Arts Teaching Kit for Senior Secondary Curriculum

Visual Arts
Proportion
in Architecture
[Teacher notes]

© Le Corbusier Foundation

Organizer Sponsor Research Team

Contents
Preamble
Teaching plan i

Lesson 1: Proportion in Architecture

1.1 What is Proportion in Architecture? 02
1.2 The Aesthetic Ratio in Art and Architecture 04
1.2.1 The Golden Ratio in Art and Architecture 04

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

1.2.2 Case Study 1 — Ancient Greek Temples 06
Exercise 1 - Finding the Golden Ratio in Architecture 09
1.2.3 Le Corbusier’s Modulor System 12
1.2.4 Case Study 2 — Unité d’Habitation 14
Exercise 2 - Applying Proportion to Art and Furniture Design 17

Summary, Key words and Further reading 18

Disclaimer
Create Hong Kong of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region provides funding support to the project only, and does not otherwise
take part in the project. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in these materials/events (or by members of the project team) do not
reflect the views of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
© 2012 Hong Kong Institute of Architects
Topic 06
Proportion in Architecture

Major Teaching Areas Interdisciplinary Teaching Areas

Visual Arts Design and Technology
Arts Appreciation and Criticism in Context Strand 1 Design and Innovation
• Formal knowledge

• Knowledge of History and Ways of Seeing

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

Learning objectives
• To understand how proportion contributes to good architecture
• To learn how proportion is applied in ancient architecture and contemporary architecture
• To apply appropriate proportion in different types of three-dimensional arts

Teaching plan
Lesson Contents
Lesson 1 • 1.1 Discuss the importance of proportion in good architecture
Proportion in architecture • 1.2 Evaluate common proportions adopted in art and
architecture
• Apply appropriate proportion in architecture through exercise

i
 Arts | Proportion in Architecture
Lesson 1
Proportion in Architecture

© Le Corbusier Foundation
01
Lesson 1
Proportion in Architecture
1.1 What is Proportion in Architecture?
Introduction - proportion as the expression of architecture
The English author Henry Wotton translated ‘de Architectura’, which was written by Roman architect
Vitruvius in 1624, and interpreted Vitruvius’ three conditions of a good building to be commodity
(usefulness), firmness (solidity or strength) and delight (beauty). Proportion plays an important role in
all three, as it provides guidelines for laying out useful spaces, for designing structural systems, and for
creating an aesthetically pleasing environment. The proportions of a space can dramatically change how
visitors feel in it, and the proportions of a facade design can affect whether a building appears welcoming
threatening, or impressive.

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

p The tall vertical space in York Minster p The wide passage/ common space of Ewha Womans University,
South Korea

[Discussion]
1 How would you describe the two spaces above?
2 What kind of activities will you suggest to be held at the two places?
3 How does proportion affect the sense of place?

Teaching Tips
More information about universal design,
please refer to Design and Technology
Topic 03: ‘VIDEO: Universal Design’.
02
 Possible perspectives
1 In the left photo, the space is relatively enclosed and vertical. In the right photo, the space is more open and
wide.
2 The enclosed space in the left photo suggests that the place is for quiet and private activities. The vertical
space symbolizes the relationship to God (a place to pray and worship).
The right photo suggests that the space is for public gathering because it is wide and open. It can also act
as a place for circulation and movement.
3 Proportion relates closely to our immediate impression when we perceive a space. It enhances the ‘delight’ of
the space and encourages activities accordingly.

[Discussion]
1 How do the spaces below satisfy/dissatisfy the three conditions of a good building?
2 Can scale and proportion in art and architecture be perceived in similar ways?

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

p Caged home in Hong Kong p Children’s playhouse
© Society for Community Organization

Possible perspectives
1 Caged home marginally can barely satisfy ‘commodity’ and ‘firmness’ of a good building. It does not
provide ‘delight’ to its users because the space is too small to offer a living space that allow inhabitants to
do their daily activity at ease.
A children playhouse satisfies strength. However, it can only satisfy ‘commodity’ and ‘delight’ to its
particular users (i.e. children). The playhouse is not useful to adults and does not bring adults enjoyment
because it is not built according to adult’s proportion.
2 Both impressions of an art piece and an architecture are closely related to the target audience. The size of
an art piece relative to perceivers would differ the message the artist wishes to deliver. The relative
dimension of a space to its users can alter their spatial experience.

03
1.2 The Aesthetic Ratio in Art and Architecture

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

p Spiral seashell in nature © Chris 73 - Wikipedia user

1.2.1 The Golden Ratio in Art and

C B A
Architecture
The golden ratio (also called the golden rectangle) is a
proportioning system that governs the relationship of
smaller parts to the whole. It has long been believed to
produce some of the most aesthetically pleasing shapes
in nature, and as such has been used in many works of B
art and architecture.
The ratio is AB:BC=BC:AC=1:1.618.

C
p The Golden Rectangle diagram © Helen Fan 04
The golden ratio is widely applied in ancient art, classical paintings, modern paintings and contemporary graphic design.

©The Museum of Modern Art/ Scala, Florence

3

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

1

4
2

1: ‘Mona Lisa’ by Leonardo da Vinci © Michael Paukner

2: Stamp design by Stephan Bundi © Museum of Communication, Berne
3: ‘Broadway Boogie Woogie’ by Piet Mondrian, 1942-43 © 2012 Mondrian/Holtzman Trust c/o HCR International USA
4: Fragment of an inscription on a tombstone from Chieti, National Museum, Rome © National Archeology Museum of
Naples, Italy

05
 ‘ Without symmetry and proportion there can be no
principles in the design of any temple; that is, if there
is no precise relation between its members, as in the
case of those of a well-shaped man.
- Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Book III, Chapter 1 ’
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect, wrote in his Ten Books of Architecture on the
importance of symmetry and proportion. In his language, symmetry means harmony in
architectural design, while proportion is the relationship of different parts of building.
Vitruvius further suggested that
• buildings should scale down to dimensions humans can relate to,
• and all buildings should be developed from a standard module (i.e. dimensions in the
building should be proportional to the set module).

1.2.2 Case Study 1

Ancient Greek temples

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

Location: Greece and Italy

p Analysis of the Temple of Neptune, Paestum, Italy, from “Rhythm and Proportion in Lettering” by Walter
Kaech, 1956 © National Archeology Museum of Naples, Italy
The temple was generated from Golden ratio AB:BC=AC:BC

Façade in Golden Ratio

• T he principles of the Golden Ratio are visible in the façades of ancient Greek temples
AB:BC=AC:BC=1:1.618.
• B
ecause of the Golden Ratio’s relationship to nature, it was used in building temples as a sign of
appreciation to gods.
• S trength - The height of the pediment (top triangular component) is proportional to the height of the
column so as to maintain structural stability.
• B
eauty - Entablature (roof slab) is carefully subdivided into structural element (lintel) and decorative
element (frieze). 06
u Diagram of proportioning systems in Doric and Ionic
orders, illustrated from William Ware’s analysis of the
classical orders

d = Diameter of the column shaft, i.e the standard

module in Greek orders
q Details on a Doric column

Triglyph=0.5d

Dentil=0.25d

Doric Doric Ionic

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

Evolution of the Greek Orders
In ancient Greek architecture, the Greek Orders were the guidelines of building
projects. The three Greek Orders were:
Doric Order — the starting point of the Greek orders and the simplest form.
Ionic Order — an order evolved from Doric order, the mature form of the Greek Orders
and the peak of style.
Corinthian Order - an over-developed compound style with leaf-like details made of
stone.
p Doric Order
The Greek Orders - standard module proportional to ideal human forms
• Every building element follows an ‘order’, and each order is meant to mimic ideal
human forms.
• The Greek orders are proportionally related to Golden ratio and the proportion of an
ideal human form.
• In Vitruvius’s book, the classic orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), have their own
proportioning systems.
• Each element of ancient Greek temples is proportional to a module. In the classical
order. The diameter of the column shaft at the base is often set as a module.
p Ionic Order
An Ionic column is a representation of an ideal female proportion while the Doric order
is a representation of an ideal male proportion. In the diagram, the two columns are
illustrated with the same module.

p Corinthian Order 07
 Arts | Proportion in Architecture

[Extended Knowledge]
Entasis - Visual effect on proportion
• Greek temples, and other monumental architecture, wish to appear
in a majestic manner to highlight their significance.
• The diameter of Greek columns is often decreased from the bottom
upwards to exaggerate its size through optical illusion (a technique
called entasis).
• The technique can also be found in Horyu-ji (法隆寺) in Japan.

© 663highland - Wikipedia user 08

 [Exercise 1]
Finding the Golden Ratio in Architecture
This is Hong Kong’s Old Supreme Court building. Can you see how the building is designed using the golden ratio?
p Elevation of the Old Supreme Court building
Possible perspectives
Although golden ratio is scientifically calculated as
1:1.618, different architects in the world use their own
formulated ‘golden ratio’ as an order to their buildings.
More importantly, the principle of the ‘golden ratio’ in
architecture is to apply a proportioning system to the
relationship of building components.
Arts | Proportion in Architecture
After drawing a rectangle framing the entire elevation
of the Old Supreme Court building, we can see that
other parts of the elevation follow the same proportion
of this rectangular shape but in different dimensions.
Symmetry is also applied to the order of the elevation.
This is a common feature in many classical buildings.
09
 © Peter Randall

p Examples of applying Golden Ratio - (Left) Legislative Council, Hong Kong follows a classical
proportioning system to reflect its sovereignty. (Right) The spiral roof of The Core, the educational
centre in the Eden’s Project, United Kingdom, is generated from Golden Rectangle.

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

[Discussion]
1 Is Golden ratio always applicable to both art and architecture? What are its limitations?

Possible perspectives
Golden ratio is a proportioning system that provides logic in the form of the nature. However, art
and architecture require more than one standardized proportioning system to respond to their target
audience.

Strengths Limitations
• Golden Ratio provides guidelines and orders to • Golden ratio may restrict designers’ personal
structure an art piece or an architecture. style and artistic expression if it is used as
the only universal proportioning system.
• Elements governed by Golden Ratio are
balanced in harmony. • Golden ratio does not address the relationship
of the perceivers and the object itself. The
relative size of an art piece/architecture will
differ the perception of different people.

10
 Arts | Proportion in Architecture
p Architect Daniel Libeskind used an asymmetrical and dynamic form in
the Run Run Shaw Creative Media Centre in Hong Kong.
q Architect Frank Gehry’s signature move - a sculptural building
envelope - can be seen at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles.

© Mike Hui
11
1.2.3 Le Corbusier’s Modulor System

t Modulor diagram of the human body by Le Corbusier, 1954

© Le Corbusier Foundation
q Modulor diagram according to different postures by Le

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

Corbusier, 1954 © Le Corbusier Foundation

The Modulor system by Le Corbusier

The Modulor system is the most famous standard of proportions used in architecture. It is a scale of
measurements and proportions of the human body devised by Swiss architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965).
Le Corbusier bridged the relationship between the Imperial System (e.g. inch and feet) and the Metric
System (e.g. millimetre and metre) by providing a system which takes the heights and proportions of the
human form as a universal standard. The system is based on the human body in different gestures. Le
Corbusier applied the system in his drawings, furniture design and architecture.

12
uq Le Corbusier Chaise Lounge Chair LC4. The “wave”
in this chair mirrors the curves of the body making
it extremely comfortable and ergonomic. For
example, the height of the seating is made 430
mm, the dimension of which is taken from the
sitting posture of the Modulor man.
© Le Corbusier Foundation

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

© Hen Fan

t ‘La Main Ouverte’ by Le

Corbusier, 1954, showing the
Modulor concept through his
iconic ‘Modulor hand’ drawing.
© Le Corbusier Foundation

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 Arts | Proportion in Architecture
1.2.4 Case Study 2 p The free façade of Unite d´Habitation is formed by a
carefully orchestrated pattern of single-and double-
Unité d’Habitation by Le Corbusier
height balconies generated from 15 different types of
Year of completion: 1952
living spaces and public, communal spaces, in which
Location: Marseille, France
dimensions are determined by the Modulor system.
(Others are located in Nantes-Rezé, Berlin, Briey-en-Forêt
and Firminy)
q Elevation of Unite d´Habitation in Marseille
© Helen Fan

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This residential project was Le Corbusier’s first opportunity
to implement the Modulor system. The Unite d´Habitation
in Marseille was meant to provide a prototype for other
urban housing projects. The building had a standard
module of 2.26m (Modulor man’s dimension). Four other
versions were built in different locations afterwards,
but they were changed from Le Corbusier’s concept for
reasons of cost or political compromise.
The Modulor system provides:
• usefulness by proportioning the plan, section and
elevations of the building (e.g. corridor width, storey
height and bay distance), the brise-soleil (sun-shading
device) and furniture units to human activities;
• strength by spacing the supporting columns in order;
• beauty in the façade by introducing rhythm.

u Openings, seating and structural elements on the

internal ‘shopping street’ are governed by the Modulor
system.
q Wall feature of Le Corbusier’s Modulor man

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

Challenges
Le Corbusier wished to apply the Modulor system in the project of the Unité d’Habitation in other locations.
The Unité in Firminy was built under a tight budget and restrictive regulations from HLM (Habitations à
Loyer Modéré, French Social Housing authorities). He was required to translate the Modulor system in yards.
In Berlin, Le Corbusier was forced to abandon the proportions given by the Modulor system due to the
difficult relations with employees and the incompatibility of German building regulations. The storey
height of the Unité was increased by 1m. Le Corbusier was upset and ended up resigning from work.

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 [Discussion]
The Modulor system was designed by Le Corbusier as a universal standard.
1 What is the aesthetic value of the Modulor system? (Rhythm? Pattern? Spatial quality?)
2 Is the system applicable to all types of buildings?
3 Is there any other scale we need to consider when designing a building?
4 How can we apply good proportions in architecture?

Possible perspectives
1 The Modulor system can enhance the three conditions of a good architecture. It provides: usefulness
by proportioning the plan, section and elevations of the building (e.g. corridor width, storey height
and bay distance), the brise-soleil (sun-shading device) and furniture units to human activities;
strength by spacing the supporting columns in order; and beauty in the façade by introducing
rhythm.
2 The Modulor system is a useful reference to consider in designing a building. However, it is devised
from the human body from the west. Human body in the east is less well-built comparatively. The
modular man of 1.83 m tall might not be the best universal illustration of body proportion. Moreover,
architecture is designed for its particular user. For example, when we are designing a kindergarten,

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

dimensions should be scaled down to the size of a child. In this case, the Modulor system is not
applicable.
3 For example, when we are building a hospital, we need to consider the size of the medical
equipment. When we are building a sports hall, we need to consider the size of different sports
courts.
4 A good architecture should employ an appropriate proportion that facilitates its functions for
its particular users (usefulness), fulfils structural requirements (strength), and provides aesthetically-
pleasing order (beauty).

p Transformation of Modulor system for a nursery school designed by a French student Vassent Garaud
© Marion Vassent-Garaud, French

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 [Exercise 2]
Applying Proportion to Art and Furniture Design
Create a Modulor system for your classmates, friends or family members. Design a piece of furniture that is
suitable for their needs.
Example: Applying proportion in art / furniture design
The outdoor module, ‘Assembled Topology’ designed by Douglas Ho from SLHO, can perform
either as a piece of public art or outdoor furniture in the Quarry Bay Park. The pragmatic design
of module encourages people to sit and lean on in different gestures, as well as for children to
play. It can serve as a single piece or in different configurations.

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

p People gathering around the art / furniture piece, ‘Assembled Topology’. © SLHO & Associates Ltd.
Bottom: Repeating modules of the design (left) are used as a playground for children and as an
outdoor furniture for adults (right).
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Summary
1. Proportion is important as the order of architecture for usefulness, strength and beauty.
2. The golden ratio, a common relationship of scale in nature, introduces order and creates harmony in
visual art and architecture.
3. Vitruvius suggested that building dimensions should relate to human scale, and a standard module
should be developed.
4. Le Corbusier elaborated the golden ratio and developed the Modulor system as a universal standard.
5. A good architecture should employ appropriate proportions for its functions and its
particular users (usefulness), and should fulfil structural requirements (strength) and provide
aesthetically pleasing order (beauty).

Key words
Proportion
Scale
Golden Ratio
Greek orders

Arts | Proportion in Architecture

Modulor system

Further reading
1. Bangs, Herbert. The return of sacred architecture: the golden ratio and the end of modernism.
England: Inner Traditions. 2006.
2. Benton, Tim. ‘Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret)’. Oxford university Press [Online]. Available
at: http: / / www. moma.or g/m/ex plor e/collectio n/ar t _ t er m s /3426/0/1.ip ho ne_ ajax ?k las s =ar t is t
3. Frings, Marcus. 2002. ‘The Golden Section in Architectural Theory.’ Nexus Network Journal vol. 4
no. 1. 2002. pp. 9-32. [Online] Available at: htt p ://w w w.mar cus -fring s.d e/t ex t -nnj.ht m
4. Kaech, Walter. Rhythm And Proportion In Lettering. Olten: Walter-Verlag. 2956.
5. Le Corbusier. The modulor : a harmonious measure to the human scale, universally applicable to
architecture and mechanics. London: Faber and Faber. 1954.
6. Neufert, Ernst. Bauentwurfslehre. Berlin: Bauwelt-Verlag. 1936.
7. Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1914.
8. Ware, William R. The American Vignola: a guide to the making of classical architecture. USA: Dover
Publications. 1994.

© Le Corbusier Foundation

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