STANDARDS FLANGE

and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE

PRACTICES DESIGN

OVERVIEW

VP command currently uses the 2% method to design flange braces. This method is
applied up to the point where a two-side SFB will work. When a two-side SFB will not
work as applied by the 2% rule, use the stiffness method outlined in this section.

When designing a flange brace according to the stiffness method, the VP flange brace
design aid spreadsheet should be used. This design aid includes all of the appropriate
equations and methods outlined in this section.

Cb for this method can be conservatively estimated to be equal to 1.0. If the actual Cb
must be evaluated for a particular design, Cb for the braced segment must be
calculated using the new equations published by the AISC in the LRFD manual. Cb is
calculated for this procedure using stresses in the flange as shown in Equation 3.

If, at any point, the flange brace assembly is found to be insufficient, the following
corrective measures can be taken:

1. If a small amount of additional stiffness is needed, using a two-side flange

brace can increase the supplied stiffness by 15% on continuous girts and
purlins.
2. Change the spacing between the flange braces by moving and/or adding
flange braces. Smaller brace spaces reduce the incremental displacement
(d0) and the required flange brace stiffness (βFB).
3. Decrease the included angle (α) between the flange brace and the girt or
purlin.
4. Increase the girt or purlin stiffness by using a heavier section.
5. Change the flange size. Increasing the flange Iy-y will increase the effective
buckling length (Le) and decrease the required flange brace stiffness (βFB).
6. Design a separate stiffer beam to support the flange brace.
7. Design a separate flange brace system such as rods or pipes.

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 1 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

A. GENERAL

Compression flanges of columns and beams often require lateral bracing in order to
reach the desired capacity. Lateral braces, or flange braces, are intended to limit the
amount of out-of-plane (lateral) displacement along the length of the member.
Adequately designed flange braces reduce the effective unsupported length of the
compression flange (Kl). Since the lateral elastic buckling strength of any compression
member is inversely proportional to the square of the effective length of the member
(1/(Kl)2), reduction of the effective length will greatly increase the load carrying capacity
of the member.

Like all other structural elements, a lateral brace is not perfectly rigid and will deflect
when loaded. The rigidity or stiffness of a given flange brace system can be calculated
and expressed in terms of a spring constant -- β (K/in). One of the main assumptions in
beam and column design is that lateral braces have adequate stiffness to FULLY brace
the member. Based on this assumption, the strength of the beam or column is
calculated using a reduced effective length.

The figures shown below illustrate the result of partially effective bracing on the design
of a compression member. In Figure 1, the lateral brace stiffness (βL) at each brace is
sufficient to meet the fully braced assumption. The addition of the braces at the 1/3
2 2
points will increase the elastic buckling strength of the column by a factor of L /(L/3) or
9 times. On the other hand, the braces shown in Figure 2 provided only enough
stiffness to create an inflection point at mid-span. The flange braces shown in Figure 2
will improve the capacity of the column by only a factor of 4.

P Buckled P
Column
Shape

L/2
L/3

βL (k/in) βL (k/in)

L L
L/3

βL (k/in) βL (k/in)
L/2

L/3

Figure 1 Figure 2

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 2 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

Obviously, if the flange braces do not have the required stiffness, the strength of the
structure could be overestimated. In fact, if the lateral braces shown in Figure 2 were
even more flexible, they could be completely ineffective. This would cause a single
curvature buckled shape with an effective length equal to the full length.

Another assumption made in the design of flange brace assemblies is that the brace
possesses the required strength to restrain the compression member. It has been
common practice for many years to design lateral braces for 1 or 2 percent of the
compressive force in the member. References to this rule of thumb can be found in
various textbooks, publications, and even in the AISC LRFD design manual (2nd Ed.,
Vol. II, p12-22).

A more rigorous analysis will show that the actual required brace strength depends on
several factors in addition to the force in the compression member. One of the primary
factors is the amount of stiffness provided by the flange brace assembly. When a
brace is sufficiently stiff, the 1 to 2 percent rule of thumb is sufficient, and can even be
conservative.

Another important factor is the amount of initial out-of-straightness the member (or
flange) has in the as-built condition. Compression flanges that are installed with a
significant amount of sweep will place an increased demand on lateral braces for both
strength and stiffness.

Yura and others have showed that beams can be effectively braced in two ways. One
method is to provide a lateral restraining force at the compression flange. The other
way is to provide a torsional restraint to the section, thereby preventing relative lateral
movement between flanges at the assumed brace point.

For a symmetrical section, a torsional brace will effectively stabilize the member even if
some amount of overall lateral movement takes place. When both types of bracing
are provided simultaneously, the effectiveness of the bracing is greater than
either type by itself.

VP flange braces consist of angle struts connecting the compression flange to a girt or
purlin. This type of brace is clearly a torsional brace. Additionally, the girts or purlins
are connected to roof or wall panels. Since the panels possess some level of
diaphragm strength and stiffness, the purlins are restrained against lateral (longitudinal)
movement. For this reason, VP flange braces provide both torsional and lateral
restraint.

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 3 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

The analytical procedure presented in this section is an adaptation of an ultimate

strength method presented by Lutz and Fisher in the AISC Engineering Journal (Fourth
Quarter, 1985). The VP procedure conservatively considers only the torsional
component of the brace stiffness.

B. REQUIRED BRACE STIFFNESS

The Lutz-Fisher method for determining the minimum required brace stiffness has been
converted to a working stress method for use in this procedure as follows:

é æS ö
4
ùé P S ù
β req = ê5 + 3çç max ÷÷ ú ê cr 2ave ú (1)
êë è Le ø úû ë φLe û

βreq = Required lateral brace stiffness (K/in)

Le = Effective buckling length of the column under load Pcr (in)
Pcr = Factored axial load (K)
Smax = Larger of the distance to the previous brace or to the next brace (in)
Save = Average of the distances to the previous and next braces, or the full
distance from the haunch connection (in)
φ = Flexural resistance factor, 0.9

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 4 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

æ A öæ f ö
Pcr = λ ç AF + w ÷çç max ÷÷ (2)
è 6 øè C b ø
2
Af = Area of the compression flange (in )
Aw = Area of the web (in2)
Cb = Moment gradient factor
fmax = Maximum stress (flexural + axial) between adjacent braced points (ksi)
λ = Load factor, 1.5

Note: Positive values of fmax cause compression in the flange.

Compressive Stress Diagram

fmax (Axial + Flexural)
fA

fB

fC

Flange Brace
Adjacent Under Adjacent
Flange Brace Consideration Flange Brace

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

L
Figure 3

The AISC Manual of Steel Construction, LRFD 1st Edition, provides a more accurate
equation for Cb. This new equation is a better curve fit than the old ASD equation. The
equation for Cb is calculated using bending moments assumes that the beam is
prismatic. Since VP frames use tapered members, Cb for this procedure will be
computed using the stresses rather than the moments. With reference to Figure 3, the
modified equation used in this procedure is:

12.5 f max
Cb = (3)
2.5 f max + 3 f A + 4 f B + 3 fC

f = Sum of the axial and flexural stresses (ksi)

fmax = Absolute value of maximum stress in the segment (ksi)
fA = Absolute value of stress at ¼ of the segment (ksi)
fB = Absolute value of stress at ½ of the segment (ksi)
fC = Absolute value of stress at ¾ of the segment (ksi)

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 5 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

Et I f
Le = π (4)
Pcr

Et = Tangent modulus of elasticity, Et = E if Pcr ≤ 0.5Py (Residual stress of 0.5 Fy assumed)

t f (b f )3

If = (in4)
12

æ 4 EPcr öæ Pcr ö
Et = ç ÷ç 1 − ÷ If Pcr > 0.5 PY (5)
ç P ÷ç P ÷
è y øè y ø

Py = Yield load (K)

æ A ö
Py = ç AF + W ÷ Fy (6)
è 6 ø

C. REQUIRED BRACE FORCE

As previously stated, the design of a flange brace is essentially a spring design

problem. The amount of force produced in a flange brace is directly related to the
stiffness of the brace and the distance through which the flange moves.

All flanges are assumed to have some initial amount of displacement due to erection
and fabrication tolerances. This deflection can either be expressed in terms of a cross
sectional rotation or in terms of relative alignment of the flange. This design method
uses relative alignment of the flange as the basis of deflection.

The limit for relative alignment suggested by AISC is 1:500 (ASD 9th Ed., p5-238). The
erection tolerance suggested by MBMA is 1:300 (1996 MBMA, sect. IV-6.8). This
procedure will use a relative alignment assumed to be twice the AISC criteria. The
relative alignment or incremental displacement for this procedure is:

SL + SR
d0 = (7)
250

SL = Distance from flange brace to nearest flange brace to the left (in)
SR = Distance from flange brace to nearest flange brace to the right (in)

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 6 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

The initial displacement of the flange is critical in calculating the required brace force.
For this reason, any additional deflection due to connection tolerances such as
oversized holes or slots will adversely effect the flange brace assembly. It should be
noted that additional deflection caused by fabrication or erection misalignment must be
minimized.

The force developed by the flange brace is a function of both deflection and stiffness.
The stiffness of the brace is a function of the combined stiffness of the supporting
assembly. The controlling element in the stiffness of a standard flange brace assembly
is the girt or purlin stiffness (βp). Alternative flange brace details must avoid parts,
connections, and details that add flexibility to the flange brace assembly.

Figure 4

One example of a detail that adds flexibility is a connection of the flange brace to the
web of the section instead of to the flange, as shown in Figure 4. A connection detail of
this type will decrease the stiffness of the flange brace assembly due to the flexibility of
the web of the braced member. The larger dimension “Y” is, the more flexible the brace
assembly will be.

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 7 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

In order to calculate the force in the flange brace, the stiffness must be determined.
The actual stiffness of the bracing system is often much greater than the stiffness
required. A stiffer brace system will reduce the amount of deflection. A reduced
deflection will reduce the amount of brace force. To address this, Lutz and Fisher
provide a force equation that uses a ratio of required and actual stiffness. The modified
Lutz-Fisher equation for flange brace force is:

φd 0 β req NOTE: The provided brace stiffness must be

Freq = (8)
æ β req ö at least 95% of the calculated required brace
λ çç 2 − ÷
è β FB ÷ø stiffness.

Freq = Design lateral force (K)

φ = Flexural resistance factor, 0.9
βFB = Stiffness provided by the flange brace assembly (K/in)
βreq = Required stiffness (K/in)
λ = Load factor, 1.5

D. EVALUATION OF FLANGE BRACE ASSEMBLY STIFFNESS

The actual flange brace assembly stiffness is primarily a function of the supporting
purlin or girt stiffness. Stiffness for any element can be determined by taking the
inverse of the deflection caused by a unit load. Evaluating the stiffness provided by the
purlins or girts can be difficult. The simplest case is that of a simply supported beam.

a b
P = Unit concentrated load

Figure 5

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 8 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

Referring to Figure 5, the stiffness at point A of a simple beam with a concentrated load
applied to point “A” can be calculated as follows:

3EI x L
β p (simple ) = (9)
a 2b 2

L = Beam span (in)

a = Distance from left purlin or girt support to flange brace connection (in)
b = Distance from right purlin or girt support to flange brace connection (in)

Unit Flexural Stiffness of Simple Girts and Purlins

β p / Idx (K/in/in4)
Dimension A
Distance from beam centerline to brace connection (in)
Bay Width (ft) 24 36 48 60
10 2.0006 1.1613 0.8892 0.8194
15 1.1364 0.5928 0.3968 0.3073
20 0.7904 0.3938 0.2501 0.1821
25 0.6051 0.2939 0.1815 0.1280
30 0.4899 0.2342 0.1421 0.0983
35 0.4115 0.1945 0.1166 0.0797
40 0.3547 0.1663 0.0988 0.0669
Table D1

The chart shown above can be used to determine simply supported purlin and girt
stiffness when evaluating the stiffness of a flange brace system. The stiffness provided
by any particular girt or purlin is the chart value multiplied by the effective major axis
moment of inertia for deflection (Idx). For simple girts and purlins, the stiffness supplied
by a two side flange brace is the sum of the stiffness provided by the individual braces.

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 9 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

The total stiffness provided by the flange brace assembly is a geometric function of the
stiffness provided by the supporting girt or purlin. The stiffness of the flange brace
assembly (βFB) is calculated as follows:

βp
β FB = (k / in ) (10)
tan 2 α

Where:

α = Included angle between the flange brace and the supporting girt or purlin (degrees)

The flange brace design aid spreadsheet should be used to determine the approximate
flange brace assembly stiffness. Unlike the simply supported flange braces, the
amount of stiffness provided from two side flange braces on continuous girts and
purlins is not additive. The maximum increase in stiffness provided by using two side
flange braces is less than 15% above the stiffness provided by a single side flange
brace.

The designer should take care to place all flange braces on the same side of all the
frames. Bracing two separate frames to the same bay increases the chances that
flange braces will act together to cause a greater cumulative deflection and reduce the
available flange brace stiffness. It will be necessary to place flange braces from
adjacent frames in the same bay at least once on every building. In order to get the
maximum stability, same bay bracing should occur as near the centerline of the building
as possible.

Avoid placing two flange braces

in exterior bays.

Place flange braces from adjacent

frames near the centerline of the
building.

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 10 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

E. SINGLE ANGLE COMPRESSION STRUT DESIGN

The AISC Manual of Steel Construction, ASD 9th Edition, outlines the method for
designing hot rolled single angles as struts (pp. 5-309, 5-323). This section contains
design aids based on the AISC code requirements.

Properties of Standard VP Flange Braces

Fy = 50 ksi
Angle Size
Property 2 x 2 x 1/8 2.5 x 2.5 x 3/16 3 x 3 x 3/16
b (in) 2.0 2.5 3.0
t (in) 0.125 0.1875 0.1875
Wt (lb/ft) 1.65 3.07 3.71
Area (in2) 0.484 0.902 1.09
Ix, Iy (in4) 0.19 0.547 0.962
Sx, Sy (in3) 0.131 0.303 0.441
rx, ry (in) 0.626 0.778 0.939
x, y (in) 0.546 0.694 0.820
rz (in) 0.398 0.495 0.596
Iz (in4) 0.0767 0.221 0.387
Iw (in4) 0.303 0.873 1.537
rw (in) 0.792 0.984 1.187
J (in4) 0.00274 0.0110 0.0142
ro (in) 1.12 1.39 1.68
Fej (ksi) 41.47 59.24 41.45
H 0.568 0.557 0.568
Q 0.911 0.919 0.834
Cc’ 132 111 117
Sw (in3) 0.2145 0.4938 0.7245
Sztoe (in3) 0.0993 0.2252 0.3339
Sztip (in3) 0.1195 0.2811 0.4026
Cw (in6) 0.00079 0.00510 0.00899
Fy (ksi) 36 50 50
Fu (ksi) 58 65 65
Table E1

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 11 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

The allowable axial tension for each flange brace is based on the capacity of the
extended tab. The following table gives the allowable tensile axial loads for the
standard flange braces based on a tab area equal to one-half of the total flange brace
area.

Allowable Axial Tension for Standard VP Flange Braces

Angle Size
2 x 2 x 1/8 2.5 x 2.5 x 3/16 3 x 3 x 3/16
Fy (ksi) 36 50 50
Fu (ksi) 58 65 65
P yield (K) 5.23 13.53 16.35
P fracture (K) 4.75 10.85 13.90
Table E2

The bending stress due to eccentric loading of single angle struts must be considered
in the allowable axial compression capacity. Standard VP flange braces have
eccentricities with respect to both axes, therefore, bending about the principal rather
than the geometric axes must be considered. With reference to Figure 6, the following
table shows the major and minor axis eccentricities for standard VP flange braces.

Eccentricities for Standard VP Flange Braces

Angle Size
2 x 2 x 1/8 2.5 x 2.5 x 3/16 3 x 3 x 3/16
ew (in) 0.6629 0.6408 0.6408
ez (in) 0.0209 0.2081 0.3863
Table E3

ez

1”
ew
w w
ew
1”

z
Figure 6

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 12 of 14
INC.
 STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

The following chart gives the axial capacity of standard VP flange braces including the
effects of eccentric loading. This chart can be used to obtain preliminary sizes or to
check design calculations. The capacity curves shown below end at a kl/r value of 200.

Allowable Axial Compressive Load Including Bi-Axial Bending

10

8 2.5 x 2.5 x 3/16

7
Axial Compressive Load (k)

3 x 3 x 3/16
6

3 2 x 2 x 1/8

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Flange Brace Length (in)

Figure 7

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 13 of 14
INC.
STANDARDS FLANGE
and PRIMARY FRAME DESIGN BRACE
PRACTICES DESIGN

F. BOLT DESIGN

The controlling element of the flange brace assembly is most often the bolt. In
standard VP flange braces, ½ inch diameter A307 and A325 bolts are used. The shear
capacities of these bolts are given in the following table.

Bolt Shear Capacities for Standard VP Flange Braces

Bolt
½ Inch A307 ½ Inch A325-N
Single Shear Capacity (K) 1.96 4.12
Applicable Flange Brace 2.5” x 2.5” x 3/16” Angle
2” x 2” x 1/8” Angle
Size 3” x 3” x 3/16” Angle
Table F

G. BEARING CAPACITY OF GIRTS AND PURLINS

The bearing of the connecting bolt on the supporting girt or purlin should also be
considered. The following chart gives the bearing capacities of standard VP cold-
formed sections based on the 1996 AISI Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual. For the
bearing capacity of combined sections within the lap region, nested sections, or back to
back sections, the allowable bearing capacity is the sum of the individual capacities for
each section.

Bearing Capacities for Standard VP Girts and Purlins

Pmax (K)
Thickness (in) Without Washer With Washer
0.059 2.07 2.79
0.065 2.28 3.07
0.073 2.56 3.45
0.082 2.87 3.87
0.092 3.22 4.35
0.105 3.68 4.96
0.120 4.20 5.67
Table G

VP DESIGN MANUAL Section: 2.11

BUILDINGS, 06/24/98 Rev. 1 Page 14 of 14
INC.