Bridge Biology Synopsis 10.05.

2018

Genetics
Mendel’s Law of Inheritance
(1) Mendelism means experiments performed by Mendel on genetics.
(2) Mendel’s experiment involved 4 steps as selection, hybridization, selfing and calculations. His results led to
the formation of laws of genetics later.
(3) Mendel performed monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and gave three principles of inheritance.
(4) Mendel’s three principles of inheritance are:
(i) Law of dominance
(ii) Law of segregation or law of purity of gametes
(iii) Law of independent assortment
(4) Law of Dominance – The dominant characters are expressed when factors are in heterozygous condition.
(5) The recessive characters are only expressed in homozygous conditions. The characters never blend in
heterozygous condition. A recessive character that was not expressed in heterozygous condition may be expressed
again when it becomes homozygous.
(6) Law/Principle of segregation states that when a pair of contrasting factor or gene is brought together in a
hybrid, these factors do not blend or mix up but simply associate themselves and remain together and separate at
the time of gamete formation.
(7) Principle of independent assortment states that genes of different characters located in different pairs of
chromosomes are independent of one another in this segregation during gamete formation.
(8) Test Cross: A cross between F1 hybrid (Aa) and its homozygous recessive parent (aa) is called Test Cross.
This cross is called test cross because it helps to find out whether the given dominant phenotype is homozygous
or heterozygous.
(9) Monohybrid cross – When we consider the inheritance of one character at a time in a cross, this is called
monohybrid cross.

(10) Dihybrid Cross – A cross made to study the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting traits.
Exceptions of Conclusions of Mendel
Incomplete Dominance
(1) When neither of the alleles of a character is completely dominant over the other and the F1 hybrid is
intermediate between the two parents, the phenomenon is called incomplete dominance.
(2) Incomplete dominance was first discovered by Correns in Mirabilis jalapa. The plant is called as 4’O clock
plant or ‘Gul-e-Bans’. Homozygous red (RR) flowered variety of the plant was crossed with white (rr) flowered
variety. F1 offspring had pink flowers (Rr). This is called incomplete dominance.
(3) Incomplete dominance is also known to occur in snapdragon. The phenotypic ratio and genotypic ratio in F2
generation in case of incomplete dominance is 1:2:1.
Co-dominance
(1) In co-dominance both the gene expressed for a particular character in F1 hybrid progeny. There is no blending
of characters, whereas both the characters are expressed equally.
(2) Co-dominance is seen in animals for coat colour. When a black parent is crossed with white parent, a roan
color in F1 progeny is produced.

Sex determination
(1) Fixing the sex of an individual as it begins life is called sex determination. The various genetically controlled
sex-determination mechanisms have been classified into following categories
(2) Chromosomal theory of sex determination: The X-chromosome was first observed by German biologist,
Henking in 1891 during the spermatogenesis in male bug and was described as X-body. The chromosome theory
of sex determination was worked out by E.B. Wilson and Stevens (1902-1905).
(3) They named the X and Y chromosomes as sex-chromosomes or allosomes and other chromosomes of the cell
as autosomes.
(4) Sex chromosomes carry genes for sex. X-chromosomes carries female determining genes and Y-chromosomes
has male determining genes.
(5) The number of X and Y chromosomes determines the female or male sex of the individual, Autosomes carry
genes for the somatic characters. These do not have any relation with the sex.
Sex Determination by chromosomes:
Those chromosomes which are involved in the determination of sex of an individual are called sex chromosomes
while the other chromosomes are called autosomes.
1) XX – XY type: In most insects including fruit fly Drosophila and mammals including human beings the
females possess two homomorphic sex chromosomes, named XX. The males contain two heteromorphic sex
chromosomes, i.e., XY. Hence the males produce two types of gametes / sperms, either with X-chromosome or
with Y-chromosome, so they are called Heterogamety.
2) ZZ – ZW type: In birds and some reptiles, the males are represented as ZZ (homogamety) and females are
ZW (heterogamety).
3) XX – XO type: In round worms and some insects, the females have two sex chromosomes, XX, while the
males have only one sex chromosomes X. There is no second sex chromosome. Therefore, the males are
designated as XO. The females are homogametic because they produce only one type of eggs. The males are
heterogametic with half the male gametes carrying X-chromosome while the other half being devoid of it.

Numerical aberrations of chromosomes:

Each species has a characteristic number of chromosome. Variations or numerical changes in chromosomes
(Heteroploidy) can be mainly of two types:

(1) Euploidy: The somatic chromosome number in euploids is the exact multiple of basic haploid number. In
euploidy an organism acquires an additional set of chromosomes over and above the diploid complement.
(a) Monoploidy or haploidy: Monoploids possess only one set or single basic set of chromosomes. Haploids on
the other hand have half the somatic chromosome number. In diploid organisms monoploids and haploids are
identical while in a tetra-or hexaploid with 4n or 6n chromosomes the haploids will possess 2n or 3n chromosome
whereas its monoploid will possess only one set (n) of chromosome.
(b) Diploidy: The common chromosome number in the somatic cells of plants and animals.
(c) Polyploidy: Organism with more than two sets of chromosomes are known as polyploids. It may be triploid
with three sets of chromosomes (3n) or tetraploid with four sets of chromosome (4n) and so on.
(2) Aneuploidy: Aneuploidy is the term applied for the chromosomal mutations involving only a part of a set, i.e.,
loss (hypoploidy) or addition (hyperploidy) of one or more chromosomes. Aneuploidy may result from non
disjunction of chromosome during cell division.
(a) Monosomy: Diploid organism that are missing one chromosome of a single pair with genomic formula 2n –
1. Monosomics can form two kinds of gametes, (n) and (n –1).
(b) Nullisomy: An organism that has lost a chromsome pair is nullisomic. The result is usually lethal to diploids
(2n – 2).
(c) Trisomy: Diploids which have extra chromosome represented by the chromosomal formula 2n + 1. One of
the pairs of chromosomes has an extra member, so that a trivalent may be formed during meiotic prophase.
(d) Tetrasomy: In tetrasomic individual particular chromosome of the haploid set is represented four times in a
diploid chromosomal complement. The general chromosomal formula for tetrasomics is 2n + 2 rather than 2n +
1+ 1. The formula 2n + 1 + 1 represents a double trisomic.
(iii) Types of aneuploidy: Aneuploidy may be of following types on the basis of chromosomes involved in non
disjunction.
(a) Aneuploidy involving non-disjunction in sex chromosomes:
This kind of aneuploidy is brought about due to non-disjunction in sex chromosomes. It may lead to following
types of syndromes:
(1) Turner’s syndrome: Such persons are monosomic for sex chromosomes i.e. possess only one X and no Y
chromosome (XO). In other words they have chromosome number 2n – 1 = 45. They are phenotypic females but
are sterile because they have under developed reproductive organs. They are dwarf about 4 feet 10 inches and are
flat chested with wide spread nipples of mammary glands which never enlarge like those in normal woman. They
develop as normal female in childhood but at adolescence their ovaries remain under developed. They lack female
hormone estrogen. About one out of every 5,000 female births results in Turner’s syndrome.
(2) Klinefelter’s syndrome: Since 1942, this abnormality of sex is known to geneticists and physicians. It occurs
due to Trisomy of sex chromosomes which results in (XXY) sex chromosomes. Total chromosomes in such
persons are 2n + 1 = 47 in place of 46. Klinefelter (1942) found that testes in such male remain under developed
in adulthood. They develop secondary sex characters of female like large breasts and loss of facial hair. Characters
of male develop due to Y chromosome and those like female due to XX chromosomes. About one male child out
of every 5,000 born, develops Klinefelter’s syndrome.
Such children are born as a result of fertilization of abnormal eggs (XX) by normal sperms with (X) or (Y)
chromosomes or by fertilization of normal eggs with (X) chromosomes by abnormal sperms with (XY)
chromosome. They are sterile males mentally retarded and are eunuchs.
(b) Aneuploidy involving non-disjunction in autosomes:
This type of aneuploidy occurs due to trisomy of autosomes. In any particular autosomal pair having 3 instead of
normal 2 chromosomes. Such persons may be males 45 + XY = 47(2n + 1) or females 45 + XX =47(2n + 1). On
the basis of the number of the autosome pair affected by trisomy, they can be of following types
(1) Down’s syndrome: This autosomal abnormality is also known as Mongolian idiocy or mongolism. In
Langdon Down of England (1866) studied the Mongolian idiocy and described the trisomic condition of their
chromosomes. Down’s syndrome, a very common congenital abnormality arises due to the failure of separation
of 21st pair of autosomes during meiosis. Thus an egg is produced with 24 chromosomes instead of 23. A Down’s
syndrome has 3 autosomes in 21st pair instead of 2. Total number of chromosomes in this case is 2n + 1 (21st) =
47.
The affected children have a very broad fore head, short neck, and flat palms without crease, stubby fingers,
permanently open mouth, projecting lower jaw and a long thick extending tongue. They have low intelligence and
are short heighted. They have defective heart and other organs. They are born to mothers aged 40 year and above
during first pregnancy. They may survive upto 20 years under medical care.
They are called mongolian idiots because of their round, dull face and upper eyelids stretched downwards similar
to mongolian race.

Chromosomal theory of Inheritance:

Chromosomal theory of inheritance was proposed by Sutton and Boveri independently in 1902. The two workers
found a close similarity between the transmission of hereditary characters and behaviour of chromosomes while
passing from the one generation to the next through agency of gametes.

Pedigree analysis
Inheritance of hundreds of characteristics such as polydactyly, haemophilia, colour blindness, attached ear lobes
and tongue rolling, generation after generation in particular families of man have been studied. In order to conduct
such study, a standard method has been used to represent the family pedigree in a concise, easily understood form
so that one can visualize the entire pedigree (family history) at a glance of the chart.
Cell Cycle and Cell Division

All cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving rise to two daughter cells each time they
divide. These newly formed daughter cells can themselves grow and divide, giving rise to a new cell population
that is formed by the growth and division of a Single parental cell and its progeny.
Prevost and Dumans (1824) were the first to study cell division during the cleavage of zygote of frog. Nagelli
(1846) was the first to propose that new cells are formed by the division of pre-existing cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1859) proposed "omnis cellula e cellula" and "cell lineage theory".
A cell divides when it has grown to a certain maximum size which disturb the karyoplasmic index
(KI)/Nucleoplasmic ratio (NP)/Kernplasm connection.
Following are the points to remember about cell division:-
1. Cell division functions in
i. growth
ii. repair
iii. reproduction
2. Two types of cell division occur
i. mitosis
ii. meiosis
Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells and conserves the chromosome number (2n).

Meiosis occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in cells with half the chromosome number of the
parent cell (2n).

3. A chromosome consists of a highly coiled and condensed strand of DNA. A replicated chromosome consists
of two sister chromatids, where one is an exact copy of the other.
4. A centromere is a specialized region that holds the two chromatids together.
5. The kinetochore is a disc-shaped protein on the centromere that attaches the chromatid to the mitotic
spindle during cell division.
6. Living and dividing cells pass through a regular sequence of growth and division called the cell cycle.
7. Two important factors limit cell size and promote cell division
i. the ratio of the volume of a cell to the surface area and
ii. the capacity of the nucleus
Topics Covered:
 Phases of Cell Cycle

 Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
(Gk. Mitos = thread; osis = state)
(1) Definition : It is also called indirect cell division or somadtic cell division or equational division. In this,
mature somatic cell divides in such a way that chromosomes number is kept constant in daughter cells equal to
those in parent cell, so the daughter cells are quantitatively as well as qualitatively similar to the parental cell. So
it is called equational division
(2) Discovery : Mitosis was first observed by Strasburger (1875) and in animal cell by W.fleming (1879) term
mitosis was given by Fleming (1882).
(3) Occurrence : Mitosis is the common method of cell division. It takes place in the somatic cells in the animals.
Hence, it is also known as the somatic division. It occurs in the gonads also for the multiplication of
undifferentiated germ cells. In plants mitosis occurs in the meristematic cells e.g. root apex and shoot apex.
(4) Duration : It ranges from 30 minutes to 3 hours time is species-specific but also depends upon type of tissues,
temperature.
(5) Process of mitosis : Mitosis is completed in two steps
Karyokinesis: (Gk. karyon = nucleus; kinesis = movement) Division of nucleus. Term given by Schneider (1887).
Cytokinesis: (Gk. kitos = cell; kinesis = movement) Division of cytoplasm, Term given by Whitemann (1887).

Karyokinesis
It comprises four phases i.e. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

Prophase
It is largest phase of karyokinesis.
(a) Chromatin fibres thicken and shorter to form chromosomes which may overlap each other and appears like a
ball of wool. i.e. Spireme stage.
(b) Each chromosome divides longitudinally into 2 chromatids which remain attached to centromere.
(c) Nuclear membrane starts disintegrating except in dinoflagellates.
(d) Nucleolus starts disintegrating.
(e) Cells become viscous, refractive and oval in outline.
(f) Spindle formation begins.
(g) Cell cytoskeleton, golgi complex, ER, etc. disappear.
(h) In animal cells, centrioles move towards opposite sides.
(i) Lampbrush chromosomes can be studied well.
(j) Small globular structure (beaded) on the chromosome are called chromomeres.

Metaphase
(a) Chromosomes become maximally distinct i.e. size can be measured.
(b) A colourless, fibrous, bipolar spindle appears.
(c) Spindle is formed from centriole (in animal cells) or MTOC (microtubule organising centre) in plant cells
successively called astral and anastral spindle.
(d) Spindle has 3 types of fibres.
- Continuous fibre (run from pole to pole).
- Discontinuous fibre (run between pole to centromeres).
- Interzonal fibre (run between 2 centromere).
(e) Spindle fibre are made up of 97% tubulin protein and 3% RNA.
(f) Chromosomes move towards equatorial plane of spindles called congression and become arranged with their
arms directed towards pole and centromere towards equator.
(g) Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores.
(h) Metaphase is the best stage for studying chromosome morphology.

Anaphase
(a) Centromere splits from the middle and two chromatids gets separated.
(b) Both the chromatids move towards opposite poles due to repulsive force called anaphasic movement.
(c) Anaphasic movement is brought about by the repolymerisation of continuous fibres and depolymerisation of
chromosomal fibres.
(d) Different shape of chromosomes become evident during chromosome movement viz. metacentric acrocentric
etc.
(e) Chromosomes takes V, J, I or L shapes.
(f) The centromere faces towards equator.
(g) The chromatids are moved towards the pole at a speed of 1 mm/minute. About 30 ATP molecules are used to
move one chromosome from equator to pole.

Telophase
(a) Chromosomes reached on poles by the spindle fibers and form two groups.
(b) Chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin net.
(c) The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
(d) Two daughter nuclei are formed.
(e) Golgi complex and ER etc., reform.

Cytokinesis

It involves division of cytoplasm in animal cells, the cell membrane

develops a constitution which deepens centripetally and is called cell furrow method.
In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by cell plate formation.
Significance of Mitosis
(i) It keeps the chromosome number constant and genetic stability in daughter cells, so the linear heredity of an
organism is maintained. All the cells are with similar genetic constituents.
(ii) It helps in growth and development of zygote into adult through embryo formation.
(iii) It provides new cells for repair and regeneration of lost parts and healing of the wounds.
(iv) It helps in asexual reproduction by fragmentation, budding, stem cutting, etc.
(v) It also restores the nucleo-plasmic ratio.
(vi) Somatic variations when maintained by vegetative propagation can play important role in speciation.

Types of Mitosis
(i) Anastral mitosis : It is found in plants in which spindle has no aster.
(ii) Amphiastral mitosis : It is found in animals in which spindle has two asters, one at each pole of the spindle.
Spindle is barrel-like.
(iii) Intranuclear or Promitosis : In this nuclear membrane is not lost and spindle is formed inside the nuclear
membrane e.g. Protozoans (Amoeba) and yeast. It is so as centriole is present within the nucleus.
(iv) Extranuclear or Eumitosis : In this nuclear membrane is lost and spindle is formed outside nuclear
membrane e.g. in plants and animals.
(v) Endomitosis : Chromosomes and their DNA duplicate but fail to separate which lead to polyploidy e.g. in
liver of man, both diploid (2N) and polyploid cells (4N) have been reported. It is also called endoduplication and
endopolyploidy.
(vi) Dinomitosis : In which nuclear envelope persists and microtubular spindle is not formed. During movement
the chromosomes are attached with nuclear membrane.

Meiosis
(Gk. meioum = to reduce, osis = state)
(1) Definition : It is a special type of division in which the chromosomes duplicate only once, but cell divides
twice. So one parental cell produces 4 daughter cells; each having half the chromosome number and DNA amount
than normal parental cell. So meiosis is also called reductional division.
(2) Discovery : It was first demonstrated by Van Benden (1883) but was described by Winiwarter (1900). Term
“meiosis” was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).
(3) Occurrence : It is found in special types and at specific period. It is reported in diploid germ cells of sex
organs (e.g. primary spermatocytes of testes to form male gametes called spermotozoa and primary oocytes to
form female gametes called ova in animals) and in pollen mother cells (microsporocytes) of anther and
megasporocyte of ovule of ovary of flowers in plant to form the haploid spores. The study of meiosis in plants
can be done in young flower buds.

Process of Meiosis
Meiosis is completed in two steps, meiosis I and meiosis II

Meiosis I
In which the actual chromosome number is reduced to half. Therefore, meiosis I is also known as reductional
division or heterotypic division. It results in the formation of two haploid cells from one diploid cell. It is divided
into two parts, karyokinesis I and cytokinesis I.

Karyokinesis I
It involves division of nucleus. It is divided into four phases i.e. prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

Prophase I
It is of longest phase of karyokinesis of meiosis. It is again divisible into five subphases i.e. leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.
Leptotene/Leptonema
(a) Chromosomes are long thread like with chromomeres on it.
(b) Volume of nucleus increases.
(c) Chromatin network has half chromosomes from male and half from female parent.
(d) Chromosome with similar structure are known as homologous chromosomes.
(e) Leptonemal chromosomes have a definite polarization and forms loops whose ends are attached to the nuclear
envelope at points near the centrioles, contained within an aster. Such peculiar arrangement is termed as
bouquet stage (in animals) and syndet knot (in plants).
(f) E.M. (electron microscope) reveals that chromosomes are composed of paired chromatids, a dense
proteinaceous filament or axial core lies within the groove between the sister chromatids of each chromosome.
(g) Lampbrush chromosome found in oocyte of amphibians is seen in leptotene.

Zygotene / Zygonema
(a) Pairing or “synapsis” of homologous chromosomes takes place in this stage.
(b) Synapsis may be of following types.
 Procentric : Starting at the centromere.

 Proterminal : Starting at the end.

 Localised random : Starting at various points.
(c) Paired chromosomes are called bivalents, which by furthur molecular packing and spiralization becomes
shorter and thicker.
(d) Pairing of homologous chromosomes in a zipper-fashion. Number of bivalents (paired homologous
chromosomes) is half to total number of chromosomes in a diploid cell. Each bivalent is formed of one paternal
and one maternal chromosome (i.e. one chromosome derived from each parent).
(e) Under EM, a filamentous ladder like nucleoproteinous complex, called synaptinemal. Complex between the
homologous chromosomes which is discovered by “Moses” (1953).

Pachytene/Pachynema
(a) In the tetrad, two similar chromatids of the same chromosome are called sister chromatids and those of two
homologous chromosomes are termed non-sister chromatids.
(b) Crossing over i.e. exchange of segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosome occurs
at this stage.
It takes place by breakage and reunion of chromatis segments. Breakage called nicking, is assisted by an enzyme
endonuclease and reunion termed annealing is added by an enzyme ligase. Breakage and reunion hypothesis
proposed by Darlington (1937).
(c) Chromatids of pachytene chromosome are attached with centromere.
(d) A tetrad consists of two sets of homologous chromosomes each with two chromatids. Each tetrad has four
kinetochore (two sister and two homologous).
(e) A number of electron dense bodies about 100 nm in diameter are seen at irregular intervals within the centre
of the synaptonemal complex, known as recombination nodules.
(f) DNA polymerase is responsible for the repair synthesis.

Diplotene/Diplonema
(a) At this stage the paired chromosomes begin to separate (desynapsis).
(b) Cross is formed at the place of crossing over between non-sister chromatids.
(c) Homologous chromosomes move apart they remain attached to one another at specific points called chiasmata.
(d) At least one chiasma is formed in each bivalent.
(e) Chromosomes are attached only at the place of chiasmata.
(f) Chromatin bridges are formed in place of synaptonemal complex on chiasmata.
(g) This stage remains as such for long time.
Diakinesis
(a) Chiasmata moves towards the ends of chromosomes. This is called terminalization.
(b) Chromatids remain attached at the place of chiasma only.
(c) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus degenerates.
(d) Chromosome recondense and tetrad moves to the metaphase plate.
(e) Formation of spindle.
(f) Bivalents are irregularly and freely scattered in the nucleocytoplasmic matrix.
When the diakinesis of prophase-I is completed than cell enters into the metaphase-I.

Metaphase I
It involves;
(i) Chromosome come on the equator.
(ii) Due to repulsive force the chromosome segment get exchanged at the chiasmata.
(iii) Bivalents arrange themselves in two parallel equatorial or metaphase plates. Each equatorial plate has one
genome.
(iv) Centromeres of homologous chromosomes lie equisdistant from equator and are directed towards the poles
while arms generally lie horizontally on the equator.
(v) Each homologous chromosome has two kinetochores and both the kinetochores of a chromosome are joined
to the chromosomal or tractile fibre of same side.

Anaphase-I
(i) It involves separartion of homologous chromosomes which start moving opposite poles so each tetrad is divided
into two daughter dyads. So anaphase-I involves the reduction of chromosome number, this is called disjunction.
(ii) The shape of separating chromosomes may be rod or J or V-shape depending upon the position of centromere.
(iii) Segregation of mendalian factors or independent asortment of chromosomes take place. In which the paternal
and maternal chromosomes of each homologous pair segregate during anaphase-I which introduces genetic
variability.

Telophase-I
(i) Two daughter nuclei are formed but the chromosome number is half than the chromosome number of mother
cell.
(ii) Nuclear membrane reappears.
(iii) After telophase I cytokinesis may or may not occur.
(iv) At the end of Meiosis I either two daughter cells will be formed or a cell may have two daughter nuclei.
(v) Meiosis I is also termed as reduction division.
(vi) After meiosis I, the cells in animals are reformed as secondary spermatocytes or secondary oocytes; with
haploid number of chromosomes but diploid amount of DNA.
(vi) Chromosomes undergo decondensation by hydration and despiralization and change into long and thread like
chromation fibres.

Interphase
Generally there is no interphase between meiosis-I and meiosis-II. A brief interphase called interkinesis, or
intermeiotic interphase. There is no replication chromosomes, during this interphase.
Cytokinesis-I
It may or may not be present. When present, it occurs by cell-furrow formation in animal cells and cell plate
formation in plant cells.
Significance of meiosis-I
(i) It separates the homologous chromosomes to reduce the chromosome number to the haploid state, a necessity
for sexual reproduction.
(ii) It introduces variation by forming new gene combinations through crossing over and randon assortment of
paternal and maternal chromosomes.
(iii) It may at times cause chromosomal mutation by abnormal disjunction.
(iv) It induces the cells to produce gametes for sexual reproduction or spores for asexual reproduction.
Meiosis-II
It is also called equational or homotypical division because the number of chromosomes remains same as after
meiosis-I. It is of shorter duration than even typical mitotic division. It is also divisible into two parts,
Karyokinesis-II and Cytokinesis-II.

Karyokinesis-II
It involves the separation of two chromatids of each chromosome and their movement to separate cells. It is
divided in four phases i.e., Prophase-II, Metaphase-II. Anaphase-II and Telophase-II.
Almost all the changes of Karyokinesis-II resembles to mitosis which involves.
(i) It starts just after end of telophase I.
(ii) Each daughter cell (nucleus) undergoes mitotic division.
(iii) It is exactly similar to mitosis.
(iv) At the end of process, cytokinesis takes place.
(v) Four daughter cells are formed after completion.
(vi) The sister kinetochores of one chromosome are separated.
(vii) The four daughter cells receive one chromatid each of the tetravalent.
(viii) Centromere divide at anaphase II.
(ix) Spindle fibres contract at prophase II.

Cytokinesis-II
It is always present and occurs by cell furrow formation in animal cell and cell plate formation in plant cell.
So by meiosis, a diploid parental cell divides twice forming four haploid gametes or sex cells, each having half
the DNA amount than that of the parental cell and one-fourth of DNA present in the cell at the time of beginning
of meiosis.
Significance of Meiosis
(i) Constancy of chromosome number in successive generation is brought by process.
(ii) Chromosome number becomes half during meiosis.
(iii) It helps in introducing variations and mutation.
(iv) It brings about gamete formation.
(v) It maintains the amount of genetic informative material.
(vi) Sexual reproduction includes one meiosis and fusion.
(vii) The four daughter cells will have different types of chromatids.

Digestion

Digestion is a process of breakdown of complex food molecules into simple water: soluble molecules so that it
can be easily absorbed by the body. Digestion is a catabolic process, that is, it is a breakdown process to release
energy.
There are two types of Digestion: Mechanical Digestion and Chemical Digestion.
Mechanical Digestion involves the physical breakdown of large food molecules into small molecules. Chemical
Digestion involves breakdown of complex food molecules into small molecules in presence of digestive enzyme.

What are components of Digestive System?

 Mouth is the first part of the Digestive System where the process of digestion begins. Mouth contain glands
known as Salivary Glands. These salivary glands secrete an enzyme Salivary Amylase or Ptyalin that digests
the carbohydrates such as starch into maltose (simple sugar).
 Pharynx is a part of the Digestive System as well as respiratory system. It pushes the food into the esophagus.
A lid-like structure that covers the trachea or wind pipe at the time of swallowing of food is known
as Epiglottis. It prevents the entry of food into the trachea. If food enters into the trachea, chocking may occur
and this might also prove fatal.
 Esophagus is also known as food: pipe that passes the food to the stomach. The process of movement of food
from the esophagus to stomach is known as Peristalsis. It is a muscular process.
 Stomach is the major part of the Digestive System where most of the digestion occurs. Stomach secretes the
gastric juices which contain Hydrochloric Acid and sodium chloride. Hydrochloric Acid is secreted by gastric
cells known as parietal cells. This acid is helpful in removing germs and pathogens. The environment of
stomach is acidic due to hydrochloric acid. Stomach also produce an enzyme pepsinogen. Stomach also
produces mucus that lubricates the stomach against hydrochloric acid.
 Small Intestine receives the partially digested food from the stomach. Small intestine is composed of 3 parts:
Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum. Here, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are digested. It receives the secretions
from Pancreas and Liver. Some of the carbohydrates are also digested in small intestine with the help
of Pancreatic Amylase.
 Large Intestine comprises of Cecum, Colon and Rectum. Cecum receives the food from the small intestine.
Colon is a part where food is digested by gut flora. Water is majorly absorbed in this part. Rectum is the part
from where the undigested food reaches the anus for excretion.

Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth with the help of an enzyme salivary amylase. It digests the starch
into maltose. Rest of the digestion of carbohydrates occurs in small intestine with the help of the enzyme
pancreatic amylase secreted by pancreas. The simplest form of carbohydrates is glucose. So all the carbohydrates
consumed is finally converted into glucose for absorption.

Digestion and Absorption of Proteins

Digestion of Proteins begins in the stomach. Stomach produce an enzyme Pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is an inactive
form of enzyme pepsin. Inactive form of an enzyme is known as Zymogens. Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin
by Hydrochloric Acid present in the stomach. Pepsin begins the process of digestion of proteins.
Pancreas and Liver are two digestive glands that play an important role in the digestion. Pancreas secretes Trypsin
and Chymotrypsin to digest proteins into small peptides. Other enzymes that participate in protein digestion are
Carboxypeptidase and Proelastase. The simplest form of proteins is Amino acids in which they are absorbed by
the body.

Describe the digestion and absorption of lipids in human beings

Liver secretes bile that helps in digestion of fats (a form of lipid). The process of digestion of fats by bile is known
as Emulsification of fats. Fat digestion is also promoted by lipase enzyme from the pancreas known as Pancreatic
Lipase. The simplest form of fats are Fatty Acid and Glycerol. Lipase or bile breakdown fats into fatty acids and
glycerol so that they can be absorbed by the body.

Digestion of Vitamins and Minerals

Digestion of Vitamins and Minerals begins in the mouth. Further digestion of vitamins and minerals occurs in the
small intestine where they are also absorbed and taken to the blood stream.

What is Appendix?
Appendix is located at the junction of the small intestine and large intestine. It is considered as a vestigial organ.
Cattles use appendix for fodder digestion. It helps in digestion of food containing plant matter such as cellulose.

What is Reverse Peristalsis?

The most common example of Reverse Peristalsis is Vomiting. Medulla oblongata is the vomiting center in the
brain. When it is activated due to some local irritation in the stomach, the food reverts back and results in vomiting.
This is known as Reverse Peristalsis.

Diseases of the Digestive System

The common diseases of Digestive System are given below-

 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) – A disease in which the ingested food leaks back from the
stomach into the esophagus. It happens when the esophageal sphincter does not close well.
 Esophagitis – The inflammation of the esophagus commonly caused by infection. It is also a complication of
GERD.
 Peptic Ulcer – A painful lesion of the stomach of small intestine.
 Gastritis – A disease that causes the inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It has many causes such as
alcohol abuse, cigarette smoking, excessive consumption of coffee and aspirin.
 Colon Cancer – The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the large intestine. It is third most common
cause of cancer in Philippines.

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Sexual reproduction is the process of development of new organisms through the formation and fusion of
gametes. The flower is the main structure concerned with reproduction, The reproductive organs or the
sporophylls are produced within the flowers. The sporophylls are of two types microsporophylls ( stamen) and
megasporophylls ( carpel) Stamen is distinguished as filament, anther and connective. Carpel is distinguished
as ovary bearing ovule, style and stigma The whole process of sexual reproduction in flowering plants can be
divided into three steps i) Pre-fertilization ii) Double fertilization iii) Post-fertilization

PRE-PERTILISATION : STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

The pre-fertilisation events can be studied under following points

i) Pollen grain formation ii) Embryo sac formation iii) Pollination iv) Pollen pistil interaction

POLLEN GRAIN FORMATION

Male reproductive unit ( Stamen)

A stamen is the male reproductive unit of angiosperms. It consists of an anther and a filament. The anther is
bilobed and the lobe encloses four pollen sacs or microsporangia. Each pollen sac contains number of pollen
grains. The four pollen sacs in a dithecous anther appear to lie in the four corners of anther The wall of anther
consists of four layers of cells An anther dehisces by slits to liberate pollen grains

Anther development

The anther initiates its development in the form of a homogenous mass of a meristematic cells surrounded by
epidermis. It becomes four lobed and four longitudinal rows of aechesporial cells are differentiated. Each of these
cells divides to form a primary parietal cell and a primary sporogenous cell. The

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parietal cell divides several times to form the anther wall and the sporogenous cell divides a few times to form the
microscopes or pollen mother cells (PMC). The innermost layer of cell wall in contact with the PMC’s form the
tapetum which plays a significant role in pollen development. The layer below the epidermis later becomes the
endothecium.

Wall layers of anther Epidermis – one cell thick and protective in function Endothecium – Second wall layer
usually single layered. Cells have a cellulose thickening with a little pectin and lignin. It help in anther dehiscence
 Middle layers – The number of middle layer ranges from 1-6. The middle layer degenerate at the maturity of
the anther Tapetum – This is the innermost layer of anther wall which surrounds the sporogenous tissue. Tapetal
cells are nutritive. They are multinucleated and polyploidy. In these cells the ubisch bodies which is deposited in
the exine of microscope wall. The tapetum is of two types (i) Secretary / glandular – The tapetal cells remain in
situ all through the development of microscope and finally they degenerate. (ii) Amoeboid / periplasmodial – The
radial wall of tapetum cell break up releasing the protoplast into the pollen chamber. All such protoplast now fuse
to form the periplasmodium.

Microsporogenesis

The formation and differentiation of microspore is called microsporogenesis. The PMCs divide meiotically
each forming generally tetrahedral tetrads, Cytokinesis may be successive or simultaneous. Successive type is
advanced type. Tetrad are of five types, tetrahedral, isobilateral, decussate, T shaped, linear tetrahedral is most
common In successive type, the cell wall is formed after meiosis –I as well as meiosis –II thus an isobilateral
pollen tetras is formed. It is a characteristic feature of monocot In simultaneous type, each nuclear division in
microspore mother cell is most followed by cell wall formation

The microspores separate from the tetrahedral configuration and get surrounded by a two layered wall, outer
exine and inner intine. The pollen grains are the first cells of the male gametophyte. The tapetum get used up,
the anther becomes dry structure and pollen are liberated by dehiscence of the anther. Mostly, all the four nuclei
in a tetrad remain functional to form four microspores. However, in cyperaceae only one functions and therefore
only one microspore instead of four is formed by one meiosis. In some cases, all the four pollens remain attached
forming compound pollen grains e.g. Juncus jatropha. In family asclepiadaceae and orchidacae, all the
microspores in a sporangium adhere together in a single mass called pollinium.

Pollen grain

Pollen grains may be oval, ellipsoidal, triangular, lobed or even crescent shaped. It is generally round with size
of 25 - 30μm Pollen grain is haploid, unicellular body with single nucleus. Therefore is an outer wall and 2-3
celled interior. Wall or sporoderm is made of two covering, outer thick exine of sporopollenin and inner thin
intine of pecto-cellulose The outer layer exine is thick and sculptured or smooth. It is cuticularised and cutin is
of special type called sporopollenin which is resistant to chemical and biological decomposition so pollen wall is
preserved for long periods. It also possess proteins for enzymatic and compatibility reactions. Exine is
differentiated into inner endexine and outer ektexine. Ektexine is further divided into inner continuous foot layer,
middle discontinuous baculate layer and outermost discontinuous tectum. Tectum is helpful for identifying
pollen grain and referring them to their family, genus or species. Exine is absent over certain areas called germ
pores when circular or it is called germ furrow when elongated In insected pollinated pollen grain, exine is
covered with yellowish, viscous and sticky substance called pollenkitt. Pollenkitt act as an insect attractant and
protects the pollen from UV rays Intine is thin and elastic. It is made up of cellulose and pectin. It emerges out
as the pollen tube from the germ pores during germination Internally pollen grains have cytoplasm which is
rich in starch and unsaturated oils. Uninucleated protopeast becomes 2-3 celled at the later stages of development.
In calotropis and orchids, the pollen of each anther lobe formed a characteristics mass called pollinium Pollen
grains can be monoclopate ( having one germ pores),bicolpate(two germ pores) and triclopate (3 germ pores).
The branch of study of pollens is called palynology

Development of male gametophyte

Size of nucleus in pollen grain increases and it divides mitotically to produce a bigger vegetative cell or tube
cell and smaller generative cell Pollination can occur in two celled ( tube + generative ) or three-celled ( tube
+ two male gametes)

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 However, in plants such as cereals, the male gametes while the pollen is still within the anther. In those cases,
where pollen is shed at two celled stage, the generative cell divides after pollen has landed on stigma. The
cytoplasm contents of generative cell do not possess much of stored food material. Vegetative cell contains fat,
starch and protein granules.

Pollen products

(i) Pollen food supplements : Pollen grain contains abundant carbohydrates and unsaturated fat. They are used in
form of tablets and syrups for enhancing vital body functions. Pollen consumption increases performance and
used by athletes and given to race horses (ii) Pollen creams : Pollen grain protect themsevles from UV rays. Thus
they are used in creams, emulsions for providing smoothness and protection to skin.

Pollen viability

The period for which pollen grains remain viable or functional is called pollen viability. It depends upon
temperature, humidity. Pollen grains remain viable in 30 minutes. Pollen grain can be cryopreserved in liquid
nitrogen ( temp – 196OC) and used as pollen banks.

Pollen allergy

Pollen grain produce severe allergy. It causes have fever and common respiratory disorders are asthma, bronchitis.
Carrot grass ( Parthenium hysterophorus) that came in India along with imported wheat is major source of pollen
allergy besides harming internal body organs.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE UNIT ( Pistil )

The pistil or gynoceium of a flower is the female reproductive unit A carpel or pistil has a stigma or receptive
region for pollen grains, a stalk or style and basal swollen region or ovary. Ovary contains one to several ovules
Ovule is integumented megasporangium which on fertilization ripens into a seed. It is oval and whitish. The
ovule is attached to placenta by means of a stalk called funiculus or funicle. The point of attachment of funicle to
the ovule is known as hilum. A raphe ( ridge) is formed by the fusion of funiculus with the body of ovule.

The actual megasporangium equivalent is a parenchymatous tissue called nucellus. It may be thin (
tenuinucellate, e.g. compositae ) or massive ( crassinucellate e.g casuarinaceae) On the basis of number of
integuments, ovules are of following types (i) Unitegmic – With one integuments, higher dicots e.g. composital,
gymnosperms (ii) Bitegmic – Ovules with two integuments ( monocots and primitive dicots like cruciferae and
malvaceae) (iii) Tritegmic – With three integuments ( Asphodelus) (iv) Ategmic – Without integument ( Santalum,
Loranthus, Ziriosoma and olax) Place of origin of integuments is called chalaza, A pore is present in the
integuments at one end. It is known as micropyle. The inner region of integument may provide nourishment to
developing embryo sac and it is called endothelium. Outer side of each integument as well as nucellus possesses
cuticle. In castor bean ( Ricinus ) proliferation of the integumentary cells at micropylar region is called caruncle.
It performs two functions I. It acts as water absorbing pas and helps in seed germination I. It is made up of sugary
substance and thus seed dispersal occurs by ants.

Forms of ovule 1. Orthotropous ( Erect ) The body of the ovule lies straight and upright over the funicle. Hilum,
chalaza and micropyle occurs on the same line. E.g. Polygonum

2. Anatropous ( Inverted ) The body of ovule is inverted and gets fused with funicle forms ridge called raphe.
Hilum and micropyle are nearby with chalaza on opposite sides. It is the most common type of ovule. E.g.
Ranunculus
3. Hemianatroppous The body of ovule is placed at right angle (90o) to the funicle e.g. Malpighiaceae.

4. Campylotropous The body is curved but embryo sac is straight. Hilum, chalaza and micropyle come nearby
e.g. Caspells, Capparis, Chenopodiaceac

5. Amphitropous Both body of ovule and embryo sac are curved e.g. crucifers

6. Circinotropous The ovule turns at morethan 360O angle so funicle becomes coiled around the ovule. Example
opuntia.

Megasporogenesis

The process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell is called megasporogenesis. Ovules
generally differentiate a single megaspore mother cell ( MMC) in micropylar region of the nucellus. It is a large
cell containing dense cytoplasm and prominent nucleus. The MMC undergoes meiotic division. Meiosis results
in the production of four megaspores

In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspores is functional while the other three degerate Only the
functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte. This method of embryo sac formation from single
megaspore is termed monosporic development

Formation of embryo sac

The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei which move to the opposite
poles, forming the two nucleate embryo sac. Two more sequential mitotic nuclear division results in formation of
four nucleate and later eight nucleate stages of embryo sac. These mitotic division are strictly free. i.e. nuclear
divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation. After the eight nucleate stage, cell walls are laid
down leading to the organization of the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac. Six of eight nuclei are
surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells, the remaining two nuclei, called polar nuclei are situated below
the egg apparatus in the large central cell Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end and constitute
the egg apparatus. The egg apparatus consists of two synergids and one egg cell. The synergids have special
cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip called filiform apparatus, which play an important role in guiding the
pollen tubes into the synergid. Three cells are at chalazal end and are called the antipodals. Thus a typical
angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity, though eight nucleate is seven celled.

Pollination

Pollination refers to the process of transfer of pollen grains from anther and their deposition on stigmatic surface
of the flower Pollination is of two types self pollination and cross pollination Self pollination Self pollination
is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of same or genetically similr flower Self pollination is
of two types : autogamy and geitonogamy 1. Autogamy It is a self pollination which occurs between anther and
stigma of the same flower. a) Chasmogamous devices When the flower expose their mature anther and stigma to
the pollinating agents. In Lilac the stigma lies exactly below the anthers b) Cleistogamy The flowers remain close
so there is no alternative self pollination. Examples: Pisum, Lathyrus, commelina, benghalensis c) Bud pollination
Anthers and stigma of bisexual flowers mature before opening of bud and thus self pollination takes place at the
time of bud stage e.g. pea, wheat etc.

2. Geitonogamy It is transfer of pollen grain from anther of one flower to stigma of another flower of same plant
or genetically similar plants
Advantages of self pollination It maintains purity of the race The plant does not need to produce large number
of pollen grains It ensures seed production Self pollination eliminates bad recessive characters.

Disadvantages of self pollination Variable and hence adaptability to changed environment reduced. Vitality
decreases and ultimatey leads to degeneration.

Cross pollination

It is defined as the deposition of pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of a different flower of
another plant of same or different species. It is also known as allogamy In Xenogamy, pollination takes between
two flowers of different plants ( genetically & ecologically )

Devices for cross pollination

1. Dicliny: There are two types of flowers, male and female. The plants may be monoecious or dioecious 2.
Dichogamy: Anther and stigmas mature at different times (i) Protandry: Anthers mature earlier. E.g, Salvia,
clerodendron, sunflower, rose (ii) Protogny : Stigmas mature earlier. E.g. plantago, magnolia, mirabilis 3. Self
sterility : Pollen grains are incapable of growing over the stigma of the same flower e.g. Tobacco, some crucifers.
Quicker growth of pollen on another plant than pollen of same plant is called prepotency ( e.g. apple) 4.
Heterostyly: Flower have two or three heights of styles and stamens. Primula and Jasminum have two types of
flower ( dimorphic heterostyly) , pin-eye ( long style and short stamen ) and thrum-eye ( short style and long
stamens) Some plants have trimorphic (3) hetrostyly e.g. Lythrum, oxalis.

5. Herkogamy : It is the presence of natural or physical barrier between androecium and gynoecium which help
in avoiding self pollination. In calotropis stignui, gynoecium is fused with pollinium and form gynostegium

Advantages of cross pollination

Cross pollination introduces genetic recombinations and hence variation in offspring. Cross pollination
increases the adptability of the offspring towards changes in environment. The defective character of race is
eliminated and replaced by better character.

Disadvantages of cross pollination

Plants have to produce a large number of pollen grains The very good character are likely to be spoiled
As external agency is involved chance factor is always there

Agents of pollination

Anemophily ( wind pollination) characteristics

(i) Pollens are very light. They may have air sac or wings (ii) Flowers are small and are colourless, odouless (iii)
Pollen grains are dry (iv) Anthers have long filament and are abundant (v) Stigmas are sticky and feathery.
Examples : Date palm, coconut, grass, willow, maize, jowar, cannabis, mulberry.

Hay fever is allergic reaction due to presence of pollen in air

Hydrophily ( water pollination) characteristics

(i) Flowers are small and colourless, odourless, nectarless (ii) Stigma is long, sticky and unwettable
Water pollination is of two types

(a) Epihydrophily ( on surface of water e.g. Vallisneria) (b) Hypohydrophily ( inside water) e.g. zostera,
ceratophyllum. Pollen grains are without exine and often elongated. Vallisneria is dioecious. Male plants

produces a large number of male flowers, which after breaking, rise upwards in closed state and open on surface
of water. The female plant produces flowers that brings it on surface of water with the help of long pedicels. After
pollination, the female flower is brought down into water

Entomophily ( Insect pollination) characteristics

(i) Flowers are coloured. Bluish-purplish – violet – yellow flowers attracts bees while reddish flowers attract
butterflies and wasps. (ii) Flowers commonly posses an aroma or scent (iii) Visiting insects are fed by either nectar
and pollen (iv) Pollen grains are sticky due to pollenkitt (v) Stigmas are sticky

Ornithophily ( Bird pollination)

Pollination by birds is common is coral tree, bottle brush and silk cotton tree Two types of long –beasked
small birds take place pollination – sun birds and hummingbird Other birds are Bulbul, parrot, crow etc
Ornithophilous flower are large and strong with abundant nectar and edible part. Example Bombax, agave, Butea,
Bignonia

Chiropterophily ( Pollination by bats)

The flowers they pollinate are large dull coloured and produce strong aroma Chiropterophilous flower
produce abundant pollen grains and secrete more nectar than the orinthophilous flower. Bats carry out the
pollination in Adansonia and kigelia

Malacophily ( pollination by snails)

Snails perform pollination Arisaema ( snake orcobra plants )and some arum lilies

Myrmecophily ( pollination by ants)

Plants pollination by ants are called myrmecophytes examples some members of family rubiaceae.

Significance of pollination

Pollination leads to fertilization and production of seeds and fruits, which ensure continuity of plant life It
stimulates growth of ovary. It results in production of hybrid seeds The seeds and fruits are also a source of
nutrition

Post pollination events

The nucleus of the pollen grain divides to produce vegetative and generative cells. A short outgrowth called
germ tube, emerges from the pollen and secrete enzymes which digests the tissues of stigma and continues to
grow as pollen tube The generative nucleus divides to form two male nuclei, which become surrounded by
cytoplasmic masses and appear as distinct male gametes The pollen tube grows through the stigma and passes
into the tissues of style. Depending upon the region of entry into ovule. These are:- i) Porogamy : The entry of
pollen tube into the ovule through micropyle e.g. ottelia ii) Chalazogamy: The entry of pollen tube into the ovule
through chalaza e.g. Casuarina iii) Mesogamy: The entry of pollen tube through funicle or integuments e.g.
cucurbita. Generally pollen tube enters the ovule through micropyle and enters synergids through filiform
apparatus. Filiform apparatus guides the entry of pollen tube.

Pollen – pistil interaction

Only the compatible pollen of the same species are able to germinate. Germination is connected with
compatibility incompatibility reaction between proteins present over the pollen grains and stigma. Plant
breeders are able to obtain hybrid between different species. If the female parent bears bisexual flowers, removal
of anthers from the flower bud before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps. This step is referred to an
emasculation. Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size, generally made up of butter
paper, to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This process is called bagging.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

Fertilization is defined as the fusion of male and female gametes to form the zygote which eventually develops
into an embryo. Two male gametes are discharged into embryo sac through pollen tube. One of the male
gametes fuse with the egg, resulting in the production of diploid zygote. This is called syngamy or also called
generative fertilization The second male gametes fuses with two polar nuclei, producing a triploid primary
endosperm nucleus. This is called triple fusion and is also known as vegetative fertilization. In an embryo sac
there occur two sexual fusion – one in syngamy and other in triple fusion. This phenomenon is called double
fertilization.

POST FERTILIZATION : STRUCTRE AND EVENTS

Endosperms

Endosperm is a nutritive tissue formed from vegetative fertilization. Endosperm is meant for nourishing the
embryo. It is generally triploid Since endosperm develops fully in the fertilized ovule, it may show the effect
of genes present in the male gamete. The phenomenon is called xenia. The direct or indirect effect of pollen on
structure inside embryo sac except embryo has been termed by Focke 1881 and limited to endosperm part. It is
seen in Zea mays ( maize) alone.

The metaxenia may be defined as the effect of pollen on the seed coat or pericarp lying outside the embryo sac
Depending upon its mode of development endosperm is of three types 1. Nuclear endosperm Primary
endosperm nucleus divides to form a large number of free nuclei A central vacuole appears and massive
peripheral multinucleate cytoplasm is formed. Wall formation occurs and central vacuole disappears. Example
maize, wheat, rice. In coconut there is an outer multicellular solid endosperm and inner free nuclear liquid
endosperm in the centre. 2. Cellular endosperm Wall formation occurs after every division of primary
endosperm nucleus, so that endosperm is cellular from the beginning e.g. Datura, balsam, Petunia 3. Helobial
endosperm First division produces two cells within each of which free nuclear division occur but ultimately they
may also become cellular. E.g. Eremurus, Asphodelus.

Functions of endosperms are

(i) In plants with albuminous seeds the endosperm reserves support early seedling growth. (ii) Endosperm provides
nutrition to developing embryo (iii) Liquid endosperm of coconut contains auxins, cytokinins and GA and induces
cytokinesis. When added to basic nutrient medium. Coconut milk also induces the differentiation of embryo and
plantlets from various plant tissues

(iv) Zeatin, a very potent cytokinin is extracted from the young endosperm of maize.

Embyrogeny ( embryo formation)

 It is the development of mature embryo from zygote or oospore Early development produces a pro embryo
which has an axial symmetry. Embryo passes through globular stage. Development of embryo is endoscopic or
on inner side because of presence of suspensor. Dicot embryogeny ( crucifer / onagrad type) Zygote divides
into two unequal cells, larger suspensor cell towards micropyle and a smaller embryo cell towards antipodal
region. The suspensor undergoes transverse division forming 6-10 celled suspensor. The first cell of suspensor
is called haustorium and last cell ( towards embryo cell) is called hypophysis. It forms radical. Embryo cell
divides twice. Vertically and once transversely to produce a two tired eight called embryo. The epibasal ( terminal
) tier forms two cotyledons and a plumule while the hybobasal ( near the suspensor) tier produces only hypocotyls.
It is initially globular than becomes heart shaped and further assumes typical shape. A typical dicotyledonous
embryo consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons. The part of embryonal axis above the level of
cotyledons is called epicotyle. It terminates with the stem tip, called plumule ( future shoot) The part below the
level of cotyledons is called hypocotyls which terminates in the root tip called radical ( future root) The root tip
is covered with root cap.

In caspella bursa pastoris, the elongating cotyledons curve due to curving of the ovule itself. In orchids,
orboanche and utricularis, the embryo does not show differentiation of plumule, cotyledon and radical.

Monocot embryogeny ( sagittaria type) The zygote divides transversely producing a vesicular suspensor cell
towards micropylar end and embryo cell towards the chalazal end. The embryo cell divides transversely again
into a terminal and middle cell. The terminal cell divides vertically and transversely into globular embryo. It forms
a massive cotyledon and a plumule. Growth of cotyledon pushes the plumule to one side. Remains of second
cotyledons occurs in some grasses. It is called epiblast. The single cotyledon of monocots is called scutellum. It
is shield shaped and appears terminal. The middle cell gives rise to hypocotyls and radical. It may add a few
dells to the suspensor. Both radical and plumule develop covering sheats called coleorhizae and coleoptiles
respectively. They appear to be extensions of scutellum.

Transformation of parts of flower

BEFORE FERTILIZATION AFTER FERTILIZATION 1 Calyx, corolla, androccium, style, stigma Wither off
2 Ovary Fruit 3 Ovary wall Pericarp 4 Ovule Seed 5 Integuments Seed coats Outer integuments Testa Inner
integuments Tegmen 6 Micropyle Micropyle 7 Funicle Stalk of seed 8 Nucellus Perisperm 9 Egg cell Zygote 10
Synergids Disintegrate and disapper

Formation of seed and fruit

Fruit

Ripened ovary or fertilized ovary is called fruit. Wall of the ovary forms fleshy or dry fruit wall called pericarp.
Fleshy fruit or pericarp is having three layers – epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp

Pericarp

It is the covering of fruit that develops from ovary wall It is a part of fruit and is dry or fleshy It is protective
covering and nutrition

Seed Ripened ovules are known as seeds Integuments of ovule forms seed coat. Outer integuments form testa
and tegmen develops from inner integuments In some case like litchi, ingadulce ( Pithecolobium, Asphodelus,
Trianthema ) a sort of third integuments or aril is present, which covers an additional covering of seed Some
seeds like castor ( ricinus communis ) have a spongy outgrowth near the micropyle, which is known as caruncle
and it absorbs water during seed germination. Funiculus ( stalks of ovule) forms stalk of seed. Ultimately, stalk
withers and leaves a minute scar called hilum. Smallest are found in orchids which are lightest in plant kingdom
and are called dust seeds. Fresh weight of each orchid seed is 20.33μg Largest seeds are double coconut (
Zodoicea maldivica) which are bilobed and each seed is having a weight of 6kg Depending upon the persistence
of endosperm the seeds are classified as i) Non-endospermic or ex-albuminous: Food stored in endosperm is
completely exhausted by developing embryo. Example : Seed of gram, pea, bean, orchid. ii) Endospermic or
albuminous: Endosperm grows vigorously and is not exhausted by the developing embryo cotyledons are thin
here Examples: Seed of wheat, barley, castor, poppy etc

Importance of seeds

Evolutionary achievement: Seed is an evolutionary achievement. It provides protection to embryo Seeds

colonise in new areas and spread its species because of dispersal Seeds has sufficient food reserve that nourishes
the germinating embryo Being products of sexual reproduction, seeds have number of variation and variation
helps in adaptation to varied environment. Germination and sowing of seeds by human gave rise to agriculture
and it helped in development of civilization, science and technology.

Seed viability

It is the period of time for which the seeds retain the ability to germinate. Seed viability is determined genetically
as well as environmentally. Environmental conditions which can alter viability are humidity and temperature.
Genetically seed viability ranges from a few days ( e.g. oxalis) one season ( e.g. Birch), 2-5 years ( most crop
plants) to 100 years ( e.g. Trifolium ). Seed viability has been found out to be more than 1000 years in Lotus. 2000
years old seeds of Phoenix dactylifera excavated from king Herod’s palace near Dead sea have been found viable.
Similarly 10,000 year old seeds of Lupins arcticus ( Lupine) excavated from Arctic Tundra not only germinated
but also produced plants that flowered Viability of the seed is tested by its (a) respiration (b) germination
Respiring seed turns colourless triphenyl tetrazolium chloride into pink tripheyl formazan i) Apomixis

[Gk . apo – without ,mixis – moarriage; Winklwr 1908 ]

It is the formation of new individuals by asexual methods which mimic sexual reproduction including seed
formation but do not involve fusion of gametes or sex cells. Normal type of sexual reproduction having two
regular features, i.e. meiosis and fertilization, is called amphimixis.

The organism reproducing through apomixes is called apomicts. Apomixis is controlled by gene and individual;
are genetically similar to the parent producing i.e. are clone and members of a clone are called ramets. It occurs
by following methods: a) It is mode of apomixis in which seeds are formed but are asexual in nature as the embryo
develops directly without gametic fusion. b) The term sporophytic budding is used if embryo develops
adventitiously from diploid cells of nucellus or integument, e.g. mango, orange, opuntia, onion. ii)
Parthogenogenesis [Gk. Parthenos – virgin; genesis – descent, Owen 1848 ] It is the development of a new
individual from a single gamete without fusion with another gamete. Depending upon the ploidy of the gametes,
there are two types of gametes, there are two types of parthenogenesis – haploid and diploid In haploid
parthenogenesis, the embryo sac and its egg are haploid In diploid parthenogenesis, the embryo sac as its
contained egg is diploid. It undergoes parthenogenesis and forms diploid embryo. Diploid parthenogenesis is
generally accompanied by failure of meiosis during megasporogenesis as well as direct formation of embryo sac
from a nucellar cell, e.g. Poa, apple, rubus iii) Apogamy ( Gk. Apo – without, gamos – arriage) It is formation
of sporophyte or embryo directly from cells of gametophyte. In higher plants, only diploid apogamy is
successful, that is, the gametophytic cell forming the sporophyte is diploid. In lower plants, haploid apogamy is
equally successful.

Polyembryony

The phenomenon of having more than one embryo is called polyembryony. Occurrence of polyembryony
due to fertilization of more than one egg cell is called simple polyembryony. Formation of additional embryos
from different parts of ovule like synergids, antipodal, nucellus, integuments etc.
Example – Citrus, groundnut, onion, opuntia, mangifera Polyembryony was first discovered by Leeuwenhoek
( 1719 ) and was confirmed by Schnarf ( 1929 ). Polyembryony is more common in gymnosperm than in
angiosperm There are two types of polyembryony false and true embryony In false embryony, more than
one embryos arise in different embryo sac in the ovule; whereas in true, more than one embryos are formed in the
same embryo sac The cause of polyembryony may be: Cleavage of proembryo e.g. family orchidaceae.
Development of many embryos from other cells of embryo sac except egg. E.g. Argemone Formation of many
embryos due to presence of more than one embryo sac in same ovule e.g. citrus Formation of many embryos
from the structure outside the embryo sac e.g. mango, opuntia Polyembryony is practically important because
genetically uniform parental type seedlings are obtained from nucellar embryos Nucellar embryos are superior
to those obtained by vegetative propagation because nucellar embryo seedlings are disease free and maintain their
superiority for long time.

Parthenocarpy : (Gk. Parthenos – virgin, karpos – fruit; Noll 1902)

It is formation of fruit without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruits are seedless e.g. apple, pear, banana, pineapple
etc Technically, fruit having seeds ( pseudoseeds) with an asexual embryo are also parthenocarpic fruit
Parthenocarpy is of three types: genetic, environmental and chemically induced Genetic parthenocarpy:
Parthenocarpy is due to genetic alteration caused by mutation or hybridization. It is also called natural
parthenocarpy. E.g. banana, apple, pineapple, varieties of grapes, pear Environmental parthenocarpy: Low
temperature, frost and fog have been known to induce parthenocarpy in a number of plants examples: pear, olive,
capsicum, tomato

Chemically induced parthenocarpy : Spray or paste of auxins and gibberellins in low concentration of 10-6 –
10-7 M has been found to induce parthenocarpy in several plants. Example: tomato, citrus, strawberry, blackberry,
fig etc.

Importance of parthenocarpic fruits

They do not contain seeds which have to be removed before eating fruits. Fruits can be developed inside the
green houses where pollinators are not available. Quicker food processing.

Human Reproductive system

Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous. The reproductive events in humans include formation of
gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females, transfer of sperms into the female genital
tract (insemination) and fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote. This is
followed by formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to the uterine wall (implantation),
embryonic development (gestation) and delivery of the baby (parturition)

The Male Reproductive System: It consists of:

a) Primary sex organs i.e. a pair of testes suspended in a scrotum.

b) Secondary sex organs i.e. a pair of ducts each differentiated into rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas
deferens ,ejaculatory duct and the associated glands

c) External genitalia
  The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called scrotum, which help in maintaining
the low temperature of testes necessary for spermatogenesis.
 Each testes has about 250 testicular lobules and each lobule contain highly coiled seminiferous tubules in
which sperms are produced. Each seminiferous tubules is lined by two types of cells, spermatogonia ( male
germ cell) and Sertoli cells.
 Leydig cells or interstitial cells present around the seminiferous tubules synthesize and secrete androgen
hormone.

 Ejaculatory duct store and transport the sperm from testes to outside through urethra which originate from
urinary bladder and extend through penis to its external opening urethral meatus.
 The penis is male external genitalia. The enlarged end of penis is called theglans penis is covered by a loose
fold of skin called foreskin.
 Male accessary glands include paired seminal vesicles, prostrate and paired bulbourethral glands.
Secretion of these glands forms the seminal plasma which contains fructose, calcium and enzymes. The
secretion of bulbourethral glands also helps in lubrication of the penis.
The Female Reproductive System: It consists of :
a)The primary sex organ that is a pair of ovaries

b)Secondary sex organs- the duct system consisting of a pair of fallopian tube , a uterus , cervix and vagina

c)External genitalia

d)Mammary glands

 Ovaries are primary female sex organ that produce the female gamete and several steroid hormones. Each
ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma, which is divided into a peripheral
cortex and an inner medulla.
 Fallopian tube extends from periphery of ovary to the uterus. The part closer to ovary is a funnel shaped
structure called infundibulum having finger like projection called fimbriae.
 Infundibulum leads to ampulla and join with uterus with isthmus. Uterus is pear shaped structure also
called womb.
 Uterus open vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of cervix (cervical canal) along with vagina forms
the birth canal.
  The wall of uterus has three layers of tissue:

I. Perimetrium- external membrane.

II. Myometrium – middle thick layer of smooth muscles which exhibit strong contraction during delivery of baby.

III. Endometrium – line the uterine wall and undergo cyclic changes during menstrual cycle.

Female external genitalia includes

 Mons pubis – cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hair.
 Labia majora- fleshy fold that surround the vaginal opening.
 Labia manora – paired fold of tissue under labia majora.
 The opening of vagina is often partially covered by a membrane called hymen. The tiny finger like
projection present at the upper junction of two labia manora above the urethral opening is called clitoris.
Mammary glands are paired structures that contain glandular tissues and variable fats. Each glandular tissue
contains 15-20 mammary lobes containing alveoli that secrete milk. Mammary ducts join to form mammary
ampulla.

Gametogenesis: The process of formation of male and female gametes in testes and ovary respectively is called
gametogenesis.It is of two types:
1. Spermatogenesis in males
2. Oogenesis in females
Spermatogenesis- in testes immature, male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperm by spermatogenesis that
begin at puberty.
 The spermatogonia present at the inner side of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase
in number. Each spematogonium contain 46 chromosomes.
 Spermatogonia forms spermatocyte that undergo meiotic division to reproduce secondary spermatocytes
having 23 chromosomes.
 The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by the process called spermiogenesis. The sperm heads
remain embedded in sertoli cells and are released from seminiferous tubules by the process of spermiation.
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis
 Spermatogenesis initiated due to increase in secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone by hypothalamus
 Increase in GnRH act on anterior pituitary and stimulate secretion of two gonadotropins, LH and FSH
 LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates them to secrete androgens.
 FSH acts on Sertoli cells, stimulates secretion of some factors which help in spermiogenesis
Structure of sperm- sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. The
sperm head contain elongated haploid nucleus, anterior portion of which is covered by cap like
structure acrosome.

Human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during a coitus. The seminal plasma along with the sperms
constitutes the semen. The function of male sex secondary ducts and glands are maintained by androgen hormones.

Oogenesis : The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis. It started during embryonic
development stage when millions of ogonia (gamete mother cells) are formed in each fetal ovary.
 The gametes mother cells start division and enter into prophase-I of meiotic division and get temporally
arrested at that stage called primary oocytes.
 Each primary oocyteget surrounded by a layer of granulosa cell than it is called the primary follicle.
 At puberty, about 60,000- 80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
  Primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells called secondary follicle that transform
into tertiary follicle that contain fluid filled cavity called antrum.

 The tertiary follicles further changes into the mature follicle called Graafian follicle, which rapture to
release secondary oocytes (ovum) from the ovary by the process of ovulation.
Menstrual cycle: The reproductive cycles in female primates is called menstrual cycle. It start at puberty and is
called menarche.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle consists of following four phases:

(1) Menstrual Phase:

(i) In a 28 days menstrual cycle,the menses takes place on cycle days 3-5.

(ii) The production of LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is reduced.

(iii) The withdrawal of this hormone causes degeneration of the corpus luteum and, therefore progestrone
production is reduced.

(iv) Production of oestrogen is also reduced in this phase.

(v) The endometrium of uterus breaks down & menstruation begins.

(vi) The cells of endometrium secretions, blood & unfertilised ovum constitutes the menstrual flow.

(2) Follicular Phase:

(i) This phase usually includes cycle days 6-13 or 14 in a 28 days cycle.

(ii) The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates the
ovarian follicle to secrete oestrogens.

(iii) Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterine wall.

(iv) The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is accompanied by an increase in
uterine glands & blood vessels.

(3) Ovulatory Phase:

(i) Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14 th day).
(ii) Oestrogen concentration in blood increases.

(iii) Rapid secretion of LH induces rupturing of graffian follicle and thereby the release of ovum.

(iv) In fact LH causes ovulation.

(4) Luteal Phase:

(i) Includes cycle days 15 to 28.

(ii) Corpus luteum secretes progestrone.

(iii) Endometrium thickens.

(iv) Uterine glands become secretory.

Hormonal Control of MC
(i) FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce oestrogens.

(ii) LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progestrone.

(iii) Menstrual phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.

(iv) LH causes ovulation

(v) Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.

(vi) Secretory phase is caused by increased production of progestrone.

Fertilisation and Implantation

The process of fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilisation.

 During coitus (copulation) semen is released into vagina. The motile sperms swim rapidly to reach the
junction of isthmus and ampulla of fallopian tube. The ovum also reaches there and fusion of gametes takes
place in at ampullary-isthmic junction.
 In this acrosome of sperm undergoes acrosomal reaction and releases certain sperm lysins which dissolve
the egg envelopes locally and make the path for the penetration of sperm.
 These sperm lysins contain a lysing enzyme hyaluronidase which dissolves the hyaluronic acid polymers in
the intercellular spaces which holds the granulosa cells of corona radiata together; corona penetrating
enzyme (that dissolves the corona radiata) and acrosin (which dissolves the zona pellucida). Then it dissolves
the zona pellucida.
Cortical reaction:
(a) Immediately after the entry of a sperm into the egg, the later shows a cortical reaction to check the entry of
more sperms.

(b) In this reaction, the cortical granules present beneath the egg’s plasma membrane release chemical substance
between the ooplasm and the plasma membrane (vitelline membrane).

(c) These substances raise the vitelline membrane above the egg surface. The elevated vitelline membrane is called
fertilization membrane.

(d) The increased space between the ooplasm and the fertilization membrane and the chemical present in it
effectively check the entry of other sperm.

(e) If polyspermy occurs, that is more than one sperm enter the secondary oocyte, the resulting cell has too much
genetic material to develop normally

 The haploid gametes fuse together to form diploid zygote. As the zygote moves towards the uterus, the
mitotic division starts and form cleavage to change into 2, 4,8,16 celled blastomeres.
 The blastomeres with 8 to 16 cells are called morula. Morula divide to change into blastocysts .The
blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.The outer layer of blastocyst is called trophoblast that
attach with endometrium of uterus, called implantationthat leads to pregnancy.
Pregnancy and embryonic development
The finger-like projections on trophoblaste after implantation called is called chronic villi that along with uterine
wall forms functional unit between developing embryo and maternal body called placenta. Placenta is attached
with fetus with an umbilical cord that transport food and oxygen to embryo.
 Hormones hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), hPL (human placental lactogen) and relaxin are
produced in woman only during pregnancy by placenta.
 After implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer called ectoderm and an
inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm. These
 three layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in adults. It is important to note that the inner cell mass contains
certain cells called stem cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs
 In human, after one month of pregnancy the embryo’s heart is formed. By the end of 2 nd month limbs and
digits are formed. By the end of 12 months, major organs and external genital organs are well developed.
The first movement of foetus is observed in 5 months. By the end of 24 weeks body is covered with fine
hair, eye lids and eyeless are formed. At the end of 9 months fetus is fully developed.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION
Parturition-the process of delivery of fully developed foetus is called parturition.
 Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and placenta inducing mild uterine
contractions called Foetal ejection reflex
 It triggers the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary
The mammary glandsof female, start producing milk, to the end of pregnancy by the process of lactation. The
milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum, which contain several antibodies.

Earthworm

Earthworm is a segmented worm; a terrestrial invertebrate belonging to the phylum Annelida. They are the
common inhabitants of moist soil and feed on organic matter. Earthworms are commonly called as farmer’s friend.
This is because the worm casting (fecal deposit) increases the fertility and burrowing help in proper aeration of
the soil. The earthworms found in India are Pheretima and Lumbricus.The morphology and anatomy of the
earthworm are discussed below.

Earthworms have a tube-like arrangement or cylindrical shaped and reddish-brown segmented body. The body is
divided into small segments. The dorsal side is characterized by a dark line of blood vessels and ventral side is
characterized by the genital openings. The mouth and the prostomium (an organ helps in burrowing) distinguish
the anterior end.
The segments 14-16 of a matured earthworm consist of a glandular tissue called clitellum which helps us to
distinguish the mouth and tail ends. The body is divided into three segments with respect to clitellum- preclitellar,
clitellar and postclitellar.

Earthworms are hermaphrodites i.e., they carry both male and female sex organs. Segments 5-9 accommodate
four pairs of spermathecal apertures. The female genital pore is situated at the 14thsegment and a pair of male
genital pores is situated at the 18th segment. The body consists of S-shaped setae, which help in locomotion in the
earthworm. Setae are present in each segment except in the first, last and clitellum segments.
 Segments in an Earthworm

Anatomy
Externally, a thin non-cellular cuticle covers the body wall of the earthworm. Underneath this cuticle, a layer of
the epidermis, followed by two muscle layers and coelomic epithelium (inner layer) is sheathed. The epithelium
consists of a single layer of glandular columnar epithelium.

Digestive System
The alimentary canal is a long tube running from first to the last segment of the body. The food of earthworms is
the leaves and decaying organic matters which are mixed with soil. According to the diet, the parts of the
alimentary canal and their secretion differ from other organisms. The alimentary canal begins at the mouth (buccal
or oral cavity) (1-3 segments), passes through the pharynx, esophagus (5-7 segments), muscular gizzards (8-9
segments), stomach (9-14 segments), intestines, and finally ends at the anus. The food particles get digested
gradually as they travel through various compartments of the alimentary canal.The muscular gizzards grind the
soil particles and other matters and at the stomach, the humic acid of the hummus gets neutralized by the
calciferous glands present in them. The typhlosole (26-35segments) present in the intestine increases the surface
area for absorption.

Circulatory System
Earthworms have a closed circulatory system, constituting a heart, blood vessels, and capillaries. The segments
4-6 consist of blood glands that help in the production of blood cells and hemoglobin.

Respiratory System
Earthworms lack a well-developed structure for respiration. They respire through their moist skin by diffusion.

Excretory System
Nephridium is coiled tubules that regulate the volume and composition of the body fluids and thus, act as the
excretory organ in earthworms. Nephridia are arranged in three segments- septal (15-last segments),
integumentary (3-last segments) and pharyngeal nephridia (4-6 segments). A funnel that is connected to nephridia
delivers wastes and excess fluid and is excreted out via the digestive tube.

Nervous System
The sensory input and muscular responses are controlled by the ganglia which are arranged segment-wise in the
organism. These ganglia, on the paired nerve cord, make up the nervous system of the earthworms.

Sensory System
Although earthworms lack eyes they have specialized receptor cells to recognize the changes around them.
Specialised sensory organs and chemoreceptors help them to respond to stimuli perfectly. The sensory system of
the earthworms is present in the anterior portion of the body.

Reproductive System
Earthworms are bisexual. Hence, each individual carries both male and female reproductive systems in them.
The male reproductive system consists of two pairs of testes (10-11 segments), vasa deferentia (till 18thsegment),
and two pairs of accessory glands (17th and 19th segments). The prostate and spermatic ducts open by a pair of
male genital pores (18th segment). The spermatozoa are stored in the four pairs of spermathecae (6-9 segments).
The female reproductive system consists of one pair of ovaries and oviduct. Ovaries open into an ovarian funnel
running below the ovaries and join the oviduct and open at female genital pore (14 thsegment).

During copulation, two earthworms exchange their sperms. Then, the collected sperm and egg and the nutritive
fluids are deposited in the cocoon, which is later deposited into the soil.

Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals that are included in class Insecta of Phylum Arthropoda.

- Bright yellow, red and green coloured cockroaches have also been reported in tropical regions.

- Their size ranges from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm) and have long antenna, legs and flat extension of the
upper body wall that conceals head.

- They are nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places throughout the world.

Cockroach

 The adults of the common species of cockroach, Periplaneta americana are about 34-53 mm long with wings
that extend beyond the tip of the abdomen in males.

 The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into three distinct regions - head, thorax and abdomen

 The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in colour).

 In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites (tergttes dorsally and sternites ventrally) that
are joined to each other by a thin and flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).

 Head is triangular in shape and lies anteriorly at right angles to the longitudinal body axis. It is formed by the
fusion of six segments and shows great mobility in all directions due to flexible neck. The head capsule bears
a pair of compound eyes. A pair of thread like antennae arises from membranous sockets lying in front of
eyes. Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the environment.
 Anterior end of the head bears appendages forming biting and chewing type of mouth parts. The mouthparts
consisting of a labrum (upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labium (lower lip). A median
flexible lobe, acting as tongue (hypopharynx), lies within the cavity enclosed by the mouthparts.

 Thorax consists of three parts prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. The head is connected with thorax by a
short extension of the prothorax known as the neck. Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs. The
first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair from metathorax. Forewings (mesothoracic)
called tegmina are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at rest. The hind wings are
transparent, membranous and are used in flight.

 The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments. In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped
and together with the 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood or genital pouch whose anterior part contains female
gonopore, spermathecal pores and collateral glands.

 In males, genital pouch or chamber lies at the hind end of abdomen bounded dorsally by 9th and 10th terga
and ventrally by the 9th sternum. It contains dorsal anus, ventral male gerutal pore and gonapophysis. Males
bear a pair of short, threadlike anal styles which are absent in females. In both sexes, the 10th segment bears
a pair of jointed filamentous structures called anal cerci.

Anatomy:

 The alimentary canal present in the body cavity is divided into three regions: foregut, midgut and hindgut.

 The mouth opens into a short tubular pharynx, leading to a narrow tubular passage called oesophagus. This in
turn opens into a sac like structure called crop used forstoring of food. The crop is followed by gizzard or
proventriculus. It has an outer layer of thick circular muscles and thick inner culicle forming six highly
chitinous plate called teeth. Gizzard helps in grinding' the food particles.

 The entire foregut is lined by cuticle. A ring of 6-8 blind tubules called hepatic or gastric caecae is present at
the junction of foregut and midgut, which secrete digestive juice. At the junction of midgut and hindgut is
present another ring of 100-150 yellow coloured thin filamentous Malphigian tubules. They help in removal
of excretory products from haemolymph. The hindgut is broader than midgut and is differentiated into ileum,
colon and rectum. The rectum opens out through anus.
 Blood vascular system of cockroach is an open type. Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into space
(haemocoel). Visceral organs located in the haemocoel are bathed in blood (haemolymph). The haemolymph
is composed of colourless plasma and haemocytes. Heart of cockroach consists of elongated muscular tube
lying along mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen. It is differentiated into funnel shaped chambers with ostia
on either side. Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is pumped anteriorly to sinuses again.

 The respiratory system consists of a network of trachea, that open through 10 pairs of small holes called
spiracles present on the lateral side of the body.