudes ranging
c of the oil from relatively fluid conventionalheavy oils to the most viscousof bitumens indi
catesthat ratirer than being constant, the absolutevalue of the slope tends to in-
rperature graPhP19er, creasefor oils of lower viscosity'
ts plot as straight lines The correlation of rn with b fot a wide range of heavy crudes from Canada, the
'polate and extraPolate
United States,and SouthAmerica in FigureA.5.1 showsthat the viscosityof these
lmens. oils can be estimatedfrom2
s necessaryto fix two
togetherwith the sloPe + 0.7)] = mlogrc(T + 273) + b
logro[logro(z
where b is a constantfor any particular oil
rcr t1928)describedthe idea m is given bYm : 0'3249- 0.4106b
r T. In 1932,he modifiedthis 2The data shown in these plots were obtainedby using the crude oil viscositiesreported in
in 1932alsoused0'8 in the
papersdescribingvariousthermai recoveryprojectsin Canada,the United Statesand SouthAmer-
formula,the ASTM commit- specifi-
i.". 1.n" pup.r. *.r" thosethat happenedtobe in the author'slibrary and were not selected
drred the idea of Plotting These were converted from centistokes to
cally. Foi each oil, two viscosity points *"re chosen.
!1. Variousconstantsand ad- The
ceniipoiseor vice versa,with an ull6t"n"" beingmadefor the effect of temperatureon density'
ASTM PaPer.The work bY similar
high iegree of correlationfound betweenb andm is surprising;this presumablyref lectsthe
0.7 for viscosities down to
rrcd for the constant0'7' constitutionof theseparticular heavyoils.
Viscosities Appendix 5 505

-2.5
E high temperrr
o m = 0.3249- 0.4106b cationof thc 1
o is for a relalir
E-3
o If the m
o convertedto I
o.
t -ss lations in Ag
ureA.5.2['it
-9
o similar plot to
! Canada
e-4
=
o UnitedStates
SouthAmerica
(E
=
where m ard
-4.5;
7 8 9 10 11
Walther Inlercept b
FigureA.5.1 Correlation
Between
WaltherParameters
for HeavyCrudeOils In suchr
suitablefor tL
Theserelationsdefine a family of straightlines, which passthrough a com-
mon pole on an ASTM plot; seeFigureA.5.2. The tendencyfor lines for oils from Effect of pru
a commonfamily to passthrough a particularpole hasbeenusedin lubricatingoil While the effi
technology,particularlyin Europe,wherethe positionof the pole hasbeenusedas Mehrotn
a correlating factor to representthe type of oil. This systemis comparableto the bitumenvaric
viscosityindex classification,which is more commonlyused(seeBondi (1951)for a
discussionof Waltherand Ubbelohde'spole height (Ubbelohde1940)).
The viscosity-temperature line for a given crudeoil can be estimatedby join- wherep is tbe
ing this pole (at -1'C, 1.5 x 106cs) to a point representinga measuredviscosityof
of P, (MPa).
the oil. For bestaccuracyfor thermal recoverystudies,this measuredpoint should This can
be at a temperatureas high aspossible.This will minimize the degreeof extrapola-
tion which is requiredin the utilization of the data. Becauseit is the viscositiesat
100,000,000 rc,l
1,000,000
'|
r.t
00,000 r.
10,000 I
(,' 1000
()
'-E
100 o
Fso o
o c
8ro
.9 ro a
(, o
e
a
F5
a!
E
o
tr
Y
TemperatureDegrees Celsius
FigureA.5.2 ViscosityrTemperature
Chart for Heavy Crudes KineTat_icViscosity Fi3rnr
506 Viscosities Appendix5 Viscosities I

high temperaturesthat are of interestin thermal recoverycalculations,the exactlo-
cation of the pole is not of great importance,particularly if the measuredviscosity
is for a relatively high temperature.
If the measuredviscosity data are given as dynamic viscosities,they may be
convertedto kinematic viscosityby utilizing oil densitiesestimatedfrom the corre-
lations in Appendix 2. It is possible to plot dynamic viscosity directly on Fig-
ure A.5.2 by interpretingthe units of the verticalscaleascentipoise.tn this case,a
similar plot to that of FigureA.5.1 yieldsa best straightline of
m'=0.3464-0.4127b'
wherem' and b' refer to the equation
11 logroflogio(r+ 0.7)] = m' logrc(T+ 273) + b'
Crude Oils
ln sucha plot, the pole shouldbe at the position(-8'C, 8.1 x 106cp). A chart
suitablefor this applicationis given in FigureA.5.3.
ss through a com-
lines for oils from Effect of pressure Increasingthe pressureon a liquid also increasesthe viscosity.
d in lubricatingoil While the effect is generallysmall,it can be significant.
le has been usedas Mehrotra and Svrcek(1986)show that the viscosity of a sampleof Athabasca
comparableto the bitumen varied accordingto the following correlation.
r Bondi (1951)for a
ln ln(pc)= 22.8515- 3.5784In(T) + 0.00511938&
le40)).
I estimatedby join- where ;r.is the viscosityin centipoiseat a temperatureof ? (K) and a gaugepressure
asured viscosity of of P, (MPa).
sured point should This can be written usingcommonlogarithmsas
bgree of extrapola-
is the viscositiesat log log(pc)= 9.56204- 3.57841og(?)+ 0.002223Pg
O. t00
oso
C
5
'6 r o
to
o
o
95
0 100 200 300

TemperatureDegreesCelsius
reric Viscosity Chartfor HeavyCrudesDylggrgYiscositl

FigureA.53 Viscosity:Temperature
sities Appendix Viscosities Appendix 5

In the temperaturerange they investigate,p. would be relativelylarge and
log log(pr)would be nearly equal to log log(pc+ 0.7). if. fo
The effectof pressureis thus to raisethe viscositytemperatureline on a chart plot such a
suchas that in Figure A.5.3 by a distanceof 0.002223p".
The positionof the pole in Figure A.5.3 is thus a function of pressure.
willbe ccn
Pressure,MPa 0.1 5
of the livc r
10
Pole position, cP x 106 8.1 12.1 28.3 T h i si
that logrlr-
to p. theni
The data in the following table show that the effect of pressureis larger at The d
higherviscosities
(i.e.,at lower temperatures). rangeof ten
the solidnr
crudes.It m
more consr
Viscosity of oil That r
ViscosiryDivided by Viscosity at 1 atmosphere
at atmosphericpressure Figure..\.5.
(cp) 5 MPa 10MPa trationof di
8 . 1x 106 1.5 3.5 samepressu
100 r.+z 3.0
105 r.34 2.s
104 1.26 2.1
103 1 .1 9 1.7
102 t,12 1A where -r is t
l0 1.06 1,.2 approx. r.
At temperatureswhere the oil becomesreasonablymobile-e.g., where

p < 100cp-the effect of pressureis relativelysmall.
Effect of dissolved methane In the reservoir,the oil is typicallynearlysaturated

with naturalgasat the reservoirpressure,Under thesecondiiions,thereare two ef-
fectsupon viscosity:
1. The dissolvedgasactslike a solventand tendsto reducethe viscosity.

2. The pressuretendsto increasethe viscosity.
The dilution effect is larger than the pressureone, and there is an overall
lower viscosity.
Mehrotra and Svrcekhave measuredthe viscositiesof severalbitumensthat
have beensaturatedwith methaneover a temperaturerangeof about 20"Cto r20"C
and at pressuresup to 10 MPa. [igrc
The effectof the dissolvedmethaneupon the viscosityof three differentbitu- Ctlr:C!
mensover this rangeof conditionsis shownin Figure A.5.4. Vtstsr

\lerhr
508 Viscosities Appendix5 Viscosities

rtively large and lf, for a constantconcentrationof dissolvedmethane,the viscosity line on a
plot such as that in Figure A.5.3 movesdown by a constantvertical distance,then
le line on a chart
log log(p, + 0.7) - log log(p + 0.7)
f pressure.
will be constant;po representsthe viscosityof the gas-free(or deadoil) and p, that

of the live oil.
10 This is the sameas sayingthat logflog(p," + 0.7)llog(g. + 0.7)] is constant,or
28.3 that log(9,, + O.7)/log(tt + 0.7) is constant.If the term 0.7 is neglectedcompared
to p, then it can be seenthat this ratio is the sameas the ordinatein FigureA.5.4.
The data in Figure A.5.4 are from measurementscarried out over the whole
ssure is larger at rangeof temperatures.It is interestingthat the data for Cold Lake crude,which are
the solid circlesin Figure A.5.4, correlatebetter than the earlier data for the other
crudes.It may be that this reducedscatterfor the Cold Lake crude is indicative of
more consistentmeasurements.
That the experimental data can be correlated in the manner shown in
I atmosphere Figure A.5.4 indicatesthat the viscosityof a bitumen containinga constantconcen-
)MPa tration of dissolvedmethanewill fall below the line for the gas-freebitumen at the
samepressureby a distance
35
3.0
2.5 t=l+O.Wllx (1)
?l
t.7 where x is the concentration of methane in SCF/B (89 SCF/B :'1, wtVo CHa,
1.4
approx.).
t.?
0.8 1.2 1.6

1.3
bile-e.g., where CL Y : 1 + 0 . 0 0 2 1X
(,
E
ly nearly saturated 3 1.2 ! _
ct)
there are two ef- o a
" l
CL
o
[e viscosity. 1.1
.E . Cold Lake 30- 120 oC
o '*o A
: Peace River54 - 114
oC
g ! o
CD -
^ Wabasca 23 111 C
.hereis an overall o
to'
40 80 120 160
eral bitumensthat Dissolved Methane SCF/B
)out 20'C to 120"C Figure A.5.4 Effect of Dissolved Methane upon the Viscosity of Bitumens.
CorrelationofData from Mehrotra and Svrcek(1988,1985aand 1985b).po is the
[ree different bitu- Viscosityof Bitumen in cp with No DissolvedMethane; p is the Viscositywith
Methane.
ities Appendix 5 Viscosities Appendix 5 509

The solubility of the methane in the same bitumens has been correlated
againsttemperatureand pressureby the equation
- | 343\
scF/B=Pexn(1.50*l)
= 4.66P*r(#)
Pred
where Z is in K the resuls
P is the absolutepressurein MPa Figure .{ j
within abo
The data are comparedwith this correlationin FigureA.5.5. Although there consisten
is considerablescatterin this diagram,the vertical scaleis relativelylarge,and it Thc c
will be seenthat all but one experimentalpoint fall within +20Voof the predicted
oils a-sa fur
solubilities.Again, the more recent data for the cold Lake bitumen appear more
a bitumcrr
consistent. go€sthrcr,4
The methane concentration can be eliminated from equations 1 and 2 to viscositl.s
provide a correlation that predictsthe viscosityof the live oil as a function of pres-
becomesm
sure and the viscosityof the deadoil at the sametemperatureand pressure.This
bitumenth
correlation is
Viscosity I
ln l"o
p =
""p[ 1 + 0.0093P
exp(34317) The dr nam
- 0.1)ll ted in Fieu
lln pooexpf0.00511938(P greatertha
^
-vAUt-/
(3)
t 1 + 0.0093P
exp(343/T) ) approacha
Figun
. Cold lake 1988 ! Peace River 1985 a Wabasca 1985
ted aeainE
steamis rn
6 2.8
o
=
E
o-
o
lI-
o
o
.E
g
.ct
f
o
o
\t
I
o
tr 0.0026 0.0028 0.003 0.0032 0.0034
J
1/T with T in degrees Kelvin

Figure A-5.5 Solubility of Methane in Bitumens. Correlation of Data from
Mehrotra and Svrcek (1988,1985aand 1985b).The Thick Line is Given By
Y : 1.54 + 343/7. The Thinner Lines CorrespondTo SolubilitiesWhich Are F4r
20VoHigher and 20VoLower Than Those Given By the Above Equation. f rt-l

ns been correlated where trc is the live oil viscosityin cp
Po is the dead oil viscosity in cp
ltoo is the dead oil viscosity in cp at the sametemperatureand
atmosphericpressure
P is the pressurein MPa
T is the absolutetemperaturein K
Predictionswere made using this equation for each of the data points, and
the results are shown as ratios to the corresponding measured viscosities in
Figure 4.5.6. The correlation appears to be able to predict the viscosities to
within about +20vo. Again it will be noted that the cold Lake data appear more
5.5.Although there consistent.
ativelylarge,and it The curvesin FigureA.5.7 showthe ratio of the viscositiesfor live and dead
)oZof the predicted oils as a function of temperatureand pressurecalculatedby meansof equation3 for
lumen appear more a bitumen having a viscosity of 120 cp at 100'C and a dead-oil viscosity line that
goesthrough the pole of Figure A.5.4. The effect of dissolvedmethaneon the oil
uationsland2to viscosity is indicated to decreasemarkedly as the temperatureis raised and the oil
i a function of pres- becomesmore fluid. It is also very dependentupon the pressure.This graph is for
and pressure.This bitumen that is saturatedwith methane.
Viscosity of Water and Steam
The dynamicviscositiesof saturatedsteamand of water at its boiling point are plot-

ted in FigureA.5.8. At lower temperatures,the dynamicviscosityof water is much
(3) gteaterthan that of steam,but, as the temperatureis increased,the two viscosities
approacheachother and becomeequalat the critical point.
FigureA.5.9 showsthe kinematicviscosityof saturatedsteamand waterplot-
ted againsttemperature.Becauseof its lower density,the kinematicviscosityof
Gca 1985
steamis much higher than that of liquid water at lower temperatures.Again, the
'-o
o
o p = exp{Ln(llo)/(1 + 0.0093p exp(3a3fD)}
.!2
p is the viscosity ol the live oil in cp
It
o /-lo is the viscosity o{ the dead oil in cp
o T is the temoeraturein K
.E
o
=
'-o
o
o
o
tt o3
o.oo34 o
.9
t
L
o 0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3 10 30
o.
of Data from Predicted Viscosity in Pa.s
r is Given By
:s Which Are Figure A.5,6 Ratio of Predictedand MeasuredViscositiesof Bitumens.Data
pation. from Mehrotra and Svrcek(1988,1985aand 1985b)
sities Appendix 5 Viscosities Appendix 5 511

1.2
't
!t
E1 a
cr (t
-9o.s 5
r,
-
I$ o.s o
I
tr a
.iat, 0.4
o Bitumenviscosityat 100o C = 'l2Ocp
s
a
8 o.z E
a
RMa 8S831 c
o =
0 100 200 3oo
Temperature degrees Celsius
Figure A.5.7 Effect of Temperatureand Pressureon the CalculatedViscosities

of Methane-Saturated Bitumen
Figrn /
viscositiesconvergeat the critical point. Becauseof the higherkinematicviscosity Schmrd
of steam,a much higherpressuregradientis requiredto achievea given massflux
in a porousmediumfor steamthan for liquid water. Water at bo-
The dynamicviscositiesof saturatedsteamand liquid water can be estimated 1o-100
t
from the following correlation equations.
Saturated steam
s., = 0.00879+ 0.00003547+ lVo where p.

where pc, is in cp T
g0.c<r<300"c 100-3{nt
1
o-
o where l t .
c T
=
o
o Converskrn Fr
.E 0.1
DYNATr
.9 The SI unit of
E 0.03
o The tradi
0.01
0 100 200 300 400 Thus

TemperaturedegreesCelsius
Figure A-5.8 Dynamic Viscosity of SaturatedSteam and Water (Data from
Schmidt and Grigull 1981)

l o
o
.E 1 0 0
1
, ""l
rs'
6
o
o
o
(,
(g
E
o
C
10
I Y
0.1
300
100 200 300

d !'iscosities Temperaturein degrees Celsius
Figure A.5.9 Kinematic Viscosity of SaturatedSteam and Water (Data from
kinematicviscosity Schmidt and Grigull 1981)
: a given massflux
Water at boiling point
r can be estimated 10-100
"c
L = o.sqaz + 0.02t1g27 + 0.0000893472-+ lvo

F,
wheretrr,, is in cp
T i si n ' C
100-300'c
! - 0.4gg7-+ 7.5Vo
= O.O+OO7IT
lL.
where g., is in cp
- -
T isin'C
II
ConversionFactors
I
- _- DYNAMTC (M/LT)
VTSCOS]TY
:T-
-r- The SI unit of dynamicviscosityis Pa s, or the equivalentkg m-l s-1.
The traditionalunit is the centipoise(cp) : 0.01p, where
I
I
:--
I 1 poise = 1 g cm-l s-l = 0.1 kg m-1 s- I
400 Thus
' (Data from 1 cP = 0'001Pa s

=l-mPas
ities Appendix 5 Viscosities Appendix5 513

If consistentequationsare employedthat use ftlb and days,then dynamic
viscositiesshouldbe expressedaslbft d.
.r 'P = 0.01x 86400x 30.48=
58.06lb/tt d
K|NEMAT|C VTSCOS|TY (LrlT)

453.6
Appe
By definition, u : p,lp. The SI unit of kinematic viscositv is
Pas
;r- \ = m:/s
(Kg/m-)
The traditional is the centistoke (cs) = 0.01 stoke, where
1 stoke = I cm2/s = I}-a m2/s

Heofi
1 cs = 10-6m2ls
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASTI4 "Viscosity TemperatureCharts for Liquid PetroleumProducts,"ASTM Standard

D34l-87 in 1989Annual Report of Standards,vol. 05.01,philadelphia:ASTM (19g9).
BoNor,A., PhysicalChemistryof Lubricating oils, New york: Reinhold (1951). Hydrocarbor i
MecCourr, N., Lubrication, New york: The TexasCo. (June1921),65.
The heat of q
MEunorna, A. K. and Svncrr, w.y., "viscosity, Density and Gas SolubilityData for
oil from the folbr
Sand Bitumens,Part II: PeaceRiver Bitumen Saturatedwith N2, co, aH4, co2 and
CzHoi' AOSTRAJ. of Research,1, no. 4:269-279 (19g5). Gross h€rt o,
MnHnorna, A. K. and SvRCnr,w.y., "viscosity, Density and Gas SolubilityData for oil
SandBitumens,Part III: wabascaBitumenSaturatedwith N2,co, cH4, cb2 and czHe,,, -Ji
AOSTRAl. of Research,2, no.2: 83-93 (19g5).
MeHnorna,A. K. and Svncex,w.y., "viscosity of compressedAthabasca Bitumen,,,Can.
Net heat o{ q
J. Chem.Eng., 64: 844-847 (October 1986). -r,
MrHnorna, A. K. and Svncrr, W.Y.,"Propertiesof Cold Lake BitumenSaturatedwith pure
Gasesand Gas Mixtures," Can.J. Chem.Eng., 66:656-665(August19gg). where -JH, I
Scnuror, E. and GnrcuLL, lJ., Propertiesof Waterand Steamin SI Units, Berlin: Springer_ 15.6"Cand AF
Verlag(1981). Theseeq
SvRcer,W.Y. and Meunorna, A. K., "One ParameterCorrelationfor Bitumen Viscositv.,' havingthe foll
Chem.Eng. Res.Des., 66:323-326(July 1988).
Uaneroune,L., "Zur Viskosimetrie,"Leipzig (1940).
Wer-rHen,C., EnooluNoTenn, 4: 510(192g). .API
O
WnLrHeR,C., Enoor-uNo TErn, 7: 382(193I\. Wt% S :9:
WnIcnr, W. A., 'An Improved Viscosity:IemperatureChart for Hydrocarbons," L of Materi-
als, 4, no. l: 19-27 (196$.
For oils h
514 should be subtr

Viscosities Appendix5
I days, then dynamic
ld
Appendix6
Heofs of Combustion
drts," ASTM Standard

phia:ASTM (1989).
HydrocarbonLiquids
rhold (1951).
), 65. The heat of combustionof typical liquid hydrocarbonstreamscan be estimated
l SolubilityData for Oil from the followingequations(API, 1983).
N:, CO, CHr, COz and
Grossheat of combustion
l SolubilityData for Oil -aH, = 41,105 - 0.735(APD2
+ 154.9(API) - 0.00326(ApIf
)" CHl, COz and CzHoi'
Net heat of combustion
babascaBitumen," Can.
- aHn= 39,068 + 126.S(API) - 0.505(API)'?
- 0.00442(APIF
oen Saturatedwith Pure where-AI/, and -A11, are the grossand net heatsof combustionin k/kg at
gusr 1988). 15.6'CandAPI is the API gravityof the oil.
I Unis, Berlin: Springer- Theseequations arebasedupona correlationgivenby Maxwell(1950)
for oils
havingthe followingsulphurcontents.
Lfq BitumenViscosity,"
.API 0 5 10 I) 20 25 30 35
WtVa S 2.95 2.35 1.80 1.35 1.00 0.7 0.4 0.3
drocarbons."J. of Materi-
For oils having different sulphur contents,a quantity given by

- 40.s]as
[0.01(-Ar1)
should be subtractedfrom the precedingvalues.
rcocities ApPendix 5
515
where -A^FI is the appropriateuncorrectedheat of combustion Solid Rrlr
AS is the sulphur content of the oil in wtVominus that
interpolated from the precedingtable
Example:
Estimate the heats of combustion of a 10'ApI heavy crude oil containing Coel
4.5wt% S. [It-
sd'|
-LHs = 41,105+ 154.9x 10 - 0.735x 100 _
0.M326 x 1000 LiSj
rlbod
= 42,577kJ/kg
Grcq
Air X
Correction = (426 - 40.5)(4.5 - 1.8)= 1641 Petr&
Cartc
Correctedheat of combustion:
(Data from Perryr
-LH, = 42,577- I04l = 4I,536kJ/kg
ConversimFr
lBr
= 17.857 For gases
+#
2.326
Btu/lb
Similarly
kI
lHq
-LHn = 39,068+ t^6.g x 10- 0.505x 100- 0.00442x 1000
= 40,281
uncorrected
The correctednet heatof combustion
is then
-LH, = 40,281-1041= 3\240kJ/kg or 16,870 APl, TechnicalD
Btu/lb D.C. (1983),l.
MaxwrlL J. B.,i
original editir
Fuel Gases
PBnnv. R. H. el
McGraw-Hill Q
Heatsof Combustion
k{kg
Molecular
Weight Gross Gross
Hydrogen 2.0 t42,Lrg r20,02r t2.03
Methane 16.0 55,498 50,009 37.58
Ethane 30.1 51,870 47,497 66.07
Propane 44.1, 50,358 46,357 93.98
(Valuesbasedon data from Maxwell 1968.)
516 Heats of Combustion Appendix6 Heats of Corrhr

nbustion Solid Fuels
ninusthat
Gross Heat of Combustion

k/kg Ash-FreeBasis
rude oil containing Coal
Bituminous 27,800-35,400
Subbituminous 2r,300-24,000
326 x 1000 Lignite I7,300
Wood
Green 5,500-11,000
Air Dry 12,000-14,000
PetroleumCoke (delayed) 35,450
Carbon 1?715
(Data from Perry and Chilton 1973.)
ConversionFactors
1 Btu/lb = 2.326kl/kg
For gases
k/m3=
kyks(#x) m'measuredat 15'C and 1 atm
1 Btuft3 = 37.26kJ/m3
t442 x 1000
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APl, TechnicalData Book PetroleumRefining, American PetroleumInstitute, Washington,

m Btu/lb D.C. (1983), 14-11.
MaxweLL, J.8., Data Book on Hydrocarbons,New York: van Nostrand(9th printing 1968of
original edition 1950).
Pennv, R. H. and CullroN, C.H., ChemicalEngineerbHandbook, 5th ed., New York:
McGraw-Hill (1973).
M/m3
Gross Net
12.03 10.16
37.58 33.86
ffi.07 60.50
93.98 86.85
ustion Appendix6 Heats of Combustion Appendix 6 517

Appendix7 Appe
Air CompressionFuel Thern

Reguiremenfs
EnergyEfficiencyof Gas Engines12)

Thermal insilr
(1981),
whichc
Engine Fuel Requirement
Vo Efficiency(t) SCVHP h
TABLE A.8.1 TherrnalCor
85-400 28 10.0
440-800 32 8.8
880-3000 36 7.8 Material
>3300 38
(l)Based Polyurethane
on LHV of methanefuel (908Btu/SCF).
(')Based Polystyrene
on Perry, R. H. and Chilton, C.H.., ChemicalEngineerbHandbook,5th ed., New york:
McGraw-Hill (1973),24-14. Cellular elastomeric
Cork pipe insulation
Cellulosefiber board
Mineral fiber
blanket
Basis:Inlet conditions60"F and 1 atmosphere.
block
HP h per 1000SCF Compressed board
Discharge
Pressure pipe insulation
Isothermal
Compression(r) Cellularglass
Psia Practical(2)
Calciumsilicate
100 2.0s 2.88 block
200 2.79 3.92 board
400 3.53 4.96 r('
800 4.28 6.00 Diatomaceousearth

1200 4.71 6.60 Diatomaceousearth
(t)Hp = Expandedperlite
t.o7 tn(p2lp).
(')Assuming
practicalHP is 40Vogreaterthan isothermal,i.e., HP = 1.5 ln(pz/pt). Neisel and Verschoor , l95lr
518
Appendix8
Thermql lnsulstion
Thermal insulationpracticeswere reviewedin an article by Neiseland Verschoor

(1981),which contains59 references.
SeeTableA.8.1.
Fuel Requirement
scF/HP h
TABLE A.8.1 ThermalConductivitiesof Block,Board,and pipe Insulation
10.0
8.8 Thermal Conductivity,m$(m "C)
Temp range
7.8 Material or maximum,'C 0'c 24'C 100'C 400'c 540'C
7.4
Polyurethane -73 to 110 1A
25
Polystyrene JI 35
5th ed., New York:
Cellular elastomeric 4l +J
Cork pipe insulation 48
Cellulosefiber board 55
Mineral fiber
blanket 204 37 5t
block 204 4l 52 7l
I Compressed board 982 83 1,16
pipe insulation 650 A<
58 75
Cellular glass -268 to 427 60 100
Practical(2)
Calcium silicate
2.88 block 649 66 79 106
3.92 board 650 lzJ 126
4.96 (577kg/m3or 36 lbft3)
6.00 Diatomaceousearth 870 100 109 ll7
6.60 Diatomaceousearth 1040 108 r2l 130
Expandedperlite 816 79 105
t(PzlP). Neiseland Verschoor(1981)
519
TABLEA.8.2 Annular Insulationfor Steam InjectionWells
ThermalConductivity
Material W/mK
Evacuatedjacket with layers
of foil and ceramicfiber
Sodium silicate foam
0.07-0.0002(t)
0.029t2)
App
'uepends gas
{1)n
on remainingwithin jacket.Lowestvaluesobtainedusingkrvpton
with a getter to
absorbH2. Effective conductivity ijhigher than theseuuru., u."uu*'o"iioiJ",
ut rrot spots. (See
Meldau1988).
(2)From
Boberg(1988).Foamedsilicate insulation is formed as a layer over
the exterior of the well
tubing;the layeris typicallyj to in. thick.
I
(seeChapters2 and 8)
Ther
BIBLIOGRAPHY
of st
BonnRc,^[.C., Thermal Methodsof Oil Recovery,New york: John
Wiley (19gg).
MeLoau,R.F., "Reducingwell Bore Heat Loss," Reprintsof papers
in the Thermal well
CompletionsSeminarheld at the 4th International Conferencl on Heavy
Crudesand Tar
sands(UNITAR), Edmonton,Alberta (August7-r2, rggg).presented
and publishedby
the CanadianHeavy Oil Association.
Neiser-,R. H. and VenscHoon,J. D., ,,InsulationThermal," in Kirk-Othmer
Encycbpedia of
ChemicalTechnology,3ded., 13:591-605,New york: John Wiley (1981).
Saturatkn I
The steamsr
lated from ti
P in MPa rr
logroP
This eq
Error li
logroP = 4.{
Error li
These r
75'C in tern
'" -
't-- - -
1r''4&
520 ThermalInsulation Appendix8
::--__
I Conductivity
*7m K
'-0.0002(r)
),029(2)
Appendix9
I krypton with a getter to
f lossesat hot spots.(See
sr the exterior of the well
Thermdl Properfies
of Sfesm
il'iley (1988).
:rs in the Thermal Well
I Heavy Crudes and Tar
ented and publishedby
OthmerEncycbpedia of
r (1981).
SaturationPressureand Temperature
The steamsaturationpressurecorresponding
to a temperature
ffC can be calcu-
lated from the following correlations:
P in MPa and 7 in 'C
rogroP -lr.orrr,
= 9.8809 - - - - * =t.'t!^--1', 1 0 0 ' c < T < 2 7 5 . C
L- r+273.1s1'
This equationis due to SanfordMoss (1903).
Error lies in the rangeof +0.6Voto -0.4Voof P and
'oot
logroP = 4.4988- (, \. 27s'(
\r.an315)''2't5"C<T<374'2(criticaltemperature)
Error lies in the range +0.6%.

These equationsmay also be rearrangedto give the saturation temperature
?s "C in terms of the pressure.
r-r = $ - 2 7 3 .- r s , 0 . 1< P < 6 M P a , 15in"C

(V9.8809 logroP-2.42223)
Error +0.24"C
ulation Appendix 8 521

2043 - 273.15
Ts=
4.4988- logroP
6 < P < 22.12Mpa (critical pressure)
to the rested
Error t0.4'C
Theseexpressions
are shownconvertedto British units next.
in compurr I
P in psia and 7 in "F
l o g r o=
p 1 2 . 0 4 2 4 - ( r . o r r r r *= : t 1 ' : : r = ) ' , 2 r 2 F< r < s z : " F
\ r + 459.671
3677.3 Moss.Sr,rrc
logroP = 6.6602- 527"F < 705.6"F (critical temperature)
T + 459.67'
587.83
Z5= 459.67,
(V12.0424 - logroP - 2.42223)
14.5psia< P < 870psia
3677.3
?t= - 459.67,
6.6602- logroP
870 psia < P < 3212psia (critical pressure)
Enthalpiesof Saturated Liquid and Vapor:
These may be read from Table 4.6 or Figure 4.2.

The following correlationsreproducethe enthalpiesgiven in the steamtables
within 0.1.5Vo and are useful in computerprograms.
Temperature range I 00-275"C
Ht = -14.54 + 4.51967- 0.00277172+ 0.0000092273

Hv = 2523.43+ 1.35567+ 0.00356112_ 0.0000182473
Hv- Ht= 2537.97- 3.t6407 + 0.00633272
_ 0.000021q6r3
Temperature range 275-357"C
Hr. = -3899.18+ 45.0857- 0.1441812

+ 0.0001739073
-
Hv = 9457.68 70.9427 + 0.2551472- 0.0003105g23
Hv - Hr: 13356.86- 116.0277+ 0.3993272- 0.00048448?3
where T is iil "C and H7 and H1 are in k/kg.
522 Thermal Propertiesof Steam Appendix 9

Thermal ftope
In order to minimize computation,it is desirableto convert polynomialex-
pressionssuchas
l=ao*a1x*a2x2*a3x}
to the nestedform
l=ao *[a1 * (a2*a3x)xfx

Et. in computerprograms.
r{l
iT < 527"F BIBLIOGRAPHY
phys.Rev.16:356-363(1903).
Moss,SaNroRoA.,"GeneralLaw for VaporPressures,"
pel temperature)
r in the steamtables
l,f,0.y
2273
wtg24T3
ofrn467"3
m7390r3
il(E&r3
n$44813
Appendix 9
Thermal Propertiesof Steam Appendix 9 523
C l a ym i n e r a i si .t , - l r
effect on le;nci(rlrFl
Cold Lake. ribcnr. lii
Compactiondrirc. 16&<
2't4
Conradsoncarbon rcsaa
(ccRi. 16r. 429
Convectiveheatinglr
reservoin.Z_lG
heat beyondcondctll
Index front. 8,s-86.F-l

Lauwerier\ equrrtor-,
numericalexampbd
Lauweriers c$ti
78-82
simpleconvectircbcl
transfer,73-7j
steamdrive with cca
displacemcntr!c.
steamdrive with cil
injectionrarc. b1
Convectiveheat tranrftr,
well annulus.60-{
Corod manufacrurint.I
C o u r t n a g eL ,. A . 4 d - t
Cyclic steamstimularirl
241_83
Bobergand L:nrz's I
244_48
Bolivar coasr,Tia r.r
Lagunillas,Becl;
272-74
casrnggascomp?crsirl
Coalinga field, ?61
compactiondrive, 2tl
gravity drainageio, 251
gravity drainagemodcl
Agnew,H., 279 harmonicdeclinecnrx
Babcockand Wilcox, 361-63,370 oil-water ratio,214
Air compression, fuel 259_65,272
Babcockand Wilcox water tube pressuregradients,208-10
requirements, history, 3
5 18 boiler (1877),362 saturationbehind front, 201-3
Alexander,Martin and Dew, improvingwell pcrfrr
B e l l e v u eL o u i s i a n aI,S Cp r o j e c r . upper shockfront, 203-5
424-31 387_88
471-74 velocityof shockfront, 200-l in California, 255-57
Allen, F. H., 14 Berry,R. I.,409 Burgerand Sahuquet,431,
Alternate steamgenerators, introduction,24I -.{2
Biodegradation,10, 167 446-48
404-t1 mechanism,A4-59
Boberg,T. C. and Lantz, R. 8., Burns,J., Californiancyclic
coal-firedgenerators,404-5 Midway Sunset,pottct r
244_48 steamprojects,255-57, 26r_62
downholesteamgeneration, Boltzman'stransformation,33 262
405-7 Niko and Troost!
Borregales,C. 1., 25, 273-7S, 383
fluidized bed boilers,407-9 experiments,25G-!
B o t t ,R . C . , 2 7 1 - 7 2 Carcoana,A. N., 476
Vapor Therm generators, Quiriquire (seealn b
Bridle,M. K., 399 Cardwell and Parsons,288
408-10 and Lantz), 2i2-63
Britton, M.W., et al, 167-6g C a r r e l lN
, .A.,396,401 San Ardo field,2H
Zimpro-AEC steamgeneraror, Buckles,R. S., 19, 376 Carslaw and Jaeger,54
410-11 simplified analysis,259
Buckley-Leverett displacement Cassis,R., et al., 500-1
Armento, M. E. and Miller, 272
theory, 199-216 CCR, Conradsoncarbon with cold tlout,242-4
c.A., 191 breakthrough, 205-7, Zl3-14 residue,167,429
Aromatics,in middle distillates, Cyclic steamstimulatio. ir
diffuse and segregatedflow, Cermak,V.,494-95
1 sands,266-70
2t3-16 Chiu, K.W., 449-50 compactiondnve, ZlL2
ASME boiler feedwater effect of viscosity ratio, 207-8 Chuoke,R. L., 181,187-88 fracturing and rescrwir
specifications,365 frontal stabilit y, 2A9-fi Chu, C., 108-10,11,2-19.443
Athabascasands,9 expansion,durir3.
numerical problem, 210-12 Chung,K. H.,33642 26649, Z't4_El
524
Index
CIay minerals,l6-18 relativepermeability
effecton permeability,1g Eson,R. L., 406
hysteresis,268-70 EssoResourcesCanada(seealso
Cold Lake, Alberta,26-8-70 VaccaTar, Oxnard,2i l-72
Compactiondrive, 268-69,272. ImperialOit), 3
aat
water fingering,in, 270 Expansionloops,for steam
a Il
Conradsoncarbonresidue Darcy's law and units. 20-21 lines,374

(ccR), 167,429 Darcy's law for two-phaseflow,
Convectiveheatingin 192 Fairfield and White, 466-71
reservoirs,72-103 effect of gravityon fractional FarouqAli, 20,132,157-58,380,
heat beyondcondensation flow. 196-97 487
front, 85-86, 95-97 effect of segregationon Ferguson,F. R. S., 342-44
Lauwerier's eqruation,75_77 fractionalflow, 197-99 FosterWheeler,372
numericalexampleof fractionalf low equation, Fracturingduring steam
Lauwerier'sequation, 193_96 injection, 274^79
78-82 relativepermeabilitycurves, changeof orientation,280-g1
simpleconvectiveheat 192_93 directionof principle stresses,
transfer,73-25 Denbina,Bobergand Rotter, 27'7,280_81
steamdrive with constant 268 effect of orientationon
displacementrate, g2_g6 Densitiesof oil reservoir productivity,279-90
steamdrive with constant materials,487-90 fracturingpressure,277
injectionrate, 86-93 brine.487 ground heave,277
Convectiveheat transfer, across conversionfactors,490 in situ stresses,276-77
well annulus,60-62 oil.488-89 principlestresses, 275-7j
Corod manufacturing,382, 3g4 rocks.490 Fuel resources,5-7
Courtnage,L. A., 402-3 saturatedsteam,487 Canada,5
Cyclic steamstimulation,2, water,487 heavyoil and oil sands
241-83 Dietrich,1.K.,269-70 deposits,7
Bobergand Lantz,smodel, Dimensionalanalvsis. 33 world, 5
, 244_48 Dimensionsof physical
Bolivar coast,Tia Juana. properties,481_85 Gadelle,C. P, et al., 475
Lagunillas,Bachquero, Displacement of heavyoil, Gatesand Ramey,ISC design,
aa4
alL-t+
a1 179_240 462_65
casinggascompression,3gg concepts,180 GoldenLake ISC project,
Coalinga field,264 effect of condensation on 466_71
compaction driv e, 242, 272_74 stability,188-91 Gomaa,E. E., 158-63
gravity drainagein, 258-59 effectof interfacialtensionon Gough and Bell, Z78
gravity drainagemodels,265 srabitiry,184_88 Govier, G., 6
harmonicdeclinecurves, effect of wettingon stability, Grand Rapidsformation,9, 140
r ratio,214 259-65,272 187-88 Griffin and Trofimenkoff,30t,
: gradients,208-10 history, 3 factors,179
326_27
on behindfront,201-3 improvingwell performance, flood interface Gutierrez,F. J., 8
rock front, 203-5 387_88 stability-Muskat'smodel,
of shockfront, 200-1 in California,Z5S-57 t82
d Sahuquet, 431, introduction,241-42 generalconclusions, 238-39 Hatschek'sequation for viscosity
-48 mechanism,254-59 Hagoortt stabilitycriterion, of emulsions,356
Californian cyclic Midway Sunset,Potter sand, t84,209 HaycockBoiler (1720),361
un projects, 255-57, mobility ratio, 183 Hearn'stheory, 95-98
26r-62
Niko and Troost's temperaturegradient averageover temperature
experiments, 250-54 stabilization, 191 raage,502
A- Ii, 476 theoreticalapproaches,lgl carbonatereservoir rock, 499
Quiriquire (seealso Boberg
rnd Panons, 288 and Lantz), 262-63 Doscher,T. M., 258-59.265 clays,499-500
.4., 396,401 San Ardo field.264 Dusseault,M., 280-81 conversionfactors, 503
rd Jaeger,54 simplified analysis,259-65, Dykstra, H., 288,298 enthalpychange,502
, ct al., 500-1 gases,502
272 Economicexploitation,Z-2S
rradsoncarbon with cold flow,242-44 oils, 500-1
Ejiogu and Fiori, 487 sandstones,499
dve, 167, 429 Cyclic steamstimulation in rar Energy resources(seeFuel
v-, 494-95 water, 501
sands,266-70 resourcesl
y-,149-50 Heat capacitiesand enthalpies,
compaction drive, 242, 269_69 Enhancedoil recovery,2
t - L . , 1 8 1 ,1 8 7 - 8 8 fracturing and reservoir 499-503
EOR,2 Heat conduction,30-71
B-10, 112-19,443 expansion,during. Error and complementarverror
H..33642 definition of thermal
266-69.274-8r functionl. 34-3i conductivity,30
Index
525
Ijourier'sequation,3i ignition, 432-35 h{eldaii,R. F., 380-8i
from spreadingzone,37-39, Lloydminster,Golden Lake Mene Grandeoil field, tlot to vcrtird rd
Ldid
41 field project,466-71 Yenezuela,2 ?2-23
from steamedfracture,38, 98, low temperatureoxidation Moore, R. G., 420,457-58, Radial heat coodrrtn (r
101 (Lro),s, 428-30 464-66 bore heat lostt
into semi-infinitesolid,32-37, oil sands,in,430-32, 450-52 Moss and Cady,gas analyses, Radial heat condrrtir. t
47 oxygen,cost of, 455-56 453-54 buried cylio&r. ll
spreadingchamberthat stops, oxygenor enrichedair, use of, Moss,Sanford4., 521-22 Radiant heat transfsr. gr
39-41 452-58 Myhill and Stegemeier,129-35, well annulus.60
steady-andunsteady-state, 32 pressure,effect on 139-40 Ramey.H. J.. 63.r-i5{1.
Heat conductionaheadof performancewith oxygen, 458-65
advancingfront, 43-52 457-58 Rayleighnumbcr.6l-61
Natco,369,391,399
effect of changingvelocity, properties of produced o1l, 442 Refining,I
Nelsonand McNeil, ISC design,
50-51 reversecombustion,419 Reservoircommunrcalra
458-61
transientstate,47-50 Rumanianfield projects, sealingoff. {
Neutron-scatteringsteamquality
U proportional to l/sqrt(t), 4'14-77 Reservoirfracturing rr
meter,374
5L-52 temperature at combustion steamfloodiog,- 3l
Niko, H. and Troost, P. J. P. M.,
Heat integral, 47-49 front, 435-42 250-54
Heats of combustion,515-17 wet combustion,442-50
Nutt, C.W., capillarybundle
conversionfactors,517 work for compression, 416 Saffman, PG. ud Tttb
model,216-20
fuel gases,516 In situ stresseswithin reservolrs, 1ES
hydrocarbonliquids, 515 276-77 Scalingof thermal mo&
solid fuels,517 Insulation of steaminjection Oglesby,K. D., 135-37
248-50,29:-99
Henningsonand Duckett, Pilot werls.520 Oil sandsand heavyoil
Skrabec,J.,26
oxygenfaciliiies,456 deposits:
Solutiongasdrive. effc<t
Hong, K. C.,113-74 Canada,8, 10
Janisch,;,,12, t4 viscosityon re€oia
Hopco project, 325 clay minerals,16-18
Jardine,D., 9-10, 12 24-25
Hot waterflooding, 4, 773*74 comparisonwith Middle East,
Jianyi,H., 1i LZ
Sperry,J. S., 410
Huff and puff (seealso Cycltc Jones,J., 141-44 Steam,thermal ProPcrtE
steamstimulation).2 correlationof Canadian,11
Josephand Pusch,449 11, 120-21.-{ll
Hydraulic diffusivity, 32 Gas, occurrenceand
Joshi and Threlkeld. 327 production,19 enthalpiesof saturucd
Hvizdos, Howard and Roberts, and vapor. lltl-:I.
cost of oxygen,455-56 in the United States,12
Keeling,L., 387-89 522-23
magnitudeof Canadian,11
Konak, 4.R., 374-75,395,403 saturationpressureud
nature of, 14
Kuo, Shain and Phocas,265 temperature.ll0-l
nature of solids,16
521,-22
lgnition, of ISC projects,432-35 origin of Canadian,10 gratitl dn
Steam-assisted
Imperial Oil, 3, 59, 377,402.-3 Latil, M., 4L8,Us origin of Chinese,11 (SAGD), 285-35e
hjectivity, 1.44-52 Lauwerier,H.A.,75-77 Sideritein reservoirmatrix,
avoidingsteadl-state
between an isolated pair of Leaute and Collyer, effect of 1A
assumPtion.35-3
vertical wells, 145-47 preheaton ISC, 430-34 Venezuela,8
B3, definition of. l9f
confinedhorizontalwell pair. Leverett, M. C., 193,199-21.6 Ong, T. S., 356-57 83, effect on inlerfrt
150-51 Lim, G.8.,374,403 Orimulsion,2T and heat penetrer
repeatedfive-spot,151 Lindrain theory, 303, 327 OSR, estimationfor steamfloods 83. valuesof. 3]G-31
repeatedseven-spot,152 Lo, H.Y.,285,296,3N using simple formulas, breakthroughtimc, 321
time for breakthrough, 147-48 Lo and Mungan, 129 93-94 323-24
well surrounded by circle of Lower Mannvillesedimentsin Override of steam,232-34 dimensionalsimilanrY
wells, 148-50 W. Canada.9 Oxygen or enriched air, use of downwarddisplaccm
In situ combustion,415-79 Low temperatureoxidation for ISC, 452-58 upperinjector.33
BellevueLouisiana,Gettyt (LTO),5, 428-30 drainage rates for lrcld
field project,471-74 Peacheyand Nodwell,374, conditions.3fi1-l
combustion tubes, 419-23 Mandl and Volek'stheory, 95, 37(-77,389,392,397 effect of oil prop€rttcs
design of projects, 458-65 100 Penberthy and Ramey, 422-24 effect of shale barricrr
dry combustion,418-19 Maracaibo(Lake), Venezuela,2 Permeability, 21 349-53
fireflood pot,423-24 Marshall, 8.W., 406-7 Petela, G., 322-25 effect of steam Prcssu
fuel deposition, 426-?A Marx and Langenheim'stheory, Pipeline transportation, 27 effect of TS. TR. and I
fuel requirement,comparison 86-89 Prats,M., 130 propertieson ratc
with steamflooding, numerical example,90-93 Priaciple stresses,275-77 JIJ-_to
416-17 McMurray sands,9 Programmablecalculators and emulsions, formatim o
generaldescription,4 McNab, G. S., 285,296,300 microcomputers,use of, 353-57
H/C ratio of fuel.424-26 Mehrotra and Svrcek.509-11 22 exponent m. extcndtrd
definition of. ]9a-
526 lndex
lndex
ii F.. _r80-81
;andeoil field, Radial flow to vertical well, finger rise theory, 31.2-13 comparisonwith steam-soak,
enezuela, 2 ?:2-23 gravity drainage theory and 139-40
R.G., 420,457-58, Radial heat conduction (seeWell mechanism,287-94 FAST process, 167-68
>{-66 bore heat loss) heat balance and oil-steam Farouq Ali's model, 157-58
d Cady.gas analyses, Radial heat conduction, from ratios. 333-36 fingering, 124
i3--s4 buried cylinder,6S-7I heat penetration beyond Gomaa'scorrelations, 158-63
tnf,ordA.,527-22 Radiant heat transfer. across interface.331-32 gravity override, 124-26
md Stegemeier,129-35, well annulus. 60 heterogeneities,effect of Jones'steam drive model,
,9-40 Ramey,H. J., 63, 435-41,452, reservoir, 348-53 t4l-44
458*65 horizontal injection wells, laboratory f loods-Willman,
Rayleigh number, 61-62 321-25 169-72
at,39L,399
Refining, 1 introduction, 285-86 multilayer reservoirs, 140
rnd McNeii, ISC design, Myhill and Stegemeier's
Reservoir communication, Lindrain theory, 303, 327
5E-61 approach, 129-35
sealing off, 4 mixing temperature of
r-scatteringsteamquality other mechanisms,168-73
Reservoir fracturing in draining oil, 330
rcrer,374 qualitative introductory
steamflooding,23L-32 noncondensablegas, effect in,
[. and Troost,P.J. P. M., discussion. 104-7
299
50-54 qualitative review, 174-7 5
numerical problem on SAGD,
"W., capillarybundle 316-20 reduction in oil viscositY,
rcdel,216-20 Saffman, P G. and Taylor G.I.'
r85-E8 pressuredrop along well bore, t26-27
Scaling of thermal models, effect of, 356-57 residual oil,l25,l32
, tL D., 135-37 248-50,297-99 production after stopping San-Ardo steamflood, 137-39
ls and heavyoil Skrabec,J., 26 steaminjection, 342-44 steam distillation. 168-69
cposits: recovery above bottom water, steam distillation drive,
Solution gas drive, effect of
d a , 8 ,1 0 viscosity on recovery, 344-48 172-73
oincrals,16-18 24-25 relationship to conventional steam zone shape-
erisonwith Middle East, Sperry,J. S., 410 steamflooding, 286 van Lookeren, 152-57
1
Steam,thermal properties,11G- residual oil saturation in suitability of reservoirs,
lation of Canadian,11 lL, 120-21.,521 steam chamber. 288 107-10
occurrence and enthalpies of saturated liquid rising chambers,307-13 temperature distribution' 122
roduction, 19 and vapor, lZ0-27, scaled models, 296-302, Ten-pattern steamflood,
: United States,12 522-23 305-7.336-41 135-37,157,166
itudeof Canadian,11 saturation pressureand steam-injectionwells thermal efficiency, 415-16
r of. 14 temperature, 120-27, (horizontal and vertical), Vogel'sapproach, 164-66
c of solids,16 521-22 321-27 waterf looding after, 773-74
l of Canadian,10 Steam-assisted gravitYdrainage Tandrain theory, 299, 302-5 Steamgeneration:
l of Chinese,11 (SAGD),28s-3s9 vertical injectors, 325-n, 337 averageheat flux, 364
ilc in reservoirmatrix, avoiding steady-state Steamdistributioa, 373-75 convection section, 371-73
l9 assumption,328-36 Steamfingering, 5 deaeration and oxygen
zuela,8 83. definition of, 297 Steamflood analysis using control, 366-68
. s.,3s6-57 83, effect on interface shaPe Buckley-Leverett theory, DNB (Departure from
sion, 27 and heat penetration, 329 220-32 Nucleate Boiling), 363-64
simation for steamfloods 83, valuesof, 330-31 effect of shaPeof relative effect of S in fuel, 370
Bsingsimple formulas, breakthrough time, 32!, permeability curves, feedwater requirements,
93-94 323-24 228-29 364-66
th of steam,232-34 dimensional similarity, 297-99 effect of steam quality, 234-37 history and background,
l or enriched air, use of downward displacementfrom effect of steamviscositY,238 360-64
fq ISC, 452-58 upper injector, 321-25 numeric al examPle, 224-28 horizontal generators,369
drainage rates for field pressure drop,229-30 oil field steam generators,
conditions, 300-2 Shutler and Boberg, 238 368-73
y ud l{odwell,374,
effect of oil proPerties,314-16 vertical heat losses,238 radiant scetion, 373
tlun,3E9, 392,397
effect of shale barriers, Steamflooding (seealso, vertical generators,373
nhy and Ramey, 422-24
349-53 Convective heating), 3' Steam measurement,3
rbility, 21
t04-78 Steamquality measurement,371,
,G.,322-25 effect of steam pressure,335
additives, 125-26 374
r traNportation, 27 effect of TS, TR, and oil
properties on rates, changesin relative Steamrecovery equiPment and
M.,130 facilities. 360-414
plc stresses,275-77 3r3-16 permeabilities,127-29
characteristicsof field Steamstimulation (seeCYclic
rnms!ls calculators and emulsions,formation of WO,
projects, II2-19, 135, 137 steam stimulation)
Eicrocomputers, use of, 353-57
comparisonwith in situ Steamvolume, units of
n. exponent m, extended
combustion, 416-17 measurement,3
definition of,294-96
Index 527
lndex
Stefan-Boltzmann constant,60 thermal cement,375 Esso,sthermal softenine
:t:qlen!, D. J.. 285, 302_s,307 unit well costs,327_7g process,403
srlrtrng boiler, 362 well pads,376
Strom and Dunbar. 13 freshwatermakeup,393_94
Tia Juana,cylic steamprojecrs, hor lime rrearing,3SS_+OO
Subsidenceof ground surface, 114 a,
273 rnducedgasftotation(IGF),
Transoil,27
Sugianto,5., 324,344_4g 397,399
Transportation,of bitumen. ion exchangesoftening,400
Sulphurin bitumen.10 )\-)1
Suplacu_de B_arcau, producedwater recyclE,
ISC project, Transportation, of emulsions,
474-77 27 394_404
lransverse,E. F. 137_39 reducingtotal dissolvedsolids
Symbols,list of, 4gl_g6 Treatingproducedfluids.
Syntheticcrude,properties,26 (TDS),403_4
388_93 wastewatermanagement,
electrostatictreating,390_92 402-3
Tademaand Weijdema,433_35
rreewatersettling,399_92 water recycleat Kern River.
I a k a m u r aK
, ., 15_16
vrsco_sity
of WO emulsions, 401
Tandraintheory,302_5
Tangleflags,SceptreResources 390 Water-wetting,effect on
with high solids,393 emulsification,
Turta and Zamfir,474 1g
Temperaturetogging, 37g_g0 Waterwettingof oil sands,l5
r nermatconductivities Weiss,M., 285.307
of oil
reservoirmaterials, UTR AOSTRIfs underground Well bore heat loss,52_68
491_98 demonstrationof SAGD. backgroundmaterial, 63
consolidatedporous rocks, 32I,340_42.357 convectiveheat transfer.60
494_95 Units of measurement, 20_22 cu-mulative heatflow. 55_56
conversionfactors,497 Upgrading.1 etfectof insulation,56_6g
hydrocarbonIiquids,495 equivalentradius,5g
miscellaneous materials.492 Vanadiumin bitumen.10 numeric_al example,63_6g
over- and underburden, van Lookeren'sequations, raotantheattransfer,60
496_97 152_57,330 rate of heat loss,55
unconsolidatedoil sands. numericalexample.157 temperaturedistribution.
491_94 Viscosities,504-14 53_54
water,496 conversionfactors,513_14 with gas-filledannulus,60, 63
Thermalconductivity,insulatins crude oil, effect of dissolved with s_team down casing,59,
materials,5l9 methane,50g_11 63
Thermalefficiency,constant crude oil, effect of pressure, Well packers,59
displacement rate.g4 507-8 Well patterns,123-24
Wet-steam splitting,374_75
Thermalefficiency,Hearn,99 crude oil, effect of
Whiting. R.i., t5--
I hermalefficiency,Marx and temperature,504_7
Langenheim,g6 heavyoil and bitumen, 19_20 Willman,et al., laboratory
Thermalinsulation,519_20 waterand steam,511_13 steamfloods,169_7-2
suckerrod wear,3g1_g7 Vogel,J.V., 164-66 WO emulsions,viscositiesof,
Thermalwell completions. Volek and pryor,172_73 356,390 j
375_78 Volumetricheat capacity,of Wu, C. H., 168-71
artificial lift, 381_87 reservoir. 503
continuoussuckerrod, 3g2, Vonde,T. R., 386.394 Yang,Guihua (peter),34g-53
384 Yaregaoil mine, 325
selectivesteaminjection, 3g1 Y e e ,C . T . , 2 9 9
Water,in reservoir. lg Young'smodulus,276
Cold^Lakewell configuration,
Watertreating, 393-404
377
analysesof producedwater,
control of heat loss,3g0_g1
395_96
528
Index

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llAR20 lgs!

Cylinders 60 Comparisonsof Theoretical Predictionswith Data L33

Shell discoveredthe processof steamstimulation by accidentin Venezuelawhen it

lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

Table1.1comparesestimatesof the world'sreservesof oil, gas,shaleoil, and heavy

Resourcesin Exaioulesand Exajoules Year

lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap' 1

THE OIL SAND RESOURCE

TABLE 1.3 Major Heavy Oil and Oil Sands Deposits

The Oil Sand Resource

quantitiesof oil sandsand very substantialamountsof conventionalheavy oil.

CANADIAN HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN

Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

drainedinto what is now centralAlberta and then northwardto a sea.During the

CanadianHeavy Oil and Bitumen

ground.How the oil was depositedin thesesedimentsand why it is so viscousare

10 Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

beenhighly diluted),the densityof the oil is relativelyhigh. Parallelingthis effect

Correlation of CanadianTar Sand Deposits

SIZE OF ALBERTAOIL SAND DEPOSITS

Size of Alberta Oil Sand Deposits 11

Figure 1.5 CorrelationChart of Lower CretaceousHeavy Oil and Bitumen

COMPARISONOF HEAVY OIL AND CONVENTIONALOII- RESOURCES

DEPOSITSOF HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN IN THE UNITED STATES

Table 1.5 showsestimatesof the sizeof the U.S. depositsusingthesedefinitions.

12 lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap' 1

Figure 1.6 Comparisonof CanadianBitumen & Heavy Oil with Conventional

HeavyOil and Oil Sands i

There is a total volume of heavyoil in placeof about 107billion barrels.About half

THE NATUREOF HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN DEPOSITS

lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

Alabama and Mississippi J

ture. It consistslargelyof unconsolidated

3Sometar sandssuchasthosein Utah are oil-wet rather than water-wet;the hot-waterprocess

The Nature of Heavy Oil and Bitumen Deposits 15

Figure 1.8 Diagram showing the Structure of AthabascaOil Sand (Courtesv

Solid Mineral Matter

Solid mineral matter is often a very complexmixture in itself. Usuallyit is uncon-

l. Silica tetrahedra.Theseare tetrahedraof oxygenions with central silicon ions.

The main differencebetweenthe structure of the different clay mineralsarises

Montmorillonite (named after Montmorillon in France) is frequently used inter-

travalent)is made upby the presenceof potassiumatoms.Theseappear

The sandgrainsin oil sandsusuallyhavefine clay materialadheringto them;

18 Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

Oil and Bitumen

100,q)0 i -- -\x- -- - -- - - - -----i-----

'100 150 200 250 Figure 1.9 Viscosity of Heavy Crudes

The Nature of Heavy Oil and Bitumen Deposits 19

However,a more important sourceof carbon dioxide is probablythe reactionof in-

Measurements in the field of petroleumproduction-as in other areas-are in some

20 lntroductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

The numerical coefficient in equation 1.2 has the dimensions of (B cp ft)/

TABLE 1.6 ConsistentMeasurementUnits

SI cgs fps Engineers

1p : 1 g c m - l s - 1= 0 ' 1 k g m - r s - r o r 0 . 1P a ' s O : poise

USE OF PROGRAMMABLECALCULATORSAND MICROCOMPUTERS

RADIAL FLOW TO A VERTICALWELL

22 Introductionto Thermal Recovery Chap. 1

At someintermediateradiusR the pressuregradientto maintain the flow q is

Zrkh A'P (1.4)

CALCULATED WELL FLOW RATES

Oil viscosity(cP) I 100 10,000 100,000

using a largerwell bore will increasethe productivity.The lower line in the

r = rn+(r, - ril f"(a) (2.22\