Computer networking

A Computer network is a network of two or more computers that are connected with one
another for the purpose of communicating data electronically. Besides physically connecting
computer and communication devices, a network system serves the important function of
establishing a cohesive architecture that allows a variety of equipment types to transfer
information in a near-seamless fashion. Two popular architectures are ISO Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) and IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA).
Network = nodes + links

Goals of computer networks

i. Resource sharing: It permits to make all programs, data and equipment available to anyone
on the network without the regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.
ii. High reliability: One of the important aim of networking is to provide reliability by having
alternative sources of supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three
machines, so if one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be available.
iii. Faster data Transfer: A network provides the means to exchange data among computers to
make programs and data available to the people.
iv. Reduced cost: Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than larger ones.
v. Powerful communication medium: Computer networks provide a powerful communication
medium.
vi. Distributed Processing : Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided
among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects
of a process, separate computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

Basic computer network components

Computer networks share common devices, functions, and features including servers, clients,
transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other hardware and software resources,
network interface card(NIC), local operating system(LOS), and the network operating system
(NOS).
Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating
system. Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are
many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example,
there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers, database servers, fax
servers and web servers, to name a few.
Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources.
Client computers are basically the customers(users) of the network, as they request and receive
services from the servers.
Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect computers in a
network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media
are sometimes called channels, links or lines.
Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such as data files, printer
access programs and e-mail.
Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals are hardware resources
provided to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include data files, printers,
software, or any other items used by clients on the network.
Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special expansion card called a
network interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares(formats) and sends data, receives data, and
controls data flow between the computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC passes
frames of data on to the physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link. On the
receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical layer and processes the
message based on its contents.
Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal computers to access files,
print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the
computer. Examples are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows XP etc.
Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program that runs on
computers and servers, and allows the computers to communicate over the network.
Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a
distribution center. When a computer requests information from a network or a specific
computer, it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and
transmit it to the entire network. Each computer in the network should then figure out whether
the broadcast data is for them or not.
Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network
components. Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device
addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination
or port.
Like a hub, switch doesn't broadcast the received message to entire network, rather before
sending it checks to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words, switch
connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of the network. Both
switch and hub have common features: Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection
lights.
Router - When we talk about computer network components, the other device that used to
connect a LAN with an internet connection is called Router. When you have two distinct
networks (LANs) or want to share a single internet connection to multiple computers, we use a
Router. In most cases, recent routers also include a switch which in other words can be used as
a switch. You don’t need to buy both switch and router, particularly if you are installing small
business and home networks. There are two types of Router: wired and wireless. The choice
depends on your physical office/home setting, speed and cost.
LAN Cable A local area Network cable is also known as data cable or Ethernet cable which is a
wired cable used to connect a device to the internet or to other devices like other computer,
printers, etc.

Study of LAN/MAN/WAN
Local Area Network (LAN) –
 LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computer
and workstations can share data, tools and programs.
 The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of
switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private
addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local network.
 Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.
 Data transmits at a very fast rate as the numbers of computers linked are limited.
 By definition, the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware
(Such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables).
 LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometers) and are privately
owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc.
 LAN is easy to design and maintain.
 A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers
a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
 Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or
1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN.
 The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate
thousands of computers.
 A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but
wireless connections can also be part of a LAN.
 The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network.
 For example: A bunch of students playing Counter Strike in the same room (without
internet).

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

 MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area
as compared to WAN.
 It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same or different cities.
 It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN
is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
 Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan
Area Network.
 The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network.
 It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
 The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN is moderate.
 Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and Wire/Cable.
 Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-
speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

 WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country.
 A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines and
radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or
accessible to the public.
 The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
 There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN.
 WAN is difficult to design and maintain.
 Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the
network.
 A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
 WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per
second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps).
 Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices used for transmission
of data through WAN are: Optic wires, Microwaves and Satellites.
 Example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-
Point WAN is dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.
 Sr.No Parameter LAN WAN MAN

1 Ownership of Private Private or Public Private or Public

Network

2 Area covered Small Very large(states Moderate (City)

or countries)

3 Design and Easy Not Easy Not Easy

Maintenance

4 Communication Coaxial Cable PSTN or Satellite Coaxial cables, PSTN,

medium links Optical Fiber Cables,
Wireless

5 Data rates High Low Moderate

6. Mode of Each station can Each station Each station can

communication transmit and receive cannot transmit transmit or receive

7 Principle Operates on the Switching Both

principle of
broadcasting

8 Propagation Delay Short Long Moderate

Topology
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology is
suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of topology is
dependent upon type and number of equipment being used, planned applications and rate of
data transfer required, response time, and cost. Topology can also be defined as the
geometrically interconnection pattern by which the stations (nodes/computers) are connected
using suitable transmission media (which can be point-to-point and broadcast).There is four
basic topologies as follows:

1. Mesh Topology: In this topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every
other device. Therefore, a fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n
devices.
Advantages:
 It eliminates traffic problems that occurs when links must be shared by multiple devices
 It is robust and makes fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages:
 Installation and reconnection are difficult.
 The share bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can accommodate
 The hardware required to connect each links (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

Fig: Mesh Topology

2. Star Topology: In this topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller usually called a hub. Unlike a mesh topology a star topology does not allow
direct traffic between devices, Controller acts as on Exchange.
Advantages:
 Less expensive than mesh topology as it requires less cabling
 Easy to install and reconfigure

Disadvantages:
 More cabling required as compared to bus or ring topology
 One of the biggest disadvantages of a star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub, if the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
 Fig: Star Topology

Why star topology is commonly preferred?

Answer- It gives extra flexible, high reliability and higher bandwidth. Since there is a central
control point, the control of network is simple and priority can be given to selected nodes.

3. Bus Topology
i. Bus Topology describes a multipoint configuration. One long cable acts as a backbone to link
all the devices in the network.
ii. In bus topology, all nodes connect through a hardware interface called Tap. Drop lines provide
connectivity between the common linear communication medium, the Tap and the nodes.
iii. Bus topology supports Full- Duplex mode of transmission. The nodes communicate with
other nodes in the network through the Tap.
iv. Taps allow data transmission from the nodes to the bus and from the bus to the nodes. A
transmission from a node propagates throughout the entire length of the medium. A
transmission from a node reaches all other nodes in a bus network. A terminator is located at
both the ends of the linear medium.
 Fig: Bus Topology
Advantages:
 Fault isolation and identification is easy
 Easy to re-configure.
Disadvantages:
 Data intended for a node reaches all the other nodes in the network before reaching the
destination.
 A mechanism must be in place to regulate traffic.
4. Ring Topology
In a ring topology network computers are connected by a single loop of cable, the data signals
travel around the loop in one direction, passing through each computer. Ring topology is an
active topology because each computer repeats (boosts) the signal before passing it on to the
next computer. One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. The
token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send.

Fig: Ring Topology

If there is a line break, or if you are adding or removing a device anywhere in the ring this will
bring down the network. In an effort to provide a solution to this problem, some network
implementations (such as FDDI) support the use of a double-ring. If the primary ring breaks, or a
device fails, the secondary ring can be used as a backup.
Advantages
 Data is quickly transferred without a 'bottle neck'
 The transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in one direction only.
 Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth
 It prevents network collisions because of the media access method or architecture
required.
 All devices have equal access.
Disadvantages
  Because all stations are wired together, to add a station you must shut down the
network temporarily.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
 Data packets must pass through every computer between the sender and recipient
Therefore this makes it slower.
 If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot be transmitted
successfully.

5. Tree Topology
In computer networks, a tree topology is also known as a star bus topology. It incorporates
elements of both a bus topology and a star topology. Below is an example network diagram of a
tree topology, in which the central nodes of two star networks are connected to one another.

Fig: Tree Topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Layered Network Architecture / Layered Architecture

Network architectures define set of layers and protocol for designing and building
communication systems for computers and other devices.
In a Layered Network Architecture, the services are grouped in a hierarchy of layers
– Layer N uses services of layer N-1
– Layer N provides services to layer N+1
 To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of layers or
levels, each one build upon one below it. The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the
design into small pieces. Each layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers in such a
manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to manage communications and
run the applications. The number of layers, functions and contents of each layer differ from
network to network. However in all networks, the purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to higher layers, shielding those layers from the details of how the services are actually
implemented.
The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and interfaces.
A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.
Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity. These
rules concern both the contents and the order of the messages used.
Interfaces are defined between the layers. The messages from one layer to another are sent
through these interfaces.

In an n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on conversation with the layer n on
other machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as
the layer-n protocol. A five-layer architecture is shown in Fig, the entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. It is the peers that communicate
with each other using protocols at that layer. In reality, no data is transferred from layer n on
one machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control
information to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer-1 is
the physical layer through which actual communication occurs.
Why Layered architecture?

1. To make the design process easy by breaking unmanageable tasks into several smaller and
manageable tasks (by divide-and-conquer approach).
2. Modularity and clear interfaces, so as to provide comparability between the different
providers' components.
3. Ensure independence of layers, so that implementation of each layer can be changed or
modified without affecting other layers.
4. Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently of all other layers.
5. Possibility of supporting a variety of applications based on a reduced number of common
interfaces / services.
6. Development and adoption of standards is easier, thus favoring mass production and ample
support from manufacturers.
7. Non layered architecture are costly, inflexible and soon obsolete.

What are the design issues for the Layers?

1. Addressing: Mechanism for identifying senders and receivers, on the network need some
form of addressing. There are multiple processes running on one machine. Some means is
needed for a process on one machine to specify with whom it wants to communicate.
2. Error Control: It is an important issue because physical communication circuits are not
perfect. Many error detecting and error correcting codes are available. Both sending and
receiving ends must agree to use any one code.
3. Flow Control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then there
must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow receivers. There are several
mechanisms used for flow control such as increasing buffer size at receivers, slow down the fast
sender, and so on. Some process will not be in position to accept arbitrarily long messages. This
property leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting and the reassembling messages.
4. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission media
separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate connection for each pair of
communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the physical layer at sender end and de-
multiplexing is need at the receiver end.
5. Routing: When data has to be transmitted from source to destination, there may be multiple
paths between them. An optimized (shortest) route must be chosen. This decision is made on
the basis of several routing algorithms, which chooses optimized route to the destination.
6. Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is important so
that network can continue to work well when it gets large.
7. Confidentiality and Integrity: Network security is the most important factor. Mechanisms
that provide confidentiality defend against threats like eavesdropping. Mechanisms for integrity
prevent faulty changes to messages.

Explain protocol, services and Interfaces

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between layers
•It defines -- What, How, When
Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of data
Semantics: The way the bit patterns are interpreted and the actions taken based on
interpretation.
Timing: Specifies when data can be sent and how fast it can be sent.

An Interface refers to a point of interaction between two layers.

Protocol defines the interfaces between the layers in the same system and with the layers of
peer system.
Protocol defines two interfaces.
Service interfaces — interface between objects in the same machine
Peer interfaces - defines the form and meaning of messages exchanged between protocol peers
to implement the communication service
Services : Services is a set of primitives (operations ) that a layer provide to the layer above it .
Services are recursively used by the layers.

Relationship between services and protocol

Service • (N+1) entities communicate by means of an (N+1) Protocol, using the service provided
by Layer (N) through the service interface between layers (N) and (N+1) • The way the Layer (N)
service is realized is hidden from Layer (N+1) •

connectionless and connection oriented communication

1. In connectionless communication there is no need to establish connection between source

(sender) and destination (receiver). But in connection-oriented communication connection must
established before data transfer.

2. Connection-oriented communication is more reliable then connectionless communication.

 3. In connection-oriented system a HANDSHAKING process is used i.e the process tsarts from
the sender computer by sending a request to start the transfer that is to be acknowledged by
the destination device before the data can be send.

While in CONNECTIONLESS system no handshaking process is used. if one computer wants to

send data, it just sends the data packet to the end system.

4. In connection-oriented system communication between the sender & receiver continues until
the transmission has been verified, thus it requires higher overhead & places greater demand
on bandwidth. while the CONNECTIONLESS system requires less overhead & bandwidth.

5. There is guaranteed delivery of data in CONECTION-ORIENTSD system any packet that is not
received by the destination is resend by the sending device.

There is no confirmation that the data has been received, thus there is no resending of data
in CONNECTIONLESS SYSTEM, thus transmission is not guaranteed.

6. eg of connectio-oriented protocol is-TCP\IP & eg of connectionless protocol is-UDP

Differentiate/Compare/ Difference between Connection Oriented and Connectionless.

Protocol/Criteria Connection-Oriented Connectionless

Resource Allocation: Resources need to be allocated. No prior allocation of resource

is required.

Utilization: It often leads to low or underutilization It ensures optimal usage of

of resources. resources.

State info: Lot of state related information needs to Not much of information is
be stored. required as packets are sent
randomly.

Reliability: It ensures reliable transfer of data. Reliability is not guaranteed as

it is a best effort service.

Connection: Prior connection needs to be No prior connection is

established. established.
Delay: There is more delay in transfer of However there is no delay due
information, but once conn. established absence of connection
faster delivery. establishment phase.

Packet travel: In this packets travel to their destination In this packets reach the
node in a sequential manner. destination in a random
manner.

Congestion: Congestion is not at all possible. It is likely that congestion

occurs.

Signaling: Connection is established through There is no concept of

process of signaling. signaling.

Suitability: It is suitable for long and steady It is suitable for burst

communication. transmissions.

Transfer mode: It can be implemented either using It is implemented using Packet

Circuit Switching or VCS. Switching.

Retransmission: It is possible to retransmit the lost data It is not possible.

bits.

The following are the design issues for the layers:

1. Reliability: It is a design issue of making a network that operates correctly even when it
is made up of unreliable components.

2. Addressing: There are multiple processes running on one machine. Every layer needs a
mechanism to identify senders and receivers.

3. Error Control: It is an important issue because physical communication circuits are not
perfect. Many error detecting and error correcting codes are available. Both sending and
receiving ends must agree to use any one code.

4. Flow Control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then
there must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow receivers.
There are several mechanisms used for flow control such as increasing buffer size at
 receivers, slow down the fast sender, and so on. Some process will not be in position to
accept arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to mechanisms for disassembling,
transmitting and the reassembling messages.

5. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission

media separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate connection for each
pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the physical layer at
sender end and de-multiplexing is need at the receiver end.

6. Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is important
so that network can continue to work well when it gets large.

7. Routing: When there are multiple paths between source and destination, only one route
must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing algorithms, which
chooses optimized route to the destination.

8. Confidentiality and Integrity: Network security is the most important factor.

Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend against threats like eavesdropping.
Mechanisms for integrity prevent faulty changes to messages.

Differentiate/Compare/ Difference between internet intranet and extranet

Internet, Intranet & Extranet

Internet Intranet Extranet

It is a Global system of It is a Private network specific It is a Private network that uses public
interconnected computer to an organisation. network to share information with
network. suppliers and vendors.

Not regulated by any It is regulated by an It is regulated by multiple organization.

authority. organization.

Thus content in the network Thus content in the network is The content in the network is accessible
is accessible to accessible only to members of to members of organization & external
everyone connected. organization. memberswith access to network.

It is largest in terms of number It is small network with The number of devices connected is
of connected devices. minimal number of connected comparable with Intranet.
 devices.

It is owned by no one. It is owned by single It is owned by single/multiple

organization. organization.

It is means of sharing It is means of sharing It is means of sharing

information throughout the sensitive information between members and
world. informationthroughout externalmembers.
organization.

Security is dependent of the Security is enforced via a Security is enforced via a firewall that
user of device connected to firewall. separates internet & extranet.
network.

Example: What we are Example: TCS using internal Example: HP and Intel using network for
normally using is internet. network for its business business related operations.
operations.

Users can access Internet Users should have valid Users should have valid
anonymously. username/password to access username/password to access Extranet.
Intranet.

Internet is unregulated and But Intranet is regulated by Extranet is also regulated by

uncensored. the organization policies. contractual agreements between
organizations.

0SI

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection model.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communications between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.
Seven layers of the OSI model:

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups:

Layers 1, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network-are the network support layers; they deal
with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as electrical
specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability).

Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-can be thought of as the user support
layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems.

Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers
have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use.

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Figure 2: The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Functions of each of the layer are described below:

1. Physical Layer: It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.

Functions:

i. To activate, maintain and deactivate the physical connection

ii. To define voltages and data rates needed for transmission

iii. To convert digital bits into electrical signal

iv. To decide whether the transmission is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

v. A physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media (Line configuration).

vi. It also defines the physical topology.

vii. It also helps in synchronization of bits.

2. Data Link layer: It transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility to a reliable link. It
is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next i.e Hop-to-Hop delivery.

Functions:

i. Framing: The layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units called frames.

ii. Physical addressing: It adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender
and/or receiver of the frame.

iii. Flow Control: It provides a flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from over-
running a slow receiver by buffering the extra bits.

iv. Error control: It is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the frame. It also uses a
mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.

v. Access Control: The layer determines which device has control over the link at any given time,
when two or more devices are connected to the same link.

3. Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host i.e End to End delivery or source to destination delivery.

Functions:

i. It translates logical network address into physical machine address i.e. the numbers used as
destination IDs in the physical network cards.

ii. It determines the quality of service by deciding the priority of message and then route a
message will take if there are several ways a message can get to its destination.

iii. It breaks the larger packets into smaller packets if the packet is larger than the largest data
frame the data link will accept

iv. Routers and gateways operate in the network layer.

4. Transport layer: It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message i.e.
source to destination delivery of the entire message. It ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, ensuring both error control and flow control at source destination level.

Functions:

i. Segmentation and re-assembly: It divides each message into packets at the source and
reassembles than at the destination.
ii. Service point addressing The transport layer header H4 includes service point to deliver a
specific process from source to a specific process at the destination.

iii. Connector Control: The layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.

iv. Flow Control: It provides end-to-end flow control rather than across a single link.

v. Error Control: It ensures that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error.

5. Session Layer: It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization i.e it is network dialog
controller. It establishes maintains and synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.

6. Presentation Layer: It is responsible for translation, compression and encryption. It is

concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.

7. Application Layer: It is responsible for providing services to the user. It provides services that
directly support user application such as database access, e-mail, file transfer.

Functions:

i. Network virtual terminal: The layer creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote
host. The user’s computer tasks to the software terminal, then the software terminal talks to
the host and vice versa. The remote host feels that it is communicating with one of its own
terminal and allows you to log on.

ii. Directory services: It provides distributed database sources and access to the worldwide
information about various objects and services.

Protocols at different layers are shown below:

Tcp-ip

The protocol stack used on the Internet is the Internet Protocol Suite. It is usually called TCP/IP.

ii. The TCP/IP model is based on a five-layer model for networking, from bottom (the link) to top
(the user application).

iii. These are the physical, data link, network, transport, and application layers.

The TCP/IP Layers:

 The model consists of five separate but related layers.

 TCP/IP also defines how to interface the network layer with the data link and physical
layers.

 In Fig1 the unstructured stream of bits represents frames with distinct content.
Fig1: TCP/IP encapsulation and headers

 The Physical Layer :

i. The physical layer contains all the functions needed to carry the bit stream over a physical
medium to another system.

ii. There are other things that the physical layer must determine, or be configured to expect.

iii. In Fig2 .The transmission framing bits are used for transmission media purposes only, such as
low-level control.
Fig2: The physical layer

i. Data rate—This transmission rate is the number of bits per second that can be sent. It also
defines the duration of a symbol on the wire.

ii. Bit synchronization—The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the symbol level so
that the number of bits expected per unit time is the same.

iii. Configuration—In a multipoint configuration, a link connects more than two devices, and in a
multisystem bus topology such as a LAN, the number of systems can be very high.

iv. Topology—The devices can be arranged in a number of ways. In a full mesh topology, all
devices are directly connected and one hop away. Systems can also be arranged as a star
topology, with all systems reachable through a central system. There is also the bus and the
ring.

v. Mode—So far, we’ve only talked about one of the systems as the sender and the other as the
receiver. This is operation in simplex mode, where a device can only send or receive. More
realistic devices use duplex mode, where all systems can send or receive with equal facility.

 The Data Link Layer :

o The data link layer performs framing, physical addressing, and error detection,
this layer also performs access control.

o In LANs, this media access control (MAC) forms a sublayer of the data link layer
and has its own addressing scheme known (not surprisingly) as the MAC layer
address.
 o In addition, the data link layer can perform some type of flow control.

o The unit of communication at the data link layer is a frame.

o Fig3, showing that data link layer frames have both header and trailer.

Fig3: The data link layer

 The Network Layer:

i. At the network layer, TCP/IP supports the Internet Protocol (IP).

ii. The Internet Protocol (IP)is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols

iii. IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.

iv. The network layer delivers data in the form of a packet from source to destination.

v. The biggest difference between the network layer and the data link layer is that the data link
layer is in charge of data delivery between adjacent systems, while the network layer delivers
data to systems that are not directly connected to the source.

vi. Fig4 shows the relationship between the network layer and the transport layer above and
the data link layer below.

vii. These data units are packets with their own destination and source address formats.

viii. The network layer uses one or more routing tables to store information about reachable
systems.
Fig4: The Network Layer

ix. The unit of communication at the network layer is a datagram.

 The Transport Layer :

i. Process-to-process delivery is the task of the transport layer.

ii. This process of dividing message content into packets is known as segmentation.

iii. The network layer forwards each and every packet independently, and does not recognize
any relationship between the packets.

iv. The transport layer, in contrast, can make sure the whole message.

v. This function of the transport layer involves some method of flow control and error control
(error detection and error correction) at the transport layer, functions which are absent at the
network layer.

vi. There are two very popular protocol packages at the transport layer: TCP—This is a
connection-oriented, “reliable” service that provides ordered delivery of packet contents.

UDP—This is a connectionless, “unreliable” service that does not provide ordered delivery of
packet contents.

vii. Fig5 , showing how data are broken up if necessary and reassembled at the destination.

viii. The unit of communication at the transport layer is a segment, user datagram, or apacket,
depending on the specific protocol used in this layer.
Fig5: The transport layer

 The Application Layer :

i. The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.

ii. The application layer allows a user to access the services of our private internet or the global
Internet.

iii. Many protocols are defined at this layer to provide services such as electronic mail, file
transfer, accessing the World Wide Web, and so on.

iv. The unit of communication at the application layer is a message.

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