J. Asia-Pacific Entomol.
7(1): 5-11 (2004)
www.entomology.or.kr
Review
Recent Development of Biological Control and IPM in Greenhouses in Japan
Eizi Yano*
National Agricultural Research Center, 3-1-1, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8666 Japan
Abstract Biological control is expected to become
the basic pest control system in Japan for promoting
safe crop production in greenhouses. Twelve arthropod
natural enemy species and three fungus species have
become available for commercial use in greenhouses.
Imported species were commercialized first, with the
commercial use of indigenous species coming later.
The extreme temperature conditions in greenhouses,
the delay of release, the effect of chemicals and the
low level of tolerance for pest damage in some crops
are major limiting factors in the use of natural enemies
in commercial greenhouses. Among the indigenous
Orius species, 0. strigicollis has been commercial-
ized to control thrips because of its low diapause
incidence and the ease of mass production. A promising
parthenogenetic strain of an indigenous eulophid
species, Neochrysocharis formosa, has been found in
Kyushu District and has shown a highly suppressive
effect on Liriomyza trifolii in Okinawa. Cultural
control measures, such as field hygiene or prevention
of pest immigration, are fundamental for the effective
control of pests. Since it is impossible to control all
pest species with natural enemies, the integrated use
of natural enemies and other control measures, which
include cultural control and the use of selective
pesticides, is essential for commercial application.
Key words biological control, greenhouse, IPM,
Japan, natural enemy
Introduction
The use of natural enemies or biological control is
essential in integrated pest management (IPM) of
vegetable pests. There are three approaches in the
use of natural enemies: classical biological control,
augmentation and conservation (van Driesche and
Bellows, 1996). In augmentative release, natural
augmentation and conservation (van Driesche and
Bellows, 1996). In augmentative release, natural
*Corresponding author.
E-mail: yano@affrc.go.jp
Tel: +81-29-838-8846; Fax: +81-29-838-8837
(Received September 29, 2003; Accepted December 31, 2003)
enemies are produced on a large scale and released
artificially. This approach has shown rapid progress
recently in developed countries (e.g. Albajes et al.,
1999). Commercialization of the production and
supply of natural enemies is an important reason for
this progress. In addition, it is not difficult in this
approach to standardize the methods for the use of
natural enemies. Augmentative release of natural
enemies is the key technology in IPM of greenhouse
pests. Because it is difficult to chemically control pests
in greenhouses, biological control has been developed
as an alternative control measure in western countries
(e.g. Albajes et al., 1999). Biological control is also
expected to become the basic system of pest control
in Japan for safe crop production in greenhouses.
Biological Control in Greenhouses in Japan
Pest problems
The greenhouse environment in Japan is characterized
by: (1) cultivation in small plastic greenhouses; (2)
high temperatures from spring to autumn and relatively
low temperatures in winter; (3) high humidity all year
round; and (4) immigration of pests from the sur-
roundings because of poor isolation from the outside
environment (Yano, 1993). These conditions cause
several problems in pest and disease control including
the need for frequent application of pesticides and
fungicides, rapid population growth of pests, and unfa-
vorable conditions for some of the natural enemies.
Chemical control of pests is difficult to achieve and
is always has a risk of causing a resistance to
pesticides to develop.
Most of the greenhouse pests in Japan are cos-
mopolitan. They are small in size and suck fluids from
plants. They belong to several groups of insects or
mites, i.e. aphids, whiteflies, thrips, mites, leaf miners
and nematodes. There are occasional outbreaks of
noctuid moth species such as Spodoptera litura
(Fabricius)(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the southwestern
region. Another important fact is that several exotic
pests have become serious problems in protected
6 J. Asia-Pacific Entomol. Vol. 7 (2004)

cultivation (Table I). After the rapid development of
greenhouse cultivation in the 1960s, Trialeurodes
vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)
and Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
invaded in 1974 (Nakamura et al., 1975) and around
1978 (Ikeda, 1981; Horikiri, 1981), respectively.
Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring (Homoptera:
Aleyrodidae), Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera:
Agromyzidae) and Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae) were reported as new pests
around 1990 (Ohto, 1990; Saito, 1992; Hayase and
Fukuda, 1991). More recently, Liriomyza sativae
Blanchard has invaded the western part of Japan in
1999 (Tokumaru and Abe, 2001). These species have
become established as major pests in protected
cultivation in Japan (Japan Plant Protection Association,
1998). The high activity of indigenous natural
enemies is important character of the greenhouse
environment. Indigenous natural enemies sometimes
completely suppress the pests in greenhouses after
their immigrationinto greenhouses from the surrounding
environment (Yano, 2003a).
Development of biological control
In Japan, if natural enemies are to be sold as commercial
products, it is necessaryto register them as biopesticides.
Twelve arthropod natural enemy species and three
fungus species have become available for commercial
use in greenhouses as of 2003 (Table 2). Imported
species such as Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot
and Encarsia formosa Gahan were commercialized
first, after which indigenous species were put to

Table 1. Major greenhouse pests in Japan. Pests in bold letters are imported species

Crop Pest
Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Bemisia argentifolii, Liriomyza trifolii, Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii,
Tomato
Aculops lycopersici, Meloidogyne incognita
Thrips palmi, T. vaporariorum, B. argentifolii, M persicae, A. gossypii, Tetranychus urticae,
Eggplant
Tetranychus kanzawaii, Polyphagotarsonemus latus, Spodoptera litura
Sweet pepper Frankliniella occidentalis, Frankliniella intonsa, T. palmi, M persicae, A. gossypii, P. latus, S. litura
T. palmi, T. vaporariorum, B. argentifolii, M persicae, A. gossypii, Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis,
Cucumber
M incognita
Watermelon T. palmi, M persicae, A. gossyopii, T. urticae, T. kanzawaii, M incognita
F. occidentalis, A. gossypii, Chaetosiphon minor, Aphis forbesi, T. urticae, T. kanzawaii,
Strawberry
Nothotylenchus acris, Pratylenchus vulnus, S. litura, Anomala cuprea

Table 2. Registered natural enemies for use in pest control in protected culture in Japan (Japan Plant Protection Association)

Natural enemy Type of natural enemy Pest Crop

Phytoseiulus persimilis Predator Spider mites Vegetables
Encarsia formosa Parasitoid Whiteflies Vegetables
Eretmocerus eremicus Parasitoid Whiteflies Tomato
Diglyphus isaea Parasitoid Leaf miners Vegetables
Dacnusa sibirica Parasitoid Leaf miners Vegetables
Amblyseius cucumeris Predator Thrips Vegetables
Orius strigicollis Predator Thrips Vegetables
Aphidius colemani Parasitoid Aphids Vegetables
Aphidoletes aphidimyza Predator Aphids Vegetables
Chrysoperla carnea Predator Aphids Vegetables
Harmonia axyridis Predator Aphids Vegetables
Franklinothripes vespiformis Predator Thrips palmi Eggplant, cucumber
Verticillium lecanii Fungus disease Aphids, whiteflies Vegetables
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Fungus disease Whiteflies Vegetables
Beauveria bassiana Fungus disease Whiteflies Tomato, cucumber

commercial use.
Phytoseiulus persimilis has been studied in Japan
since 1966 (Mori and Shinkaji, 1977). After extensive
fundamental studies of its life history and population
dynamics, and applied studies of its uses, several
production facilities for the predator were constructed,
and the predators produced were distributed in several
prefectures. However, its use by farmers was not
developed until recently because of limitations of the
supply and a lack of integrated control systems for
greenhouse crops. Phytoseiulus persimilis was first
registered as a biotic pesticide and commercialized
in 1995 for controlling spider mites on strawberries.
Since then, P. persimilis has been registered to control
spider mites on greenhouse vegetables, and its area
of release is the largest among the commercialized
natural enemies in Japan.
Encarsia formosa was imported from the UK in
1975, a year after the occurrence of T. vaporariorum
was first recognized in Japan. The effects of temperature
and release methods on the control capability of E.
formosa were evaluated in greenhouse trials and by
developing a simulation model of the host-parasite
population interaction (Yano, 1987, 1989a, b, 1990).
Use of the imported bumblebee, Bombus terrestris (L.)
(Hymenoptera: Apidae), for pollination is increasing
among tomato growers in Japan (Ono and Wada,
1996). This is helpful for the production of high-
quality fruits, but the application of insecticides must
be regulated after the introduction of the bumblebee
into greenhouses. Encarsia formosa is expected to
control whiteflies in this case. After its registration
as a biopesticide in 1995, the area in which the
parasitoid is being released in tomato greenhouses is
increasing.
The use of P. persimilis and E. formosa is not
sufficient to develop a practical IPM system for each
greenhouse crop. Aphids are very difficult to control
as indigenous pests. Since 1980, imported pests (Table
1) have also become a serious problem for many crops.
Imported natural enemies, which have been
commercialized in Europe and North America, have
been tested in many agricultural experimental stations
for registration as biopesticides, and another eight
species have been registered to control pests on many
kinds of crops (Table 2).
Factors limiting biological control
In the augmentative biological control of pests, live
natural enemies are released artificially. Most natural
enemies are effective against only a small group of
pest species. Their effects are also dependent on
various physical, chemical and biological environmental
factors (Yano, 1993). The extreme temperatures in
Biological control and rPM in greenhouses 7
greenhouses and the effect of chemicals are two major
factors that affect the control capability of P. persimilis
in commercial greenhouses. Monitoring the early
infestation by spider mites to determine the time of
introduction of P. persimilis is also crucial for the
commercial use of the predatory mite, because spider
mite outbreaks occur in spring more readily in Japan
than in Western Europe (Yano, 1993). Delay of release
of in greenhouses and the low temperature condition
that are prevalent in winter are two major factors in
causing the use of P. persimilis to fail (Yano, 1993).
Monitoring the early infestation of whiteflies is of
paramount importance, because one of the reasons for
failure in the use of E. formosa is a delay in its release.
Trapping of adult whiteflies with yellow sticky traps
and the use of binomial sampling to monitor the
occurrence of adults on each plant were developed
as monitoring methods (Yano and Koshihara, 1984).
Most insecticides are harmful to E. formosa except
for some IGRs, while many acaricides and fungicides
are less harmful (Kawai, 1988). The most important
technical factor in commercializing natural enemies
is integrating the use of natural enemies with other
control measures that are intended to control other
pests on a crop. If the control measures for other pests
are incompatible with the use of natural enemies, the
practical use of natural enemies is almost impossible.
Other limiting factors in biological control are: 1)
low tolerance of pest damage, 2) supply of natural
enemies, 3) poor advisory service for farmers, and
4) need for registration (Yano, 1993). Low tolerance
of pest damage is the main reason for difficulty in
adopting biological control in flower production. The
lack of a system for supplying enough natural enemies
of good quality was the limiting factor in biological
control in Japan, because private companies were not
interested in biological control in Japan until recently.
However, many species of arthropod natural enemies
have been registered, and a sufficient number of
imported or indigenous natural enemies are now
supplied by private companies. An advisory service
for farmers is very important if a good performance
of natural enemies for promoting biological control
is to be obtained.
Use of indigenous natural enemies in
biological control
Most studies of the use of natural enemies in protected
culture focused on imported natural enemies, i.e. P.
persimilis in 1970s and E.formosa, in the 1980s. Now,
however, researches on the commercialization of
indigenous natural enemy species are being conducted
in many institutes, universities and private companies.
The advantages of using indigenous natural enemies
8 J. Asia-Pacific Entomol. Vol. 7 (2004)
are: (1) natural enemies are adapted to the domestic
environment and (2) non-target environmental effects
are avoided (Yano, 1999).
Five indigenous Orius species, 0. sauteri (Poppius),
0. minutus (Linnaeus), 0. strigicollis (Poppius), 0.
nagaii Yasunaga and 0. tantillus (Motschlsky), are
considered to be major natural enemies of thrips in
the field (Yasunaga, 1997). Many biological studies
regarding 0. sauteri have been performed because its
effectiveness in suppressing T. palmi has been dem-
onstrated both in the field and in greenhouses (Nagai,
1993a,b; Kawai, 1995). The low reproduction and
predation rates of 0. sauteri under low temperature
conditions mean that this species is ineffective in
winter (Nagai and Yano, 1999, 2000). Table 3 shows
the effect of temperature on the reproduction of 0.
sauteri. Another important factor limiting the
effectiveness of Orius spp. as biological control agents
is the induction of reproductive diapause. The use of
non-diapause strains or species is desirable for the
year-round use of natural enemies. Orius sauteri exhibits
reproductive diapause under a short photoperiod.
Orius minutus shows almost the same reproductive
diapause as 0. sauteri (Kohno, 1997, 1998; Ito and
Nakata, 1998). Orius strigicollis, which is mainly
distributed in western Japan, shows a lower diapause
incidence than 0. sauteri (Shimizu and Kawasaki,
2001). Orius tantillus, which is found only on grass
weeds in Okinawa Prefecture, and 0. nagaii living
mainly in rice fields, are not considered as proper
species to be used for biological control of pests of
greenhouse vegetables (Yasunaga, 1997). Orius sauteri
and 0. strigicollis were registered as biopesticides in
1998 and 2001, respectively, in Japan. Orius
strigicollis is preferred to 0. sauteri for commercial
use because of its lower reproductive diapause
incidence and the ease for mass production. Orius
strigicollis is widely used for controlling T. palmi on
eggplants and T. palmi and F. occidentalis on sweet
peppers in Kochi Prefecture in the southwestern part
of Japan (Yano, 2003a). A few years ago, a species
of predatory thrips, Franklinothripes vespiformis, was
shown to control T. palmi in greenhouses very
effectively in Okinawa Prefecture (Yano, 2003a).
The domestic parasitoid species fauna that attack
Table 3. Development, longevity and reproduction of 0. sauteri at different temperatures (Nagai and Yano, 1999)
Temperature Developmental time (day)"
(OC)
Egg Nymph
15 13.7±0.2a 40.9±0.6a
20 7.5±0.2b 18.9±0.3b
25 4.5±0.lc 11.5±0.2c
30 3.2±0.ld 9.5±0.2d
a Mean ± S.E. Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at p
L. trifolii were surveyed in Japan. Twenty-eight
species were recorded as parasitoids of L. trifolii. An
illustrated identification system was developed to
identify these parasitoid species of L. trifolii (Konishi,
1998). Twenty-one ofthe species are eulophid species,
and the others belong to Braconidae, Eucoilidae, and
Pteromalidae. Four eulophid species, Hemiptarsenus
varicornis (Girault), Chrysocharis pentheus (Walker),
Neochrysocharis formosa (Westwood) and N Okazakii
(Kamijo), are the predominant species in Japan. In
Shizuoka Prefecture, central Japan, all four species
are found both in fields and greenhouses as parasitoids
of L. trifolii. Hemiptarsenus varicornis was the most
important species in greenhouses where synthetic
pesticides were applied frequently (Saito et aI., 1996).
The development period from egg to adult emergence
of H. varicornis was studied at different temperatures
(Saito et al., 1997). Hemiptarsenus varicornis is an
ectoparasitic parasitoid. Adults kill many larvae of L.
trifolii not only by parasitization but also by host
feeding. A parthenogenetic strain of N formosa was
found recently in Kagoshima and Okinawa Prefectures
and is expected to be a promising biological control
agent to control L. trifolii (Arakaki and Kinjo, 1998).
Mass production and release trials of N fomosa are
now being intensively conducted in Okinawa Prefecture
in order to attain commercialization in the near future.
IPM in Greenhouses in Japan
Other control measures for IPM
Although cultural and physical control measures do
not have a curative effect after heavy infestations of
greenhouse pests, their preventive effect on the rapid
increase of pests is of great importance in integrated
control. Their effectiveness is related to the regulation
of life histories or of dispersal of pests.
Thrips palmi is a species of subtropical or tropical
origin and is considered to be unable to survive in
the field in Japan in winter (Ikeda, 1983). Suppression
of T. palmi in greenhouses before winter should decrease
Female longevity Lifetime
rm/day
(day)" fecundity"
35.8±12.9a 12.2±5.3a 0.0135
19.6±7.1b 51.3±7.2b 0.0763
20.3±1.7b 74.5±10.7b 0.128
9.0±0.5c 52.8±5.4b 0.166
~ 0.05 (Tukey-Kramer HSD test or Scheffe test).

its density in the next season. Bemisia argentifolii also
has difficulty surviving in winter. Most of the
greenhouse pests are polyphagous and can infest many
kinds of crops and weeds as host plants. If suitable
host crops are cultivated, or if host weeds grow, near
greenhouses, the pests can migrate from the
greenhouse to the surrounding fields and vice versa.
Host weeds growing in greenhouses are also important
for the survival of pests after harvesting. The removal
of host weeds inside and near greenhouses and
avoidanceofthe cultivationof host crops are fundamental
conditions for preventive cultural control.
Helgesen and Tauber (1974) pointed out three
possible routes ofintroduction of T. vaporariorum into
greenhouses: (1) artificial introduction of infested
seedlings; (2) infestation from weeds or other crops
in the greenhouse; (3) infestation from host plants
outside but near the greenhouse. This list of routes
suggests several possibilities for control by preventing
the artificial introduction or dispersal of pests. The
cultivation of uninfested seedlings in nurseries, the
removal of host weeds in greenhouses and the use
of nets to cover the openings of greenhouses could
prevent the immigration of pests from outside. These
techniques are also applicable to other pests. Plastic
films that absorb ultraviolet rays are commonly used
as covering materials for plastic greenhouses in Japan.
One of the important and interesting effects of the
use of these plastic films is the prevention of the
immigration of pests from outside. This technique is
effective against aphids, whiteflies and thrips. Another
important physical control measure is the use of
colored traps. Winged aphids and whitefly adults are
attracted to yellow, while thrips adults prefer white
or blue (Yano, 2003b). Many types of colored sticky
traps have been developed and used for the mass
trapping or monitoring of these pests. Their usefulness
most likely consists in their use in supervised chemical
control. Yellow sticky traps can be used to determine
the time of release of E. formosa and to evaluate the
effectiveness of control.
Table 4. A scheme of lPM for tomatoes in greenhouses in Japan (T. Ishii, personal communication)
Period Control measures
Middle of July Application of granules in soil
Late August Sulfur application
September - October E. formosa, D. isaea
Early October lGR application
Middle of January lGR application
Late March lGR application
April - May E. formosa, D. isaea
Biological control and lPM in greenhouses 9
IPM in protected crops
Since we cannot control all pests infesting a greenhouse
crop with only natural enemies, and since the suitable
period for biological control is limited, the integrated
use of natural enemies and other control measures is
essential for commercial application. Suitable crops
for integrated control using natural enemies can be
assumed to be crops that are attacked by a small
number of serious pests, crops for which a low level
of pest damage is tolerable, and crops requiring insect
pollinators. Tomato, strawberry and sweet pepper are
three good candidates for which integrated control can
be developed in Japan. Table 4 shows an integrated
control scheme for tomatoes combining the use of
natural enemies and selective pesticides. Noctuid
moths sometimes cause severe damage in south-
western Japan, but they can be controlled by Bacillus
thuringiensis Berliner or some IGRs. Soil application
of systemic pesticides and spot treatment with
non-selective pesticides are also possible options in
integrated control.
In Western Europe, integration of the use of natural
enemies and selective pesticides is emphasized (Rav-
ensberg, 1992). However, the greenhouse environment
in Japan is less favorable for biological control
because of the extreme temperature conditions and
the incomplete isolation of the greenhouse environment
from the surroundings. Integration with other control
techniques is needed for more satisfactory biological
control. For example, cultural control, including pre-
vention of the immigration of pests, the removal of
host weeds within and outside greenhouses and
avoidance of the cultivation of host plants near
greenhouses are fundamental for effective control.
After infestation, pests increase almost exponentially
under the high temperatures that are prevalent from
spring to autumn (Yano, 1993, 2003a). In such cases,
delay of the release of natural enemies often results
in the failure of biological control (Yano, 1993,
2003a). Systems that monitor early infestation by pests
in greenhouses are crucial for successful biological
control. Another possibility for biological control is
Pests
Thrips, aphids
Rust mites
Whiteflies, leaf miners
Noctuid moths
Whiteflies
Thrips
Whiteflies, leaf miners
10 J. Asia-Pacific Entomo!. Vo!. 7 (2004)
the periodic release of natural enemies without
monitoring. Cheap natural enemies can be used in this
method. The use of resistant varieties of crops in
integrated control should also be studied. Varieties
with partial resistance are adequate for integrated
control that includes the use of natural enemies (de
Ponti et al, 1983). In conclusion, the integration of
all possible techniques is needed for the successful
and reliable use of natural enemies in Japan.
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