Finite Element Analysis in

Mechanical Design
Instructor’s Notes and Tutorials

Prepared by:
Abul Fazal M. Arif
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals.
 Table of Contents

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS................................... 7 

1.1 Finite Element Method.............................................................................................. 7 
1.2 Review Topics ............................................................................................................ 18 
1.3 General Steps of the Finite Element Method ................................................... 28 
1.4 Finite Element Types................................................................................................ 29 
1.5 Types of Element Formulation Methods ............................................................ 29 
1.6 Derivation of Spring Element Equations using Direct Method ................... 30 
1.7 Examples of Spring Systems .................................................................................. 34 
1.8 Bar Element Formulation using Direct Method ............................................... 38 
1.9 Bar Element Formulation using Potential Energy Approach........................ 40 
1.10 Bar Element Formulation using Weighted Residual Approach ................. 44 
1.11 FEA: Modeling, Errors, and Accuracy. ............................................................ 49 
1.12 Responsibilty of Users.......................................................................................... 50 
SECTION 2: STATIC ANALYSIS USING ANSYS ................................................................ 52 
2.1 Overview of Structural Analysis ........................................................................... 52 
2.2 Static Analysis Procedure ....................................................................................... 52 
SECTION 3: GEOMETRIC MODELING .............................................................................. 61 
3.1 Typical Steps Involved in Model Generation Within ANSYS ....................... 61 
3.2 Importing Solid Models Created in CAD systems ........................................... 61 
3.3 Solid Modeling ........................................................................................................... 63 
Tutorial 1: Solid Modeling using 2D Primitives ...................................................... 65 
Tutorial 2: Solid Modeling using 3D Primitives ...................................................... 73 
SECTION 4: STATIC ANALYSIS USING LINE ELEMENTS ............................................ 81 
Tutorial 3: Static Analysis using TRUSS Elements .................................................. 82 
Tutorial 4(a): Static Analysis using BEAM Elements ............................................. 95 
Tutorial 4(b): Static Analysis using BEAM Elements with Distributed Load . 99 
SECTION 5: STATIC ANALYSIS USING AREA ELEMENTS ......................................... 104 
Tutorial 5: Static Analysis using Area Elements- Plane Problem (Bracket) . 105 
Tutorial 6: Static Analysis using Area Elements- Plane Problem (Wrench) .. 122 
SECTION 6: STATIC ANALYSIS USING VOLUME ELEMENTS................................... 127 
Tutorial 7: Static Analysis using Volume Elements-Component Design ......... 128 
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 Tutorial 8: Static Analysis using Volume Elements-Assembly Design ............. 135 
SECTION 7: THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS ................................................................... 143 
Tutorial 9: Thermal Analysis of Mechanical Structure......................................... 144 
Tutorial 10(a): Thermal-Stress Analysis - Sequential Coupled Field ............... 151 
Tutorial 10(b): Thermal-Stress Analysis – Direct Coupled Field ..................... 158 
SECTION 8: DYNAMIC ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 163 
Tutorial 11: Harmonic Analysis of Structure ......................................................... 164 
Tutorial 12: Modal Analysis of Structure ................................................................ 171 
SECTION 9: COMPOSITE MATERIALS............................................................................ 177 
9.1 Composites - A Basic Introduction ................................................................... 177 
9.2. Modeling Composites using ANSYS................................................................. 183 
Tutorial 13: Simply Supported Laminated Plate Under Pressure ..................... 193 
SECTION 10: PROBABILISTIC DESIGN ANALYSIS ...................................................... 212 
10.1 Probabilistic Design ............................................................................................. 212 
10.2 Probability Distributions .................................................................................... 217 
10.3 Choosing a Distribution for a Random Variable ......................................... 228 
10.4 Probabilistic Design Techniques ....................................................................... 232 
10.5 Postprocessing Probabilistic Analysis Results .............................................. 234 
Tutorial 14: Probabilistic Design Analysis of Circular Plate Bending. ........... 241 
11.0 APDL PROGRAMMING .............................................................................................. 266 
11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 266 
11.2 Create The Analysis File ................................................................................... 266 
Tutorial 15: Stress Analysis of Bicycle Wrench..................................................... 271 
Tutorial 16: Heat Loss from a Cylindrical Cooling Fin. ...................................... 278 
12.0 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION ........................................................................................... 287 
12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 287 
12.2 Design Optimization Using Ansys ................................................................. 294 
Tutorial 17: Design Optimization Tutorial ............................................................. 321 
Exercise Problems .............................................................................................................. 339 
References ............................................................................................................................... 345 
Appendix A: Titles of Finite Element Books ......................................................................... 346 
Appendix B: Some Useful FEA Websites on INTERNET .................................................... 348 
Appendix C: FEA Commercial Software List ........................................................................ 351 

3
 PREFACE

Considering importance and growing need of some topics, two new topics have been
included in the revised edition of Instrictor’s Note and Tutorials Manual for Finite
Element Analysis in Mechanical Design: Composite Materials and Probabilistic Design
Analysis. In addition, the complete manual has been reorganized and divided into ten
sections.

In Section 1, the basic concepts of finite element method has been introduced. It
contains topics related to review material, general steps of FEA, element types, element
formulation methods, formulation on 1-D line elements using various methods, sources
of error and, finally, the responsibilty of users.

More details on geometric modeling has been added in Section 3. It includes typical
steps involved in model generation within ANSYS, importing solid models created in
CAD systems and solid modeling using ANSYS preprocessor.

Lecture notes on composite materials and modeling of composite materials using finite
element method has been included in Section 9. It also includes a tutorial on the finite
element analysis of composite structure using ANSYS.

Section 10 consists of lecture notes on probabilistic design analysis using finite element
method and a tutorial.

The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the university management and
department chairman.

Abul-Fazal M. Arif
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
August, 2005.

4
 Preface To First Edition
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a well-established technique for analyzing the structural behavior of
mechanical components and systems. In recent years, the use of finite element analysis as a design tool has grown
rapidly. Easy to use commercial software have become common tools in the hands of students as well as
practicing engineers. Unfortunately, many students who lack the proper training or understanding of the
underlying concepts have been using these tools.
Appreciating the importance of the topic and the need to train our graduates properly in finite element analysis
technique, the Department of Mechanical Engineering introduced a new course, titled “Finite Element Analysis in
Mechanical Design”, as a special topic during 1999-2000. Considering the interest shown by the students and the
success of the new course, it was changed to a new regular elective course as ME 489 during 2000-2001. Since
then this course was offered twice during the academic years 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 with an average of about
20 registered senior undergraduate and graduate students. It is also scheduled to be offered during semester 031
of academic year 2003-2004.

The objectives of this course includes:

 To teach students the basic concepts in the linear finite element method (FEM) as related to solving
engineering problems in solids and heat transfer.
 To provide students with a working knowledge of finite element analysis tools and their use in mechanical
design.

The topics covered in this course includes: Introduction to finite element; Finite Element Formulation;
Introduction to a general FE Software (ANSYS); Development of Beam, Frames and Grid Equations; 2-D
elasticity problems; Dynamic Analysis; and Heat Transfer Problems.

Although ME489 with a format of (3-0-3) does not have a separate lab, but it is embedded in the lecture as
computer session. During last offering of this course in 021 semester, about 10 computer sessions were conducted
so that the students get exposure to a general-purpose finite element analysis software, gain insight into
appropriate use of Finite Element Modeling, understand how to control modeling errors, benefit from hands-on
exercise at the computer workstation, and understand the safe use of the FEM in support of designing complex
load bearing components and structures. These sessions were very successful with the students and encouraged
them in using FEA to solve various design problems and their term project.

There are many good textbooks already in existence that cover the theory of finite element methods. Similarly,
there is detailed users manuals are available for commercial software. But, these are useful for advanced students
and users. Therefore, there was a need to develop a computer session manual in line with the flow of the course
and utilizing the software platform available in the department. This manual will help both the students and the
instructors. Students will be able to acquire the required level of understanding and skill in modeling, analysis,
validation and report generation for various design problems. Whereas the instructors will be able to save time,
currently spent in computer sessions, to cover more topics such as structural dynamics and design optimization.

This manual could also be very helpful for the students of senior design project (ME 411 and ME 412), ME485
(Mechanical System Design), and ME590 (FEA for Large Deformation Problems). In addition, it could be used
for computer sessions of short courses on stress analysis techniques and Finite Element Analysis offered by the
Mechanical Engineering department.

After giving a brief introduction to the finite element analysis and modeling, various guided-tutorials have been
included in this manual. Several new tutorials have been developed and others adapted from different sources
including ANSYS manuals, ANSYS workshops and INTERNET resources. Tutorials have been arranged
according to the flow of the course and covers all ME489 related topics, such as solid modeling using 2D and 3D
primitives available in ANSYS, static structural analysis (truss, beam, 2D and 3D structures), dynamic analysis
(harmonic and modal analysis), and thermal analysis.

The author gratefully acknowledges the support and encouragement provided by Dr. Faleh A. Al-Sulaiman, the
Chairman of the Mechanical Engineering Department, in writing this manual and for recommending the request
for one-month summer support. I am thankful to Mr. Zahid Qamar and Mr. Munir Qureshi for their effort in some
of the tutorials included here.

Dr. Abul Fazal M. Arif,

Assistant Professor

5
Mechanical Engineering Department
August, 2003.

6
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT
ANALYSIS

1.1 Finite Element Method

The field of Mechanics can be subdivided into three major areas: Theoretical, Applied, and
Computational. Theoretical Mechanics deals with fundamental laws and principles of
mechanics studied for their intrinsic scientific value. Applied Mechanics transfers this
theoretical knowledge to scientific and engineering applications, especially through the
construction of mathematical models of physical phenomena. Computational Mechanics
solves specific problems by simulation through numerical methods implemented on digital
computers.

One of the most important advances in applied mathematics in the 20th century has been the
development of the Finite Element Method as a general mathematical tool for obtaining
approximate solutions to boundary-value problems. The theory of finite elements draws on
almost every branch of mathematics and can be considered as one of the richest and most
diverse bodies of the current mathematical knowledge.

1.1.1 Mathematical Modeling of Physical Systems

In general, engineering problems are mathematical models of physical situations. Two main
goals of engineering analysis are to be able to identify the basic physical principle(s) and
fundamental laws that govern the behavior of a system or a control volume and to translate
those principles into a mathematical model involving an equation or equations that can be
solved accurately to predict qualitative and quantitative behavior of the system. The resulting
mathematical model is frequently a single differential equation or a set of differential equations
with a set of corresponding boundary and initial conditions whose solution should be
consistent with and accurately represent the physics of the system. These governing equations
represent balance of mass, force, or energy. When possible, the exact solution of these
equations renders detailed behavior of a system under a given set of conditions.

In situations where the system is relatively simple, it may be possible to analyze the problem
by using some of the classical methods learned in elementary courses in ordinary and partial
differential equations. Far more frequently, however, there are many practical engineering
problems for which we can not obtain exact solutions. This inability to obtain an exact solution
may be attributed to either the complex nature of governing differential equations or the
difficulties that arise from dealing with the boundary and initial conditions. To deal with such
problems, we resort to numerical approximations. In contrast to analytical solutions, which
show the exact behavior of a system at any point within the system, numerical solutions
approximate exact solutions only at discrete points, called nodes.

Due to the complexity of physical systems, some approximation must be made in the process
of turning physical reality into a mathematical model. It is important to decide at what points in
the modeling process these approximations are made. This, in turn, determines what type of
analytical or computational scheme is required in the solution process. Let us consider a
diagram of the two common branches of the general modeling solution process as shown in
Figure 1.
7
 Figure 1

For many real world problems the second approach is in fact the only possibility. For instance
suppose that the aim is to find the thermo-mechanical stresses in an air-cooled turbine blade
depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2

The complex three-dimensional geometry of the blade along with the combined thermal and
mechanical loadings makes the analysis of the blade a formidable task. Nevertheless, many
powerful commercial finite element packages are available that can be implemented to perform
this task with relative ease.

Figure 3

8
1.1.2 Basic Concept of Numerical Methods
The basic concept of these methods is based on the idea of building a complicated object with
simple blocks, or, dividing a complicated object into small and manageable pieces. Application
of this simple idea can be found everywhere in everyday life as well as in engineering.
Examples include Lego (kids’ play), buildings, and approximation of the area of a circle:

“Element Si”


Area of one triangle: S i  12 R 2 sin  i

Area of the circle:

N
S N   S i  12 R 2 N sin( 2N )  R 2
 as N
 
i 1

where N = total number of triangles ( elements). The first step of any numerical procedure is
discretization. This process divides the medium of interest into a number of small subregions
and nodes.

There are two common classes of numerical methods: (1) Finite Difference Methods and (2)
Finite Element Methods (FEM). With finite difference methods, the differential equation is
written for each node, and the derivatives are replaced by difference equations. This approach
results in a set of simultaneous linear equations. Although finite difference methods are easy to
understand and employ in simple problems, they become difficult to apply to problems with
complex geometries or complex boundary conditions. This situation is also true for problems
with nonisotropic properties. In constrast, the finite element method uses integral formulations
rather than difference equations to create a system of algebraic equations. Moreover, an
approximate continous function is assumed to represent the solution for each element. The
complete solution is then generated by connecting or assembling the individual solutions,
allowing for continuity at the interelemental boundaries.

Thus, Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical analysis technique for obtaining
approximate solutions to a wide variety of engineering problems.

1.1.3 A Brief History of FEM:

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the
Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain
approximate solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M.
J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of
numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".
9
By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the
aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of
computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an
incredible precision. Present day super computers are now able to produce accurate results for
all kinds of parameters.
1943 ----- Courant (Variational methods)
1956 ----- Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp (Stiffness)
1960 ----- Clough (“Finite Element”, plane problems)
1970s ----- Applications on mainframe computers
1980s ----- Microcomputers, pre- and postprocessors
1990s ----- Analysis of large structural systems.

1.1.4 The FEM Analysis Process

A model-based simulation process using FEM consists of a sequence of steps. This sequence
takes two basic configurations depending on the environment in which FEM is used. These are
referred to as the Mathematical FEM and the Physical FEM.

The Mathematical FEM

As depicted in Figure 4, the centerpiece in the process steps of the Mathematical FEM is the
mathematical mode, which is often an ordinary or partial differential equation in space and
time. Using the methods provided by the Variational Calculus, a discrete finite element model
is generated from of the mathematical model. The resulting FEM equations are processed by
an equation solver, which provides a discrete solution. In this process we may also think of an
ideal physical system, which may be regarded as a realization of the mathematical model. For
example, if the mathematical model is the Poisson’s equation, realizations may be a heat
conduction problem. In Mathematical FEM this step is unnecessary and indeed FEM
discretizations may be constructed without any reference to physics.

The concept of error arises when the discrete solution is substituted in the mathematical and
discrete models. This replacement is generically called verification. The solution error is the
amount by which the discrete solution fails to satisfy the discrete equations. This error is
relatively unimportant when using computers. More relevant is the discretization error, which
is the amount by which the discrete solution fails to satisfy the mathematical model.

Figure 4

10
The Physical FEM
As depicted in Figure 5, in the Physical FEM process the centerpiece is the physical system to
be modeled. The processes of idealization and discretization are carried out concurrently to
produce the discrete model. Indeed FEM discretizations may be constructed and adjusted
without reference to mathematical models, simply from experimental measurements. The
concept of error arises in the physical FEM in two ways, known as verification and validation,
respectively. Verification is the same as in the Mathematical FEM: the discrete solution is
replaced into the discrete model to get the solution error. As noted above, this error is not
generally important.

Validation tries to compare the discrete solution against observation by computing the
simulation error, which combines modeling and solution errors. Since the latter is typically
insignificant, the simulation error in practice can be identified with the modeling error.
Comparing the discrete solution with the ideal physical system would in principle quantify the
modeling errors.

Figure 5

1.1.5 How Does Finite Element Analysis Work?

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes, which make a grid called a mesh. Figure 6
shows a two dimensional FE model for a gear tooth. All nodes and elements lie in the plane of
the paper. This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which
define how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a
certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular
area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density
than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point
of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh
acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the
adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material properties to the object
creating many elements (Theory).

11
 Figure 6: Two-dimensional model of a
gear tooth showing ndes and elements.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for
minimization or maximization: Mass, volume, temperature, Strain energy, stress strain, Force,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, Synthetic (User defined) There are multiple loading
conditions which may be applied to a system. Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal
static loads, Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis, Enforced displacements,
Heat flux and convection, Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads Each FEA program may
come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some sample elements are: Rod
elements, Beam elements, Plate/Shell/Composite elements, Shear panel, Solid elements,
Spring elements, Mass elements, Rigid elements & Viscous damping elements. Many FEA
programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the structure
such as: Isotropic - identical throughout, Orthotropic -identical at 90 degrees, General
anisotropic - different throughout

The basic ingredients of any finite element analysis of structural problems are:
 Geometry
 Material model (Constitutive model)
 Loading
 Support or Boundary conditions

1.1.6 Types of Structural Analysis

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method.
Structure is defined as something which is designed to bear load. Therefore. the term structural
(or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, but
also naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and
machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by
showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses
within. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs,
which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested. FEA consists of a computer
model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results. It is used in new
product design, and existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed
design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or
12
construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify the product or
structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help
determine the design modifications to meet the new condition. There are generally two types of
analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D modeling. While 2-D modeling
conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a relatively normal computer, it tends
to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however, produces more accurate results while
sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers effectively. Within each of these
modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous algorithms (functions), which may
make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and
generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-linear systems do account for
plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models as shown in Figure 7. Linear
models use simple parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-
linear models consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities (into the plastic
range). The stresses in the material then vary with the amount of deformation. Vibrational
analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact. Each of these
incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in turn, may
cause resonance and subsequent failure. Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a
material or structure by showing the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis
can show the areas where crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may
also show the damage tolerance of the material Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity
or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or structure. This may consist of a steady-state or
transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to constant thermal properties in the material that
yield linear heat diffusion.
F
Linear

Nonlinear


Figure 7: Linear and Nonlinear behavior of the problem.

Thus, some of the common type of structural analysis performed using FEA are:

Static analysis (Linear and Nonlinear)

A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a structure, while
ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused by time-varying loads. A static
analysis can, however, include steady inertia loads (such as gravity and rotational velocity),
and timevarying loads that can be approximated as static equivalent loads (such as the static
equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building codes).

Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures
or components caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects.
Steady loading and response conditions are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure's
response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. The kinds of loading that can be
applied in a static analysis include:
• Externally applied forces and pressures

13
• Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity)
• Imposed (nonzero) displacements
• Temperatures (for thermal strain)
• Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

Transient dynamic analysis (Linear and Nonlinear)

Transient dynamic analysis (sometimes called timehistory analysis) is a technique used to
determine the dynamic response of a structure under the action of any general time-dependent
loads. You can use this type of analysis to determine the time-varying displacements, strains,
stresses, and forces in a structure as it responds to any combination of static, transient, and
harmonic loads. The time scale of the loading is such that the inertia or damping effects are
considered to be important. If the inertia and damping effects are not important, you might be
able to use a static analysis instead.

Modal analysis
You use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies and
mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It also can be a
starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a transient dynamic
analysis, a harmonic response analysis, or a spectrum analysis.

Harmonic analysis
Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained cyclic response (a harmonic response) in a
structural system. Harmonic response analysis gives you the ability to predict the sustained
dynamic behavior of your structures, thus enabling you to verify whether or not your designs
will successfully overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.

Spectrum analysis
A spectrum analysis is one in which the results of a modal analysis are used with a known
spectrum to calculate displacements and stresses in the model. It is mainly used in place of a
time-history analysis to determine the response of structures to random or time-dependent
loading conditions such as earthquakes, wind loads, ocean wave loads, jet engine thrust, rocket
motor vibrations, and so on.

Buckling analysis
• Buckling analysis is a technique used to determine buckling loads, critical loads at which a
structure becomes unstable, and buckled mode shapes - the characteristic shape associated with
a structure's buckled response.

Nonlinear analysis
• If a structure experiences large deformations, its changing geometric configuration can cause
the structure to respond nonlinearly.
• Nonlinear stress-strain relationships are a common cause of nonlinear structural behavior.
Many factors can influence a material's stress-strain properties, including load history (as in
elastoplastic response), environmental conditions (such as temperature), and the amount of
time that a load is applied (as in creep response).

Contact problems
• Contact problems are highly nonlinear and require significant computer resources to solve. It
is important that you understand the physics of the problem and take the time to set up your
model to run as efficiently as possible.

14
• Contact problems present two significant difficulties. First, you generally do not know the
regions of contact until you've run the problem. Depending on the loads, material, boundary
conditions, and other factors, surfaces can come into and go out of contact with each other in a
largely unpredictable and abrupt manner. Second, most contact problems need to account for
friction. There are several friction laws and models to choose from, and all are nonlinear.
Frictional response can be chaotic, making solution convergence difficult.
• In addition to these two difficulties, many contact problems must also address multi-field
effects, such as the conductance of heat and electrical currents in the areas of contact.

Fracture mechanics
• Cracks and flaws occur in many structures and components, sometimes leading to disastrous
results. The engineering field of fracture mechanics was established to develop a basic
understanding of such crack propagation problems.
• Fracture mechanics deals with the study of how a crack or flaw in a structure propagates
under applied loads. It involves correlating analytical predictions of crack propagation and
failure with experimental results. The analytical predictions are made by calculating fracture
parameters such as stress intensity factors in the crack region, which you can use to estimate
crack growth rate. Typically, the crack length increases with each application of some cyclic
load, such as cabin pressurization-depressurization in an airplane. Further, environmental
conditions such as temperature or extensive exposure to irradiation can affect the fracture
propensity of a given material.

Composites
• Composite materials have been used in structures for a long time. In recent times composite
parts have been used extensively in aircraft structures, automobiles, sporting goods, and many
consumer products.
• Composite materials are those containing more than one bonded material, each with different
structural properties. The main advantage of composite materials is the potential for a high
ratio of stiffness to weight. Composites used for typical engineering applications are advanced
fiber or laminated composites, such as fiberglass, glass epoxy, graphite epoxy, and boron
epoxy.
• FEA allows you to model composite materials with specialized elements called layered
elements. Once you build your model using these elements, you can do any structural analysis
(including nonlinearities such as large deflection and stress stiffening).

Fatigue
• Fatigue is the phenomenon in which a repetitively loaded structure fractures at a load level
less than its ultimate static strength. For instance, a steel bar might successfully resist a single
static application of a 300 kN tensile load, but might fail after 1,000,000 repetitions of a 200
kN load.
• The main factors that contribute to fatigue failures include:
– Number of load cycles experienced
– Range of stress experienced in each load cycle
– Mean stress experienced in each load cycle
– Presence of local stress concentrations
– A formal fatigue evaluation accounts for each of these factors as it calculates how "used up"
a certain component will become during its anticipated life cycle.

Other types of Engineering Analysis that can be solved using FEA are:
 Heat transfer (Linear and nonlinear)

15
  Fluid flow (Laminar and Turbulent)
 Crash Dynamics
 Electromagnetics
 Optimization
 Kinematics

1.1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
 Model irregularly shaped bodies quite easily.
 Handle general load conditions without difficulty.
 Model bodies composed of several different materials because the element equations
are evaluated individually.
 Handle unlimited number and kinds of boundary conditions.
 Vary the size of the elements to make it possible to use small elements where
necessary.
 Alter the FE model relatively easily and cheaply.
 Corrective measures can be taken before any hardware is built ( Also number of
prototypes can be reduced).
 Physically meaningful to engineers and resemble actual structure.

Disadvantages
 Experience and judgement needed.
 Requires good computing facility.

1.1.8 Areas of Application

Structural
 A1 Stress analysis
 A2 Buckling
 A3 Vibration analysis
 A4 …..

Non-Structural
 B1 Heat transfer
 B2 Fluid flow
 B3 Distribution of electric or magnetic potential
 B4 Lubrication
 B5 …..

Examples of multi-physics applications:

 Thermal analysis: A + B1
 Convective flow: B1 + B2
 Manufacturing Provesses: A+B1+B2

16
Common fields of application:
 Mechanical Engineering
 Aerospace Engineering
 Civil Engineering
 Automobile Engineering
 Electrical Engineering
 Chemical Engineering
 Geomechanics
 Biomechanics

17
1.2 Review Topics

1.2.1 Matrix Operations

Matrix Algebra

 A matrix is an m x n array of numbers arranged in m rows and n columns.

 m = n A square matrix.
 m = 1 A row matrix.
 n = 1 A column matrix.
 aij Element of matrix a row i, column j

Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar.

[a] = k [c] aij = kcij

Addition of matrices: Matrices must be of same order (m x n) Add them term by term

[c] = [a] +[b] cij = aij + bij

Multiplication of two matrices: If [a] is m x n then [b] must have n rows

c   a b
n
cij   aie bej
e 1

Transpose of a matrix: Interchange of rows and columns

a   a 
ij ji
T

 If [a] is m x n then [a]T is n x m

 If [a] = [a]T then [a] is symmetric. [a] must be a square matrix

The identity matrix (or unit matrix) is denoted by the symbol [I]:

a I   I a   a 
1 0 0
I   0 1 0
0 0 1

Differentiating a matrix:

a    ij 
d da
dx  dx 
18
Example of differentiating a matrix:

1 a a12   x 
U [x y]  11  
2 a 21 a 22   y 
 U 
 x   a11 a12   x 
    
 U  a 21 a 22   y 
 y 

Integrating a matrix:

 a dx   a dx ij

The inverse of a matrix is such that:

aa
1
 [I]

To find the Inverse of a Matrix, first find the determinant of the matrix

a  determinant of matrix [a]

Next, calculate the co-factors of [a]. Cofactors of [aij] are given by:
Cij  ( 1)i  j d
where matrix d is the first minor
of  aij  and is matrix  a 
with row i and column j deleted.

Finally, determine the inverse

 C
T
1
[aij ] 
a

1.2.2 Elasticity Equations

1.2.2.1 Stress Equilibrium Equations

A three-dimensional body occupying a volume V and having a surface S is shown in Figure 8.

Points in the body are located by x, y and z coordinates. The boundary is constrained on some
region, where displacement is specified. Om part on the boundary, distributed force per unit
area T, also called traction, is applied. Under the force, the body deforms. The deformation of a
point x (=[x y z]T) is given by the three components of its displacement:

u  u v w 
T

19
 Figure 8: Three-dimensional body.

The distributed force per unit volume, for example, the weight per unit volume, is the body
force vector f given by


f  fx fy fz  T

The body force acting on the elemental volume dV is shown in Figure 8. The surface traction T
may be given by its component values at points on the surface:


T  Tx Ty Tz  T

Examples of traction are distributed contact force and action of pressure. A concentrated load P
acting at a point i is represented by its three components:


Pi  Px Py Pz 
T
i

Figure 9: Equilibrium of
elemental volume.

The stresses acting on the elemental volume dV are shown in Figure 9. When the volume dV
shrinks to a point, the stress tensor is represented by placing its components in a (3x3)
symmetric matrix. However, we represent stress by the six independent components as
follows:

20
  σ x σ y σ z  T
τx τy τz

σ τ τ
where σ x , y and σ z are normal stresses and xy , yz and τ zx are shear stresses. Let us
consider equilibrium of the elemental volume shown in Figure 9. First we get forces on faces
by multiplying the stresses by the corresponding areas. Writing  x
F  0  Fy  0
, and
 z , and recognizing dV=dx dy dz, we get the equilibrium equations:
F  0

 x  xy  xz
   fx  0
x y z
 xy  y  yz
   fy  0
x y z

 xz  yz  z
   fz  0
x y z

1.2.2.2 Strain Displacement Relationship

Strains can be calculated by differentiating displacement functions. Differentiation of a

function is possible only is it is continuous. Therefore, the strain-displacement relations are
also known as compatibility equations and are given as follows:
u u  v
x   xy  
x  y x
v u w
y   xz  
y z x
w  w v
z   yz  
z  y z
In matrix form:
 
 x 0 0
  
x   0 0
   y 
 y    u 
  z   0 0 
z   
    v 
    
  xy 0 w 
 xz   y x  
    
 yz   0 
 z x 
0   
 z y 


1.2.2.3 Stress-Strain Relationships

21
For linear elastic materials, the stress-strain relations come from the generalized Hooke’s law.
For isotropic materials, the two material properties are Young’s modulus (or modulus of
elasticity) E and Poisson’s ratio  . For three-dimensional case, the state of stress at any point
is relation to the state of strain as follows:

1     0 0 0 
 x    1   0 0 0   x 
    
  y    1  0 0 0   y 
 z   1  2  
 
E
 0 0 0 0 0    z 

  xy 1   1  2   2
1  2   xy 
 yz   0 0 0 0 0   yz 
   2  
 zx   1  2   zx 
 0 0 0 0 0
2 

In matrix notation:

   D 

where D  is known as stress-strain matrix or material properties matrix and is given by:

1     0 0 0 
  1   0 0 0 
 
   1  0 0 0 
 1  2 
D  E
 0 0 0 0 0 
1   1  2   2
1  2 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
 1  2 
 0 0 0 0 0
2 

1.2.2.4 Special cases:

One dimension: In one dimension, we have normal stress along x-axis and the corresponding
normal strain. Stress-strain relations are simply to

 x   E  x 
where
D  E 
Plane Stress: A thin planar body subjected to in-plane loading on its edge surface is said to be
in plane stress. A ring press fitted on a shaft as shown in Figure 10(a) is an example. Here
stresses  z ,  xz , and  yz are set as zero. The Hooke’s law relations then give us:

22
 x   
 1  0   x 
  E
 1  
 y   0   y 
  1     0 0 1     
2

 xy    xy
 2  

Figure 10: (a) Plane stress (b)

Plane strain.

Plane Strain: If a long body of uniform cross section is subjected to transverse loading along
its length, a small thickness in the loaded area, as shown in Figure 10(b), can be treated as

subjected to plane strain. Here  z ,  zx and yz are taken as zero. Stress  z may not be zero in
this case. The stress-strain relations can be obtained directly as:

 x   
  E 1    0   x 
 
 y     1  0   y 
  1   1  2   1   
 xy   0 0   xy
 2  

1.2.3 Solution of Set of Linear Algebraic Equations

1.2.3.1 Cramer’s Rule

Consider a set of linear algebraic equations written as follows:

in matrix notation : a x  c

n
or in index notation : a
j 1
ij x j  ci

Let matrix d  be matrix a  with column i replaced by c . Then

(i )

23
 d (i )
xi 
a

Example:

Consider a set of three linear algebraic equations as given below:

 x1  3 x 2  2 x 3  2

2 x1  4 x 2  2 x 3  1

4 x2  x3  3

In matrix form:
  1 3  2  x1  2
 2  4 2   x   1 
  2   
 0 4 1   x 3  3

Solution using Cramer rule:

1 3  2
a  2  4 2  ( 1)( 4  8)  ( 3)( 2  0)  ( 2)(8  0)  12  6  16  10
0 4 1

2 3 2
d (1)1  41
x1   1 4 2   4 .1
a ( 10)  10
3 4 1
1 2  2
d ( 2)
1  11
x2   2 1 2   4.1
a ( 10)  10
0 3 1

1 3 2
d ( 3)
1 14
x3   2 4 1   4.1
a ( 10)  10
0 4 3

1.2.3.2 Inversion

a x  c
a 1 a x  a 1c
I x  a 1c
 x  a  c
1

Example
24
  1 3  2  x1  2
 2  4 2   x   1 
  2   
 0 4 1   x3  3
using inversion,
 x1   1.2 1.1 0.2 2  4.1 
      
 x 2    0.2 0.1 0.2 1    1.1 
 x    0.8  0.4 0.2 3  1.4
 3     
1.2.3.3 Gaussian Elimination

General System of n equations with n unknowns:

 a11 a12  a1n   x1   c1 

a a 22  a 2 n   x 2  c2 
 21   
         
 
 a n1 a n 2  a nn   x n  cn 

Steps in Gaussian Elimination

1. Eliminate the coefficient of x1 in every equation except the first one. Select a11 as the pivot
element.
 Add the multiple -a21/ a11 of the first row to the second row.
 Add the multiple -a31/ a11 of the first row to the third row.
 Continue this procedure through the nth row

After this Step:

a11 a12  a 1 n   x 1   c1 
0 a 22  a 2 n   x 2  c 2 
   
         
 
0 a n 2    x n  c n 
 a nn

2. Eliminate the coefficient of x2 in every equation below the second one. Select a22 as the
pivot element.
a
 Add the multiple  32 of the second row to the third row.
a22
a
 Add the multiple  42 of the second row to the fourth row.
a22
 Continue this procedure through the nth row

25
After this Step:

a11 a12 a13  

a1 n
0 a 22 a 23    x1   c1 
a 2 n
   x  c 
0 0 a 33   2    2 
a 3n
   
        
 x n  c n 
 0 0 a n3  a  nn 

3. Repeat the process for the remaining rows until we have a triangularized system of

a11 a12 a13 a14  a1 n   x 1   c1 

 0 a a 23 
a 24  a 2 n  x   c  
 22  2   2 
0 0 a 33 
a 34  a 3n  x 3   c 3 
     
0 0 0 
a 44  a 4n
  x 4   c4 
           
     n 1 
n 1 
 0 0 0 0  a nn   x n  c n 
equations.

Solve Using Back-substitution

c nn 1
xn  n 1
a nn

1  n

xi   a1, n 1   a ir x r 
a ii  r  i 1 

Example

 2 2 1   x1   9 
 2 1 0   x   4 
  2   
1 1 1  x 3  6

1. Eliminate the coefficient of x1 in every equation except the first one.

 Select a11 =2 as the pivot element.
 Add the multiple -a21/ a11 = -2/2 = -1 of the first row to the second row.
 Add the multiple -a31/ a11 = -1/2=-0.5 of the first row to the third row.

2 2 1   x1   9 
 0  1  1   x     5
  2   
 0 0 0.5  x 3  1.5 

26
2. Eliminate the coefficient of x2 in every equation below the second one. Select a22 as the
pivot element. (Already done in this example.)

2 2 1   x1   9 
 0  1  1   x     5
  2   
 0 0 0.5  x 3  1.5 
c3  
3
 2 3
Solve Using Back-substitution
x3 
a33  
1
2

x2 
 5  3  2
1

x1 
9  2(2)  3  1
2

27
1.3 General Steps of the Finite Element Method

The objective of structural analysis is usually to determine the displacements and stresses
throughout the structure, which is in equilibrium and is subjected to applied loads. At any point
in the continuum body, there are 15 unknowns (3 displacements, 6 stresses and 6 strains). To
determine these 15 unknowns, we have 15 equations in three-dimensional case as shown
below:

Unknowns Governing Equations

Displacements (u, v, w) 3 Stress equilibrium equations 3
Stresses  x  y  z  xy  yz  zx  6 Compatibility equations 6
Strains  x  y  z  xy  yz  zx  6 Stress-strain equations 6
15 15

There are two general approached associated with the finite element method to solve the
governing equations: Force (or Flexibility) method and Displacement (or Stiffness) method.
Force method uses internal forces as the unknown of the problem whereas the displacements
are the system variable in displacement method. The displacement method is more desirable
because its formulation is simpler for most structural analysis problems. Futhermore, a vast
majority of general-purpose finite element programs have incorporated the displacement
formulation for solving structural problems. Consequently, only the displacement method
willused throughout this course.

The basic steps involved in any finite element analysis consist of the following:

Preprocessing Phase (Build FE model, Loads and constraints)

1. Discretize and Select Element Type

2. Select a Displacement Function

3. Define Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships

4. Derive Element Stiffness Matrix & Eqs.

5. Assemble Equations and Introduce B.C.’s

Solution Phase: ( Assemble and solve the system of equations)

6. Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom

Postprocessing Phase: (sort and display the results. )

7. Solve for Element Stresses and Strains

8. Interpret the Results

28
1.4 Finite Element Types

1.5 Types of Element Formulation Methods

The element characteristic matrix has different names in different problem areas. In structural
mechanics it is called a stiffness matrix; it relates nodal displacements to nodal forces. There
are three important ways to derive an element characteristic matrix.

i) Direct (Equilibrium) Method

The direct method is based on physical reasoning. It is limited to very simple elements
(spring, bar and beam), but is worth studying because it enhances our physical understanding
of the finite element method. According to this method, the stiffness matrix and element
equations relating nodal forces to nodal displacements are obtained using force equilibrium
conditions for a basic element, along with force/deformation relationships.

ii) Work or Energy Methods

To develop the stiffness matrix and equations for two- and three-dimensional elements, it is
much easier to apply a work or energy method. These are based on variational calculus. The
29
variational method is applicable to problems that can be stated by certain integral expressions
such as the expression for potential energy. The principle of virtual work (using virtual
displacement), the principle of minimum potential energy, and Castigliano’s theorem are
methods frequently used for the purpose of derivation of element equations. The principle of
virtual work is applicable for any material behavior, whereas the principle of minimum
potential energy and Castigliano’s theorem are applicable only to elastic materials.

For the purpose of extending the finite element method outside the structural stress analysis
field, a functional (a scalar function of other functions) analogous to the one be used with the
principle of minimum potential energy is quite useful in deriving the element stiffness matrix
and equations.

iii) Methods of Weighted Residuals

Weighted residual methods are particularly suited to problems for which differential
equations are known but no variational statement or functional is available. For stress analysis
and some other problem areas, the variational method and the most popular weighted residual
method (the Galerkin method) yield identical finite element formulations.

1.6 Derivation of Spring Element Equations using Direct Method

To understand the FE formulation, we start with the concept " Everything important is simple".
Figure shows a Spring Element

© 2002 B k /C l

Two nodes: Node 1, Node 2

Local nodal displacements: dˆ1 x dˆ 2 x ( inch, m, mm )
Local nodal forces: fˆ fˆ (lb. Newton)
1x 2x

Spring constant (stiffness) k (lb/in, N/m, N/mm)

Stiffness equation for a single spring element in local coordinate system can be written as:

 fˆ1 x   k11
ˆ 
 f 2 x   k 21
k12   dˆ1 x 
 
k 22  dˆ 2 x 
 fˆ  kˆ dˆ
Step 1 - Select the Element Type

Consider linear spring element subjected to tensile forces

30
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function

Degree of freedom (d.o.f) per node = 1

1
Number of nodes per element = 2
Total d.o.f per element = 2 x 1 = 2 x y
2
x xy y2
 Number of coefficients = 2 x3 x2 y xy 2 y3
x4 x3 y x2 y2 xy 3 y4
Assume a linear displacement function

û  a 1  a 2 x̂

Write in matrix form.

a 
û  1 x̂ 1 
a 2 

Express û as a function of nodal displacements dˆ 1 x , dˆ 2 x  

Apply boundary condition :

@ xˆ  0, uˆ  dˆ1 x  uˆ (0)  a1  a 2 (0)  dˆ1 x  a1  dˆ1 x

dˆ 2 x  dˆ1 x
@ xˆ  L, uˆ  dˆ 2 x  uˆ ( L)  a1  a 2 ( L)  dˆ 2 x  a2 
L

Substituting values of coefficients:

 dˆ  dˆ1 x  ˆ ˆ ˆ xˆ   dˆ1 x   dˆ 
uˆ  dˆ1 x   2 x  xˆ   1  x dˆ1 x   x dˆ 2 x  1  x    N 1 N 2  1 x 
  L  dˆ 2 x  dˆ 2 x 
 L   L  L  L

 uˆ   N dˆ  where N 1  1 

xˆ
and N 2 
xˆ
L L

N1 and N2 are called Shape Functions or Interpolation Functions. They express the shape of the
assumed displacements. The sum of all shape function at any point within an element should
be equal to 1.
N1 =1 N2 =0 at node 1
31
N1 =0 N2 =1 at node 2
N1 + N2 =1

N1 N2

1 2 1 2

L L

N1 N2

1 2

Step 3 - Define Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships

Deformation,   uˆ ( L)  uˆ (0)  dˆ2 x  dˆ1 x

From force/deformation relationship : 

T  k  k dˆ2 x  dˆ1 x 
Where T is the tensile force and  is the total elongation

Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Consider the equilibrium of forces for the spring.

32
@ node 1, 
fˆ1 x  T  k dˆ1 x  dˆ 2 x 
@ node 2, 
fˆ2 x  T  k dˆ 2 x  dˆ1 x 
In matrix form,

 fˆ1 x   k
ˆ 
 f 2 x    k
 k   dˆ1 x 
 
k  dˆ 2 x 
 fˆ  kˆ dˆ 
(e ) (e ) (e )

Note k is symmetric. Is k singular or nonsingular? That is, can we solve the equation? If not,
why?

Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global Equations

and Introduce the Boundary Conditions

 K     kˆ ( e ) 
N
Global stiffness matrix :
e 1

F     fˆ ( e ) 
N
Global load vector :
e 1

 F  K d 

 does not imply a simple summation of the element matrices, but rather denotes that these
element matrices must be assembled properly satisfying compatibility conditions.

Step 6 - Solve for Nodal Displacements

Displacements are then determined by imposing boundary conditions, such as support

conditions, and solving a system of equations, F   K d  , simultaneously.

Step 7 - Solve for Element Forces

Once displacements at each node are known, then substitute back into element stiffness
equations to obtain element nodal forces.

33
1.7 Examples of Spring Systems

1.7.2 Two Springs System

For element 1,
 k1  k1  u1   f11 
 k   
 1 k1  u 2   f 21 

For element 2,
 k2  k 2  u 2   f12 
 k   
 2 k 2  u3   f 22 

where f i m is the internal force acting on local node i of element m (i=1,2).

Assemble the stiffness matrix for the whole system: Consider the equilibrium of forces at node
1,
F1 = f11
At node 2,
F2 = f 21 + f12
At node 3,
F3 = f 22
That is,
F1 = k1u1 – k1u2
F2 = -k1u1 + (k1 + k2)u2
F3 = -k2u2 + k2u3
In matrix form,
 k1  k1 0   u1   F1 
    
 k1 k1  k2  k2  u2    F2 
0
  k2 k2  u3   F3 
or
KU = F
Where K, U and F are the global stiffness matrix, displacement vector, and force vector for the
spring system, respectively.

An alternative way of assembling the whole stiffness matrix:

Enlarging the stiffness matrices for elements 1 and 2, we have

 k1  k1 0  u1   f11 
 k    
 1 k1 0 u 2    f 21 
 0 0 0 u3   0 

34
0 0 0  u1   0 
0 k    
 2  k 2  u 2    f12 
0  k 2 k 2  u3   f 22 

Adding the two matrix equations (superpositions), we have

 k1  k1 0   u1   f11 
    
 k1 k1  k 2  k 2  u 2    f 21  f12 
0
  k2 k 2  u3   f 22 

This is the same equation as we derived by using the force equilibrium concept.

Boundary and load conditions:

Assuming , u1 = 0 and F2 = F3 = P

We have
 k1  k1 0   0   F1 
    
 k1 k1  k 2  k 2  u 2    P 
0
  k2 k 2  u3   P 
which reduces to
k1  k 2  k 2  u 2   P 
 k   
 2 k 2  u3   P 
and
F1  k1u 2
Unknowns are
u 2 
U =   and the reaction force F1 ( if desired ).
u3 
Solving the equations, we obtain the displacements

u 2   2 P / k1 
  
u3  2 P / k1  P / k 2 
and the reaction force
F1  2 P

Checking the Results:

Deformed shape of the structure
Balance of the external forces (equilibrium)
Order of magnitudes of the numbers

35
1.7.2 Three Springs System

Given: For the spring system shown above,

k1 = 100 N/mm, k2 = 200 N/mm, k3 = 100 N/mm
P = 500 N, u1 = u2 = 0
Find: (a) the global stiffness matrix
(b) displacements of nodes 1 and 4
(c) the reaction forces at nodes 1 and 4
(d) the force in the spring 2
Solution:
The element stiffness matrices are

 100  100
k (1)  
100 
(N/mm)
 100
 200  200
k ( 2)  
200 
(N/mm)
 200
 100  100
k ( 3)  
100 
(N/mm)
 100
Applying the superposition concept, we obtain the global stiffness matrix for the spring system
as

 100  100 0 0 
 100 100  200  200 0 
K 
 0  200 200  100  100
 
 0 0  100 100 

or

 100  100 0 0 
 100 300  200 0 
K 
 0  200 300  100
 
 0 0  100 100 
36
which is symmetric and banded.
Equilibrium (FE) equation for the whole system is
 100  100 0 0  u1   F1 
 100 300  200 0  u   0 
   2    
 0  200 300  100 u3   P 
 
 0 0  100 100  u 4   F4 

(b) Applying the boundary conditions (u1 = u4 = 0) in the above stiffness equation, or deleting
the 1st and 4th rows and column, we have
 300  200 u 2   0 
 200 300  u    P 
  3   
Solving above equation, we obtain
u 2   P / 250  2
    (mm)
 3 
u 3 P / 500  3 
(c) From the 1st and 4th equations in global stiffness equation, we get the reaction forces
F1 = -100u2 = 200 (N)
F4 = -100u3 = 300 (N)

(d) The FE equation for spring element 2 is

 200  200 ui  2   f i  2 
2

 200 200  u    f 2 
   j 3   j 3 
Thus we can calculate the spring force as
u  2 
F  f i 2 2  f j2 3   200 200 2    200 200   200 (N)
u3  3 

37
1.8 Bar Element Formulation using Direct Method

Step 1 - Select the Element Type

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Assumptions:
 The bar cannot sustain shear force, i.e. fˆ1 y  0, fˆ2 y  0.
 Any effect of transverse displacement is ignored.
 Hooke’s law applies, i.e.  x  E x
 No intermediate applied loads.

Two nodes: Node 1, Node 2

Local nodal displacements: dˆ1 x dˆ 2 x ( inch, m, mm )
Local nodal forces: fˆ fˆ (lb. Newton)
1x 2x

Length L (inch, m, mm)

Cross sectional area A (sq. in., sq. m, sq. mm)
Modulus of elasticity E (psi, Pa, MPa)

Stiffness equation for a single spring element in local coordinate system can be written as:

 fˆ1 x   k11
ˆ 
 f 2 x   k 21
k12   dˆ1 x 
 
k 22  dˆ 2 x 
 fˆ  kˆ dˆ

Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function

Degree of freedom (d.o.f) per node = 1

Number of nodes per element = 2
Total d.o.f per element = 2 x 1 = 2
 Number of coefficients = 2

Assume a linear displacement function

û  a 1  a 2 x̂
38
Write in matrix form.
a 
û  1 x̂ 1 
a 2 

Express û as a function of nodal displacements dˆ 1 x , dˆ 2 x  

Apply boundary condition :

@ xˆ  0, uˆ  dˆ1 x  uˆ (0)  a1  a 2 (0)  dˆ1 x  a1  dˆ1 x

dˆ 2 x  dˆ1 x
@ xˆ  L, uˆ  dˆ 2 x  uˆ ( L)  a1  a 2 ( L)  dˆ 2 x  a2 
L

Substituting values of coefficients:

 dˆ  dˆ1 x  ˆ ˆ ˆ xˆ   dˆ1 x   dˆ 
uˆ  dˆ1 x   2 x  xˆ   1  x dˆ1 x   x dˆ 2 x  1  x    N 1 N 2  1 x 
  L  dˆ 2 x  dˆ 2 x 
 L   L  L  L

 uˆ   N  dˆ where N 1  1 

xˆ
L
and N 2 
xˆ
L

Step 3 - Define Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships

From the definition of strain, the strain/displacement relationship can be derived as:

   dˆ     dN
ˆ
 x    du    d  N 1
 dx 
N 2  1 x      1
dˆ 2 x     dx
dN 2   dˆ1 x   1
  
dx  dˆ2 x   L
1   dˆ1 x 
   B  dˆ
L  dˆ 2 x 

 dx 

where B is known as strain-displacement matrix.

From Hooke’s law, the stress/strain relationship is:  x   E  x 

Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

To derive the stiffness equation using direct method, we employ equilibrium condition at each
node.

@ node 1,
 dˆ  dˆ1 x  AE ˆ
fˆ1 x  T   A x   AE x    AE  2 x
L

 L
d1 x  dˆ 2 x  
 

@ node 2, fˆ2 x  T 
AE ˆ
L

 d1 x  dˆ 2 x 
39
In matrix form,

 fˆ1 x  AE  1  1  dˆ1 x 
ˆ 
 f 2 x 
 
L   1 1  dˆ 2 x 
 fˆ  kˆ dˆ 
(e) (e ) (e )

Steps 5 to 7 are same as before.

1.9 Bar Element Formulation using Potential Energy Approach

1.9.1 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

The total potential energy  p of an elastic body is defined as the sum of total internal strain
energy U and the potential energy of all external forces  .

p U 

Internal strain energy:

Consider the linear spring shown in the figure. The differetial change in internal strain energy
for a differetial elongation is given by:

dU  F dx  k x  dx
F
1 2 1 1
U   k x dx  kx  ( kx ) x  Fx x
2 2 2 k

Dividing both sides by volume (Volume  AL) :

U 1  F  x  1
      x  x
Volume 2  A  L  2

1
In general form, u  T    U  1 V  T  dV
2 2

Potential energy of external forces:

The potential (energy) of load acting on the spring is given by

   Fx

The load is regarded as always acting at its full value F. In moving through dispalcementx it
does work in the amount Fx, thereby losing potential of equal amount; hence the negative sign
in the above expression.

In general form with body, surface and cincentrated forces acting on the elastic body, the total
potential energy is given by:

    d   f b dV   d  T dS   d i  Ti 

T T T
V S
i 40
Total Potential energy:

For spring, the potential energy

1
 p  kx 2  Fx
2

can be regarded as the total internal and external work done in changing the configuration from
the reference state x  0 to the displaced state x  0 . Note that if F were directed toward the
left, while x remains positive toward the right, then  would become +Fx. This is in essence
the same as increasing potential energy by increasing the elevation of a weight.

The total potential energy for the general elastic body shown in Figure 8 is

1
   dV   d   f b dV   d  T dS   d i  Pi 
T
p U  
T T T

2 V V S
i

We consider here conservative systems, where the work potential is independent of the path
taken. In other words, if the system is displaced from a given configuration and brough back to
this state, the forces do zero work regardless of the path. The potential energy principle is now
stated as follows:

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

For conservative systems, of all the kinematically admissible displacement fields, the true one
corresponding to the satisfaction of stable equilibrium of the body is identified by a minimum
value of the total potential energy.

u
Kinematically admissible displacements are
those that satisfy the inter-element continuity Admissible Displacement Function
(compatibility) and the boundary conditions. u+ u

u
Total potential energy is a function of nodal
displacements, i.e.
 p   p d  Actual Displacement Function
  p d 1 , d 2 , d 3 , ..........d n 
  p d i  x

According to above prnciple, when  p is minimized with respect to nodal displacements,

equilibrium results. Therefore, to determine the stationary (minimum) value of total potential
energy, we take variation of  p :

 p  p  p
 p  d1  d 2   d n  0
d 1 d 2 d n 41
  p  p  p
  0,  0,  , 0
d 1 d 2 d n

 p
  0, i  1,2,3,....., n
d i

The above mathematical form gives a set of n algebraic equations for n unknown nodal
displacements.

For the spring element,

1
 p  U    kx 2  Fx
2
 p
 p  x  0  kx  F  0
x

 p  250x 2  1000x
Now consider a spring example as shown in the figure with F=1000 lbs.

 p  250 x 2  1000 x F F

 p
 0  500 x  1000  0
x x
k
k = 500 lb/in
x  2.00 in. and  p  1000 lb  in
x

Plot of total potential energy:

PE
10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0 x

-4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00

-2000

42
1.9.2 Derivation of Stiffness Equation

The total potential energy  p of an elastic body as derived in the previous section is be written
in local coordinate system as follows::

p U  
1
2 V
 
T
ˆdV  V dˆ   fˆ dV   dˆ Tˆ dS  dˆ  Pˆ 
T
b
S
T T

Using the stress/strain and strain/displacement relationship, we can express the internal strain
in terms of nodal displacement as follows:

 T    D T      D  

   D   
T T

   D    symmetric, D   D 
T T

 B d  D B d     B d 

T

 d  B  D B d 
T T

substituting,

p 
1
2 V
dˆ   B DBdˆdV   dˆ fˆ dV   dˆ Tˆ dS  dˆ Pˆ 
T T
V
T
b
S
T T

From the principle of minimum potential energy using matric differentiation, we obtain

 p
dˆ

 1
 dˆ  2 V
   dˆ   B DBdˆdV   dˆ fˆ dV   dˆ Tˆ dS  dˆ Pˆ   0
T T
V
T
b
S
T T

 B  DB dV dˆ   fˆ dV   Tˆ dS  Pˆ  0

T
b
V V S

  B  D B dV dˆ  fˆ  0
V
T
  
    
 kˆ dˆ  fˆ  0

where

kˆ    B DBdV

V
T

fˆ   fˆ dV   Tˆ dS  Pˆ 

V
b
S 43
From previous section, for bar element:

B    1 1
 L L 
D  E 
V  AL

substituting,

kˆ    B DBdV

V
T

 1
   1 1
  L E    AL

1
  L L 
 L 

AE  1  1

L   1 1 

1.10 Bar Element Formulation using Weighted Residual Approach

1.10.1 Galerkin’s Residual Method

When a functional does not exist or a variational principle is not known, then use weighted
residual method. For example, in fluid mechanics, we have only governing equations and
boundary equations. Various weighted residual methods reported in the literature are Galerkin,
Collocation, Least square, Least squares colocation and others. Galerkin’s method is the most
commonly used and better known.

In residual methods, a trial or approximate function is chosen to approximate the independent

variable, such as displacements or temperature, in a problem defined by a differential equation.
Substitution of the trial function into the differential equation results in a residual R over the
whole region of the problem as follows:

 R dV  minimum
V

In weighted residual, we require a weighted value of the residual be a minimum over the
whole region:

44
 R W dV  0
V

where W is the weighting function.

In the Galerkin method, the shape function Ni are chosen to play the role of the weighting
functions W. Thus, for each i, we have

 R N dV  0,
V
i i  1,2,3,......, n

resulting in a total of n equations.

1.10.2 Derivation of Bar Element Stiffness Equations

From equilibrium of one-dimensional problem without body forces, we obtain:

d x

d
E x   d  E du   0
dx dx dx  dx 

in terms for forces in local coordinate system:

d  duˆ 
 AE   0
dxˆ  dxˆ 

using Galerkin’s criterion:

L
 d  duˆ  
  dxˆ  AE dxˆ  N dxˆ  0
0
i (i  1, 2)

From integration by parts:  u dv  u v   v du

Applying integration by parts, we have

 dN i  ˆ
u  Ni  du   dx
 dxˆ 
d  duˆ  duˆ
dv   AE   v  AE
dxˆ  dxˆ  dxˆ

L
 duˆ  L
 duˆ  dN i 
 N i AE     AE  dxˆ  0 (A)
 dxˆ  0 0  dxˆ  dxˆ 

45
In the above equation (A), replace displacement field in terms of nodal displacement as
follows:

d   dˆ    dN
duˆ

d
dxˆ dxˆ
  
N  dˆ 
dxˆ 
N 1 N 2  1 x     1
dˆ 2 x    dxˆ
dN 2   dˆ1 x 
 
dxˆ  dˆ 2 x 

Susbtituting shape functions, we obtain

46
duˆ  dN 1 dN 2   dˆ1 x 
  
dxˆ  dxˆ dxˆ  dˆ2 x 

d  xˆ  d  xˆ    dˆ1 x 
  1      
 dxˆ  L dxˆ  L   dˆ2 x 
(B)
 1 1   dˆ1 x 
   
 L L  dˆ2 x 

ˆ 

1
 1 1dˆ1 x 
L d 2 x 

subtituting equation (B) in (A) and rearranging, we get

L
L
 duˆ  dN   duˆ 
0  AE dxˆ  dxˆ i dxˆ   N i AE dxˆ 
0
(C)
 dˆ1 x  ˆ 
AE  dN i 
 0L  1 1dˆ1 x 
L

 
ˆ
 1 1  ˆ dxˆ 
AE
N i
L 0  dx  d 2 x  L d 2 x 

xˆ dN 1 1
For i=1, N 1  1  , 
L dxˆ L

Equation (C) yields,

 dˆ  AE  xˆ   dˆ 
L
AE  1 
   1 1L ˆ1 x    1 -   1 1 ˆ1 x 
L  L d 2 x  L  L 0 d 2 x 

ˆ  ˆ 
AE
1  1dˆ1 x    AE  1 1dˆ1 x 
L d 2 x  L d 2 x 


AE ˆ
L

d 2 x  dˆ1 x 
 T T  A x  AE x  AE
dˆ 2x  dˆ1 x 
L

47
 © 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Refering to the figure, we can write for node 1:

ˆ 
AE
1  1dˆ1 x   fˆ1 x
L d 2 x 

Similarly, following the same procedure for node 2, we get:

ˆ 
AE
 1 1dˆ1 x   fˆ2 x
L d 2 x 

Combining we get the stiffness equation for the bar element as follows:

AE  1  1  dˆ1 x   fˆ1 x 
  
L   1 1  dˆ2 x   fˆ2 x 

48
1.11 FEA: Modeling, Errors, and Accuracy.

Modeling is the simulation of a physical structure or physical process by means of a substitute

analytical or numerical construct. It is not simply preparing a mesh of nodes and elements.
Modeling requires that the physical action of the problem be understood well enough to choose
suitable kinds of elements, and enough of them, to represent the physical action adequately.
Figure 11 gives an outline of a FE analysis project.

Figure 11: Outline of a FE analysis project.

Modeling Error:

Whatever the analysis method, we do not analyze the actual physical problem; rather, we
analyze a mathematical model of it. Thus, we introduce modeling error. For example, in
elementary beam theory we represent a beam by a line (its axis) and typically ignore
deformations associated with transverse shear. This is an excellent approximation for slender
beams but not for very short beams. Or, for axial load problem of Figure 12, we would
probably assume that a state of uniaxial stress prevails throughout the bar, which is proper if
taper is slight but improper if taper is pronounced. Real structures are not so easily classified,
as they are often built of parts that would be idealized mathematically in different ways and
have cutouts, stiffeners, and connectors whose behavior is uncertain.

Figure 12: (a) A tapered bar loaded by axial force P, (b) Discretization of the bar into four
uniform two-node elements of equal length.

The forgoing considerations must be addressed in order to decide what types of elements to use
and how many of them. If a beam is deep, transverse shear deformation may become important
and should be included in beam elements. If a beam is very deep, two or three-dimensional
elements are more appropriate than beam elements. If a beam has a wide cross section, plat
theory may be more appropriate than beam theory (. then, of course, choose plate elements
49
rather than beam elements). If an axisymmetric pressure vessel has a thick wall one should
regard it as a solid of revolution rather than a shell of revolution and choose axisymmetric
solid elements rather than axisymmetric shell elements.

Discretization Error:

Let us no consider the axially tapered bar of Figure 4 in more detail and describe ho the FE
method implements the mathematical model. We will assume that a satisfactory mathematical
model is based on a state of uniaxial stress. An analytical solution is then rather easy, but we
pretend not to know it and ask for a FE solution instead. We discretize the mathematical model
by dividing it into two-node elements of constant cross-section, as shown in Figure 4b. Each
element has length L, accounts only for a constant uniaxial stress along its length, and has an
axial deformation given by the elementary formula PL/AE. For each element, A may be taken
as constant and equal to the cross-sectional area of the tapered bar at an x coordinate
corresponding to the element center. The displacement of load P is equal to the sum of the
element deformations. Intuitively, we expect that the exact displacement be approached as
more and more elements are used to span the total length LT. However, even if a great many
elements are used thee is an error, known as discretization error, which exists because the
physical structure and the mathematical model each have infinitely many d.o.f. (namely, the
displacements of infinitely many points) while the FE model has a finite number of d.o.f. ( the
axial displacements of its nodes).

How many elements are enough?

Imagine that we carry out two FE analyses, the second time using a more refined mesh. The
second FE model will have les discretization error that the first, and will also represent the
geometry better if the physical object has curved surfaces. If the two analyses yield similar
solutions, we suspect that results are not much in error. Or, we might establish a sequence of
solutions by solving the problem more than twice, using a finer mesh each time. By study of
how the sequence converges we may be able to state with some confidence that the results
from the finest mesh are in error by less tha )say) 5%.

Numerical Error:

After the analyst has introduced modeling error and discretization error, the computer
introduces numerical error by rounding or truncating numbers as it builds matrices and solves
equations. Usually numerical error is small, but some modeling practices can greatly increase
it.

1.12 Responsibilty of Users.

FE computer programs have become widely available, easier to use, and can display results
with attractive graphics. Even an inept user can produce some kind of answer. It is hard to
disbelieve FE results because of the effort needed to get them and the polish of their
presentation. But, any model, good or bad, can produce smooth and colorful stress contours. It
is possible that most FE analyses are so flawed that they cannot be trusted. Even a poor mesh,
inappropriate element types, incorrect loads, or improper supports may produce results that
appear reasonable on casual inspection. A poor model may have defects that are not removed
by refinement of the mesh.

50
A responsible user must understand the physical nature of the problem and the behavior of
finite elements well enough to prepare a suitable model and evaluate the quality of the results.
Competence in using FE for stress analysis does not imply competence in using FE for (say)
magnetic field problems. The engineer who uses the software, not the software vendor, even if
the results are affected by the errors in the software, takes responsibility for results produced.

Figure 13: Lateral midpoint displacement versus time for a beam loaded by a pressure pulse.
The material is elastic-perfectly plastic. Plots were generated by various users and various
codes.[2]

Figure 13 is an example of discrepancies that may appear. A pressure pulse is applied to a

straight beam with hinge supports. The loading causes the material to yield and the beam to
vibrate. Analysis seeks to track the lateral displacement of the midpoint as a function of time.
The results plotted come from ten reputable analysis codes and were obtained by users
regarded as expert. Yet if any of the curves is correct we cannot tell which one it is.
Admittedly, the problem is difficult. The results indicate "strong sensitivities of both physical
and computational nature". This example reminds us that any analysis program is based on
theory and approximation, and that a user may push the program beyond its range of validity.

51
 SECTION 2: STATIC ANALYSIS USING ANSYS
2.1 Overview of Structural Analysis

2.1.1 Definition of Structural Analysis

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method. The
term structural (or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures such as bridges and
buildings, but also naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft
bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine
parts, and tools.

2.1.2 Definition of Static Analysis

A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a structure, while
ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused by time-varying loads. A static
analysis can, however, include steady inertia loads (such as gravity and rotational velocity),
and time-varying loads that can be approximated as static equivalent loads (such as the static
equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building codes). Static analysis
is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components
caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects. Steady loading and
response conditions are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure's response are assumed to
vary slowly with respect to time. The kinds of loading that can be applied in a static analysis
include:
 Externally applied forces and pressures
 Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity)
 Imposed (nonzero) displacements
 Temperatures (for thermal strain)
 Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

2.1.3 Linear vs. Nonlinear Static Analyses

A static analysis can be either linear or nonlinear. All types of nonlinearities are allowed - large
deformations, plasticity, creep, stress stiffening, contact (gap) elements, hyperelastic elements,
and so on. This chapter focuses on linear static analyses, with brief references to nonlinearities.
Details of how to handle nonlinearities are described in Nonlinear Structural Analysis notes.

2.2 Static Analysis Procedure

52
The procedure for a static analysis consists of these tasks:
1. Pre-Processing: Build the Model
2. Apply the Loads and Solve the Analysis
3. Post-Processing: Review the Results

2.2.1. Preprocessing: Building a Model

Building a finite element model requires more of your time than any other part of the analysis.
First, you specify a jobname and analysis title. Then, you use the PREP7 preprocessor to
define the element types, element real constants, material properties, and the model geometry.

Defining the Jobname

The jobname is a name that identifies the ANSYS job. When you define a jobname for an
analysis, the jobname becomes the first part of the name of all files the analysis creates. (The
extension or suffix for these files' names is a file identifier such as .DB.) By using a jobname
for each analysis, you insure that no files are overwritten.If you do not specify a jobname, all
files receive the name FILE or file, depending on the operating system. You can change the
default jobname as follows:By using the initial jobname entry option when you enter the
ANSYS program, either via the launcher or on the ANSYS execution command. From within
the ANSYS program, you can use either of the following: Command(s):/FILNAME or
GUI:Utility Menu> File> Change Jobname. The /FILNAME command is valid only at the
Begin level. It lets you change the jobname

Utility Menu> File> Change Jobname

Enter the job name.

Defining an Analysis Title

The /TITLE command (Utility Menu> File> Change Title), defines a title for the analysis.
ANSYS includes the title on all graphics displays and on the solution output. You can issue the
/STITLE command to add subtitles; these will appear in the output, but not in graphics
displays.

53
Utility Menu> File> Change Title

Enter the title.

Defining Units

The ANSYS program does not assume a system of units for your analysis. Except in magnetic
field analyses, you can use any system of units so long as you make sure that you use that
system for all the data you enter. (Units must be consistent for all input data.)For micro-electro
mechanical systems (MEMS), where dimensions are on the order of microns, see the
conversion factors in System of Units in the ANSYS Coupled-Field Analysis Guide.Using the
/UNITS command, you can set a marker in the ANSYS database indicating the system of units
that you are using. This command does not convert data from one system of units to another; it
simply serves as a record for subsequent reviews of the analysis.

Defining Element Types

The ANSYS element library contains more than 150 different element types. Each element
type has a unique number and a prefix that identifies the element category: BEAM4,
PLANE77, SOLID96, etc. The following element categories are available:
BEAM CIRCUit COMBINation CONTACt FLUID
HF (High HYPERelastic INFINite INTERface LINK
Frequency)
MASS MATRIX MESH PIPE PLANE
PRETS(Pretension) SHELL SOLID SOURCe SURFace
TARGEt TRANSducer USER VISCOelastic(or
viscoplastic).
The element type determines, among other things: The degree-of-freedom set (which in turn
implies the discipline - structural, thermal, magnetic, electric, quadrilateral, brick, etc.)Whether
the element lies in two-dimensional or three-dimensional space.

54
 1. Main Menu> Preprocessor>
Element Type>
Add/Edit/Delete

2. Add an element type.

2. Structural shell family of

elements.

3. Choose the 8-noded layered shell

element. (SHELL99).

4. OK to apply the element type and

close the dialog box.

5. Close the element type dialog

box.

Defining Element Real Constants

Element real constants are properties that depend on the element type, such as cross-sectional
properties of a beam element. For example, real constants for BEAM3, the 2-D beam element,
are area (AREA), moment of inertia (IZZ), height (HEIGHT), shear deflection constant
(SHEARZ), initial strain (ISTRN), and added mass per unit length (ADDMAS). Not all
55
element types require real constants, and different elements of the same type may have
different real constant values.

1. Main Menu> Preprocessor>

Real Constants>
Add/Edit/Delete

2. Add a real constant set.

3. OK for PLANE42.

4. Enter the value of thickness

5. OK to define the real constant

and close the dialog box.

Defining Material Properties

Most element types require material properties. Depending on the application, material
properties can be linear (see Linear Material Properties) or nonlinear (see Nonlinear Material
Properties).As with element types and real constants, each set of material properties has a
material reference number. The table of material reference numbers versus material property
sets is called the material table. Within one analysis, you may have multiple material property
sets (to correspond with multiple materials used in the model). ANSYS identifies each set with

56
a unique reference number. While defining the elements, you point to the appropriate material
reference number using the MAT command.

Linear Material Properties

Linear material properties can be constant or temperature-dependent, and isotropic or
orthotropic. To define constant material properties (either isotropic or orthotropic), use one of
the following: Command(s):MPGUI:Main Menu> Preprocessor> Material Props> Material
Models(See Material Model Interface for details on the GUI.)You also must specify the
appropriate property label; for example EX, EY, EZ for Young's modulus, KXX, KYY, KZZ
for thermal conductivity, and so forth. For isotropic material you need to define only the X-
direction property; the other directions default to the X-direction value. For example:
MP,EX,1,2E11 ! Young's modulus for material ref. no. 1 is 2E11
MP,DENS,1,7800 ! Density for material ref. no. 1 is 7800
MP,KXX,1,43 ! Thermal conductivity for material ref. no 1 is 43

Nonlinear Material Properties

Nonlinear material properties are usually tabular data, such as plasticity data (stress-strain
curves for different hardening laws), magnetic field data (B-H curves), creep data, swelling
data, hyperelastic material data, etc. The first step in defining a nonlinear material property is
to activate a data table using the TB command (see Material Model Interface for the GUI
equivalent). For example, TB,BH,2 activates the B-H table for material reference number 2.To
enter the tabular data, use the TBPT command. For example, the following commands define a
B-H curve:
TBPT,DEFI,150,.21
TBPT,DEFI,300,.55
TBPT,DEFI,460,.80
TBPT,DEFI,640,.95
TBPT,DEFI,720,1.0
TBPT,DEFI,890,1.1
TBPT,DEFI,1020,1.15
TBPT,DEFI,1280,1.25
TBPT,DEFI,1900,1.4
You can verify the data table through displays and listings using the TBPLOT or TBLIST
commands.
57
Creating the Model Geometry

Once you have defined material properties, the next step in an analysis is generating a finite
element model - nodes and elements - that adequately describes the model geometry. There are
two methods to create the finite element model: solid modeling and direct generation. With
solid modeling, you describe the geometric shape of your model, then instruct the ANSYS
program to automatically mesh the geometry with nodes and elements. You can control the
size and shape in the elements that the program creates. With direct generation, you
"manually" define the location of each node and the connectivity of each element. Several
convenience operations, such as copying patterns of existing nodes and elements, symmetry
reflection, etc. are available. Details of the two methods and many other aspects related to
model generation - coordinate systems, working planes, coupling, constraint equations, etc. -
are described in the ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide.

2.2.2 Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution

In this step, you use the SOLUTION processor to define the analysis type and analysis options,
apply loads, specify load step options, and initiate the finite element solution. You also can
apply loads using the PREP7 preprocessor.

Defining the Analysis Type and Analysis Options

You choose the analysis type based on the loading conditions and the response you wish to
calculate. For example, if natural frequencies and mode shapes are to be calculated, you would
choose a modal analysis. You can perform the following analysis types in the ANSYS
program: static (or steady-state), transient, harmonic, modal, spectrum, buckling, and
substructuring.Not all analysis types are valid for all disciplines. Modal analysis, for example,
is not valid for a thermal model. The analysis guide manuals in the ANSYS documentation set
describe the analysis types available for each discipline and the procedures to do those
analyses.Analysis options allow you to customize the analysis type. Typical analysis options
are the method of solution, stress stiffening on or off, and Newton-Raphson options.To define
the analysis type and analysis options, use the ANTYPE command (Main Menu>
Preprocessor> Loads> Analysis Type> New Analysis or Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads>
58
Analysis Type> Restart) and the appropriate analysis option commands (TRNOPT, HROPT,
MODOPT, SSTIF, NROPT, etc.). For GUI equivalents for the other commands, see their
descriptions in the ANSYS Elements Reference.If you are performing a static or full transient
analysis, you can take advantage of the Solution Controls dialog box to define many options
for the analysis. For details about the Solution Controls dialog box, see Solution.You can
specify either a new analysis or a restart, but a new analysis is the choice in most cases. A
singleframe restart that allows you to resume a job at its end point or abort point is available
for static (steady-state), harmonic (2-D magnetic only), and transient analyses. A multiframe
restart that allows you to restart an analysis at any point is available for static or full transient
structural analyses. See Restarting an Analysis for complete information on performing
restarts. The various analysis guides discuss additional details necessary for restarts. You
cannot change the analysis type and analysis options after the first solution.A sample input
listing for a structural transient analysis is shown below. Remember that the discipline
(structural, thermal, magnetic, etc.) is implied by the element types used in the model.

ANTYPE,TRANS
TRNOPT,FULL
NLGEOM,ON

Once you have defined the analysis type and analysis options, the next step is to apply loads.
Some structural analysis types require other items to be defined first, such as master degrees of
freedom and gap conditions. The ANSYS Structural Analysis Guide describes these items
where necessary.

Applying Loads

The word loads as used in ANSYS documentation includes boundary conditions (constraints,
supports, or boundary field specifications) as well as other externally and internally applied
loads. Loads in the ANSYS program are divided into six categories: DOF Constraints, Forces,
Surface Loads, Body Loads, Inertia Loads and Coupled-field Loads

You can apply most of these loads either on the solid model (keypoints, lines, and areas) or the
finite element model (nodes and elements). For details about the load categories and how they
can be applied on your model, see Loading in this manual. Two important load-related terms
you need to know are load step and substep. A load step is simply a configuration of loads for
which you obtain a solution. In a structural analysis, for example, you may apply wind loads in
one load step and gravity in a second load step. Load steps are also useful in dividing a
transient load history curve into several segments. Substeps are incremental steps taken within
a load step. You use them mainly for accuracy and convergence purposes in transient and
nonlinear analyses. Substeps are also known as time steps - steps taken over a period of time.

Specifying Load Step Options

Load step options are options that you can change from load step to load step, such as number
of substeps, time at the end of a load step, and output controls. Depending on the type of
analysis you are doing, load step options may or may not be required. The analysis procedures
in the analysis guide manuals describe the appropriate load step options as necessary. See
Loading for a general description of load step options.

59
Initiating the Solution

To initiate solution calculations, use either of the following: Command(s):

SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS

When you issue this command, the ANSYS program takes model and loading information
from the database and calculates the results. Results are written to the results file
(Jobname.RST, Jobname.RTH, Jobname.RMG, or Jobname.RFL) and also to the database.
The only difference is that only one set of results can reside in the database at one time, while
you can write all sets of results (for all substeps) to the results file.

2.2.3. Review the Results

Once the solution has been calculated, you can use the ANSYS postprocessors to review the
results. Two postprocessors are available: POST1 and POST26.You use POST1, the general
postprocessor, to review results at one substep (time step) over the entire model or selected
portion of the model. The command to enter POST1 is /POST1 (Main Menu> General
Postproc), valid only at the Begin level. You can obtain contour displays, deformed shapes,
and tabular listings to review and interpret the results of the analysis. POST1 offers many other
capabilities, including error estimation, load case combinations, calculations among results
data, and path operations.You use POST26, the time history postprocessor, to review results at
specific points in the model over all time steps. The command to enter POST26 is /POST26
(Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro), valid only at the Begin level. You can obtain graph plots of
results data versus time (or frequency) and tabular listings. Other POST26 capabilities include
arithmetic calculations and complex algebra.

60
 SECTION 3: GEOMETRIC MODELING
The ultimate purpose of a finite element analysis is to recreate mathematically the behavior of
an actual engineering system. In other words, the analysis must be an accurate mathematical
model of a physical prototype. In the broadest sense, this model comprises all the nodes,
elements, material properties, real constants, boundary conditions, and other features including
geometry that are used to represent the physical system. The ANSYS program offers you the
following approaches to geometric modeling:

1. Creating a solid model within ANSYS.

2. Using direct generation.
3. Importing a model created in a computer-aided design (CAD) system.

3.1 Typical Steps Involved in Model Generation Within ANSYS

 Begin by planning your approach. Determine your objectives, decide what basic form
your model will take, choose appropriate element types, and consider how you will
establish an appropriate mesh density. You will typically do this general planning
before you initiate your ANSYS session.
 Enter the preprocessor (PREP7) to initiate your model-building session. Most often,
you will build your model using solid modeling procedures.
 Establish a working plane.
 Generate basic geometric features using geometric primitives and Boolean operators.
 Activate the appropriate coordinate system.
 Generate other solid model features from the bottom up. That is, create keypoints, and
then define lines, areas, and volumes as needed.
 Use more Boolean operators or number controls to join separate solid model regions
together as appropriate.
 Create tables of element attributes (element types, real constants, material properties,
and element coordinate systems).
 Set element attribute pointers.
 Set meshing controls to establish your desired mesh density if desired. This step is not
always required because default element sizes exist when you enter the program. (If
you want the program to refine the mesh automatically, exit the preprocessor at this
point, and activate adaptive meshing.)
 Create nodes and elements by meshing your solid model.
 After you have generated nodes and elements, add features such as surface-to-surface
contact elements, coupled degrees of freedom, and constraint equations.
 Save your model data to Jobname.DB.
 Exit the preprocessor.

3.2 Importing Solid Models Created in CAD systems

As an alternative to creating your solid models within ANSYS, you can create them in your
favorite CAD system and then import them into ANSYS for analysis, by saving them in the
IGES file format or in a file format supported by an ANSYS Connection product. Creating a
model using a CAD package has the following advantages:

61
  You avoid a duplication of effort by using existing CAD models to generate solid
models for analysis.
 You use more familiar tools to create models.

However, models imported from CAD systems may require extensive repair if they are not of
suitable quality for meshing.

Utility Menu> File > Import

Select the type of CAD file

In this example, a SAT file will be

imported.

Give the name of the file with

complete path.

62
Usually, it is imported and displayed
as wire-frame drawing

To change as solid display, change

the solid modeling facets from wire
frame to normal faceting.

Utility Menu>PltCtrls>Style>Solid
Model Facets

Change to Normal Faceting

3.3 Solid Modeling

The purpose of using a solid model is to relieve you of the time-consuming task of building a
complicated finite element model by direct generation. Let's take a brief look at some of the
solid modeling and meshing operations that you can use to speed up the creation of your final
analysis model

Building your model from the bottom up: Keypoints, the points that define the vertices of
your model, are the "lowest-order" solid model entities. If, in building your solid model, you
63
first create your keypoints, and then use those keypoints to define the "higher-order" solid
model entities (that is, lines, areas, and volumes), you are said to be building your model "from
the bottom up." Keep in mind that models built from the bottom up are defined within the
currently active coordinate system.

Building your model from the top down: The ANSYS program also gives you the ability to
assemble your model using geometric primitives, which are fully-defined lines, areas, and
volumes. As you create a primitive, the program automatically creates all the "lower" entities
associated with it. If your modeling effort begins with the "higher" primitive entities, you are
said to be building your model "from the top down." You can freely combine bottom up and
top down modeling techniques, as appropriate, in any model. Remember that geometric
primitives are built within the working plane while bottom up techniques are defined against
the active coordinate system. If you are mixing techniques, you may wish to consider using the
CSYS,WP or CSYS, 4 command to force the coordinate system to follow the working plane.

Using Boolean operators: You can "sculpt" your solid model using intersections,
subtractions, and other Boolean operations. Booleans allow you to work directly with higher
solid model entities to create complex shapes. (Both bottom up and top down creations can be
used in Boolean operations.)

Dragging and rotating: Boolean operators, although convenient, can be computationally

expensive. Sometimes a model can be constructed more efficiently by dragging, or rotating.

Moving and copying solid model entities: A complicated area or volume that appears
repetitively in your model need only be constructed once; it can then be moved, rotated, and
copied to a new location on your model. You might also find it more convenient to place
geometric primitives in their proper location by moving them, rather than by changing the
working plane.

64
Tutorial 1: Solid Modeling using 2D Primitives

TITLE
Bottom-Up Solid Modeling of Retaining Ring
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Build a solid model of the retaining ring shown using extrusion command. When you are
done, save the database.

OD 16, ID 13 THK 1

2
R 0.6
4 All dimensions in inches

SOLUTION METHODOLOGY
Rather than drawing two circles and subtracting one from the other, circular annulus will be
used to create the main ring. A 2-D cross-section of the retaining ring will be first drawn,
having the complete details (including fillet radius) shown. Solid Boolean operations will be
performed to make a single object from the various entities. The 2-D object, together with its
mesh, will be extruded to obtain the final retaining ring.

PROGRAM OPTIONS
Boolean Operations, Add, Subtract
Circle, Annulus
Modeling, Reflect (mirror)
Modeling, Extrude

65
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

1. Start ANSYS; save file with your given job name

File -> Save As -> Retaining-Ring -> OK

2. Create the ring by using the annulus command:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Circle -> Annulus -> In dialogue box
enter WP X = 0, WP Y = 0, Rad-1 = 8, Rad-2 = 6.5 -> OK

3. Create a rectangle:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Rectangle -> By Dimensions -> In
dialogue box enter X1,X2 X-coords = -2, 2 and Y1,Y2 Y-coords = -7.5, -9.5 -> OK

66
4. Add the two areas (ring and rectangle) by Boolean operation to make a single area:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Add -> Areas -> Using mouse pick
the ring (point to the ring and left-click), then pick the rectangle, or select pick all
-> OK
Save _DB

5. Create another rectangle:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Rectangle -> By Dimensions -> In
dialogue box enter X1, X2 X-coords = -0.25, 0.25 and Y1, Y2 Y-coords = -6, -10 -> OK

6. Subtract the new rectangle from the existing area to get middle slot of the retaining ring:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Subtract -> Areas -> Using mouse
pick existing area -> Apply -> pick rectangle -> OK
Neglect warning; close.
Save _DB

67
7. Create a circle to get one of the holes in the retaining ring:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Circle -> Solid Circle -> In dialogue box
enter WP X = 1, WP Y = -8, Radius = 0.6 -> OK

8. Make a mirror copy of the circle to get the second hole in the retaining ring:
Preprocessor -> Reflect -> Areas -> Pick the circle -> Apply -> In dialogue box enter KINC
Keypoint Increment = 0 -> OK
The hole on the right will be mirrored on the lift side.

68
9. Subtract the two circles from the main body to get the two holes:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Subtract -> Areas -> Using mouse
pick main body -> Apply -> pick one circle, pick other circle -> OK
Save _DB

10. Change view to make the lines visible, so that you can perform the fillet operation:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot -> Lines

11. Round off on the two sides of the bottom part of the retaining ring using fillet command:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Lines -> Line Fillet -> Using mouse pick the arc
portion of the right main body, then pick the straight line on the right bottom part -> Apply ->
In the dialogue box enter RAD Fillet radius = 1 -> Apply
Similarly, pick the arc portion of the left main body, then pick the straight line on the left
bottom part -> Apply -> In the dialogue box enter RAD Fillet radius = 1 -> OK
Save _DB

12. Go back to the area view mode; lines are no more visible:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot -> Areas

69
Note: Before generating the mesh, we need to define two different element types: a 2-D
element for the cross-sectional view of the retaining ring that we have just created, and a 3-D
element to get the actual solid retaining ring having the required thickness. The 2-D area will
be first meshed, then the area will be extruded to create a 3-D volume. The mesh will be
extruded along with the geometry and 3-D mesh elements will be automatically generated in
the volume.

13. Define the two element types:

Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add -> In the dialogue box click on
Structural-Solid on the left, then click on Quad 4node 42 on the right -> Apply -> Again, in
the dialogue box click on Structural-Solid on the left, then click on Brick 8node 45 on the
right -> OK -> Close
Save _DB

14. Perform meshing on the 2-D cross-sectional view of the retaining ring:
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Areas -> Free -> Pick All
Neglect the warning; close
Save _DB

70
15. Extrude the meshed area into a meshed volume:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Extrude -> Elem Ext Opts -> In the dialogue box,
[TYPE] Element type number: click on 2 SOLID45 in the drop down menu, then enter
[VAL1] No. Element divs = 10 -> OK

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Extrude -> Areas -> By XYZ Offset -> Pick All -
> In the dialogue box, enter DX = 0, DY = 0, DZ = 1 -> OK
Neglect warning; close.
SAVE_DB

71
16. Change the view to 3-D isometric view to see the complete retaining ring:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot_Ctrls -> Pan Zoom Rotate … -> Click on ISO -> Close

17. Change the view to un-meshed one so that you can see the solid drawing of the retaining
ring:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot -> Volumes

72
Tutorial 2: Solid Modeling using 3D Primitives

TITLE
Top-Down Solid Modeling of Pillow Block

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Build a half symmetry solid model of this pillow block. When you’re done, save the database.

Bushing, Bracket
1.5R, 0.75
Counterbore
1.0R, 0.1875

Web, 0.15

Base
Four 0.75D
1.7 6x3x
holes,
0 75 offset

All dimensions in inches

PROGRAM OPTIONS
APDL, scalar parameters
Boolean Operations, GLUE
Boolean Operations, SUBTRACT
Graphics, hidden-line options
Graphics, viewing angle
Primitives, volumes
Working plane

73
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

1. Enter ANSYS in the working directory specified by your instructor using “p-block” as the
jobname.

2. Switch to isometric view:

Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Pan, Zoom, Rotate …
[ISO]
Or issue:
/VIEW,1,1,1,1

3. Create the base of the pillow block:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > -Volumes- Block > By Dimensions ...
X1 = 0, X2 = 3, Y1 = 0, Y2 = 1, Z1 = 0, Z2 = 3, then [OK]
Or issue:
/PREP7
BLOCK,0,3,0,1,0,3

3. Offset working plane to location X=2.25, Y=1.25, Z=.75:

Utility Menu > WorkPlane > Offset WP by Increments …
Set X,Y,Z Offsets = 2.25, 1.25, 0.75
Set XY, YZ, ZX Angles = 0, -90, 0, then [OK]
Or issue:
WPOFF, 2.25, 1.25, 0.75
WPROT, 0, -90, 0

74
4. Create a solid cylinder having a diameter of 0.75 inches and a depth of -1.5 inches:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > -Volumes- Cylinder >
Solid Cylinder +
Radius = 0.75/2
Depth = -1.5, then [OK]
Or issue:
CYL4, , ,0.75/2, , , ,-1.5

5. Copy the solid cylinder to new location with DZ=1.5:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Copy > Volumes +
Pick the cylinder volume (Vol. Number 2), then [OK]
DZ = 1.5, then [OK]
Or issue:
VGEN,2,2, , , , ,1.5, ,0

6. Subtract the two solid cylinders from the base:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Operate > -Booleans- Subtract > Volumes +
Pick the base volume (Vol. 1), then [OK]
Pick the two cylinder volumes (Vols. 2 and 3), then [OK]
Or issue:
VSBV, 1, ALL

75
7. Align working plane with the Global Cartesian origin:
Utility Menu > WorkPlane > Align WP with > Global Cartesian
Or issue:
WPCSYS,-1,0
VPLOT

8. Create the base of the bushing bracket:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > -Volumes- Block >
By 2 Corners & Z +
WP X = 0
WP Y = 1
Width = 1.5
Height = 1.75
Depth = 0.75, then [OK]
Or issue:
BLC4,0,1,1.5,1.75,0.75

9. Offset working plane to the front face of the bushing bracket:

Utility Menu > WorkPlane > Offset WP to > Keypoints +
Pick keypoint at the top left corner of the front face, then [OK]
Or issue:
KWPAVE, 16

10. Create the arch of the bushing bracket:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > -Volumes- Cylinder >
Partial Cylinder +
WP X = 0
WP Y = 0
Rad-1 = 0
Theta-1 = 0
Rad-2 = 1.5
Theta-2 = 90
Depth = -0.75, then [OK]
Or issue:
CYL4,0,0,0,0,1.5,90,-0.75

76
11. Create cylinders for the counterbore and the through hole in the bushing bracket:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > -Volumes- Cylinder > Solid Cylinder +
WP X = 0
WP Y = 0
Radius = 1
Depth = -0.1875, then [Apply]
WP X = 0
WP Y = 0
Radius = 0.85
Depth = -2, then [OK]
Or issue:
CYL4,0,0,1, , , ,-0.1875
CYL4,0,0,0.85, , , ,-2

12. Subtract the two solid cylinders to form the counterbore and bushing through-hole:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Operate > -Booleans- Subtract > Volumes +
Pick the two volumes that form the base and the arch of the bushing bracket
[Apply]
Pick the counterbore cylinder
[Apply]
Pick the same two base volumes
[Apply]
Pick the through-hole cylinder
[OK]

13. Merge coincident keypoints:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Numbering Ctrls > Merge Items …
Set Label to “Keypoints”, then [OK]
Or issue:
NUMMRG,KP

77
14. Create the web:
14a. Create a keypoint in the middle of the front top edge of the base:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > Keypoints > KP between KPs +
Pick the two upper front corner keypoints of the base, then [OK]
RATI = 0.5, then [OK]
Or issue:
KBETW,7,8,0,RATI,0.5

14b. Create a triangular area:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create > -Areas- Arbitrary > Through KPs +
Pick the 1st keypoint where the base of the bushing bracket intersects the base of the pillow
block at X=1.5
Pick the 2nd keypoint where the base of the bushing bracket intersects the bottom arch surface
at X=1.5
Pick the 3rd keypoint that was created in step 14a at X=1.5, Y=1, Z=3
[Ok]
Or issue:
A,14,15,9

78
14c. Extrude area along area normal:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Operate > Extrude > -Areas- Along Normal +
Pick the triangular area created in step 14b, then [OK]
DIST = -0.15, then [OK]
Or issue:
VOFFST,3,-0.15

15. Glue the volumes together:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Operate > -Booleans- Glue > Volumes +
[Pick All]
Or issue:
VGLUE,ALL

16. Turn volume numbers on and then plot volumes:

Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering …
Set Volume numbers on, then [OK]
Or issue:
/PNUM,VOLU,1
VPLOT

17. Save and exit ANSYS:

Pick the “SAVE_DB” button in the Toolbar
Pick the “QUIT” button in the Toolbar
Select “Quit - No Save!”

79
[OK]
Or issue:
FINISH
/EXIT,ALL

80
 SECTION 4: STATIC ANALYSIS USING LINE ELEMENTS
Tutorial 3: Static Analysis using Line Elements-TRUSS
Tutorial 4: Static Analysis using Line Elements-BEAM

81
Tutorial 3: Static Analysis using TRUSS Elements

TITLE
Two Dimensional Truss

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Determine the nodal deflections, reaction forces, and stress for the truss system shown below
(E = 200GPa, A = 3250mm2).

(Modified from Chandrupatla & Belegunda, Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering,

p.123)

STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

1. Give the Simplified Version a Title (such as 'Bridge Truss Tutorial').

In the Utility menu bar select File > Change Title:

The following window will appear:

Enter the title and click 'OK'. This title will appear in the bottom left corner of the 'Graphics'
Window once you begin. Note: to get the title to appear immediately, select Utility Menu >
Plot > Replot

82
 coordinate
keypoint
2. Enter Keypoints x y
1 0 0
The overall geometry is defined in ANSYS using keypoints which 2 1800 3118
specify various principal coordinates to define the body. For this
example, these keypoints are the ends of each truss. 3 3600 0
We are going to define 7 keypoints for the simplified structure as 4 5400 3118
given in the following table (these keypoints are depicted by 5 7200 0
numbers in the above figure) .
6 9000 3118
7 10800 0
From the 'ANSYS Main Menu' select:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Keypoints > In Active CS

The following window will then appear:

To define the first keypoint which has the coordinates x = 0 and y =

0:
Enter keypoint number 1 in the appropriate box, and enter the x,y
coordinates: 0, 0 in their appropriate boxes (as shown above).
Click 'Apply' to accept what you have typed.

Enter the remaining keypoints using the same method.

Note: When entering the final data point, click on 'OK' to indicate that you are finished
entering keypoints. If you first press 'Apply' and then 'OK' for the final keypoint, you will have
defined it twice! If you did press 'Apply' for the final point, simply press 'Cancel' to close this
dialog box.

Units
Note the units of measure (i.e. mm) were not specified. It is the responsibility of the user to
ensure that a consistent set of units are used for the problem; thus making any conversions
where necessary.

Correcting Mistakes
When defining keypoints, lines, areas, volumes, elements, constraints and loads you are bound
to make mistakes. Fortunately these are easily corrected so that you don't need to begin from
scratch every time an error is made! Every 'Create' menu for generating these various entities
also has a corresponding 'Delete' menu for fixing things up.

83
3. Form Lines

The keypoints must now be connected . We will use the mouse to

select the keypoints to form the lines. In the main menu select:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Lines > Lines > In Active
Coord.
The following window will then appear:

Use the mouse to pick keypoint #1 (i.e. click on it). It will now be
marked by a small yellow box.
Now move the mouse toward keypoint #2. A line will now show on the
screen joining these two points. Left click and a permanent line will
appear.

Connect the remaining keypoints

using the same method.
When you're done, click on 'OK'
in the 'Lines in Active Coord'
window.

Disappearing Lines
Please note that any lines you
have created may 'disappear'
throughout your analysis.
However, they have most likely
NOT been deleted. If this occurs
at any time from the Utility
Menu select:
Plot > Lines

4. Define the Type of Element

It is now necessary to create elements. This is called
'meshing'. ANSYS first needs to know what kind of
elements to use for our problem. From the Preprocessor
Menu, select:
Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete.

Click on the 'Add...' button.

84
The following window will appear:

For this example, we will

use the 2D spar element as
selected in the above figure.
Select the element shown
and click 'OK'.

You should see 'Type 1

LINK1' in the 'Element
Types' window.
Click on 'Close' in the
'Element Types' dialog box.

5. Define Geometric Properties

We now need to specify geometric properties for our elements:

In the Preprocessor menu, select Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete

Click Add... and select 'Type 1 LINK1' (actually it is already selected).

Click on 'OK'. The following window will appear:

As shown in the window above, enter the cross-sectional area (3250mm):

Click on 'OK'.

'Set 1' now appears in the dialog box. Click on 'Close' in the 'Real Constants' window.

6. Element Material Properties

You then need to specify material

properties:
In the 'Preprocessor' menu select
Material Props > Material Models

85
Double click on Structural > Linear > Elastic > Isotropic

We are going to give the properties of Steel. Enter

the following field:
EX 200000

Set these properties and click on 'OK'. Note: You

may obtain the note 'PRXY will be set to 0.0'. This
is poisson's ratio and is not required for this element
type. Click 'OK' on the window to continue. Close
the "Define Material Model Behavior" by clicking
on the 'X' box in the upper right hand corner.

7. Mesh Size

The last step before meshing is to tell ANSYS what size the elements should be. There are a
variety of ways to do this but we will just deal with one method for now. In the Preprocessor
menu select
Meshing > Size Cntrls > ManualSize > Lines > All Lines

In the size 'NDIV' field, enter the desired number

of divisions per line. For this example we want
only 1 division per line, therefore, enter '1' and
then click 'OK'. Note that we have not yet
meshed the geometry, we have simply defined
the element sizes.

8. Mesh

Now the frame can be meshed. In the

'Preprocessor' menu select
Meshing > Mesh > Lines
and click 'Pick All' in the 'Mesh Lines' Window.
Your model should now appear as shown in the

86
window

9. Plot Numbering

To show the line numbers, keypoint

numbers, node numbers...
From the Utility Menu (top of screen) select
PlotCtrls > Numbering...
Fill in the Window as shown below and click
'OK'

Now you can turn numbering on or off at

your discretion

10. Saving Your Work

Save the model at this time, so if you make some mistakes later on, you will at least be able to
come back to this point. To do this, on the Utility Menu select File > Save as.... Select the
name and location where you want to save your file. It is a good idea to save your job at
different times throughout the building and analysis of the model to backup your work in case
of a system crash or what have you.

Solution Phase: Assigning Loads and Solving

You have now defined your model. It is now time to apply the load(s) and constraint(s) and
solve the the resulting system of equations.
Open up the 'Solution' menu (from the same
'ANSYS Main Menu').

11. Define Analysis Type

First you must tell ANSYS how you want it to

solve this problem:
From the Solution Menu, select
Analysis Type > New Analysis.

Ensure that 'Static' is selected; i.e. you are going

to do a static analysis on the truss as opposed to
a dynamic analysis, for example.
Click 'OK'.

12. Apply Constraints

It is necessary to apply constraints to the model otherwise the model is not tied
down or grounded and a singular solution will result. In mechanical structures,
these constraints will typically be fixed, pinned and roller-type connections.
As shown above, the left end of the truss bridge is pinned while the right end
has a roller connection. In the Solution menu, select
Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Keypoints

87
Select the left end of the bridge (Keypoint 1) by clicking on it in the Graphics Window and
click on 'OK' in the 'Apply U,ROT on KPs' window.

This location is fixed which means that all translational and rotational degrees of freedom
(DOFs) are constrained. Therefore, select 'All DOF' by clicking on it and enter '0' in the Value
field and click 'OK'.

You will see some blue triangles in the graphics window indicating the displacement
contraints.
Using the same method, apply the roller connection to the right end (UY constrained). Note
that more than one DOF constraint can be selected at a time in the "Apply U,ROT on KPs"
window. Therefore, you may need to 'deselect' the 'All DOF' option to select just the 'UY'
option.

13. Apply Loads

As shown in the diagram, there are four downward loads of 280kN, 210kN, 280kN, and 360kN
at keypoints 1, 3, 5, and 7 respectively. Select
Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Force/Moment > on Keypoints.

Select the first Keypoint (left end of the truss) and click 'OK' in the 'Apply F/M on KPs'
window.

Select FY in the 'Direction of

force/mom'. This indicate that we will
be applying the load in the 'y'
direction. Enter a value of -280000 in
the 'Force/moment value' box and click
'OK'.

Note that we are using units of N here,

this is consistent with the previous
values input.
The force will appear in the graphics
window as a red arrow.

88
Apply the remaining loads in the same manner. The applied loads and constraints should now
appear as shown below.

14. Solving the System

We now tell ANSYS to find the solution:

In the 'Solution' menu select Solve > Current LS. This indicates that we desire the solution
under the current Load Step (LS).

The above windows will appear. Ensure that your solution options are the same as shown
above and click 'OK'.

Once the solution is done the following window will pop up. Click 'Close' and close the
/STATUS Command Window..

Postprocessing: Viewing the Results

Hand Calculations
We will first calculate the forces and stress in element 1 (as labeled in the problem
description).

89
Results Using ANSYS

15. Reaction Forces

A list of the resulting reaction forces can be

obtained for this element. From the Main Menu
select
General Postproc > List Results > Reaction
Solu.

Select 'All struc forc F' as shown above and

click 'OK'

These values agree with the reaction forces

claculated by hand above.

16. Deformation

In the General Postproc menu, select

Plot Results > Deformed Shape.

The following window will appear.

Select 'Def + undef edge' and click 'OK'
to view both the deformed and the
undeformed object.

90
Observe the value of the
maximum deflection in the
upper left hand corner
(DMX=7.409). One should also
observe that the constrained
degrees of freedom appear to
have a deflection of 0 (as
expected!)

17. Deflection

For a more detailed version of the deflection of

the beam,
From the 'General Postproc' menu select
Plot results > Contour Plot > Nodal Solution.
The following window will appear.

Select 'DOF solution' and 'USUM' as shown in the

above window. Leave the other selections as the
default values. Click 'OK'.

91
Looking at the scale, you may want to use more useful intervals. From the Utility Menu select
Plot Controls > Style > Contours > Uniform Contours...
Fill in the following window as shown and click 'OK'.

You should obtain the following.

18. Listing of Result

The deflection can also be obtained as a list as shown below.

General Postproc > List Results > Nodal Solution
select 'DOF Solution' and 'ALL DOFs' from the lists in the 'List Nodal Solution' window and
click 'OK'. This means that we want to see a listing of all degrees of freedom from the solution.

Are these results what you expected? Note that all the degrees of freedom were constrained to
zero at node 1, while UY was constrained to zero at node 7.

92
If you wanted to save these results to a file, select 'File' within the results window (at the upper
left-hand corner of this list window) and select 'Save as'.

19. Axial Stress

For line elements (ie links, beams, spars, and pipes) you will often need to use the Element
Table to gain access to derived data (ie stresses, strains). For this example we should obtain
axial stress to compare with the hand calculations. The Element Table is different for each
element, therefore, we need to look at the help file for LINK1 (Type help link1 into the Input
Line). From Table 1.2 in the Help file, we can see that SAXL can be obtained through the
ETABLE, using the item 'LS,1'

From the General Postprocessor menu select

Element Table > Define Table
Click on 'Add...'

As shown above, enter 'SAXL' in

the 'Lab' box. This specifies the
name of the item you are defining.
Next, in the 'Item,Comp' boxes,
select 'By sequence number' and
'LS,'. Then enter 1 after LS, in the
selection box .

Click on 'OK' and close the

'Element Table Data' window.

Plot the Stresses by selecting Element Table > Plot Elem Table
The following window will appear. Ensure that 'SAXL' is selected and click 'OK'

Because you changed the contour

intervals for the Displacement plot
to "User Specified" - you need to
switch this back to "Auto
calculated" to obtain new values for
VMIN/VMAX.
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style >
Contours > Uniform Contours ...

93
Again, you may wish to select more appropriate intervals for the contour plot

20. List the Stresses

From the 'Element Table' menu, select 'List

Elem Table'
From the 'List Element Table Data' window
which appears ensure 'SAXL' is highlighted
Click 'OK'

Note that the axial stress in Element 1 is

82.9MPa as predicted analytically.

21. Quitting ANSYS

To quit ANSYS, select 'QUIT' from the

ANSYS Toolbar or select Utility
Menu/File/Exit.... In the dialog box that appears, click on 'Save Everything' (assuming that
you want to) and then click on 'OK'.

94
Tutorial 4(a): Static Analysis using BEAM Elements

TITLE
Effect of Self Weight on a Cantilever Beam

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Loads will not be applied to the beam shown below in order to observe the deflection caused
by the weight of the beam itself. The beam is to be made of steel with a modulus of elasticity
of 200 GPa.

STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

1. Give example a Title

Utility Menu > File > Change Title ...
/title, Effects of Self Weight for a Cantilever Beam

2. Open preprocessor menu

ANSYS Main Menu > Preprocessor
/PREP7

3. Define Keypoints
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Keypoints > In Active CS...
K,#,x,y,z
We are going to define 2 keypoints for this beam as given in the following table:
Keypoint Coordinates (x,y,z)
1 (0,0)
2 (1000,0)

95
4. Create Lines
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Lines > Lines > In Active Coord
L,1,2
Create a line joining Keypoints 1 and 2

5. Define the Type of Element

Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete...
For this problem we will use the BEAM3 (Beam 2D elastic) element. This element has 3
degrees of freedom (translation along the X and Y axes, and rotation about the Z axis).

6. Define Real Constants

Preprocessor > Real Constants... > Add...
In the 'Real Constants for BEAM3' window, enter the following geometric properties:
Cross-sectional area AREA: 500
Area moment of inertia IZZ: 4166.67
Total beam height: 10
This defines a beam with a height of 10 mm and a width of 50 mm.

7. Define Element Material Properties

Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models > Structural > Linear > Elastic > Isotropic
In the window that appears, enter the following geometric properties for steel:
Young's modulus EX: 200000
Poisson's Ratio PRXY: 0.3

8. Define Element Density

Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models > Structural > Linear > Density
In the window that appears, enter the following density for steel:
Density DENS: 7.86e-6

9. Define Mesh Size

Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > ManualSize > Lines > All Lines...
For this example we will use an element edge length of 100mm.

10. Mesh the frame

Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Lines > click 'Pick All'

Solution Phase: Assigning Loads and Solving

11. Define Analysis Type

Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Static
ANTYPE,0

12. Apply Constraints

Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Keypoints
Fix keypoint 1 (ie all DOF constrained)

13. Define Gravity

It is necessary to define the direction and magnitude of gravity for this problem.
Select Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Inertia > Gravity...

96
The following window will appear. Fill it in as shown to define an acceleration of 9.81m/s2 in
the y direction.

Note: Acceleration is defined in terms of meters (not 'mm' as used throughout the problem).
This is because the units of acceleration and mass must be consistent to give the product of
force units (Newtons in this case). Also note that a positive acceleration in the y direction
stimulates gravity in the negative Y direction.

There should now be a red arrow pointing in the positive y direction. This indicates that an
acceleration has been defined in the y direction.
DK,1,ALL,0,
ACEL,,9.8

The applied loads and constraints should now appear as shown in the figure below.

14. Solve the System

Solution > Solve > Current LS
SOLVE

97
Postprocessing: Viewing the Results

Hand Calculations
Hand calculations were performed to verify the solution found using ANSYS:
The maximum deflection was shown to be 5.777mm

15. Show the deformation of the beam

General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed Shape ... > Def + undef edge
PLDISP,2

As observed in the upper left hand corner, the maximum displacement was found to be
5.777mm. This is in agreement with the theortical value.

98
Tutorial 4(b): Static Analysis using BEAM Elements with
Distributed Load

TITLE
Application of Distributed Loads

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

A distributed load of 1000 N/m (1 N/mm) will be applied to a solid steel beam with a
rectangular cross section as shown in the figure below. The cross-section of the beam is 10mm
x 10mm while the modulus of elasticity of the steel is 200GPa.

STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

1. Open preprocessor menu

/PREP7

2. Give example a Title

Utility Menu > File > Change Title ...
/title, Distributed Loading

99
3. Create Keypoints
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Keypoints > In Active CS
K,#,x,y
We are going to define 2 keypoints (the beam vertices) for this structure as given in the
following table:
Keypoint Coordinates (x,y)
1 (0,0)
2 (1000,0)

4. Define Lines
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Lines > Lines > Straight Line
L,K#,K#
Create a line between Keypoint 1 and Keypoint 2.

5. Define Element Types

Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete...
For this problem we will use the BEAM3 element. This element has 3 degrees of freedom
(translation along the X and Y axis's, and rotation about the Z axis). With only 3 degrees of
freedom, the BEAM3 element can only be used in 2D analysis.

6. Define Real Constants

Preprocessor > Real Constants... > Add...
In the 'Real Constants for BEAM3' window, enter the following geometric properties:
Cross-sectional area AREA: 100
Area Moment of Inertia IZZ: 833.333
Total beam height HEIGHT: 10
This defines an element with a solid rectangular cross section 10mm x 10mm.

7. Define Element Material Properties

Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models > Structural > Linear > Elastic > Isotropic
In the window that appears, enter the following geometric properties for steel:
Young's modulus EX: 200000
Poisson's Ratio PRXY: 0.3

8. Define Mesh Size

Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > ManualSize > Lines > All Lines...
For this example we will use an element length of 100mm.

9. Mesh the frame

Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Lines > click 'Pick All'

10. Plot Elements

Utility Menu > Plot > Elements
You may also wish to turn on element numbering and turn off keypoint numbering
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering ...

100
Solution Phase: Assigning Loads and Solving

11. Define Analysis Type

Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Static
ANTYPE,0

12. Apply Constraints

Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Keypoints
Pin Keypoint 1 (ie UX and UY constrained) and fix Keypoint 2 in the y direction (UY
constrained).

13. Apply Loads

We will apply a distributed load, of 1000 N/m or 1 N/mm, over the entire length of the beam.
Select Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Pressure > On Beams
Click 'Pick All' in the 'Apply F/M' window.
As shown in the following figure, enter a value of 1 in the field 'VALI Pressure value at node I'
then click 'OK'.

101
The applied loads and constraints should now appear as shown in the figure below.

Note:
To have the constraints and loads appear each time you select 'Replot' you must change some
settings. Select Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Symbols.... In the window that appears, select
'Pressures' in the pull down menu of the 'Surface Load Symbols' section.

14. Solve the System

Solution > Solve > Current LS
SOLVE

Postprocessing: Viewing the Results

15. Plot Deformed Shape

General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed Shape
PLDISP.2

102
Plot Principle stress distribution
As shown previously, we need to use element tables to obtain principle stresses for line
elements.

Select General Postproc > Element Table > Define Table

Click 'Add...'
In the window that appears
enter 'SMAXI' in the 'User Label for Item' section
In the first window in the 'Results Data Item' section scroll down and select 'By sequence num'
In the second window of the same section, select 'NMISC, '
In the third window enter '1' anywhere after the comma
click 'Apply'

Repeat steps 2 to 4 but change 'SMAXI' to 'SMAXJ' in step 3a and change '1' to '3' in step 3d.
Click 'OK'. The 'Element Table Data' window should now have two variables in it.
Click 'Close' in the 'Element Table Data' window.
Select: General Postproc > Plot Results > Line Elem Res...
Select 'SMAXI' from the 'LabI' pull down menu and 'SMAXJ' from the 'LabJ' pull down menu

Note:
ANSYS can only calculate the stress at a single location on the element. For this example, we
decided to extract the stresses from the I and J nodes of each element. These are the nodes that
are at the ends of each element.
For this problem, we wanted the principal stresses for the elements. For the BEAM3 element
this is categorized as NMISC, 1 for the 'I' nodes and NMISC, 3 for the 'J' nodes. A list of
available codes for each element can be found in the ANSYS help files. (ie. type help BEAM3 in
the ANSYS Input window).
As shown in the plot below, the maximum stress occurs in the middle of the beam with a value
of 750 MPa.

103
 SECTION 5: STATIC ANALYSIS USING AREA ELEMENTS
Tutorial 5: Static Analysis using Area Elements-Plane problem (Bracket)
Tutorial 6: Static Analysis using Area Elements-Plane problem (Wrench)

104
Tutorial 5: Static Analysis using Area Elements- Plane Problem
(Bracket)

TITLE
Plane Stress Bracket

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

The problem to be modeled in this example is a simple bracket shown in the following figure.
This bracket is to be built from a 20 mm thick steel plate. A figure of the plate is shown below.

This plate will be fixed at the two small holes on the left and have a load applied to the larger
hole on the right.

Verification Example

The first step is to simplify the problem. Whenever you are trying out a new analysis type, you
need something (ie analytical solution or experimental data) to compare the results to. This
way you can be sure that you've gotten the correct analysis type, units, scale factors, etc. The
simplified version that will be used for this problem is that of a flat rectangular plate with a
hole shown in the following figure:

105
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

1. Give the Simplified Version a Title

Utility Menu > File > Change Title

2. Form Geometry
Boolean operations provide a means to create complicated solid
models. These procedures make it easy to combine simple geometric
entities to create more complex bodies. Subtraction will used to create
this model, however, many other Boolean operations can be used in
ANSYS.

Create the main rectangular shape

Instead of creating the geometry using keypoints, we will create an
area (using GUI)
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Areas > Rectangle > By 2
Corners

Fill in the window as shown above. This will create a rectangle where
the bottom left corner has the coordinates 0,0,0 and the top right corner
has the coordinates 200,100,0.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above command is
BLC4,0,0,200,100)

Create the circle

Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Areas > Circle > Solid Circle

Fill in the window as shown above. This will create a circle where the
center has the coordinates 100,50,0 (the center of the rectangle) and the
radius of the circle is 20 mm.

(Alternatively, the command line code for the above command is

CYL4,100,50,20 )
Subtraction

Now we want to subtract the circle

from the rectangle. Prior to this
operation, your image should resemble
the following:

106
To perform the Boolean operation, from the Preprocessor menu select:
Modeling > Operate > Booleans > Subtract > Areas
At this point a 'Subtract Areas' window will pop up and the ANSYS Input window will display
the following message: [ASBA] Pick or enter base areas from which to subtract (as shown
below)

Therefore, select the base area (the rectangle) by clicking on it. Note: The selected area will
turn pink once it is selected.
The following window may appear because there are 2 areas at the location you clicked.

Ensure that the entire rectangular area is

selected (otherwise click 'Next') and then
click 'OK'.
Click 'OK' on the 'Subtract Areas' window.
Now you will be prompted to select the areas
to be subtracted, select the circle by clicking
on it and then click 'OK'.
You should now have the following model:

(Alternatively, the command line code for

the above step is ASBA,1,2)

Define the Type of Element

It is now necessary to define the type of
element to use for our problem:
Preprocessor Menu > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
Add the following type of element: Solid (under the Structural heading) and the Quad 82
element, as shown in the above figure.

107
PLANE82 is a higher order version of the two-dimensional, four-node element (PLANE42).
PLANE82 is an eight noded quadrilateral element which is better suited to model curved
boundaries. For this example, we need a plane stress element with thickness, therefore
Click on the 'Options...' button. Click and hold the K3 button, and select 'Plane strs w/thk', as
shown below.

(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is ET,1,PLANE82 followed by
KEYOPT,1,3,3)

Define Geometric Properties

As in previous examples Preprocessor menu > Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete
Enter a thickness of 20 as shown in the figure below. This defines a plate thickness of 20mm)

(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is R,1,20)

Element Material Properties

As shown in previous examples, select Preprocessor > Material Props > Material models >
Structural > Linear > Elastic > Isotropic
We are going to give the properties of Steel. Enter the following when prompted:
EX 200000
PRXY 0.3
108
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is MP,EX,1,200000 followed by
MP,PRXY,1,0.3)

Mesh Size
To tell ANSYS how big the elements should be, Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls >
Manual Size > Areas > All Areas

Select an element edge length of 25.

We will return later to determine if
this was adequate for the problem.
(Alternatively, the command line
code for the above step is
AESIZE,ALL,25,)

Mesh
Now the frame can be meshed.
In the 'Preprocessor' menu select Meshing > Mesh > Areas > Free and select the area when
prompted
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is AMESH,ALL)
You should now have the following:

Saving Your Job

Utility Menu > File > Save as...

Solution Phase: Assigning Loads and Solving

You have now defined your model. It is now time to apply the load(s) and constraint(s) and
solve the the resulting system of equations.

Define Analysis Type

Ensure that a Static Analysis will be performed (Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis).
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is ANTYPE,0)

109
Apply Constraints
As shown previously, the left end of the plate is fixed.
In the Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Lines
Select the left end of the plate and click on 'Apply' in the 'Apply U,ROT on Lines' window.
Fill in the window as shown below.

This location is fixed which means that all DOF's are constrained. Therefore, select 'All DOF'
by clicking on it and enter '0' in the Value field as shown above.
You will see some blue triangles in the graphics window indicating the displacement
contraints.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is DL,4,,ALL,0)

Apply Loads
As shown in the diagram, there is a load of 20N/mm distributed on the right hand side of the
plate. To apply this load:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Pressure > On Lines
When the window appears, select the line along the right hand edge of the plate and click 'OK'
Calculate the pressure on the plate end by dividing the distributed load by the thickness of the
plate (1 MPa).

Fill in the "Apply PRES on lines" window as shown below. NOTE:

The pressure is uniform along the surface of the plate, therefore the last field is left blank.
The pressure is acting away from the surface of the plate, and is therefore defined as a negative
pressure.

The applied loads and constraints should now appear as

shown below.

110
Solving the System
Solution > Solve > Current LS

Postprocessing: Viewing the Results

Hand Calculations
Now, since the purpose of this exercise was to verify the results - we need to calculate what we
should find.
Deflection: The maximum deflection occurs on the right hand side of the plate and was
calculated to be 0.001 mm - neglecting the effects of the hole in the plate (ie - just a flat plate).
The actual deflection of the plate is therefore expected to be greater but in the same range of
magnitude.
Stress: The maximum stress occurs at the top and bottom of the hole in the plate and was
found to be 3.9 MPa.

Convergence using ANSYS

At this point we need to find whether or not the final result has converged. We will do this by
looking at the deflection and stress at particular nodes while changing the size of the meshing
element.

Since we have an analytical solution for the maximum stress point, we will check the stress at
this point. First we need to find the node corresponding to the top of the hole in the plate. First
plot and number the nodes
Utility Menu > Plot > Nodes
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering...
The plot should look similar to the one shown below. Make a note of the node closest to the
top of the circle (ie. #49)

111
List the stresses
(General Postproc > List Results > Nodal Solution > Stress, Principals SPRIN) and check
the SEQV (Equivalent Stress / von Mises Stress) for the node in question. (as shown below in
red)

The equivalent stress was found to be 2.9141 MPa at this point. We will use smaller elements
to try to get a more accurate solution.

Resize Elements

To change the element size, we need to go back to the Preprocessor Menu

Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > Manual Size > Areas > All Areas
now decrease the element edge length (ie 20)

Now remesh the model (Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Areas > Free). Once you have
selected the area and clicked 'OK' the following window will appear:

Click 'OK'. This will remesh the model using the new element edge length.

Solve the system again (note that the constraints need not be reapplied). ( Solution Menu >
Current LS )

Repeat steps 'a' through 'd' until the model has converged. (note - the number of the node at the
top of the hole has most likely changed. It is essential that you plot the nodes again to select
the appropriate node). Plot the stress/deflection at varying mesh sizes as shown below to
confirm that convergence has occured.

112
Note the shapes of both the deflection and stress curves. As the number of elements in the
mesh increases (ie - the element edge length decreases), the values converge towards a final
solution.
The von Mises stress at the top of the hole in the plate was found to be approximatly 3.8 MPa.
This is a mere 2.5% difference between the analytical solution and the solution found using
ANSYS.

The approximate maximum displacement was found to be 0.0012 mm, this is 20% greater than
the analytical solution. However, the analytical solution does not account for the large hole in
the center of the plate which was expected to significantly increase the deflection at the end of
the plate.
Therefore, the results using ANSYS were determined to be appropriate for the verification
model.

Deformation
General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed Shape > Def + undeformd to view both the
deformed and the undeformed object.

113
Observe the locations of deflection.
Deflection
General Postproc > Plot Results > Nodal Solution... Then select DOF solution, USUM in
the window.

Alternatively, obtain these results as a list. (General Postproc > List Results > Nodal
Solution...)

Are these results what you expected? Note that all translational degrees of freedom were
constrained to zero at the left end of the plate.

Stresses
General Postproc > Plot Results > Nodal Solution... Then select Stress, von Mises in the
window.

You can list the von Mises stresses to verify the results at certain nodes
General Postproc > List Results. Select Stress, Principals SPRIN
114
Bracket Example
Now we will return to the analysis of the bracket. A combination of GUI and the Command
line will be used for this example.
The problem to be modeled in this example is a simple bracket shown in the following figure.
This bracket is to be built from a 20 mm thick steel plate. A figure of the plate is shown below.

This plate will be fixed at the two small holes on the left and have a load applied to the larger
hole on the right.

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

Give the Bracket example a Title

Utility Menu > File > Change Title

Form Geometry
Again, Boolean operations will be used to create the basic geometry of the Bracket.

Create the main rectangular shape.

The main rectangular shape has a width of 80 mm, a height of 100mm and the bottom left
corner is located at coordinates (0,0) . Ensure that the Preprocessor menu is open.
(Alternatively type /PREP7 into the command line window). Now instead of using the GUI
window we are going to enter code into the 'command line'. Now I will explain the line
required to create a rectangle:

BLC4, XCORNER, YCORNER, WIDTH, HEIGHT

BLC4, X coord (bottom left), Y coord (bottom left), width, height

Therefore, the command line for this rectangle is BLC4,0,0,80,100

Create the circular end on the right hand side

The center of the circle is located at (80,50) and has a radius of 50 mm
The following code is used to create a circular area:

CYL4, XCENTER, YCENTER, RAD1

CYL4, X coord for the center, Y coord for the center, radius

Therefore, the command line for this circle is CYL4,80,50,50

115
Now create a second and third circle for the left hand side using the following dimensions:
parameter circle 2 circle 3
XCENTER 0 0
YCENTER 20 80
RADIUS 20 20
Create a rectangle on the left hand end to fill the gap between the two small circles.
XCORNER -20
YCORNER 20
WIDTH 20
HEIGHT 60
Your screen should now look like the following...

Boolean Operations - Addition

We now want to add these five discrete areas together to form one area.
To perform the Boolean operation, from the Preprocessor menu select:
Modeling > Operate > Booleans > Add > Areas
In the 'Add Areas' window, click on 'Pick All'
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is AADD,ALL)

116
Create the Bolt Holes parameter circle 1 circle 2 circle 3
We now want to remove the bolt holes from this
plate. WP X 80 0 0
Create the three circles with the parameters given WP Y 50 20 80
below:
Now select radius 30 10 10
Preprocessor > Modeling > Operate > Booleans
> Subtract > Areas
Select the base areas from which to subract (the large plate that was created)
Next select the three circles that we just created. Click on the three circles that you just created
and click 'OK'.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is ASBA,6,ALL)

Now you should have the following:

Define the Type of Element

As in the verification model, PLANE82 will be used for this example
Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
Use the 'Options...' button to get a plane stress element with thickness
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is ET,1,PLANE82 followed by
KEYOPT,1,3,3)
Under the Extra Element Output K5 select nodal stress.

Define Geometric Contants

Preprocessor > Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete
Enter a thickness of 20mm.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is R,1,20)

Element Material Properties

Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Library > Structural > Linear > Elastic >
Isotropic
We are going to give the properties of Steel. Enter the following when prompted:
EX 200000
PRXY 0.3
(The command line code for the above step is MP,EX,1,200000 followed by MP,PRXY,1,0.3)

117
Mesh Size
Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > Manual Size > Areas > All Areas
Select an element edge length of 5. Again, we will need to make sure the model has converged.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is AESIZE,ALL,5,)

Mesh
Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Areas > Free and select the area when prompted
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is AMESH,ALL)

Saving Your Job

Utility Menu > File > Save as...

Solution Phase: Assigning Loads and Solving

You have now defined your model. It is now time to apply the load(s) and constraint(s) and
solve the the resulting system of equations.

Define Analysis Type

'Solution' > 'New Analysis' and select 'Static'.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is ANTYPE,0)

Apply Constraints
As illustrated, the plate is fixed at both of the smaller holes on the left hand side.
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Nodes

Instead of selecting one node at a

time, you have the option of creating a
box, polygon, or circle of which all
the nodes in that area will be selected.
For this case, select 'circle' as shown
in the window below. (You may want
to zoom in to select the points Utilty
Menu / PlotCtrls / Pan, Zoom,
Rotate...) Click at the center of the
bolt hole and drag the circle out so
that it touches all of the nodes on the
border of the hole.

118
Click on 'Apply' in the 'Apply U,ROT on Lines' window and constrain all DOF's in the 'Apply
U,ROT on Nodes' window.
Repeat for the second bolt hole.

Apply Loads
As shown in the diagram, there is a single vertical load of 1000N, at the bottom of the large
bolt hole. Apply this force to the respective keypoint ( Solution > Define Loads > Apply >
Structural > Force/Moment > On Keypoints Select a force in the y direction of -1000)
The applied loads and constraints should now appear as shown below.

Solving the System

Solution > Solve > Current LS

Post-Processing: Viewing the Results

We are now ready to view the results. We will take a look at the deflected shape and the stress
contours once we determine convergence has occured.

Convergence using ANSYS

At this point we need to find whether or not the final result has converged. Because we cannot
solve for a solution analytically, we must try to

Deformation
General Postproc > Plot Results > Def + undeformed to view both the deformed and the
undeformed object.
The graphic should be similar to the following

119
Observe the locations of deflection. Ensure that the deflection at the bolt hole is indeed 0.

Deflection
To plot the nodal deflections use General Postproc > Plot Results > Contour Plot > Nodal
Solution then select DOF Solution - USUM in the window.

Alternatively, obtain these results as a list. (General Postproc > List Results > Nodal
Solution...)
Are these results what you expected? Note that all translational degrees of freedom were
constrained to zero at the bolt holes.

120
Stresses
General Postproc > Plot Results > Nodal Solution... Then select von Mises Stress in the
window.

You can list the von Mises stresses to verify the results at certain nodes
General Postproc > List Results. Select Stress, Principals SPRIN

Quitting ANSYS
To quit ANSYS, click 'QUIT' on the ANSYS Toolbar or select Utility Menu > File > Exit...
In the window that appears, select 'Save Everything' (assuming that you want to) and then click
'OK'.

121
Tutorial 6: Static Analysis using Area Elements- Plane Problem
(Wrench)

TITLE
Stress Analysis of Bicycle Wrench

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Find the von Mises stresses for the bicycle wrench shown under the given distributed and
boundary condition.

Material Properties: Modulus of elasticity: E = 200 GPa

(Steel) Poisson’s ratio: ν = 0.32

Geometry: Lengths and radii as shown

Thickness: 3mm

Loading: Distributed load: 88 N/cm

Constraints: ux, uy, uz = 0 at left hexagon

7 mm side R = 1.25 cm
88 N / cm

1.5 cm

1 cm 3 cm 1 cm
9 mm side
Fixed all around

Bicycle Wrench

122
SOLUTION METHODOLOGY

As the thickness (3mm) is quite small compared to the overall length of about 12 cm, the
problem can be reasonably treated as a plane-stress problem. In ANSYS, it will be treated
as a plane stress with thickness problem.

The geometry will be created through rectangle, circle and hexagon commands, together
with Boolean operations of add (union) and subtract (difference).

STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

1. Start ANSYS
File -> Save As -> Filename -> OK

2. Use the structural solid element PLANE82 for FEM modeling:

Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add ->
Structural Mass-Solid -> Select 8node 82 -> OK -> Options -> Element Behavior:
Select Plane Stress w/thk -> OK -> Close

3. Enter Real Constants for the element type chosen:

Preprocessor -> Real Constants -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add -> OK ->
Enter Thickness THK = 0.3 -> OK -> Close

4. Enter material property data for specified steel:

Preprocessor -> Material Props -> Material Model -> Structural -> Linear -> Elastic ->
Isotropic -> Enter Young’s modulus EX = 200e9 and Poisson’s ratio PRXY = 0.32 -> OK ->
Close

Note: After each significant step, click SAVE_DB on ANSYS Toolbar

5. Create geometry for two similar rectangles 1.5 cm by 3

cm at locations (2.25, 0.5) and (7.25, 0.5):
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas-Rectangle
-> By 2 Corners -> In dialogue box enter WP X = 2.25,
WP Y = 0.5, Width = 3, Height = 1.5 -> Apply -> Enter
values for next rectangle: WP X = 7.25, WP Y = 0.5,
Width = 3, Height = 1.5 -> OK

123
Note: Click on Plot Controls -> Pan,Zoom,Rotate -> Click on small circle until both
rectangles fit the screen.

6. Create geometry for three circles, all of 1.25 cm radius:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Circle -> Solid Circle -> In dialogue box
enter WP X = 1.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> Apply -> Enter values for next circle ->
WP X = 6.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> Apply -> Enter values for next circle -> WP X
= 11.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> OK

7. Perform the Boolean operation add to union the areas together:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Add -> Areas -> Pick All

8. Create geometry for three hexagons, two of 7 mm side (at the ends) and one of 9 mm side
(in the center):
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Polygon -> Hexagon -> In dialogue box
enter WP X = 1.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.7 -> Theta = 120 -> Apply -> Enter values for
next hexagon -> WP X = 6.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.9 -> Theta = 120
-> Apply -> Enter values for next hexagon -> WP X = 11.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.7 ->
Theta = 120 -> OK

9. Perform the Boolean operation

subtract to get the hexagonal holes in
the wrenchthe body:
Preprocessor -> Modeling ->
Operate -> Booleans -> Subtract ->
Areas -> Click on the solid portion of
wrench -> Apply -> One by one pick
the three hexagonal areas -> OK

10. Now create a mesh in the final wrench shape, first refining the mesh size:
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Size Controls -> ManualSize -> Size ->
Enter Size = 0.1 -> OK
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Areas -> Free -> Click on wrench -> OK

124
11. Apply the boundary conditions and the load:
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Analysis Type -> New Analysis -> Static -> OK
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Displacement -> On
Key Points -> Click on the six corner points of the left hexagon -> OK -> Select All DOF ->
OK
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Pressure -> On Lines ->
Pick the line indicated in problem statement (top line of right arm) -> OK -> Enter VALUE =
88 -> OK

12. Perform the solution.

Solution -> Solve -> Current LS -> OK

13. Start post-processing: Check the deformed shape:

General Post Proc -> Plot Results -> Deformed Shape ->
Def + undef edge -> OK

125
14. Examine the stresses: find von Mises stresses:
General Postproc -> Plot Results -> Contour Plot -> Nodal Solution -> Stress -> von
Mises SEQV -> Def + undef edge -> OK

126
 SECTION 6: STATIC ANALYSIS USING VOLUME
ELEMENTS
Tutorial 7: Static Analysis using Volume Elements-Component Design
Tutorial 8: Static Analysis using Volume Elements-Assembly Design

127
Tutorial 7: Static Analysis using Volume Elements-Component
Design

TITLE
Open-Ended Cylinder With Internal Pressure

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Find the stresses in a thick open-ended steel cylinder (shown) with an internal pressure (such
as a pipe discharging to the atmosphere).

Material Properties: Young’s modulus: E = 30 x 106 psi

(Steel) Poisson’s ratio: ν = 0.3
Geometry: Internal Radius: ri = 5 in
External Radius: ro = 11 in
Length: arbitrary, for segment of a long, open-ended cylinder
Loading: Internal pressure: p = 1000 psi.
Constraints: uz = 0 on radial surface parallel to x-y plane
ux = 0 on radial surface parallel to y-z plane
uy=0 on top/bottom surface (prevent rigid body motion in y-direction)

128
SOLUTION METHODOLOGY

The y-axis is the axis of symmetry. The cylinder

can be generated by revolving a rectangle 6 inches
wide and of arbitrary height 360 degrees about
the y-axis.

For the 3D analysis we will make use of symmetry

and analyze one quadrant of the cylinder. If y-axis
is the axis of revolution of the cylinder, both x-y and
y-z planes are planes of symmetry.

Since the height of the segment considered is arbitrary,

we will use a segment 1 inch in height for the finite element
model. The geometry is shown below.

STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

1. Start ANSYS
File -> Save As -> Filename -> OK

2. Use a tetrahedron element for the FEM modeling:

Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -
> Add -> Structural Mass ->
Solid -> Select Tet 10node 92 -> OK -> Close

3. Enter material property data for steel:

Preprocessor -> Material Props -> Material Modes -
> Structural -> Linear -> Elastic -> Elastic -> Enter
EX = 3e7 and PRXY = 0.3 -> OK -> Close window

4. Create geometry for rectangle 1 inch by 6 inches

starting 5 inches from Y axis. This rectangular area will
be revolved 90 degrees about the y-axis to produce the
desired volume:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas ->
Rectangle ->By 2 Corners -> In dialogue box enter
WP X = 5, WP Y = 0, Width = 6, Height = 1 -> OK

5. Define two key points on the y-axis for revolving

purposes:
In the command dialogue box enter:
K, 10, 0, 0, 0 (Enter) Defines key point number 10 at (0, 0, 0)
K, 11, 0, 5, 0 (Enter) Defines key point number 11 at (0, 5, 0)
Key points 1,2,3,4 are already used by ANSYS to define the rectangle, so we used numbers 10
and 11.

129
6. Revolve the area
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Extrude -> Areas -> About Axis -> Pick the area -
> OK -> Pick the two key points on the Y axis -> OK -> Arc length in degrees = 90 -> OK

Go to oblique view:
Plot Controls -> Pan, zoom, rotate -> Click on Obliq

7. Now create a mesh of tetrahedral elements using the default settings.

Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Volumes -> Free:
Pick the solid just created -> OK

131
8. Define loads and boundary conditions. Apply an internal pressure of 1000 psi and
displacement constraints that prevent points moving across planes of symmetry and also
restrain rigid body movement in the y-direction.
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Displacement ->
Symmetry B.C. -> On Areas -> Pick radial surface parallel to x-y plane -> Apply -> Pick
radial surface parallel to y-z plane -> OK

Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Displacement -> On
Areas -> Pick top (or bottom) surface -> OK -> Select degree of freedom constraint UY ->
OK

Use Cntl + Right Mouse button to rotate the solid so as to get a better view of the area you
want to pick. It may also help to activate the area numbers and plot them. Then pick the area
number of interest, eg:
PlotCntls -> Numbering . . . turn area numbers ON
Plot -> Areas

Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Pressure -> On Areas:
Pick the inner area of the cylinder. Enter a pressure of 1000 -> OK

132
9. Perform the solution.
Solution -> Solve -> Current LS -> OK -> Close -> File -> Close

10. Start post-processing. Check the deformed shape to see if it's reasonable (the dotted line is
the undeformed shape):
General Post Processor -> Plot Results -> Deformed Shape ->
Def + undef edge -> OK

11. Examine the stresses:

General Postprocessor -> Plot Results -> Contour Plots -> Element Solu -> Stress -> X-
direction SX -> OK

133
SOLUTION COMPARISON

The theoretical solution for this problem is:

Inside surface of cylinder: SX = -1000 psi, SZ = 1520.8 psi
Outside surface of cylinder: SX = 0 psi, SZ = 520.8psi.

In the ANSYS solution shown, the upper arrow shows Sx normal to the y-z plane which
corresponds to the cylinder hoop stress. The scale at the bottom indicates a maximum value of
1528 psi, which is close to the theoretical value of 1521.

The lower arrow shows Sx in a direction normal to the inner surface of the cylinder with a
scale value of -1006, again close to the internal pressure of 1000 psi.

Thus the ANSYS calculated results seem to agree pretty well with the theory.

134
Tutorial 8: Static Analysis using Volume Elements-Assembly Design

TITLE
3D Solid Analysis of Extrusion-Die Assembly

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Find the von misses stress distribution and deformed shape of given Extrusion-Die Assembly,
under give pressure loading and boundary condition.

Material Properties: E=5 x 106 MPa, ν = 0.15

Geometry:

Loading: Pressure = 90 Mpa on the front face of the die

Boundary Cond.: UZ = 0 on back surface of sub-bolster.

Solution Methodology:
Using the geometry given above, reconstruct it in the ANSYS environment in 3D. Applying
the appropriate loading and boundary conditions, then solve to attain the desired stress
distribution and deformed shapes.

135
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION:
Start ANSYS.

Defining of element type to be used.

Preprocessor  element type  add/del…add … structural solid –

Tet 10 node 92okclose.

Enter the material properties.

Preprocessormaterial propertiesmaterial
modelstructurallinearelasticisotropic

Press ok and then close window after u enter the following values:

EX = 5e6 , PRXY = 0.15

Now we start creating the geometry.

Sub-bolster

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumescylinderhollow cylinder

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Rad-1 = 140 , rad-2 = 190 , depth = 90

To get a better 3-d view go to the ANSYS top menu and click

plotctrlspan-zoom-rotateoblique. Close!

To move the working plane to a new origin, type the following in the ANSYS command
window: WPAVE,0,0,90

136
Bolster

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumescylinderhollow cylinder

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Rad-1 = 0 , Rad-2 = 190 , Depth = 100

Now we create the bolster extrusion passage by creating a block in the bolster and then
subtracting it form the bolster volume.

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumesblockby center,cornr…

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Width= 80 , height = 80 , depth = 100

PreprocessormodelingoperateBooleansubtractvolumes

Now pick first the volume of the bolster via mouse. Click apply!
Now pick the volume of the block. Click ok!

To redraw the volumes go to ANSYS top menu and click…

Plot  volumes.

To move the working plane to a new origin type the following in the ANSYS command
window:
WPAVE,0,0,190

137
Die ring

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumescylinderhollow cylinder

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Rad-1 = 150 , rad-2 = 190 , depth = 150

Die backer

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumescylinderhollow cylinder

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Rad-1 = 0 , rad-2 = 150 , depth = 80

Now we create the die-backer extrusion passage by creating a block in the die-backer and then
subtracting it from its volume.

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumesblockby center,cornr…

Enter the following values:

WP=0 , WPy=0
Width= 74 , height = 74 , depth = 80

PreprocessormodelingoperateBooleansubtractvolumes

Now pick first the volume of the die-backer via mouse. Click apply!
Now pick the volume of the block. Click ok!

138
To move the working plane to a new origin type the following in the ANSYS command
window:
WPAVE,0,0,270

Die
Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumescylinderhollow cylinder

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Rad-1 = 0 , rad-2 = 150 , depth = 70

Now we create the die extrusion passage by creating a block in the die and then subtracting it
from its volume.

Preprocessormodelingcreatevolumesblockby center,cornr…

Enter the following values:

WPx=0 , WPy=0
Width= 70 , height = 70 , depth = 70

PreprocessormodelingoperateBooleansubtractvolumes

139
Now pick first the volume of the die via mouse. Click apply!
Now pick the volume of the block. Click ok!

In the ANSYS top menu click plotvolumes to redraw all the volumes.

Before we mesh the volumes we must glue all of them to restrict relative motion btw the
surfaces in contact.

Preprocessor  modeling  operate  Booleans  glue  volumes  pick all.!

Meshing.

Before we mesh we will setup a start sizing tool for meshing.

Preprocessor  meshing  size cntrl  smart size  basic  (set at) 6

No we mesh all volumes.

Preprocessor  meshing  mesh  volumes  free  (pick all)

Having completed the preprocessor phase we now move to the solution phase.

Go to the ANSYS main menu and click on solution.

140
First we put in the boundary conditions to the assembly. We must restrict the movement of the
back face of the sub-bolster. But first we change the view so that we can easily manipulate the
back of the assembly.

From the ANSYS top menu:

Plotctrlspan-zoom-rotate (click) back (click) once each on

“+X” “+Y”  Close.!

Plotctrlsnumbering… (check) area numbers ok!

Plot areas

ANSYS main menu solution define loadsapply  structural  displacement  on

areas  (select the back face of the sub-bolster i.e. area#1)  apply  (select ALL) in
the constraints window  ok.  Ok!

9. Again for convenience change the view of the assembly from the previously shown
steps back to oblique. now we apply the pressure from the front face of the die.

ANSYS main menu solution define loadsapply  structural  pressure  on

areas  (select the front face of the die only i.e. area#43)  apply  (load pressure
value) 90e6  ok.

Now we solve the problem by:

ANSYS main menu solution solve  current LS

141
10. Having completed the solution phase we now wish to look at the stresses developed
and displacements if any in the assembly units.

For viewing von misses stress distribution as a result of the applied pressure on the assembly:

ANSYS main menu general post processing plot result  contour plot  nodal
solution (chose) stress-von misses SEQV  (check) deformed + undef. Edge  ok.

For viewing displacements if any as a result of the applied pressure on the assembly:

ANSYS main menugeneral post proc plot results deformed shape  (deformed +
unreformed edge)

142
 SECTION 7: THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS
Tutorial 9: Thermal Analysis of Mechanical Structure
Tutorial 10(a): Thermal-Stress Analysis - Sequential Coupled Field
Tutorial 10(b): Thermal-Stress Analysis – Direct Coupled Field

143
Tutorial 9: Thermal Analysis of Mechanical Structure

TITLE
Thermal Analysis: Axisymmetric Pipe with Fins
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

A pipe with cooling fins is to be analyzed for temperature and thermal flux distributions under
given loading conditions (see next page).
The model is axisymmetric. Also, only half the fin is modeled, so the bottom of the model is a
symmetry boundary.

Loads and Material Properties

144
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

1. Enter ANSYS in the working directory specified by your instructor using “pipe-th” as the
jobname.

2. Set the GUI Preferences to Thermal:

Main Menu > Preferences …
Select “Thermal”, then [OK]

3. Read input from “pipe-th.inp” to create the 2-D axisymmetric model and specify mesh
divisions on lines:
Utility Menu > File > Read Input from …
Select “pipe-th.inp”, then [OK]
Or issue:
/INPUT,pipe-th,inp

Note: The input file in given at the end of the tutorial. Type it using any text editor or give
input directly in PREP.

4. Specify the element type to be PLANE55 and set keyopt(3)=axisymmetric:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete …
[Add ...]
Pick “Thermal Solid” and “Quad
4node 55”, then [OK]
[Options ...]
Set K3 = Axisymmetric, then
[OK]
[Close]
Or issue:
ET,1,PLANE55, , , 1

145
5. Read in material properties from the
material library for 304 Stainless Steel:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Material
Props > Material Library > Import
Library …
Select “BIN”, then [OK]

Select “Stl_AISI-304.BIN_MPL”, then

[OK]
Review the ansuitmp window
Close the ansuitmp window

6. Mesh the model using mapped meshing with 2-D quad elements:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > MeshTool …
Pick [Set] under Size Controls: Global
SIZE = 0.25/2, then [OK]
Select “Mapped”, then [Mesh]
[Pick All]
[Close]
Or issue:
MSHAPE,0,2D
MSHKEY,1
ESIZE,0.25/2
AMESH,ALL

146
7. Apply convection loads to the solid model lines:
Main Menu > Solution > -Loads- Apply > -Thermal- Convection > On Lines +
Pick the outer four lines (10, 2, 7, and 6), then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.69e-4 and VAL2I = 70, then [Apply]
Pick the inner two lines (9 and 13), then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.28e-3 and VAL2I = 450, then [OK]
Utility Menu > Plot > Multi-Plots
Or issue:
/SOLU
SFL,2,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,6,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,7,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,10,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,9,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
SFL,13,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
GPLOT

8. Save the database and obtain the solution:

Pick the “SAVE_DB” button in the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu > File > Save as
Jobname.db)
Main Menu > Solution > -Solve- Current LS
Review the “/STATUS Command” window and then close it
[OK]
[Close] - to close the yellow message window after the solution is completed
Or issue:
SAVE
/SOLU
SOLVE

9. Enter the general postprocessor and review the results:

Main Menu > General Postproc >
Or issue:
/POST1

147
9a. Plot temperatures:
Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Temperature TEMP”, then [OK]
Or issue:
/POST1
PLNSOL,TEMP

9b. Plot thermal flux:

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Flux & gradient” and “Thermal flux TFSUM”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,TF,SUM

148
9c. Plot thermal gradient:
Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Flux & gradient” and “Thermal grad TGSUM”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,TG,SUM

10. Save and exit ANSYS:

Pick the “QUIT” button from the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu > File > Exit...)
Select “Save Everything”
[OK]
Or issue:
FINISH
/EXIT,ALL

149
/TITLE, 2D AXI-SYMM THERMAL ANALYSIS W/ CONV. LOADING - ESIZE=0.125

/PREP7
! Solid Model
RECTNG,5,6,0,1
RECTNG,6,12,0,.25

AADD,all
!* Create fillet
LFILLT,10,7,.2, ,
FLST,2,3,4
FITEM,2,5
FITEM,2,8
FITEM,2,2
AL,5,8,2

AADD,all

KWPAVE, 9
wpro,,,90.000000
ASBW, 2

KWPAVE, 5
wpro,,30.000000,
wpro,,30.000000,
wpro,,30.000000,
ASBW, 3

KWPAVE,5,10
wpro,,90.000000,
ASBW,2
asbw,4

LCOMB,11,18 ,0

LCCAT,11,12

! Prepare for meshing

LESIZE,5, , ,33,.25, , , ,0
LESIZE,7, , ,33,.25, , , ,0
LESIZE,2, , ,6, , , , ,0
LESIZE,8, , ,3, , , , ,0
LESIZE,11, , ,3, , , , ,0
LESIZE,12, , ,3, , , , ,0
LESIZE,17, , ,3, , , , ,0

WPSTYLE,,,,,,,,0
lplot

150
Tutorial 10(a): Thermal-Stress Analysis - Sequential Coupled Field

TITLE
Thermal-Stress Analysis of Axisymmetric Pipe with Fins : Sequential
Coupled Field

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Continue the axisymmetric fin problem from Tutorial 9 to do a thermal-stress analysis. The
pipe has an internal pressure as shown. Also, since the top line (at Y=1.0) represents a line of
repetitive symmetry, we will couple the UY degrees of freedom of all nodes along that line.

Loads and Material Properties

151
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

1. Enter ANSYS in the working directory specified by your instructor using “pipe-th-str” as
the jobname.

2. Resume the pipe-th.db database file from Workshop 3 (or pipe-th.db1):

Utility Menu > File > Resume from …
Select “pipe-th.db”, then [OK]
Or issue:
RESUME,pipe-th,db

3. Set the GUI Preferences to Structural:

Main Menu > Preferences …
Select “Structural” and unselect “Thermal”, then [OK]

4. Change the title:

Utility Menu > File > Change Title ...
/TITLE = “2D AXI-SYMM THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS W/ INT. PRESS -
ESIZE=0.125”
[OK]

5. Delete the convection loading on the solid model lines:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Delete > All Load Data > All SolidMod Lds …
[OK]
Or issue:
/PREP7
LSCLEAR,SOLID

6. Change the thermal elements to their corresponding structural elements:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Switch Elem Type …
Select “Thermal to Struc”, then [OK]
Review the warning message, then [Close]
Or issue:
ETCHG,TTS

7. Set the element behavior to axisymmetric:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete …
[Options ...]
Set K3 = Axisymmetric, then [OK]
[Close]
Or issue:
152
KEYOPT, 1, 3, 1
8. Apply temperature load from thermal analysis in Workshop 3:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Temperature > From Therm Analy ..
Select the “pipe-th.rth” results file, then [OK]
Or issue:
LDREAD,TEMP, , , , ,pipe-th,rth

9. Apply symmetry boundary condition on lines at Y=0:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Displacement > Symmetry B.C.- On
Lines +
Select lines 3, 5, 11, then [OK]
Or issue:
DL,3, ,SYMM
DL,5, ,SYMM
DL,11, ,SYMM

10. Couple UY dof on nodes at Y=1:

10a. Select nodes at Y=1:

Utility Menu > Select > Entities ...
Select “Nodes” and “By Location”
Select “Y coordinates”
Set Min,Max to 1, then [OK]
Or issue:
NSEL,S,LOC,Y,1

10b. Define a UY dof couple set on the select set of nodes:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Coupling / Ceqn > Couple DOFs +
[Pick All]
NSET = 1
Set Lab = UY, then [OK]
Utility Menu > Select > Everything
Or issue:
CP,1,UY,ALL
ALLSEL,ALL

153
11. Apply internal constant pressure to line:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Pressure > On Lines +
Pick lines 9 and 13, then [OK]
VALUE = 1000, then [OK]
Or issue:
SFL,9,PRES,1000
SFL,13,PRES,1000

12. Verify temperature load by displaying body

force loads:
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Symbols
Set Body Load Symbols = “Structural temps”, then
[OK]
Utility Menu > Plot > Elements
Or issue:
/PBF,TEMP, ,1
EPLOT

13. Save the database and obtain the solution:

Pick the “SAVE_DB” button in the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu > File > Save as
Jobname.db)
Main Menu > Solution > -Solve- Current LS
Review the “/STATUS Command” window and then close it
[OK]
[Close] - to close the yellow message window after the solution is completed
Or issue:
SAVE
/SOLU
SOLVE

14. Enter the general

postprocessor and review the
results:
Main Menu > General Postproc
>
Or issue:
/POST1

14a. Plot displacement::

Main Menu > General Postproc
> Plot Results > -Contour Plot-
Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and
“Translation USUM”, select
“Def + undef edge”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,U,SUM,2,1

154
14b. Plot von Mises stress:
Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot
Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “von Mises SEQV”,
select “Def shape only”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,S,EQV

14c. Plot radial stress:

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot
Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “X-direction SX”,
then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,S,X

14d. Expand the axisymmetric radial

stress 90 degrees about Y axis and reflect about the x-z plane:
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Symmetry Expansion > 2D Axi-Symmetric ...
Pick “1/4 expansion” and set reflection to “yes”, then [OK]
Utility Menu >
PlotCtrls > Pan,
Zoom, Rotate …
[ISO]
Or issue:
/EXPAND,
9,AXIS,,,10,,2,REC
T,HALF,,0.00001
/VIEW,1,1,1,1
/REPLOT

Shown on the next

page.

156
14e. Plot longitudinal (axial) stress:
Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results >
-Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “Y-direction SY”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,S,Y

14f. Plot tangential (circumferential or hoop)

stress:
Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results >
-Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “Z-direction SZ”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,S,Z

15. Save and exit ANSYS:

Pick the “QUIT” button from the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu > File > Exit...)
Select “Save Everything”
[OK]
Or issue:
FINISH
/EXIT,ALL

157
 Tutorial 10(b): Thermal-Stress Analysis – Direct Coupled Field

TITLE
Thermal-Stress Analysis of Axisymmetric Pipe with Fins: Direct
Coupled Field

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

In this workshop problem, we will rerun the previous problem using the Direct Coupled Field
method. The axisymmetric fin will again be used for this analysis which will include the
thermal and structural loads applied previously.

Loads and Material Properties

Same thermal loading applied in Tutorial 9
Internal pressure applied simultaneously.

Internal Pressure = 1000 psi

158
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

1. Enter ANSYS in the working directory specified by your instructor using “pipe-direct” as
the jobname.

2. Read input from “pipe-th.inp” to create the 2-D axisymmetric model and specify mesh
divisions on lines:
Utility Menu > File > Read Input from …
Select “pipe-th.inp”, then [OK]
Or issue:
/INPUT,pipe-th,inp

3. Add an axisymmetric coupled field element type (plane13):

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete…
Select “Coupled Field” and “Vector Quad 13”, then [OK]

4. Modify element options for structural / thermal, axisymmetric:

Options
K1 = UX UY Temp AZ
K3 = Axisymmetric
[OK]
[Close]
Or issue:
ET,1,PLANE13
KEYOPT,1,1,4
KEYOPT,1,3,1

5. Mesh the model using mapped meshing with 2-D quad elements:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > MeshTool …
Pick [Set] under Size Controls: Global
SIZE = 0.25/2, then [OK]
Select “Mapped”, then [Mesh]
[Pick All]
Or issue:
MSHAPE,0,2D
MSHKEY,1
ESIZE,0.25/2
AMESH,ALL

6. Read in material properties from the material library for 304 Stainless Steel:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Library > Library Path ...
Enter path for “Path for READING files” (eg. h:\ansys57\matlib)
[OK]
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Library > Import Library …
Select “BIN”, then [OK]
Select “Stl_AISI-304.BIN_MPL”, then [OK]
Review the ansuitmp window
Close the ansuitmp window
159
7. Apply convection loads to the solid model
lines:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -
Loads- Apply > -Thermal- Convection > On
Lines +
Pick the outer four lines, then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.69e-4 and VAL2I = 70, then
[Apply]
Pick the inner two lines, then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.28e-3 and VAL2I = 450, then
[OK]
Or issue:
SFL,2,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,6,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,7,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,10,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,9,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
SFL,13,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450

8. Apply internal constant pressure to line:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads-
Apply > Pressure > On Lines +
Pick lines 9 and 13, then [OK]
VALUE = 1000, then [OK]
Or issue:
SFL,9,PRES,1000
SFL,13,PRES,1000

9. Couple UY dof on nodes at Y=1:

9a. Select nodes at Y=1:

Utility Menu > Select > Entities ...
Select “Nodes” and “By Location”
Select “Y coordinates”
Set Min,Max to 1, then [OK]
Or issue:
NSEL,S,LOC,Y,1

160
9b. Define a UY dof couple set on the select set of nodes:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Coupling / Ceqn > Couple DOFs +
[Pick All]
NSET = 1
Set Lab = UY, then [OK]
Utility Menu > Select > Everything
Or issue:
CP,1,UY,ALL
ALLSEL,ALL

10. Apply symmetry boundary condition on lines at Y=0:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Displacement > Symmetry B.C.- On
Lines +
Select lines 3, 5, 11, then [OK]
Or issue:
DL,3, ,SYMM
DL,5, ,SYMM
DL,11, ,SYMM

11. Save the database and obtain the solution:

Pick the “SAVE_DB” button in the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu > File > Save as
Jobname.db)
Main Menu > Solution > -Solve- Current LS
Review the “/STATUS Command” window and then close it
[OK]
[Yes] – to continue with solve after
warnings
[Close] - to close the yellow message
window after the solution is completed
Or issue:
SAVE
/SOLU
SOLVE

12. Enter the general postprocessor and review the results:

Main Menu > General Postproc >
Or issue:
/POST1

12a. Plot temperatures:

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Temperature TEMP”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,TEMP

12b. Plot displacement::

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Translation USUM”, select “Def + undef edge”, then [OK]
Or issue:

161
PLNSOL,U,SUM,2,1

12c. Plot von Mises stress:

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “von Mises SEQV”, select “Def shape only”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,S,EQV

12d. Expand the axisymmetric radial stress 90 degrees about Y axis and reflect about the x-z
plane:
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Symmetry Expansion > 2D Axi-Symmetric ...
Pick “1/4 expansion” and set reflection to “yes”, then [OK]
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Pan, Zoom, Rotate …
[ISO]
Or issue:
/EXPAND, 9,AXIS,,,10,,2,RECT,HALF,,0.00001
/VIEW,1,1,1,1
/REPLOT

12e. Plot temperatures:

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot- Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Temperature TEMP”, then [OK]
Or issue:
PLNSOL,TEMP

13. Save and exit ANSYS:

Pick the “QUIT” button from the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu > File > Exit...)
Select “Save Everything”
[OK]
Or issue:
FINISH
/EXIT,ALL

162
 SECTION 8: DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Tutorial 11: Harmonic Analysis of Structure
Tutorial 12: Modal Analysis of Structure

163
Tutorial 11: Harmonic Analysis of Structure

TITLE
Harmonic Analysis of a Cantilever Beam

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Harmonic Analysis is used to determine the response of a structure to harmonically time-
varying loads. This tutorial was created using ANSYS 7.0 The purpose of this tutorial is to
explain the steps required to perform Harmonic analysis the cantilever beam shown below.

We will now conduct a harmonic forced response test by applying a cyclic load (harmonic) at
the end of the beam. The frequency of the load will be varied from 1 - 100 Hz. The figure
below depicts the beam with the application of the load.

ANSYS provides 3 methods for conducting a harmonic analysis. These 3 methods are the Full
, Reduced and Modal Superposition methods. This example demonstrates the Full method
because it is simple and easy to use as compared to the other two methods. However, this
method makes use of the full stiffness and mass matrices and thus is the slower and costlier
option.

164
STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

Student should be able to make simple cantilever model himself other wise use the following
command list:
/TITLE, Dynamic Analysis
/FILNAME,Dynamic,0 ! This sets the jobname to 'Dynamic'
/PREP7
K,1,0,0
K,2,1,0
L,1,2
ET,1,BEAM3
R,1,0.0001,8.33e-10,0.01
MP,EX,1,2.068e11
MP,PRXY,1,0.33
MP,DENS,1,7830
LESIZE,ALL,,,10
LMESH,1
FINISH

Solution: Assigning Loads and Solving

1. Define Analysis Type (Harmonic)

Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Harmonic
ANTYPE,3
Set options for analysis type:
Select: Solution > Analysis Type > Analysis Options..
The following window will appear

As shown, select the Full Solution

method, the Real + imaginary DOF
printout format and do not use lumped
mass approx.
Click 'OK'

The following window will appear.

Use the default settings (shown
below).

165
2. Apply Constraints

Select Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Nodes

The following window will appear once you

select the node at x=0 (Note small changes
in the window compared to the static
examples):

Constrain all DOF as shown in the above

window

3. Apply Loads

Select Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Force/Moment > On Nodes
Select the node at x=1 (far right)
The following window will appear.
Fill it in as shown to apply a load
with a real value of 100 and an
imaginary value of 0 in the positive
'y' direction

Note: By specifying a real and

imaginary value of the load we are
providing information on
magnitude and phase of the load.
In this case the magnitude of the
load is 100 N and its phase is 0. Phase information is important when you have two or more
cyclic loads being applied to the structure as these loads could be in or out of phase. For
harmonic analysis, all loads applied to a structure must have the SAME FREQUENCY.

4. Set the frequency range

Select Solution > Load Step Opts > Time/Frequency > Freq and Substps...
As shown in the window below, specify a frequency range of 0 - 100Hz, 100 substeps and
stepped b.c..

By doing this we will be subjecting

the beam to loads at 1 Hz, 2 Hz, 3
Hz, ..... 100 Hz. We will specify a
stepped boundary condition (KBC)
as this will ensure that the same
amplitude (100 N) will be applyed
for each of the frequencies. The
ramped option, on the other hand,
would ramp up the amplitude where
at 1 Hz the amplitude would be 1 N and at 100 Hz the amplitude would be 100 N.

166
You should now have the following in the ANSYS Graphics window

5. Solve the System

Solution > Solve > Current LS
SOLVE

Postprocessing: Viewing the Results

We want to observe the response at x=1 (where the load was applyed) as a function of
frequency. We cannot do this with General PostProcessing (POST1), rather we must use
TimeHist PostProcessing (POST26). POST26 is used to observe certain variables as a function
of either time or frequency.

6. Open the TimeHist Processing (POST26) Menu

Select TimeHist Postpro from the ANSYS Main Menu.

7. Define Variables

In here we have to define variables that we want to see plotted. By default, Variable 1 is
assigned either Time or
Frequency. In our case it is
assigned Frequency. We want to
see the displacement UY at the
node at x=1, which is node #2.
(To get a list of nodes and their
attributes, select Utility Menu >
List > nodes).

Select TimeHist Postpro >

Variable Viewer...
and the following window
should pop up.

167
Select Add (the green '+' sign in the upper left corner) from this window and the following
window should appear

We are interested in the Nodal Solution > DOF Solution > Y-Component of displacement.
Click OK.

Graphically select node 2 when prompted and click OK. The 'Time History Variables' window
should now look as follows

168
8. List Stored Variables

In the 'Time History Variables'

window click the 'List' button, 3
buttons to the left of 'Add'
The following window will
appear listing the data:

9. Plot UY vs. frequency

In the 'Time History Variables'

window click the 'Plot' button, 2
buttons to the left of 'Add'
The following graph should be
plotted in the main ANSYS
window.

Note that we get peaks at

frequencies of approximately 8.3
and 51 Hz. This corresponds with
the predicted frequencies of 8.311
and 51.94Hz.

To get a better view of the response, view the

log scale of UY.
Select Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style >
Graphs > Modify Axis
The following window will appear

169
As marked by an 'A' in the above window, change the Y-axis scale to 'Logarithmic'
Select Utility Menu > Plot > Replot

You should now see the following

This is the response at node 2 for the cyclic load applied at this node from 0 - 100 Hz.
For ANSYS version lower than 7.0, the 'Variable Viewer' window is not available. Use the
'Define Variables' and 'Store Data' functions under TimeHist Postpro. See the help file for
instructions.

170
Tutorial 12: Modal Analysis of Structure

TITLE
Modal Analysis of a Cantilever Beam

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Modal Analysis--Used to calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure.
Different mode extraction methods are available. This tutorial was created using ANSYS 7.0
The purpose of this tutorial is to outline the steps required to do a simple modal analysis of the
cantilever beam shown below.

STEP-BY-STEP ANSYS SOLUTION

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem

The simple cantilever beam is same as used in the previous tutorial.

Solution: Assigning Loads and Solving

1. Define Analysis Type

Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Modal
ANTYPE,2

171
2. Set options for analysis type:
Select: Solution > Analysis Type > Analysis Options..
The following window will appear

As shown, select the Subspace method and enter 5 in the 'No. of modes to extract'
Check the box beside 'Expand mode shapes' and enter 5 in the 'No. of modes to expand'
Click 'OK'

Note that the default mode

extraction method chosen is the
Reduced Method. This is the
fastest method as it reduces the
system matrices to only consider
the Master Degrees of Freedom
(see below). The Subspace
Method extracts modes for all
DOF's. It is therefore more exact
but, it also takes longer to
compute (especially when the
complex geometries).
The following window will then
appear

For a better understanding of these

options see the Commands
manual.
For this problem, we will use the
default options so click on OK.
172
3. Apply Constraints
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Keypoints
Fix Keypoint 1 (ie all DOFs constrained).

4. Solve the System

Solution > Solve > Current LS
SOLVE

Postprocessing: Viewing the Results

5. Verify extracted modes against theoretical predictions

Select: General Postproc > Results Summary...

The following window will appear

The following table compares the mode frequencies in Hz predicted by theory and ANSYS.
Mode Theory ANSYS Percent Error
1 8.311 8.300 0.1
2 51.94 52.01 0.2
3 145.68 145.64 0.0
4 285.69 285.51 0.0
5 472.22 472.54 0.1

Note: To obtain accurate higher mode frequencies, this mesh would have to be refined even
more (i.e. instead of 10 elements, we would have to model the cantilever using 15 or more
elements depending upon the highest mode frequency of interest).

6. View Mode Shapes

Select: General Postproc > Read Results > First Set

This selects the results for the first mode shape

Select General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed shape . Select 'Def + undef edge'
The first mode shape will now appear in the graphics window.

173
To view the next mode shape, select General Postproc > Read Results > Next Set . As above
choose General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed shape . Select 'Def + undef edge'.

The first four mode shapes should look like the following:

7. Animate Mode Shapes

Select Utility Menu (Menu at the top) > Plot Ctrls > Animate > Mode Shape
The following window will appear

174
Keep the default setting and click 'OK'
The animated mode shapes for Mode 3 is shown below.
Mode 3

Using the Reduced Method for Modal Analysis

This method employs the use of Master Degrees of Freedom. These are degrees of freedom
that govern the dynamic characteristics of a structure. For example, the Master Degrees of
Freedom for the bending modes of cantilever beam are

For this option, a detailed understanding of the dynamic behavior of a structure is required.
However, going this route means a smaller (reduced) stiffness matrix, and thus faster
calculations.

The steps for using this option are quite simple.

Instead of specifying the Subspace method, select the Reduced method and specify 5 modes
for extraction.

175
Complete the window as shown below

Note:For this example both the number of modes and frequency range was specified. ANSYS
then extracts the minimum number of modes between the two.
Select Solution > Master DOF > User Selected > Define
When prompted, select all nodes except the left most node (fixed).

The following window will appear:

Select UY as the 1st degree of freedom (shown above).

The same constraints are used as above.
The following table compares the mode frequencies in Hz predicted by theory and ANSYS
(Reduced).
Mode Theory ANSYS Percent Error
1 8.311 8.300 0.1
2 51.94 52.01 0.1
3 145.68 145.66 0.0
4 285.69 285.71 0.0
5 472.22 473.66 0.3
As you can see, the error does not change significantly. However, for more complex structures,
larger errors would be expected using the reduced method.
176
 SECTION 9: COMPOSITE MATERIALS
9.1 Composites - A Basic Introduction

Composite materials have been used in structures for a long time. In recent times composite
parts have been used extensively in aircraft structures, automobiles, sporting goods, and many
consumer products. Composite materials are those containing more than one bonded material,
each with different structural properties. The main advantage of composite materials is the
potential for a high ratio of stiffness to weight. Composites used for typical engineering
applications are advanced fiber or laminated composites, such as fiberglass, glass epoxy,
graphite epoxy, and boron epoxy. To fully appreciate the role and application of composite
materials to a structure, an understanding is required of the component materials themselves
and of the ways in which they can be processed, this article therefore looks at basic composite
theory and properties of materials used.

In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least two elements
working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those
elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (the ‘matrix’),
and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the
matrix. This reinforcement is usually in fibre form. Today, the most common man-made
composites can be divided into three main groups:

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC’s) – These are the most common and will be
discussed here. Also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics) – these
materials use a polymer-based resin as the matrix, and a variety of fibres such as glass,
carbon and aramid as the reinforcement.
 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC’s) - Increasingly found in the automotive industry,
these materials use a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, and reinforce it with fibres
such as silicon carbide.
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC’s) - Used in very high temperature environments,
these materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce it with short fibres, or
whiskers such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.

9.1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites

Resin systems such as epoxies and polyesters have limited use for the manufacture of
structures on their own, since their mechanical properties are not very high when compared to,
for example, most metals. However, they have desirable properties, most notably their ability
to be easily formed into complex shapes. Materials such as glass, aramid and boron have
extremely high tensile and compressive strength but in ‘solid form’ these properties are not
readily apparent. This is due to the fact that when stressed, random surface flaws will cause
each material to crack and fail well below its theoretical ‘breaking point’. To overcome this
problem, the material is produced in fibre form, so that, although the same number of random
flaws will occur, they will be restricted to a small number of fibres with the remainder
exhibiting the material’s theoretical strength. Therefore a bundle of fibres will reflect more
accurately the optimum performance of the material. However, fibres alone can only exhibit
tensile properties along the fibre’s length, in the same way as fibres in a rope.

177
It is when the resin systems are combined with reinforcing fibres such as glass, carbon and
aramid that exceptional properties can be obtained. The resin matrix spreads the load applied to
the composite between each of the individual fibres and also protects the fibres from damage
caused by abrasion and impact. High strengths and stiffnesses, ease of moulding complex
shapes, high environmental resistance all coupled with low densities, make the resultant
composite superior to metals for many applications. Since PMC’s combine a resin system and
reinforcing fibres, the properties of the resulting composite material will combine something of
the properties of the resin on its own with that of the fibres on their own, as surmised in Figure
1.

Figure1: Illustrating the combined effect on Modulus of the addition of fibres to a resin
matrix.

Overall, the properties of the composite are determined by:

 The properties of the fibre

 The properties of the resin
 The ratio of fibre to resin in the composite (Fibre Volume Fraction (FVF))
 The geometry and orientation of the fibres in the composite

The ratio of the fibre to resin derives largely from the manufacturing process used to combine
resin with fibre. However, it is also influenced by the type of resin system used, and the form
in which the fibres are incorporated. In general, since the mechanical properties of fibres are
much higher than those of resins, the higher the fibre volume fraction the higher will be the
mechanical properties of the resultant composite. In practice there are limits to this, since the
fibres need to be fully coated in resin to be effective, and there will be an optimum packing of
the generally circular cross-section fibres. In addition, the manufacturing process used to
combine fibre with resin leads to varying amounts of imperfections and air inclusions.
Typically, with a common hand lay-up process as widely used in the boat-building industry, a
limit for FVF is approximately 30-40%. With the higher quality, more sophisticated and
precise processes used in the aerospace industry, FVF’s approaching 70% can be successfully
obtained.

The geometry of the fibres in a composite is also important since fibres have their highest
mechanical properties along their lengths, rather than across their widths. This leads to the
highly anisotropic properties of composites, where, unlike metals, the mechanical properties of
the composite are likely to be very different when tested in different directions. This means
that it is very important when considering the use of composites to understand at the design

178
stage, both the magnitude and the direction of the applied loads. When correctly accounted for,
these anisotropic properties can be very advantageous since it is only necessary to put material
where loads will be applied, and thus redundant material is avoided.

It is also important to note that with metals the material supplier largely determines the
properties of the materials, and the person who fabricates the materials into a finished structure
can do almost nothing to change those ‘in-built’ properties. However, a composite material is
formed at the same time, as the structure is itself being fabricated. This means that the person
who is making the structure is creating the properties of the resultant composite material, and
so the manufacturing processes they use have an unusually critical part to play in determining
the performance of the resultant structure.

9.1.1.1 LOADING

There are four main direct loads that any material in a structure has to withstand: tension,
compression, shear and flexure.

Tension: Figure 2 shows a tensile load applied to a composite. The response of a composite to
tensile loads is very dependent on the tensile stiffness and strength properties of the
reinforcement fibres, since these are far higher than the resin system on its own.

Figure 2: Illustrates the tensile load applied to a composite body.

Compression: Figure 3 shows a composite under a compressive load. Here, the adhesive and
stiffness properties of the resin system are crucial, as it is the role of the resin to maintain the
fibres as straight columns and to prevent them from buckling.

Figure 3: Illustrates the compression load applied to a composite body.

Shear: Figure 4 shows a composite experiencing a shear load. This load is trying to slide
adjacent layers of fibres over each other. Under shear loads the resin plays the major role,
transferring the stresses across the composite. For the composite to perform well under shear
loads the resin element must not only exhibit good mechanical properties but must also have
high adhesion to the reinforcement fibre. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of a
composite is often used to indicate this property in a multiplayer composite (‘laminate’).

179
 Figure 4: Illustrates the shear load applied to a composite body.

Flexure: Flexural loads are really a combination of tensile, compression and shear loads.
When loaded as shown (Figure 5), the upper face is put into compression, the lower face into
tension and the central portion of the laminate experiences shear.

Figure 5: Illustrates the loading due to flexure on a composite body.

9.1.1.2 COMPARISON WITH OTHER STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Due to the factors described above, there is a very large range of mechanical properties that
can be achieved with composite materials. Even when considering one fibre type on its own,
the composite properties can vary by a factor of 10 with the range of fibre contents and
orientations that are commonly achieved. The comparisons that follow therefore show a range
of mechanical properties for the composite materials. The lowest properties for each material
are associated with simple manufacturing processes and material forms (e.g. spray lay-up glass
fibre), and the higher properties are associated with higher technology manufacture (e.g.
autoclave moulding of unidirectional glass fibre prepreg), such as would be found in the
aerospace industry. For the other materials shown, a range of strength and stiffness (modulus)
figures are also given to indicate the spread of properties associated with different alloys, for
example.

The above Figures (6 and 7) clearly show the range of properties that different composite
materials can display. These properties can best be summed up as high strengths and
stiffnesses combined with low densities. It is these properties that give rise to the characteristic
high strength and stiffness to weight ratios that make composite structures ideal for so many
applications. This is particularly true of applications, which involve movement, such as cars,
trains and aircraft, since lighter structures in such applications play a significant part in making
these applications more efficient. The strength and stiffness to weight ratio of composite
materials can best be illustrated by the following graphs that plot ‘specific’ properties. These
are simply the result of dividing the mechanical properties of a material by its density.
Generally, the properties at the higher end of the ranges illustrated in the previous graphs
180
(Figures 6 and 7) are produced from the highest density variant of the material. The spread of
specific properties shown in the following graphs (Figures 8 and 9) takes this into account.

Figure 6: Tensile Strength of

Common Structural Materials

Figure 7: Tensile Modulus of

Common Structural Materials

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 Figure 8: Specific Tensile
Strength of Common Structural
Materials.

Figure 9: Specific Tensile

Modulus of Common Structural
Materials

182
9.2. Modeling Composites using ANSYS

ANSYS allows you to model composite materials with specialized elements called layered
elements. Once you build your model using these elements, you can do any structural analysis
(including nonlinearities such as large deflection and stress stiffening).

Composites are somewhat more difficult to model than an isotropic material such as iron or
steel. You need to take special care in defining the properties and orientations of the various
layers since each layer may have different orthotropic material properties. In this section, we
will concentrate on the following aspects of building a composite model:

 Choosing the proper element type

 Defining the layered configuration
 Specifying failure criteria
 Following modeling and postprocessing guidelines

9.2.1. Choosing the Proper Element Type

The following element types are available to model layered composite materials: SHELL99,
SHELL91, SHELL181, SOLID46, and SOLID191. Which element you choose depends on the
application, the type of results that need to be calculated, and so on. Check the individual
element descriptions to determine if a specific element can be used in your ANSYS product.
All layered elements allow failure criterion calculations.

9.2.1.1 SHELL99 - LINEAR LAYERED STRUCTURAL SHELL ELEMENT

SHELL99 is an 8-node, 3-D shell element with six degrees of freedom at each node. It is
designed to model thin to moderately thick plate and shell structures with a side-to-thickness
ratio of roughly 10 or greater. For structures with smaller ratios, you may consider using
SOLID46. The SHELL99 element allows a total of 250 uniform-thickness layers. Alternately,
the element allows 125 layers with thicknesses that may vary bilinearly over the area of the
layer. If more than 250 layers are required, you can input your own material matrix. It also has
an option to offset the nodes to the top or bottom surface.

9.2.1.2 SHELL91 - NONLINEAR LAYERED STRUCTURAL SHELL ELEMENT

SHELL91 is similar to SHELL99 except that it allows only up to 100 layers and does not allow
you to input a material property matrix. However, SHELL91 supports plasticity, large-strain
behavior and a special sandwich option, whereas SHELL99 does not. SHELL91 is also more
robust for large deflection behavior.

9.2.1.3 SHELL181 - FINITE STRAIN SHELL

SHELL181 is a 4-node 3-D shell element with 6 degrees of freedom at each node. The element
has full nonlinear capabilities including large strain and allows 255 layers. The layer
information is input using the section commands rather than real constants. Failure criteria is
available using the FC commands.
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9.2.1.4 SOLID46 - 3-D LAYERED STRUCTURAL SOLID ELEMENT

SOLID46 is a layered version of the 8-node, 3-D solid element, SOLID45, with three degrees
of freedom per node (UX, UY, UZ). It is designed to model thick layered shells or layered
solids and allows up to 250 uniform-thickness layers per element. Alternately, the element
allows 125 layers with thicknesses that may vary bilinearly over the area of the layer. An
advantage with this element type is that you can stack several elements to model more than
250 layers to allow through-the-thickness deformation slope discontinuities. The user-input
constitutive matrix option is also available. SOLID46 adjusts the material properties in the
transverse direction permitting constant stresses in the transverse direction. In comparison to
the 8-node shells, SOLID46 is a lower order element and finer meshes may be required for
shell applications to provide the same accuracy as SHELL91 or SHELL99 .

9.2.1.5 SOLID191 - LAYERED STRUCTURAL SOLID ELEMENT

SOLID191 is a layered version of the 20-node 3-D solid element SOLID95, with three degrees
of freedom per node (UX, UY, UZ). It is designed to model thick layered shells or layered
solids and allows up to 100 layers per element. As with SOLID46, SOLID191 can be stacked
to model through-the-thickness discontinuities. SOLID191 has an option to adjust the material
properties in the transverse direction permitting constant stresses in the transverse direction. In
spite of its name, the element does not support nonlinear materials or large deflections.

In addition to the layered elements mentioned above, other composite element capabilities
exist in ANSYS, but will not be considered further in the chapter:

 SOLID95, the 20-node structural solid element, with KEYOPT(1) = 1 functions

similarly to a single layered SOLID191 including the use of an orientation angle and
failure criterion. It allows nonlinear materials and large deflections.
 SHELL63, the 4-node shell element, can be used for rough, approximate studies of
sandwich shell models. A typical application would be a polymer between two metal
plates, where the bending stiffness of the polymer would be small relative to the
bending stiffness of the metal plates. The bending stiffness can be adjusted by the real
constant RMI to represent the bending stiffness due to the metal plates, and distances
from the middle surface to extreme fibers (real constants CTOP, CBOT) can be used to
obtain output stress estimates on the outer surfaces of the sandwich shell. It is not used
as frequently as SHELL91, SHELL99, or SHELL181, and will not be considered for
anything other than sandwich structures in this section.
 SOLID65, the 3–D Reinforced Concrete Solid Element, models an isotropic medium
with optional reinforcing in 3 different user-defined orientations.
 BEAM188 and BEAM189, the 3–D finite strain beam elements, can have their sections
built up with multiple materials.

9.2.2. Defining the Layered Configuration

The most important characteristic of a composite material is its layered configuration. Each
layer may be made of a different orthotropic material and may have its principal directions
oriented differently. For laminated composites, the fiber directions determine layer orientation.
Two methods are available to define the layered configuration:

184
  By specifying individual layer properties
 By defining constitutive matrices that relate generalized forces and moments to
generalized strains and curvatures (available only for SOLID46 and SHELL99 ).

9.2.2.1. SPECIFYING INDIVIDUAL LAYER PROPERTIES

With this method, the layer configuration is defined layer-by-layer from bottom to top. The
bottom layer is designated as layer 1, and additional layers are stacked from bottom to top in
the positive Z (normal) direction of the element coordinate system. You need to define only
half of the layers if stacking symmetry exists.

At times, a physical layer will extend over only part of the model. In order to model continuous
layers, these dropped layers may be modeled with zero thickness. Figure 10 shows a model
with four layers, the second of which is dropped over part of the model.

Figure 10: Layered Model Showing Dropped Layer

For each layer, the following properties are specified in the element real constant table [R,
RMORE, RMODIF] (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Real Constants) (accessed with REAL
attributes).

 Material properties (via a material reference number MAT)

 Layer orientation angle commands (THETA)
 Layer thickness (TK)

Layered sections may also be defined through the Section Tool (Prep>Sections>Shell —
Add/edit). For each layer, the following are specified in the section definition through the
section commands; or through the Section Tool (SECTYPE, SECDATA) (accessed with the
SECNUM attributes).

 Material properties (via a material reference number MAT)

 Layer orientation angle commands (THETA)
 Layer thickness (TK)
 Number of integration points per layer (NUMPT)

Material Properties - As with any other element, the MP command (Main Menu>
Preprocessor> Material Props> Material Models> Structural> Linear> Elastic> Isotropic
or Orthotropic) is used to define the linear material properties, and the TB command is used
to define the nonlinear material data tables (plasticity is only available for elements SOLID191
and SHELL91). The only difference is that the material attribute number for each layer of an
element is specified in the element's real constant table. For the layered elements, the MAT
command (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh Attributes> Default Attribs)
attribute is only used for the DAMP and REFT arguments of the MP command. The linear
material properties for each layer may be either isotropic or orthotropic (see Linear Material
185
Properties in the ANSYS Elements Reference). Typical fiber-reinforced composites contain
orthotropic materials and these properties are most often supplied in the major Poisson's ratio
form (see the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference). Material property directions are parallel to the
layer coordinate system, which is defined by the element coordinate system and the layer
orientation angle (described below).

Layer Orientation Angle- This defines the orientation of the layer coordinate system with
respect to the element coordinate system. It is the angle (in degrees) between X-axes of the two
systems. By default, the layer coordinate system is parallel to the element coordinate system.
All elements have a default coordinate system which you can change using the ESYS element
attribute [ESYS] (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh Attributes> Default
Attribs). You may also write your own subroutines to define the element and layer coordinate
systems (USERAN and USANLY); see the Guide to ANSYS User Programmable Features for
details.

Layer Thickness- If the layer thickness is constant, you only need to specify TK(I), the
thickness at node I. Otherwise, the thicknesses at the four corner nodes must be input. Dropped
layers may be represented with zero thickness.

Number of integration points per layer- This allows you to determine in how much detail the
program should compute the results. For very thin layers, when used with many other layers,
one point would be appropriate. But for laminates with few layers, more would be needed. The
default is 3 points. This feature applies only to sections defined through the section commands.
Currently, the GUI only allows layer real constant input of up to 100 layers. If more layers are
needed for SHELL99 or SOLID46, the R and RMORE commands must be used.

9.2.2.2. DEFINING THE CONSTITUTIVE MATRICES

This is an alternative to specifying the individual layer properties and is available as an option
[KEYOPT(2)] for SOLID46 and SHELL99. The matrices, which represent the force-moment
and strain-curvature relationships for the element, must be calculated outside the ANSYS
program as outlined in the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference. They can be included as part of the
solution printout with KEYOPT(10). The main advantages of the matrix approach are:

 It allows you to incorporate an aggregate composite material behavior.

 A thermal load vector may be supplied.
 The matrices may represent an unlimited number of layers.

The terms of the matrices are defined as real constants. Mass effects are incorporated by
specifying an average density (real constants AVDENS) for the element. If the matrix
approach is used, detailed results in each layer cannot be obtained since individual layer
information is not input.

9.2.2.3. SANDWICH AND MULTIPLE-LAYERED STRUCTURES

Sandwich structures have two thin faceplates and a thick, but relatively weak, core. Figure 11
illustrates sandwich construction.

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 Figure 11: Sandwich Construction

You can model sandwich structures with SHELL63, SHELL91, or SHELL181. SHELL63 has
one layer but permits sandwich modeling through the use of real constants. You can modify
the effective bending moment of inertia and the distance from the middle surface to the
extreme fibers to account for the weak core. KEYOPT(9) = 1 of SHELL91 specifies the
sandwich option. The core is assumed to carry all of the transverse shear; the faceplates carry
none. Conversely, the faceplates are assumed to carry all (or almost all) of the bending load.
Only SHELL91 has this sandwich option.

SHELL181 models the transverse shear deflection using as energy equivalence method that
makes the need for a sandwich option unnecessary.

9.2.2.4. NODE OFFSET

For SHELL181 using sections defined through the section commands, nodes can be offset
during the definition of the section, using the SECOFFSET command. For SHELL91, and
SHELL99 the node offset option (KEYOPT(11)) locates the element nodes at the bottom,
middle or top surface of the shell. The figures below illustrate how you can conveniently
model ply drop off in shell elements that are adjacent to each other. In Figure 12, the nodes are
located at the middle surfaces (KEYOPT(11) = 0) and these surfaces are aligned. In Figure 13,
the nodes are located at the bottom surfaces (KEYOPT(11) = 1) and these surfaces are aligned.

Figure 12: Layered Shell With Nodes at Midplane

Figure 13: Layered Shell With Nodes at Bottom Surface

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9.2.3. Specifying Failure Criteria
Failure criteria are used to learn if a layer has failed due to the applied loads. You can choose
from three predefined failure criteria or specify up to six failure criteria of your own (user-
written criteria). The three predefined criteria are:

 Maximum Strain Failure Criterion, which allows nine failure strains.

 Maximum Stress Failure Criterion, which allows nine failure stresses.
 Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion, which allows nine failure stresses and three additional
coupling coefficients. You have a choice of two methods of calculating this criterion.
The methods are defined in the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference.

The failure strains, stresses, and coupling coefficients may be temperature-dependent. See the
ANSYS Elements Reference for details about the data required for each criterion. To specify a
failure criterion, use either the family of TB commands or the family of FC commands. The
TB commands areTB, TBTEMP, and TBDATA. (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Material
Props> Failure Criteria). A typical sequence of commands to specify a failure criterion using
these commands is shown below.

TB,FAIL,1,2 ! Data table for failure criterion, material 1,

! no. of temperatures = 2
TBTEMP,,CRIT ! Failure criterion key
TBDATA,2,1 ! Maximum Stress Failure Criterion (Const. 2 = 1)
TBTEMP,100 ! Temperature for subsequent failure properties
TBDATA,10,1500,,400,,10000 ! X, Y, and Z failure tensile stresses (Z value
! set to a large number)
TBDATA,16,200,10000,10000 ! XY, YZ, and XZ failure shear stresses
TBLIST
TBTEMP,200 ! Second temperature
TBDATA,...

The FC commands are FC, FCDELE, and FCLIST commands (Main Menu>
Preprocessor> Material Props> Material Models> Structural> Nonlinear> Inelastic>
Non-Metal Plasticity> Failure Criteria) and (Main Menu> General Postproc> Failure
Criteria). A typical sequence of commands to specify a failure criterion using these
commands is shown below.

FC,1,TEMP,, 100, 200 ! Temperatures

FC,1,S,XTEN, 1500, 1200 ! Maximum stress components
FC,1,S,YTEN, 400, 500
FC,1,S,ZTEN,10000, 8000
FC,1,S,XY , 200, 200
FC,1,S,YZ ,10000, 8000
FC,1,S,XZ ,10000, 8000
FCLIST, ,100 ! List status of Failure Criteria at 100.0 degrees
FCLIST, ,150 ! List status of Failure Criteria at 150.0 degrees
FCLIST, ,200 ! List status of Failure Criteria at 200.0 degrees
188
PRNSOL,S,FAIL ! Use Failure Criteria

The TB commands (TB, TBTEMP, and TBDATA) can be used only for SHELL91,
SHELL99, SOLID46, or SOLID191, but the FC and FCLIST commands can be used for any
2-D or 3-D structural solid element or any 3-D structural shell element.

See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the TB, TBTEMP, TBDATA,
TBLIST, FC, FCDELE, and FCLIST commands.
Some notes about specifying failure criteria:

 The criteria are orthotropic, so you must input the failure stress or failure strain values
for all directions. (The exception is that compressive values default to tensile values.)
 If you don't want the failure stress or strain to be checked in a particular direction,
specify a large number in that direction (as shown in the previous example).

User-written failure criteria may be specified via user subroutines USRFC1 through USRFC6.
These subroutines should be linked with the ANSYS program beforehand; see the ANSYS
Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide for a brief description of user-programmable features.

9.2.4. Additional Modeling and Postprocessing Guidelines

Some additional guidelines for modeling and postprocessing of composite elements are
presented below.

1. Composites exhibit several types of coupling effects, such as coupling between bending
and twisting, coupling between extension and bending, etc. This is due to stacking of
layers of differing material properties. As a result, if the layer stacking sequence is not
symmetric, you may not be able to use model symmetry even if the geometry and
loading are symmetric, because the displacements and stresses may not be symmetric.

2. Interlaminar shear stresses are usually important at the free edges of a model. For
relatively accurate interlaminar shear stresses at these locations, the element size at the
boundaries of the model should be approximately equal to the total laminate thickness.
For shells, increasing the number of layers per actual material layer does not
necessarily improve the accuracy of interlaminar shear stresses. With elements
SOLID46, SOLID95, and SOLID191, however, stacking elements in the thickness
direction should result in more accurate interlaminar stresses through the thickness.
Interlaminar transverse shear stresses in shell elements are based on the assumption that
no shear is carried at the top and bottom surfaces of the element. These interlaminar
shear stresses are only computed in the interior and are not valid along the shell
element boundaries. Use of shell-to-solid submodeling is recommended to accurately
compute all of the free edge interlaminar stresses.

3. Because a large amount of input data is required for composites, you should verify the
data before proceeding with the solution. Several commands are available for this
purpose:
189
  ELIST (Utility Menu> List> Elements) lists the nodes and attributes of all
selected elements.
 EPLOT (Utility Menu> Plot> Elements) displays all selected elements. Using
the /ESHAPE,1 command (Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Size and Shape)
before EPLOT causes shell elements to be displayed as solids with the layer
thicknesses obtained from real constants or section definition (see Figure 14.
This example uses element SHELL99 with /ESHAPE turned on). It also causes
SOLID46 elements to be displayed with layers.
 /PSYMB,LAYR,n (Utility Menu> PlotCrls> Symbols) followed by EPLOT
displays layer number n for all selected layered elements. This can be used to
display and verify each individual layer across the entire model.
 /PSYMB,ESYS,1 followed by EPLOT displays the element coordinate system
triad for those elements whose default coordinate system has been changed.

Figure 14: Example of an Element Display

 LAYLIST (Utility Menu> List> Elements> Layered Elements) lists the layer
stacking sequence from real constants and any two material properties for
SHELL99, SHELL91, SOLID46, and SOLID191 elements. You can specify a
range of layer numbers for the listing.

LIST LAYERS 1 TO 4 IN REAL SET 1 FOR ELEMENT TYPE 1

TOTAL LAYERS = 4 LSYM = 1 LP1 = 0 LP2 = 0 EFS = .000E+00

NO. ANGLE THICKNESS MAT

--- ----- ---------- ---
1 45.0 0.250 1
2 -45.0 0.250 2
3 -45.0 0.250 2
4 45.0 0.250 1
------------------------
SUM OF THK 1.00

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  LAYPLOT (Utility Menu> Plot> Layered Elements) displays the layer
stacking sequence from real constants in the form of a sheared deck of cards
(see Figure 15). The layers are crosshatched and color coded for clarity. The
hatch lines indicate the layer angle (real constant THETA) and the color
indicates layer material number (MAT). You can specify a range of layer
numbers for the display.
 SECPLOT (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Shell> Plot Section)
displays the section stacking sequence from sections in the form of a sheared
deck of cards (see Figure 15). The sections are crosshatched and color coded
for clarity. The hatch lines indicate the layer angle (THETA) and the color
indicates layer material number (MAT) defined by the SECDATA command.
You can specify a range of layer numbers for the display.

4. By default, only data for the bottom of the first (bottom) layer, top of the last (top)
layer, and the layer with the maximum failure criterion value are written to the results
file. If you are interested in data for all layers, set KEYOPT(8) = 1. Be aware, though,
that this may result in a large results file.

Figure 15: Sample LAYPLOT Display for [45/-45/ - 45/45] Sequence

5. Use the ESEL,S,LAYER command to select elements that have a certain layer number.
If an element has a zero thickness for the requested layer, the element is not selected.

For energy output, the results are applicable only to the entire element; you cannot get output
results for individual layers.

191
6. Use the LAYER command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp) in
POST1 (or LAYERP26 (Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Define Variables) in
POST26) to specify the layer number for which results are to be processed. The
SHELL command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp or Main
Menu> TimeHist Prostpro> Define Variables) specifies a TOP, MID, or BOT
location within the layer. The default in POST1 is to store results for the bottom of the
bottom layer, and the top of the top layer, and the layer with the maximum failure
criterion value. In POST26, the default is layer 1. If KEYOPT(8) = 1 (that is, data
stored for all layers), the LAYER and LAYERP26 commands store the TOP and BOT
results for the specified layer number. MID values are then calculated by average TOP
and BOT values. If KEYOPT (8) = 2 is set for SHELL181 during SOLUTION, then
LAYER and LAYERP26 commands store the TOP, BOTTOM, and MID results for
the specified layer number. In this case, MID values are directly retrieved from the
results file. For transverse shear stresses with KEYOPT(8) = 0, therefore, POST1 can
only show a linear variation, whereas the element solution printout or KEYOPT(8) = 2
can show a parabolic variation.

7. By default, POST1 displays all results in the global Cartesian coordinate system. Use
the RSYS command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp) to
transform the results to a different coordinate system. In particular, RSYS,SOLU
allows you to display results in the layer coordinate system if LAYER is issued with a
nonzero layer number.

192
Tutorial 13: Simply Supported Laminated Plate Under Pressure

Problem Description

A simply-supported square cross-ply laminated plate is subjected to a uniform pressure po. The
stacking sequence of the plies is symmetric about the middle plane. Determine the center
deflection δ (Z-direction) of the plate due to the pressure load and the von-Mises stress
distribution.

Geometric Properties Material Properties Loading

6 2
a = 10 m Ex = 25 x 10 N/m
h = 0.1 m Ey = 1 x 106 N/m2 po = 1.0 N/m2
t = 0.025 m υxy = 0.25 (Major Poisson's ratio)
Gxy = G = 0.5 x 106 N/m2
Gyz = 0.2 x 106 N/m2

Reference: J. N. Reddy, “Exact Solutions of Moderately

Thick Laminated Shells”, ASCE Journal Engineering
Mechanics, Vol. 110 No. 5, 1972, pg. 805.

Approach and Assumptions Symmetric boundary

condition (ux=0)

A quarter of the plate is modeled due to symmetry in

geometry, material orientation, loading, and
boundary conditions. Symmetric boundary
condition (uy=0)

One model using Linear Layered Structural Shell

Elements SHELL99 is analyzed. 3-D 8-node Layered
Structural Solid Elements SOLID46 elements can
also be used.

193
Note that PRXY is used to directly input the major Poisson's ratio. EZ (explicitly input) is
assumed to be equal to EY.

194
Summary of Steps

1. Set Preferences.
2. Define element types and options.
3. Define real constants.
4. Define Material Properties.
5. Build Geometry
6. Generate Mesh
7. Verification of data
8. Apply displacement constraints.
9. Apply pressure load.
10. Obtain Solution
11. Review Results
12. Exit the ANSYS program.

Step-By-Step Analysis

Utility Menu >File>Change title

Enter Simply Supported Laminated Plate
(SHELL99)

OK
STEP 1: SET PREFERENCES.

In preparation for defining materials, you will set preferences so that only materials and
elements that pertain to a structural analysis are available for you to choose.To set preferences:

1. Main Menu> Preferences

195
2. Turn on structural filtering.

3. OK to apply filtering and close the dialog box.

196
Before going to next step, enter preprocessor by selecting Preprocessor
from the ANSYS Main Menu:

STEP 2: DEFINE ELEMENT TYPES AND OPTIONS.

In any analysis, you need to select from a library of element types and
define the appropriate ones for your analysis. For this analysis, you will
first use element type, SHELL99. SHELL99 may be used for layered
applications of a structural shell model. It allows up to 250 layers. If more than 250 layers are
required, a user-input constitutive matrix is available

3. Main Menu> Preprocessor>

Element Type>
Add/Edit/Delete

4. Add an element type.

2. Structural shell family of

elements.

3. Choose the 8-noded layered shell

element. (SHELL99).

4. OK to apply the element type and

close the dialog box.
197
5. Close the element type dialog
box.

STEP 3: DEFINE REAL CONSTANTS.

For this analysis, since the assumption is plane stress with thickness, you will enter the
thickness as a real constant for PLANE82. To find out more information about PLANE82, you
will use the ANSYS Help System in this step by clicking on a Help button from within a
dialog box.

6. Main Menu> Preprocessor>

Real Constants> Add/Edit/Delete

7. Add a real constant set.

8. OK for SHELL99.

9. OK to real constant set number

1.

10. Enter 4 for number of layers and

1 for symmetric.

198
11. Enter material number, angle
and thickness for each layer. Because of
symmetry (0/90/90/0), enter data only
for first two layers.
Layer 1: 1, 0, 0.025
Layer 2: 1, 90, 0.025

12. OK to define the real constant

and close the dialog box.

13. Close the real constant dialog

box.
STEP 4: DEFINE MATERIAL PROPERTIES.
1. Main Menu> Preprocessor> Material
Props> Material Models
2. Double-click on Structural, Linear, Elastic,
Orthotropic.
3. Enter 25.0E6 for EX.
4. Enter 1.0E6 for EY and EZ
5. Enter 0.25 for PRXY and PRXZ
6. Enter 0.01 for PRYZ
7. Enter 0.5E6 for GXY and GXZ
8. Enter 0.2E6 for GYZ
9. OK to define material property set and close
the dialog box.
10. Material> Exit

STEP 5: BUILD GEOMETRY.

There are several ways to create the model geometry within ANSYS, some more convenient
than others. Decide where the origin will be located and then define the rectangle primitive
relative to that origin. The location of the origin is arbitrary. Here, use the center of the plate.
ANSYS does not need to know where the origin is. Simply begin by defining a rectangle
relative to that location. In ANSYS, this origin is called the global origin.

1. Main Menu> Preprocessor>

Modeling> Create> Areas> Rectangle>
By Dimensions

199
1. Enter the following:

X1=0, X2=5, Y1=0, Y2=5

OK to close the dialog box.

STEP 6: GENERATE MESH

One nice feature of the ANSYS program is that you can automatically mesh the model without
specifying any mesh size controls. This is using what is called a default mesh. If you’re not
sure how to determine the mesh density, let ANSYS try it first!. Instead you will specify a
global element size to control overall mesh density.

Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing>

Mesh Tool

Set Global Size control.

Type in
0.5.

OK.

200
Choose Area Meshing.

Click on Mesh.

Pick All for the area to be

meshed (in picking menu).
Close any warning
messages that appear.

Close the Mesh Tool.

STEP 7: VERIFICATION OF DATA

Because a large amount of input data is required for composites, you should verify the data
before proceeding with the solution. Several commands are available for this purpose. Some of
them demonstrated below:

EPLOT (Utility Menu> Plot> Elements) displays all selected elements. Using the
/ESHAPE,1 command (Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Size and Shape) before EPLOT
causes shell elements to be displayed as solids with the layer thicknesses obtained from real
constants or section definition.

Utility Menu> PlotCtrls>Style>Size and Shape

Turn on display of element key

OK

201
Utility Menu> Plot Elements

Select isometric view

Zoom in to clearly see the four layers

along the thickness direction

Pick the zoom tablet

Select the region

Enlarged view of the corner showing

layers.

202
LAYPLOT (Utility Menu> Plot> Layered Elements) displays the layer stacking sequence
from real constants in the form of a sheared deck of cards. The layers are crosshatched and
color coded for clarity. The hatch lines indicate the layer angle (real constant THETA) and the
color indicates layer material number (MAT). You can specify a range of layer numbers for the
display.
Utility Menu> Plot> Layered
Elements

Select the element to be displayed.

(only one element can be selected
at one time)

Enter the range of layers to be

displayed for the selected element.

203
OK

Figure shows the configuration

0/90/90/0 for the layered element.

Apply Loads

The beginning of the solution phase.

A new, static analysis is the default, so you will not need to specify analysis type for this
problem. Also, there are no analysis options for this problem.

Utility Menu > Plotctrls > Numbering

Select LINE numbers

Utility Menu > Plot > Lines

204
STEP 8: APPLY DISPLACEMENT CONSTRAINTS.

You can apply symmetric displacement constraints directly to two lines.

Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads>

Apply> Structural> Displacement>
Symmetry B.C.>On Lines

Pick the two lines of symmetry (Line

numbers 1 and 4)

OK (in picking menu).

Now, apply displacement on the two simply supported plate edges.

Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads>
Apply> Structural> Displacement>On
Lines

205
Pick the line at the top (Line numbers 3)

OK (in picking menu).

Click on UX.

Enter 0 for zero displacement.

APPLY to apply constraints and return to

dialog box.
Pick the line at the top (Line numbers 3)

OK (in picking menu).

Click on UZ.

Enter 0 for zero displacement.

APPLY to apply constraints and return to

dialog box.

Pick the line at the right (Line numbers 2)

OK (in picking menu).

Click on UY.

Enter 0 for zero displacement.

APPLY to apply constraints and return to

dialog box.

Pick the line at the right (Line numbers 2)

OK (in picking menu).

Click on UZ.

Enter 0 for zero displacement.

OK to apply constraints and return to dialog

box.

206
Utility Menu> Plot Lines

207
STEP 9: APPLY PRESSURE LOAD.

Now apply the uniform pressure load on the top surface. The ANSYS convention for pressure
loading is that a positive load value represents pressure into the surface (compressive).

1. Main Menu> Solution> Define

Loads> Apply> Structural>
Pressure> On Areas

Pick the area

OK

Enter 100 for VALUE

208
OK

Pressure distribution is shown by face-out

lines. It can be changed to arrows as
demonstrated below.

Utility Menu > Plotctrls > Symbols

Select Arrows for Pressure

OK

STEP 10: OBTAIN SOLUTION.

1. Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS

2. Review the information in the status window,
then choose File> Close (Windows),
3. OK to begin the solution. Choose Yes to any
Verify messages that appear.
4. Close the information window when solution is
done.

ANSYS stores the results of this one load step problem

in the database and in the results file, Jobname.RST (or Jobname.RTH for thermal,
Jobname.RMG for magnetic, and Jobname.RFL for fluid analyses). The database can actually
contain only one set of results at any given time, so in a multiple load step or multiple substep
analysis, ANSYS stores only the final solution in the database. ANSYS stores all solutions in
the results file.
209
STEP 11. REVIEW RESULTS

The beginning of the postprocessing phase.

Main Menu> General Postproc>

Plot Results> Contour Plot>
Nodal Solu

Choose DOF Solution item to be

contoured.

SCROLL DOWN AND CHOOSE Z-

COMPONENT OF DISPLACEMENT
(UZ).

Main Menu> General Postproc>

Plot Results> Contour Plot>
Nodal Solu

Choose Stress item to be

contoured.

Scroll down and choose von Mises

(SEQV).

To see the stress distribution along the

thickness,

First select bottom view, then

Rotate the view once about positive x-

axis.

210
Zoom the region of interest.

List reaction solution.

1. Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> PRINT FZ REACTION SOLUTIONS

Reaction Solu PER NODE
2. OK to list all items and close the dialog box. NODE FZ
3. Scroll down and find the total vertical force, FZ. 2 -43.064
22 85.605
23 -171.83
Total FZ = Pressure x Area = 100 x (5x5) = 2500 N .
.

4. File> Close (Windows). 58 -34.133

59 -69.352
60 -34.873
61 -70.354

TOTAL VALUES

VALUE -2500.0

STEP 12: EXIT THE ANSYS PROGRAM.

When exiting the ANSYS program, you can save the geometry and loads portions of the
database (default), save geometry, loads, and solution data (one set of results only), save
geometry, loads, solution data, and postprocessing data (i.e., save everything), or save nothing.
You can save nothing here, but you should be sure to use one of the other save options if you
want to keep the ANSYS data files.

1. Toolbar: Quit.

2. Choose Quit - No Save!

3. OK.

Congratulations! You have completed this tutorial.

211
 SECTION 10: PROBABILISTIC DESIGN ANALYSIS
10.1 Probabilistic Design

Probabilistic design is an analysis technique for assessing the effect of uncertain input
parameters and assumptions on your model. A probabilistic analysis allows you to determine
the extent to which uncertainties in the model affect the results of a finite element analysis. An
uncertainty (or random quantity) is a parameter whose value is impossible to determine at a
given point in time (if it is time-dependent) or at a given location (if it is location-dependent).
An example is ambient temperature; you cannot know precisely what the temperature will be
one week from now in a given city. In a probabilistic analysis, statistical distribution functions
(such as the Gaussian or normal distribution, the uniform distribution, etc.) describe uncertain
parameters.

Computer models are expressed and described with specific numerical and deterministic
values; material properties are entered using certain values, the geometry of the component is
assigned a certain length or width, etc. An analysis based on a given set of specific numbers
and values is called a deterministic analysis. Naturally, the results of a deterministic analysis
are only as good as the assumptions and input values used for the analysis. The validity of
those results depends on how correct the values were for the component under real life
conditions.

In reality, every aspect of an analysis model is subjected to scatter (in other words, is uncertain
in some way). Material property values are different if one specimen is compared to the next.
This kind of scatter is inherent for materials and varies among different material types and
material properties. For example, the scatter of the Young's modulus for many materials can
often be described as a Gaussian distribution with standard deviation of ±3 - 5%. Likewise, the
geometric properties of components can only be reproduced within certain manufacturing
tolerances. The same variation holds true for the loads that are applied to a finite element
model. However, in this case the uncertainty is often due to a lack of engineering knowledge.
For example, at elevated temperatures the heat transfer coefficients are very important in a
thermal analysis, yet it is almost impossible to measure the heat transfer coefficients. This
means that almost all input parameters used in a finite element analysis are inexact, each
associated with some degree of uncertainty.

It is neither physically possible nor financially feasible to eliminate the scatter of input
parameters completely. The reduction of scatter is typically associated with higher costs either
through better and more precise manufacturing methods and processes or increased efforts in
quality control; hence, accepting the existence of scatter and dealing with it rather than trying
to eliminate it makes products more affordable and production of those products more cost-
effective.

To deal with uncertainties and scatter, you can use the ANSYS Probabilistic Design System
(PDS) to answer the following questions:

 If the input variables of a finite element model are subjected to scatter, how large is the
scatter of the output parameters? How robust are the output parameters? Here, output
parameters can be any parameter that ANSYS can calculate. Examples are the

212
 temperature, stress, strain, or deflection at a node, the maximum temperature, stress,
strain, or deflection of the model, etc.
 If the output is subjected to scatter due to the variation of the input variables, then what
is the probability that a design criterion given for the output parameters is no longer
met? How large is the probability that an unexpected and unwanted event takes place
(what is the failure probability)?
 Which input variables contribute the most to the scatter of an output parameter and to
the failure probability? What are the sensitivities of the output parameter with respect
to the input variables?

Probabilistic design can be used to determine the effect of one or more variables on the
outcome of the analysis. In addition to the probabilistic design techniques available, the
ANSYS program offers a set of strategic tools that can be used to enhance the efficiency of the
probabilistic design process. For example, you can graph the effects of one input variable
versus an output parameter, and you can easily add more samples and additional analysis loops
to refine your analysis.

10.1.1 Traditional (Deterministic) vs. Probabilistic Design Analysis Methods

In traditional deterministic analyses, uncertainties are either ignored or accounted for by

applying conservative assumptions. Uncertainties are typically ignored if the analyst knows for
certain that the input parameter has no effect on the behavior of the component under
investigation. In this case, only the mean values or some nominal values are used in the
analysis. However, in some situations the influence of uncertainties exists but is still neglected;
for example, the Young's modulus mentioned above or the thermal expansion coefficient, for
which the scatter is usually ignored. Let's assume you are performing a thermal analysis and
you want to evaluate the thermal stresses (thermal stresses are directly proportional to the
Young's modulus as well as to the thermal expansion coefficient of the material). The equation
is:

σtherm = E α ΔT

If the Young's modulus alone has a Gaussian distribution with a 5% standard deviation, then
there is almost a 16% chance that the stresses are more than 5% higher than what you would
think they are in a deterministic case. This figure increases if you also take into account that,
typically, the thermal expansion coefficient also follows a Gaussian distribution.

Random Input Variables taken Probability that the Probability that the
into account thermal stresses are thermal stresses are more
more than 5% higher than 10% higher than
than expected expected
Young's modulus (Gaussian ~16% ~2.3%
distribution with 5% standard
deviation)
Young's modulus and thermal ~22% ~8%
expansion coefficient (each with
Gaussian distribution with 5%
standard deviation)

213
When a conservative assumption is used, this actually tells you that uncertainty or randomness
is involved. Conservative assumptions are usually expressed in terms of safety factors.
Sometimes regulatory bodies demand safety factors in certain procedural codes. If you are not
faced with such restrictions or demands, then using conservative assumptions and safety
factors can lead to inefficient and costly over-design. You can avoid over-design by using
probabilistic methods while still ensuring the safety of the component. Probabilistic methods
even enable you to quantify the safety of the component by providing a probability that the
component will survive operating conditions. Quantifying a goal is the necessary first step
toward achieving it. Probabilistic methods can tell you how to achieve your goal.

10.1.2 Reliability and Quality Issues

Use probabilistic design when issues of reliability and quality are paramount. Reliability is
usually always a concern because product or component failures have significant financial
consequences (costs of repair, replacement, warranty, or penalties); worse, a failure can result
in injury or loss of life. Although perfection is neither physically possible nor financially
feasible, probabilistic design helps you to design safe and reliable products while avoiding
costly over-design and conserve manufacturing resources (machining accuracy, efforts in
quality control, and so on). Quality is the perception by a customer that the product performs
as expected or better. In a quality product, the customer rarely receives unexpected and
unpleasant events where the product or one of its components fails to perform as expected. By
nature, those rare "failure" events are driven by uncertainties in the design. Here, probabilistic
design methods help you to assess how often "failure" events may happen. In turn, you can
improve the design for those cases where the "failure" event rate is above your customers'
tolerance limit.

10.1.3 Probabilistic Design Terminology

PDS Term Description

random input Quantities that influence the result of an analysis.
variables (RVs)
In probabilistic design, RVs are often called "drivers" because they drive
the result of an analysis. You must specify the type of statistical
distribution the RVs follow and the parameter values of their distribution
functions.
correlation Two (or more) RVs which are statistically dependent upon each other.
random output The results of a finite element analysis.
parameters The RPs are typically a function of the RVs; that is, changing the values
(RPs) of the random input variables should change the value of the random
output parameters.
probabilistic The random input variables (RVs) and random output parameters (RPs)
design are collectively known as probabilistic design variables.
variables
sample A unique set of parameter values that represents a particular model
configuration. A sample is characterized by random input variable
values.
simulation The collection of all samples that are required or that you request for a
given probabilistic analysis.
214
PDS Term Description
The simulation contains the information used to determine how the
component would behave under real-life conditions (with all the existing
uncertainties and scatter); therefore, all samples represent the simulation
of the behavior.
probabilistic The combination of definitions and specifications for the deterministic
model model (in the form of the analysis file). The model has these
components:

 Random input variables (RVs)

 Correlations
 Random output parameters (RPs)
 The selected settings for probabilistic method and its parameters.

If you change any part of the probabilistic model, then you will generate
different results for the probabilistic analysis (that is, different results
values and/or a different number of results). For example, modifying the
analysis file may affect the results file. If you add or take away an RV or
change its distribution function, you solve a different probabilistic
problem (which again leads to different results). If you add an RP, you
will still solve the same probabilistic problem, but more results are
generated.
mean value A measure of location often used to describe the general location of the
bulk of the scattering data of a random output parameter or of a statistical
distribution function.
Mathematically, the mean value is the arithmetic average of the data. The
mean value also represents the center of gravity of the data points.
Another name for the mean value is the expected value.
median value The statistical point where 50% of the data is below the median value
and the 50% is above.
For symmetrical distribution functions (Gaussian, uniform, etc.) the
median value and the mean value are identical, while for nonsymmetrical
distributions they are different.
standard A measure of variability (dispersion or spread) about the arithmetic mean
deviation value, often used to describe the width of the scatter of a random output
parameter or of a statistical distribution function.
The larger the standard deviation, the wider the scatter and the more
likely it is that there are data values further apart from the mean value.

10.1.3 Steps for Probabilistic Design Analysis using ANSYS

The usual process for probabilistic design consists of the following general steps:

1. Create an analysis file for use during looping. The file should represent a complete
analysis sequence and must do the following:
 Build the model parametrically (PREP7).
 Obtain the solution(s) (SOLUTION).
215
  Retrieve and assign to parameters the quantities that will be used as random input
variables and random output parameters (POST1/POST26).
2. Establish parameters in the ANSYS database which correspond to those used in the
analysis file. This step is typical, but not required (Begin or PDS); however, if you skip
this step, then the parameter names are not available for selection in interactive mode.
3. Enter PDS and specify the analysis file (PDS).
4. Declare random input variables (PDS).
5. Visualize random input variables (PDS). Optional.
6. Specify any correlations between the RVs (PDS).
7. Specify random output parameters (PDS).
8. Choose the probabilistic design tool or method (PDS).
9. Execute the loops required for the probabilistic design analysis (PDS).
10. Fit the response surfaces (if you did not use a Monte Carlo Simulation method) (PDS).
11. Review the results of the probabilistic analysis (PDS).

Because analyzing complex problems can be time-consuming, ANSYS offers you the option of
running a probabilistic analysis on a single processor or distributing the analyses across
multiple processors. By using the ANSYS PDS parallel run capabilities, you can run many
analysis loops simultaneously and reduce the overall run time for a probabilistic analysis.

The following figure shows the flow of information during a probabilistic design analysis.

216
10.2 Probability Distributions

Probability distributions are a fundamental concept in statistics. They are used both on a
theoretical level and a practical level. Some practical uses of probability distributions are:

 To calculate confidence intervals for parameters and to calculate critical regions for
hypothesis tests.
 For univariate data, it is often useful to determine a reasonable distributional model for
the data.
 Statistical intervals and hypothesis tests are often based on specific distributional
assumptions. Before computing an interval or test based on a distributional assumption,
we need to verify that the assumption is justified for the given data set. In this case, the
distribution does not need to be the best-fitting distribution for the data, but an adequate
enough model so that the statistical technique yields valid conclusions.
 Simulation studies with random numbers generated from using a specific probability
distribution are often needed.

The mathematical definition of a continuous probability function, f(x), is a function that

satisfies the following properties.

1. The probability that x is between two points a and b is

2. It is non-negative for all real x.

3. The integral of the probability function is one, that is

What does this actually mean? Since continuous probability functions are defined for an
infinite number of points over a continuous interval, the probability at a single point is always
zero. Probabilities are measured over intervals, not single points. That is, the area under the
curve between two distinct points defines the probability for that interval. This means that the
height of the probability function can in fact be greater than one. The property that the integral
must equal one is equivalent to the property for discrete distributions that the sum of all the
probabilities must equal one.

Probability distributions are typically defined in terms of the probability density function.
However, there are a number of probability functions used in applications. For a continuous
function, the probability density function (pdf) is the probability that the variate has the value
x. Since for continuous distributions the probability at a single point is zero, this is often
expressed in terms of an integral between two points.

For a discrete distribution, the pdf is the probability that the variate takes the value x.

217
The following is the plot of the normal
probability density function.

The cumulative distribution function

(cdf) is the probability that the variable
takes a value less than or equal to x.
That is

For a continuous distribution, this can

be expressed mathematically as

For a discrete distribution, the cdf

can be expressed as

The following is the plot of the

normal cumulative distribution
function.

The horizontal axis is the allowable

domain for the given probability
function. Since the vertical axis is a
probability, it must fall between zero
and one. It increases from zero to
one as we go from left to right on
the horizontal axis.

10.2.1 Gallery of Common Continuous Distributions

There are a large number of distributions used in statistical applications. Detailed information
on a few of the most common distributions is available below.

Normal Distribution Uniform Distribution

218
Exponential Distribution Weibull Distribution

Lognormal Distribution Fatigue Life Distribution

Gamma Distribution Double Exponential Distribution

Power Normal Distribution Power Lognormal Distribution

10.2.3 Normal Distribution

Probability Density Function

The general formula for the probability
density function of the normal
distribution is

where is the location parameter and

is the scale parameter. The case where
= 0 and = 1 is called the standard
normal distribution. The equation for
the standard normal distribution is

The following is the plot of the standard normal probability density function.

219
Cumulative Distribution Function

The formula for the cumulative

distribution function of the normal
distribution does not exist in a simple
closed formula. It is computed
numerically.

The following is the plot of the

normal cumulative distribution
function.

Common Statistics

Mean The location parameter .

Median The location parameter .
Mode The location parameter .
Range Infinity in both directions.
Standard Deviation The scale parameter .
Coefficient of Variation
Skewness 0
Kurtosis 3

Parameter Estimation

The location and scale parameters of the normal distribution can be estimated with the sample
mean and sample standard deviation, respectively.

Comments

The Gaussian or normal distribution is a very fundamental and commonly used distribution for
statistical matters. It is typically used to describe the scatter of the measurement data of many
physical phenomena. Strictly speaking, every random variable follows a normal distribution if
it is generated by a linear combination of a very large number of other random effects,
regardless which distribution these random effects originally follow. The Gaussian distribution
is also valid if the random variable is a linear combination of two or more other effects if those
effects also follow a Gaussian distribution.

For both theoretical and practical reasons, the normal distribution is probably the most
important distribution in statistics. For example,

220
  Many classical statistical tests are based on the assumption that the data follow a
normal distribution. This assumption should be tested before applying these tests.
 In modeling applications, such as linear and non-linear regression, the error term is
often assumed to follow a normal distribution with fixed location and scale.
 The normal distribution is used to find significance levels in many hypothesis tests and
confidence intervals.

10.2.4 Uniform Distribution

Probability Density Function

The general formula for the probability density function of the uniform distribution is

where A is the location parameter and (B

- A) is the scale parameter. The case
where A = 0 and B = 1 is called the
standard uniform distribution. The
equation for the standard uniform
distribution is

Since the general form of probability

functions can be expressed in terms of the
standard distribution, all subsequent
formulas in this section are given for the
standard form of the function.

The following is the plot of the uniform

probability density function.

Cumulative Distribution Function

The formula for the cumulative

distribution function of the uniform
distribution is

The following is the plot of the uniform

cumulative distribution function.

221
Common Statistics

Mean (A + B)/2
Median (A + B)/2
Range B-A
Standard Deviation

Coefficient of Variation

Skewness 0
Kurtosis 9/5

Parameter Estimation

The method of moments estimators for A and B are

The maximum likelihood estimators for A and B are

Comments

The uniform distribution is a very fundamental distribution for cases where no other
information apart from a lower and an upper limit exists. If is very useful to describe geometric
tolerances. It can also be used in cases where there is no evidence that any value of the random
variable is more likely than any other within a certain interval. In this sense it can be used for
cases where "lack of engineering knowledge" plays a role.

The uniform distribution defines equal probability over a given range for a continuous
distribution. For this reason, it is important as a reference distribution. One of the most
important applications of the uniform distribution is in the generation of random numbers. That
is, almost all random number generators generate random numbers on the (0,1) interval. For
other distributions, some transformation is applied to the uniform random numbers.

10.2.5 Lognormal Distribution

A variable X is lognormally distributed if Y = LN(X) is normally distributed with "LN"

denoting the natural logarithm. The general formula for the probability density function of the
lognormal distribution is

where is the shape parameter, is the location parameter and m is the scale parameter. The
case where = 0 and m = 1 is called the standard lognormal distribution. The case where
equals zero is called the 2-parameter lognormal distribution.
222
The equation for the standard lognormal distribution is

Since the general form of probability functions can be expressed in terms of the standard
distribution, all subsequent formulas in this section are given for the standard form of the
function.

The following is the plot of the lognormal probability density function for four values of .

There are several common parameterizations of the lognormal distribution. The form given
here is from Evans, Hastings, and Peacock.

Cumulative Distribution Function

The formula for the cumulative distribution function of the lognormal distribution is

where is the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution.

The following is the plot of the lognormal cumulative distribution function with the same
values of as the pdf plots above.

223
Common Statistics

The formulas below are with the location parameter equal to zero and the scale parameter
equal to one.
Mean
Median Scale parameter m (= 1 if scale parameter not
specified).
Mode

Range Zero to positive infinity

Standard Deviation
Skewness
Kurtosis
Coefficient of Variation

Parameter Estimation

The maximum likelihood estimates for the scale parameter, m, and the shape parameter, , are

and

where

If the location parameter is known, it can be subtracted from the original data points before
computing the maximum likelihood estimates of the shape and scale parameters.

Comments

The lognormal distribution is a basic and commonly used distribution. It is typically used to
describe the scatter of the measurement data of physical phenomena, where the logarithm of
224
the data would follow a normal distribution. The lognormal distribution is very suitable for
phenomena that arise from the multiplication of a large number of error effects. It is also
correct to use the lognormal distribution for a random variable that is the result of multiplying
two or more random effects (if the effects that get multiplied are also lognormally distributed).
If is often used for lifetime distributions; for example, the scatter of the strain amplitude of a
cyclic loading that a material can endure until low-cycle-fatigue occurs is very often described
by a lognormal distribution.

The lognormal distribution is used extensively in reliability applications to model failure times.
The lognormal and Weibull distributions are probably the most commonly used distributions in
reliability applications.

10.2.6 Weibull Distribution

Probability Density Function

The formula for the probability density function of the general Weibull distribution is

where is the shape parameter, is the location parameter and is the scale parameter. The
case where = 0 and = 1 is called the standard Weibull distribution. The case where = 0
is called the 2-parameter Weibull distribution. The equation for the standard Weibull
distribution reduces to

Since the general form of probability functions can be expressed in terms of the standard
distribution, all subsequent formulas in this section are given for the standard form of the
function.

The following is the plot of the Weibull probability density function.

225
Cumulative Distribution Function
The formula for the cumulative distribution function of the Weibull distribution is

The following is the plot of the Weibull cumulative distribution function with the same values
of as the pdf plots above.

Common Statistics
The formulas below are with the location parameter equal to zero and the scale parameter
equal to one.
Mean

where is the gamma function

Median
Mode

Range Zero to positive infinity.

Standard Deviation

Coefficient of Variation

Comments

The Weibull distribution is used extensively in reliability applications to model failure times.
In engineering, the Weibull distribution is most often used for strength or strength-related
lifetime parameters, and it is the standard distribution for material strength and lifetime

226
parameters for very brittle materials (for these very brittle material the "weakest-link-theory" is
applicable).

227
10.3 Choosing a Distribution for a Random Variable

The type and source of the data you have determines which distribution functions can be used
or are best suited to your needs.

10.3.1. Measured Data

If you have measured data then you first have to know how reliable that data is. Data scatter is
not just an inherent physical effect, but also includes inaccuracy in the measurement itself. You
must consider that the person taking the measurement might have applied a "tuning" to the
data. For example, if the data measured represents a load, the person measuring the load may
have rounded the measurement values; this means that the data you receive are not truly the
measured values. Depending on the amount of this "tuning," this could provide a deterministic
bias in the data that you need to address separately. If possible, you should discuss any bias
that might have been built into the data with the person who provided that data to you.
If you are confident about the quality of the data, then how to proceed depends on how much
data you have. In a single production field, the amount of data is typically sparse. If you have
only few data then it is reasonable to use it only to evaluate a rough figure for the mean value
and the standard deviation. In these cases, you could model the random input variable as a
Gaussian distribution if the physical effect you model has no lower and upper limit, or use the
data and estimate the minimum and maximum limit for a uniform distribution. In a mass
production field, you probably have a lot of data, in which case you could use a commercial
statistical package that will allow you to actually fit a statistical distribution function that best
describes the scatter of the data.

10.3.2. Mean Values, Standard Deviation, Exceedence Values

The mean value and the standard deviation are most commonly used to describe the scatter of
data. Frequently, information about a physical quantity is given in the form that its value is; for
example, "100±5.5". Often, but not always, this form means that the value "100" is the mean
value and "5.5" is the standard deviation. To specify data in this form implies a Gaussian
distribution, but you must verify this (a mean value and standard deviation can be provided for
any collection of data regardless of the true distribution type). If you have more information
(for example, you know that the data must be lognormal distributed), then the PDS allows you
to use the mean value and standard deviation for a definition of a lognormal distribution.

Sometimes the scatter of data is also specified by a mean value and an exceedence confidence
limit. The yield strength of a material is sometimes given in this way; for example, a 99%
exceedence limit based on a 95% confidence level is provided. This means that derived from
the measured data we can be sure by 95% that in 99% of all cases the property values will
exceed the specified limit and only in 1% of all cases they will drop below the specified limit.
The supplier of this information is using mean value, the standard deviation, and the number of
samples of the measured data to derive this kind of information. If the scatter of the data is
provided in this way, the best way to pursue this further is to ask for more details from the data
supplier. Because the given exceedence limit is based on the measured data and its statistical
assessment, the supplier might be able to provide you with the details that were used.
If the data supplier does not give you any further information, then you could consider
assuming that the number of measured samples was large. If the given exceedence limit is

228
denoted with x1 - α/2 and the given mean value is denoted with xμ then the standard deviation
can be derived from the equation:

where the values for the coefficient C are:

Exceedence Probability C
99.5% 2.5758
99.0% 2.3263
97.5% 1.9600
95.0% 1.6449
90.0% 1.2816

10.3.3. No Data

In situations where no information is available, there is never just one right answer. Below are
hints about which physical quantities are usually described in terms of which distribution
functions. This might help you with the particular physical quantity you have in mind. Also
below is a list of which distribution functions are usually used for which kind of phenomena.
Keep in mind that you might need to choose from multiple options.

Geometric Tolerances

 If you are designing a prototype, you could assume that the actual dimensions of the
manufactured parts would be somewhere within the manufacturing tolerances. In this
case it is reasonable to use a uniform distribution, where the tolerance bounds provide
the lower and upper limits of the distribution function.
 Sometimes the manufacturing process generates a skewed distribution; for example,
one half of the tolerance band is more likely to be hit than the other half. This is often
the case if missing half of the tolerance band means that rework is necessary, while
falling outside the tolerance band on the other side would lead to the part being
scrapped. In this case a Beta distribution is more appropriate.
 Often a Gaussian distribution is used. The fact that the normal distribution has no
bounds (it spans minus infinity to infinity), is theoretically a severe violation of the fact
that geometrical extensions are described by finite positive numbers only. However, in
practice this is irrelevant if the standard deviation is very small compared to the value
of the geometric extension, as is typically true for geometric tolerances.

Material Data

 Very often the scatter of material data is described by a Gaussian distribution.

 In some cases the material strength of a part is governed by the "weakest-link-theory".
The "weakest-link-theory" assumes that the entire part would fail whenever its weakest
spot would fail. for material properties where the "weakest-link" assumptions are valid,
then the Weibull distribution might be applicable.
229
  For some cases, it is acceptable to use the scatter information from a similar material
type. Let's assume that you know that a material type very similar to the one you are
using has a certain material property with a Gaussian distribution and a standard
deviation of ±5% around the measured mean value; then let's assume that for the
material type you are using, you only know its mean value. In this case, you could
consider using a Gaussian distribution with a standard deviation of ±5% around the
given mean value.
 For temperature-dependent materials it is prudent to describe the randomness by
separating the temperature dependency from the scatter effect. In this case you need the
mean values of your material property as a function of temperature in the same way
that you need this information to perform a deterministic analysis. If M(T) denotes an
arbitrary temperature dependent material property then the following approaches are
commonly used:

 Here, denotes the mean value of the material property as a function of

temperature. In the "multiplication equation" the mean value function is scaled with a
coefficient Crand and this coefficient is a random variable describing the scatter of the
material property. In the "additive equation" a random variable ΔMrand is added on top

of the mean value function . The "linear equation" combines both approaches and
here both Crand and ΔMrand are random variables. However, you should take into
account that in general for the "linear equation" approach Crand and ΔMrand are,
correlated.

Deciding which of these approaches is most suitable to describing the scatter of the
temperature dependent material property requires that you have some raw data about this
material property. Only by reviewing the raw data and plotting it versus temperature you can
tell which approach is the better one.

Load Data

 For loads, you usually only have a nominal or average value. You could ask the person
who provided the nominal value the following questions: If we have 1000 components
that are operated under real life conditions, what would the lowest load value be that
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 only one of these 1000 components is subjected to and all others have a higher load?
What would the most likely load value be, i.e. the value that most of these 1000
components have (or are very close to)? What would the highest load value be that only
one of the 1000 components is subjected to and all others have a lower load? To be safe
you should ask these questions not only of the person who provided the nominal value,
but also to one or more experts who are familiar with how your products are operated
under real-life conditions. From all the answers you get, you can then consolidate what
the minimum, the most likely, and the maximum value probably is. As verification you
can compare this picture with the nominal value that you would use for a deterministic
analysis. If the nominal value does not have a conservative bias to it then it should be
close to the most likely value. If the nominal value includes a conservative assumption
(is biased), then its value is probably close to the maximum value. Finally, you can use
a triangular distribution using the minimum, most likely, and maximum values
obtained.
 If the load parameter is generated by a computer program then the more accurate
procedure is to consider a probabilistic analysis using this computer program as the
solver mechanism. Use a probabilistic design technique on that computer program to
assess what the scatter of the output parameters are, and apply that data as input to a
subsequent analysis. In other words, first run a probabilistic analysis to generate an
output range, and then use that output range as input for a subsequent probabilistic
analysis.

10.3.4. Choosing Random Output Parameters

Output parameters are usually parameters such as length, thickness, diameter, or model
coordinates. The ANSYS PDS does not restrict you with regard the number of random output
parameters, provided that the total number of probabilistic design variables (that is random
input variables and random output parameters together) does not exceed 5000.

ANSYS recommends that you include all output parameters that you can think of and that
might be useful to you. The additional computing time required to handle more random output
parameters is marginal when compared to the time required to solve the problem. It is better to
define random output parameters that you might not consider important before you start the
analysis. If you forgot to include a random output parameter that later turns out to be
important, you must redo the entire analysis.

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10.4 Probabilistic Design Techniques

The Monte Carlo Simulation method is the most common and traditional method for a
probabilistic analysis. This method lets you simulate how virtual components behave the way
they are built. One simulation loop represents one manufactured component that is subjected to
a particular set of loads and boundary conditions. For Monte Carlo simulations, you can
employ either the Direct Sampling method or the Latin Hypercube Sampling method.

When you manufacture a component, you can measure its geometry and all of its material
properties (although typically, the latter is not done because this can destroy the component).
In the same sense, if you started operating the component then you could measure the loads it
is subjected to. Again, to actually measure the loads is very often impractical. But the bottom
line is that once you have a component in your hand and start using it then all the input
parameters have very specific values that you could actually measure. With the next
component you manufacture you can do the same; if you compared the parameters of that part
with the previous part, you would find that they vary slightly. This comparison of one
component to the next illustrates the scatter of the input parameters. The Monte Carlo
Simulation techniques mimic this process. With this method you “virtually” manufacture and
operate components or parts one after the other.

The advantages of the Monte Carlo Simulation method are:

 The method is always applicable regardless of the physical effect modeled in a finite
element analysis. It not based on assumptions related to the random output parameters
that if satisfied would speed things up and if violated would invalidate the results of the
probabilistic analysis. Assuming the deterministic model is correct and a very large
number of simulation loops are performed, then Monte Carlo techniques always
provide correct probabilistic results. Of course, it is not feasible to run an infinite
number of simulation loops; therefore, the only assumption here is that the limited
number of simulation loops is statistically representative and sufficient for the
probabilistic results that are evaluated. This assumption can be verified using the
confidence limits, which the PDS also provides.
 Because of the reason mentioned above, Monte Carlo Simulations are the only
probabilistic methods suitable for benchmarking and validation purposes.
 The individual simulation loops are inherently independent; the individual simulation
loops do not depend on the results of any other simulation loops. This makes Monte
Carlo Simulation techniques ideal candidates for parallel processing.

The Direct Sampling Monte Carlo technique has one drawback: it is not very efficient in terms
of required number of simulation loops.

10.4.1. Direct Sampling

Direct Monte Carlo Sampling is the most common and traditional form of a Monte Carlo
analysis. It is popular because it mimics natural processes that everybody can observe or
imagine and is therefore easy to understand. For this method, you simulate how your
components behave based on the way they are built. One simulation loop represents one
component that is subjected to a particular set of loads and boundary conditions. The Direct
Monte Carlo Sampling technique is not the most efficient technique, but it is still widely used
and accepted, especially for benchmarking and validating probabilistic results. However,
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benchmarking and validating requires many simulation loops, which is not always feasible.
This sampling method is also inefficient due to the fact that the sampling process has no
"memory."

For example, if we have two random input

variables X1 and X2 both having a uniform
distribution ranging from 0.0 to 1.0, and we
generate 15 samples, we could get a cluster of
two (or even more) sampling points that occur
close to each other if we graphed the two
variables (as shown in figure). While in the
space of all random input variables, it can
happen that one sample has input values close to
another sample, this does not provide new
information and insight into the behavior of a
component in a computer simulation if the same
(or almost the same) samples are repeated.

10.4.2. Latin Hypercube Sampling

The Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) technique is a more advanced and efficient form for
Monte Carlo Simulation methods. The only difference between LHS and the Direct Monte
Carlo Sampling technique is that LHS has a sample "memory," meaning it avoids repeating
samples that have been evaluated before (it avoids clustering samples). It also forces the tails
of a distribution to participate in the sampling process. Generally, the Latin Hypercube
Sampling technique requires 20% to 40% fewer simulations loops than the Direct Monte Carlo
Simulation technique to deliver the same results with the same accuracy. However, that
number is largely problem dependent. Figure shows the graph of X1 and X2 illustrating Good
Sample Distribution

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10.5 Postprocessing Probabilistic Analysis Results

There are two groups of postprocessing functions in the probabilistic design system: statistical
and trend. A statistical analysis is an evaluation function performed on a single probabilistic
design variable; for example, a histogram plot of a random output parameter. A trend analysis
typically involves two or more probabilistic design variables; for example, a scatter plot of one
probabilistic design variable versus another.

10.5.1. Statistical Post-Processing

Statistical postprocessing allows you several options for reviewing your results.

10.5.1.1. Sample History

The most fundamental form of postprocessing is directly reviewing the simulation loop results
as a function for the number of simulation loops. Here, you can review the simulation values,
the mean, minimum, or maximum values, or the standard deviations.

It is most helpful to review the mean values and standard deviation history for Monte Carlo
Simulation results if you want to decide if the number of simulation loops was sufficient. If the
number of simulation loops was sufficient, the mean values and standard deviations for all
random output parameters should have converged. Convergence is achieved if the curve shown
in the respective plots approaches a plateau. If the curve shown in the diagram still has a
significant and visible trend with increasing number of simulation loops then you should
perform more simulation loops. In addition, the confidence bounds plotted for the requested
history curves can be interpreted as the accuracy of the requested curve. With more simulation
loops, the width of the confidence bounds is reduced.

10.5.1.2. Histogram

A histogram plot is most commonly used to visualize the scatter of a probabilistic design
variable. A histogram is derived by dividing the range between the minimum value and the
maximum value into intervals of equal size. Then the PDS determines how many samples fall
within each interval, that is, how many "hits" landed in the intervals.

Most likely, you will use histograms to visualize the scatter of your random output parameters.
The ANSYS PDS also allows you to plot histograms of your random input variables so you
can double check that the sampling process generated the samples according to the distribution
function you specified. For random input variables, the PDS not only plots the histogram bars,
but also a curve for values derived from the distribution function you specified. Visualizing
histograms of the random input variables is another way to make sure that enough simulation
loops have been performed. If the number of simulation loops is sufficient, the histogram bars
will:

 Be close to the curve that is derived from the distribution function

 Be "smooth" (without large “steps”)
 Not have major gaps

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10.5.1.3. Cumulative Distribution Function

The cumulative distribution function is a primary review tool if you want to assess the
reliability or the failure probability of your component or product. Reliability is defined as the
probability that no failure occurs.
Hence, in a mathematical sense
reliability and failure probability are
two sides of the same coin and
numerically they complement each
other (are additive to 1.0). The
cumulative distribution function value
at any given point expresses the
probability that the respective
parameter value will remain below
that point. The figure shows the
cumulative distribution function of the
random property X:

The value of the cumulative distribution function at the location x0 is the probability that the
values of X stay below x0. Whether this probability represents the failure probability or the
reliability of your component depends on how you define failure; for example, if you design a
component such that a certain deflection should not exceed a certain admissible limit then a
failure event occurs if the critical deflection exceeds this limit. Thus for this example, the
cumulative distribution function is interpreted as the reliability curve of the component. On the
other hand, if you design a component such that the eigenfrequencies are beyond a certain
admissible limit then a failure event occurs if an eigenfrequency drops below this limit. Thus
for this example, the cumulative distribution function is interpreted as the failure probability
curve of the component.

The cumulative distribution function also lets you visualize what the reliability or failure
probability would be if you chose to change the admissible limits of your design. Often you are
interested in visualizing low probabilities and you want to assess the more extreme ends of the
distribution curve. In this case plotting the cumulative distribution function in one of the
following ways is more appropriate:

 As a Gauss plot (also called a "normal plot"). If the probabilistic design variable
follows a Gaussian distribution then the cumulative distribution function is displayed as
a straight line in this type of plot.
 As a lognormal plot. If the probabilistic design variable follows a lognormal
distribution then the cumulative distribution function is displayed as a straight line in
this type of plot
 As a Weibull plot. If the probabilistic design variable follows a Weibull distribution
then the cumulative distribution function is displayed as a straight line in this type of
plot.

10.5.1.4. Print Probabilities

The PDS offers a function where you can determine the cumulative distribution function at any
point along the axis of the probabilistic design variable, including an interpolation function so

235
you can evaluate the probabilities between sampling points. This feature is most helpful if you
want to evaluate the failure probability or reliability of your component for a very specific and
given limit value.

10.5.1.5. Print Inverse Probabilities

The PDS offers a function where you can probe the cumulative distribution function by
specifying a certain probability level; the PDS tells you at which value of the probabilistic
design variable this probability will occur. This is helpful if you want to evaluate what limit
you should specify to not exceed a certain failure probability, or to specifically achieve certain
reliability for your component.

10.5.2 Trend Postprocessing

Trend postprocessing allows you several options for reviewing your results.

10.5.2.1. Sensitivities

Probabilistic sensitivities are important in allowing you to improve your design toward a more
reliable and better quality product, or to save money while maintaining the reliability or quality
of your product. You can request a sensitivity plot for any random output parameter in your
model.

There is a difference between probabilistic sensitivities and

deterministic sensitivities. Deterministic sensitivities are
mostly only local gradient information. For example, to
evaluate deterministic sensitivities you can vary each input
parameters by ±10% (one at a time) while keeping all other
input parameters constant, then see how the output parameters
react to these variations. As illustrated in the figure below, an
output parameter would be considered very sensitive with
respect to a certain input parameter if you observe a large
change of the output parameter value.

These purely deterministic considerations have various disadvantages that are taken into
consideration for probabilistic sensitivities, namely:

 A deterministic variation of an input parameter that is used to determine the gradient

usually does not take the physical range of variability into account. An input parameter
varied by ±10% is not meaningful for the analysis if ±10% is too much or too little
compared with the actual range of physical variability and randomness. In a
probabilistic approach the physical range of variability is inherently considered because
of the distribution functions for input parameters. Probabilistic sensitivities measure
how much the range of scatter of an output parameter is influenced by the scatter of the
random input variables. Hence, two effects have an influence on probabilistic
sensitivities: the slope of the gradient, plus the width of the scatter range of the random
input variables. This is illustrated in the figures below. If a random input variable has a
certain given range of scatter, then the scatter of the corresponding random output
parameter is larger, and the larger the slope of the output parameter curve is (first
illustration). But remember that an output parameter with a moderate slope can have a

236
 significant scatter if the random input variables have a wider range of scatter (second
illustration).

 Gradient information is local information only. It does not take into account that the
output parameter may react more or less with respect to variation of input parameters at
other locations in the input parameter space. However, the probabilistic approach not
only takes the slope at a particular location into account, but also all the values the
random output parameter can have within the space of the random input variables.
 Deterministic sensitivities are typically evaluated using a finite-differencing scheme
(varying one parameter at a time while keeping all others fixed). This neglects the
effect of interactions between input parameters. An interaction between input
parameters exists if the variation of a certain parameter has a greater or lesser effect if
at the same time one or more other input parameters change their values as well. In
some cases interactions play an important or even dominant role. This is the case if an
input parameter is not significant on its own but only in connection with at least one
other input parameter. Generally, interactions play an important role in 10% to 15% of
typical engineering analysis cases (this figure is problem dependent). If interactions are
important, then a deterministic sensitivity analysis can give you completely incorrect
results. However, in a probabilistic approach, the results are always based on Monte
Carlo simulations, either directly performed using you analysis model or using
response surface equations. Inherently, Monte Carlo simulations always vary all
random input variables at the same time; thus if interactions exist then they will always
be correctly reflected in the probabilistic sensitivities.

To display sensitivities, the PDS first groups the random input variables into two groups: those
having a significant influence on a particular random output parameter and those that are rather
insignificant, based on a statistical significance test. This tests the hypothesis that the
sensitivity of a particular random input variable is identical to zero and then calculates the
probability that this hypothesis is true. If the probability exceeds a certain significance level
(determining that the hypothesis is likely to be true), then the sensitivity of that random input
variable is negligible. The PDS will plot only the sensitivities of the random input variables
that are found to be significant. However, insignificant sensitivities are printed in the output
window. You can also review the significance probabilities used by the hypothesis test to
decide which group a particular random input variable belonged to.

The PDS allows you to visualize sensitivities either as a bar chart, a pie chart, or both.
Sensitivities are ranked so the random input variable having the highest sensitivity appears
first.
In a bar chart the most important random input variable (with the highest sensitivity) appears in
the leftmost position and the others follow to the right in the order of their importance. A bar
chart describes the sensitivities in an absolute fashion (taking the signs into account); a positive
237
sensitivity indicates that increasing the value of the random input variable increases the value
of the random output parameter for which the sensitivities are plotted. Likewise, a negative
sensitivity indicates that increasing the random input variable value reduces the random output
parameter value. In a pie chart, sensitivities are relative to each other.
In a pie chart the most important random input variable (with the highest sensitivity) will
appear first after the 12 o'clock position, and the others follow in clockwise direction in the
order of their importance.

Using a sensitivity plot, you can answer the important questions. How can I make the
component more reliable or improve its quality? If the results for the reliability or failure
probability of the component do not reach the expected levels, or if the scatter of an output
parameter is too wide and therefore not robust enough for a quality product, then you should
make changes to the important input variables first. Modifying an input variable that is
insignificant would be waste of time.

Of course you are not in control of all random input parameters. A typical example where you
have very limited means of control are material properties. For example, if it turns out that the
environmental temperature (outdoor) is the most important input parameter then there is
probably nothing you can do. However, even if you find out that the reliability or quality of
your product is driven by parameters that you cannot control, this has importance — it is likely
that you have a fundamental flaw in your product design! You should watch for influential
parameters like these.

If the input variable you want to tackle is a geometry-related parameter or a geometric

tolerance, then improving the reliability and quality of your product means that it might be
necessary to change to a more accurate manufacturing process or use a more accurate
manufacturing machine. If it is a material property, then there is might be nothing you can do
about it. However, if you only had a few measurements for a material property and
consequently used only a rough guess about its scatter and the material property turns out to be
an important driver of product reliability and quality, then it makes sense to collect more raw
data. In this way the results of a probabilistic analysis can help you spend your money where it
makes the most sense — in areas that affect the reliability and quality of your products the
most.

10.5.2.2. Scatter Plots

While the sensitivities point indicate which probabilistic design parameters you need to modify
to have an impact on the reliability or failure probability, scatter plots give you a better
understanding of how and how far you should modify the input variables. Improving the
reliability and quality of a product typically means that the scatter of the relevant random
output parameters must be reduced.

The PDS allows you to request a scatter plot of any probabilistic design variable versus any
other one, so you can visualize the relationship between two design variables (input variables
or output parameters). This allows you to verify that the sample points really show the pattern
of correlation that you specified (if you did so). Typically, random output parameters are
correlated as because they are generated by the same set of random input variables. To support
the process of improving the reliability or quality of your product, a scatter plot showing a
random output parameter as a function of the most important random input variable can be
very helpful.

238
When you display a scatter plot, the PDS plots the sampling points and a trendline. For this
trendline, the PDS uses a polynomial function and lets you chose the order of the polynomial
function. If you plot a random output parameter as a function of a random input variable, then
this trendline expresses how much of the scatter on the random output parameter (Y-axis) is
controlled by the random input variable (X-axis). The deviations of the sample points from the
trendline are caused and controlled by all the other random input variables. If you want to
reduce the scatter of the random output parameter to improve reliability and quality, you have
two options:

 Reduce the width of the scatter of the most important random input variable(s) (that
you have control over).
 Shift the range of the scatter of the most important random input variable(s) (that you
have control over).

The effect of reducing and shifting the scatter of a random input variable is illustrated in the
figures below. "Input range before" denotes the scatter range of the random input variable
before the reduction or shifting, and "input range after" illustrates how the scatter range of the
random input variable has been modified. In both cases, the trendline tells how much the
scatter of the output parameter is affected and in which way if the range of scatter of the
random input variable is modified.

It depends on your particular problem if either reducing or shifting the range of scatter of a
random input variable is preferable. In general, reducing the range of scatter of a random input
variable leads to higher costs. A reduction of the scatter range requires a more accurate process
in manufacturing or operating the product — the more accurate, the more expensive it is. This
might lead you to conclude that shifting the scatter range is a better idea, because it preserves
the width of the scatter (which means you can still use the manufacturing or operation process
that you have). Below are some considerations if you want to do that:

 Shifting the scatter range of a random input variable can only lead to a reduction of the
scatter of a random output parameter if the trendline shows a clear nonlinearity. If the
trendline indicates a linear trend (if it is a straight line), then shifting the range of the
input variables anywhere along this straight line doesn't make any difference. For this,
reducing the scatter range of the random input variable remains your only option.
 It is obvious from the second illustration above that shifting the range of scatter of the
random input variable involves an extrapolation beyond the range where you have data.
Extrapolation is always difficult and even dangerous if done without care. The more
sampling points the trendline is based on the better you can extrapolate. Generally, you
should not go more than 30-40% outside of the range of your data. But the advantage of
239
 focusing on the important random input variables is that a slight and careful
modification can make a difference.

10.5.2.3. Correlation Matrix

Probabilistic sensitivities are based on a statistical correlation analysis between the individual
probabilistic design variables. The PDS lets you review the correlation data that has been used
to derive sensitivities and decide if individual sensitivity values are significant or not. This
information is collected in the correlation matrix of the random output parameters versus the
random input variables. The PDS also lets you review the correlations that have been sampled
between random input variables, which is stored in the random input variables correlation
matrix. The correlations between random output parameters are important if you want to use
the probabilistic results of your probabilistic analysis as input for another probabilistic
analysis.

240
Tutorial 14: Probabilistic Design Analysis of Circular Plate Bending.

Problem Description

A circular plate of thickness t with a center hole is rigidly attached along the inner edge and
unsupported along the outer edge. The plate is subjected to bending by a moment Ma applied
uniformly along the outer edge. The input parameters are subject to uncertainty. Measurements
show that the plate dimensions can vary significantly. Specimen tests show that the material
properties can also vary. The applied force is also subject to uncertainty. You will determine
the variation of the output parameters given the uncertainty of the plate dimensions, material
properties, and applied force. The output parameters that you will study are the maximum
deflection of the plate and the maximum equivalent stress at the clamped edge.

Geometric Properties Value Distribution

Inner radius (b) 100.0±0.1 mm Uniform
Outer radius (a) 300.0±0.1 mm Uniform
Thickness (t) 1.0±0.1 mm Uniform

Material Properties Nominal Value Distribution

Young’s modulus (E) 207,000 N/mm
Poisson’s ratio ()
Gaussian distribution with a mean value
2 equal to the nominal value and a
standard deviation of 5% of its mean
value
Gaussian distribution with a mean value
equal to the nominal value and a
0.3
standard deviation of 5% of its mean
value.

Loading Nominal Value Distribution

Lognormal distribution with a mean value
Applied Moment (Ma) 100 N-mm/mm equal to the nominal value and a standard
deviation of 10% of its mean value.

241
 Reference: S. Timoshenko, Strength of Material, Part II, Elementary Theory and Problems,
3rd Edition, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., New York, NY, 1956, pg. 111, eq. E and F.

Approach and Assumptions

Since the problem is axisymmetric only a small sector of elements is needed. A small angle Θ
= 30° is used for approximating the circular boundary. The calculated load is equally divided
and applied to the outer nodes.

Summary of Steps
Step 1. Enter the Probabilistic Design System (PDS) and execute the file for the deterministic
model (CIRCPLATE.txt)
Step 2. Specify CIRCPLATE.txt as the analysis file for the probabilistic analysis.
Step 3. Define the random input variables for your probabilistic analysis. For this problem, you
define the inner radius, outer radius and thickness of the plate, Young's modulus and
poisons ratio, and applied moment as random input variables with various distribution
functions.
Step 4. Define the random output variables. You define the maximum deflection and maximum
equivalent stress at the fixed edges as the output parameters.
Step 5. Obtain solution. Define Monte Carlo as the probabilistic analysis method and execute
the Monte Carlo probabilistic simulations.
Step 6. Perform statistical postprocessing to visualize and evaluate the Monte Carlo results.
Step 7. Perform trend postprocessing.
Step 8. Generate HTML report and exit.

STEP-BY-STEP ANALYSIS

Step 1: Enter PDS and specify analysis file.

You begin by entering the Probabilistic Design System (PDS) and executing the file
CIRCPLAE.txt for the deterministic model. The CIRCPLAE.txt file contains a complete
analysis sequence for a simple plate with a single force load. It uses parameters to define all
inputs and outputs.

1. Main Menu > Prob

Design

242
2. Utility Menu >File>Read Input
from
3. Choose the file CIRCPLATE.txt
from your working directory.
4. OK.

5. Close.

File: CIRCPLATE.txt
/TITLE, Bending of Circular Plate (PDS by Arif)
/PREP7
RADIN=100
RADOUT=300
THICK=1
MOMENT=157.08 ! Total moment on a 30 deg segment
YOUNG=207000
PRATIO=0.3
ET,1,SHELL63
R,1,THICK
MP,EX,1,YOUNG
MP,NUXY,1,PRATIO
CSYS,1 ! DEFINE CYLINDRICAL C.S.
CYL4,0,0,RADIN,0,RADOUT,30
LESIZE,1, , ,30, , , , ,1
LESIZE,3, , ,30, , , , ,1
LESIZE,2, , ,20,0.5, , , ,1
LESIZE,4, , ,20,0.5, , , ,1
MSHKEY,0
AMESH,1
NROTAT,ALL
DL,3,1,ALL,

243
DL,2,1,UY,
DL,2,1,ROTX,
DL,2,1,ROTZ,
DL,4,1,UY,
DL,4,1,ROTX,
DL,4,1,ROTZ,
LSEL,S,,,1
NSLL,R,1
F,ALL,MY,-(MOMENT)/31
ALLSEL,ALL
FINISH
/SOLUTION
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST1
RSYS,1
PLNSOL,U,Z,
LSEL,S,,,1
NSLL,S,1
NSORT,U,Z
*GET, DEFMAX, SORT, 0, MAX
LSEL,S,,,3
NSLL,S,1
NSORT,S,EQV
*GET, STRMAX, SORT, 0, MAX
ALLSEL, ALL

Step 2: Specify analysis file.

Now define CIRCPLATE as the analysis file for the probabilistic analysis. PDS uses
CIRCPLATE to create a file for performing analysis loops. PDS uses the CIRCPLATE input
and output parameters as random input variables (RVs) and random output parameters (RPs).

Main Menu > Prob Design>-Analysis File-Assign

Choose the file CIRCPLATE from your working directory. Use the Browse button if you
choose.
OK.

1. Main Menu > Prob Design>-

Analysis File-Assign

2. Choose the file CIRCPLATE

from your working directory.
Use the Browse button if you
choose.
3. OK.

Step 3: Define input variables.

244
You will now define the input parameters and their distribution functions.
1. Main Menu > Prob Design>Prob Definitns>Random Input

Define Inner Radius as an input variable.

2. Add a random input

variable.

3. Choose RADIN as the

parameter.

4. Choose UNIF as the

distribution type.

5. OK

245
6. Enter RADIN-0.1 and
RADIN+0.1 for the lower
and upper boundary,
respectively.

7. OK.

Define Outer Radius as an input variable.

8. Add a random input

variable.

9. Choose RADOUT as the

parameter.

10. Choose UNIF as the

distribution type.

11. OK

246
12. Enter RADOUT-0.1 and
RADOUT+0.1 for the lower
and upper boundary,
respectively.

13. OK.

Similarly, define Thickness as an input variable.

14. Add a random

input variable.

15. Define thickness as

an input variable.

16. Choose THICK as

the parameter.

17. Choose UNIF as

the distribution type.

18. OK.

19. Enter THICK-0.1

and THICK+0.1 for
the lower and upper
boundary,
respectively.

20. OK.

247
Define Young’s Modulus as an input variable.

21. Add a random input

variable.

22. Choose YOUNG as the

parameter.

23. Choose GAUS as the

distribution type.

24. OK.

25. Enter YOUNG for the mean

value and 0.05*YOUNG for the
standard deviation.

26. OK.

248
Similarly, define Poisson’s Ratio as an input variable.

27. Add a random input

variable.

28. Choose PRATIO as the

parameter.

29. Choose GAUS as the

distribution type.

30. OK.

31. Enter PRATIO for the mean

value and 0.05*PRATIO for the
standard deviation.

32. OK.

Define Applied Moment as an input variable.

33. Add a random input variable.

34. Choose MOMENT as the

parameter.

35. Choose LOG1 as the distribution

type.

36. OK.

37. Enter MOMENT for the mean

value and 0.1*MOMENT for the
standard deviation.

249
38. OK.

39. Close

Step 4: Define output parameters.

You will now define the maximum deflection of the plate and the maximum equivalent stress
at the clamped edges as output parameters.

1. Main Menu > Prob

Design>Prob
Definitns>Random Output

2. Add a random output

variable.

3. Choose DEFMAX as the

parameter.

4. OK

250
5. Add a random output
variable.

6. Choose STRMAX as the

parameter.

7. OK.

8. Close.

Step 5: Execute Monte Carlo simulations to obtain solution.

You will now specify the Monte Carlo Simulation method and various options. You will
specify the Latin Hypercube sampling technique. For the same accuracy, it generally requires
fewer simulation loops than the Direct Monte Carlo Sampling technique. You will set the
number of simulations to 40 and the number of repetitions to 1 to give 40 analysis loops. Forty
loops will be a sufficient number for demonstration purposes.

1. Main Menu > Prob

Design>-Prob Method-
Monte Carlo Sims

251
2. Choose the Latin
Hypercube sampling
method.

3. OK.

4. Type in 40 for the

Number of Simulations
and 1 for the Number of
Repetitions to give a total
of 40 simulations.

5. Choose Random
Sampling for the Interval
Sampling Option.

6. Choose Execute ALL

Sims for the Autostop
Option.

7. Choose Use Continue

CONT for the Random
Seed Option.

8. OK.

9. Main Menu > Prob

Design>Run>-Exec Serial-
Run Serial

10. Enter Result1 for the

Solution Set Label. It is the
name for the results set.

11. OK.

252
12. Review the information
in the dialog box and then
choose OK to initiate the
solution.

13. The solution is

complete when the
statement "LOOP 40 OUT
OF 40 - CYCLE 1 OUT
OF 1 IS FINISHED"
appears in the ANSYS
Output Window.

Step 6: Perform Statistical Postprocessing.

Step 6(a). Sample history

You will now review simulation results and mean value plots for maximum deflection. If the
number of simulations is sufficient, the mean value plots for random output variables converge
(the curve flattens out).

1. Main Menu > Prob Design>-

Prob Results-Statistics>Sampl
History

253
2. Choose DEFMAX for the Prob
Design Variable.

3. Choose Samples for the Plot

Type.

4. OK.

5. Main Menu > Prob Design>-

Prob Results-Statistics>Sampl
History

254
6. Choose DEFMAX for the Prob
Design Variable.

7. Choose Mean Values for the

Plot Type.

8. OK.

The curve is relatively flat, indicating that the number of simulations is sufficient.

Step 6(b). Histogram

You will also review a histogram plot for the maximum deflection in order to visualize the
scatter of this random output parameter To double check that the number of simulation loops is
sufficient, you will plot a histogram of the Young's modulus random input variable. The
ANSYS PDS not only plots the histogram bars, but also plots a curve for values derived from
the distribution function that you specified. If the number of simulations is sufficient, the
histogram for Young's modulus will have bars close to the curve derived for the distribution
function, which are smooth and without any major gaps.

255
9. Main Menu > Prob Design>-
Prob Results-
Statistics>Histogram

10. Choose DEFMAX for the

Prob Design Variable.

11. OK.

12. Main Menu > Prob Design>-

Prob Results-
Statistics>Histogram
256
13. Choose YOUNG for the Prob
Design Variable.

14. OK.

The histogram bars resemble the probability density function, indicating that the number of
simulations is sufficient. However, further increase in number of simulation to 50 will improve
the results.

Step 6(c). CumulativeDF and Probabilities

You will also determine the probability that the maximum deflection is below 0.525 mm.

257
15. Main Menu > Prob Design>-
Prob Results-
Statistics>CumulativeDF

16. Choose DEFMAX for the

Prob Design Variable.

17. OK.

The curve shows that there is a about a 93% probability that the deflection remains
below 1.375.

258
18. Main Menu > Prob
Design>-Prob Results-
Statistics>Probabilities

19. Choose DEFMAX for

the Prob Design Variable.
Choose Less than for the
Relation Label.

Enter 2.0 for the Limit

Value.

20. OK.

Note that the probability is 97.8% that the maximum deflection is below the value of 2.0 mm.
After reviewing the information, choose File>Close.

Step 6(d). Inverse Problem

You will also determine the maximum deflection that will give a 90% probability that the
deflection is below that value.

259
21. Main Menu > Prob
Design>-Prob Results-
Statistics>Inverse Prob

22. Choose DEFMAX

for the Prob Design
Variable.

23. Enter 0.90 for the

Target Probability.

24. OK.

Note that there is a 90% probability that the maximum deflection is below 1.438 mm. After
reviewing the results, choose File>Close.

Step 7: Perform trend postprocessing.

You will now request sensitivity plots for DEFMAX and STRMAX to determine which
random input variables are most significant.

260
1. Main Menu > Prob Design>-
Prob Results-Trends>Sensitivities

2. Choose DEFMAX for the

Response Param.

3. OK.

261
4. Main Menu > Prob Design>-
Prob Results-Trends>Sensitivities

5. Choose STRMAX for the

Response Param.

6. OK.

Note that the legend indicates that the random input variables THICK and MOMENT are
important for the random output parameter DEFMAX and STRMAX.

You will then request scatter plots of DEFMAX versus the most significant random input
variable THICK.

7. Main Menu > Prob Design>-

Prob Results-Trends>Scatter Plot

262
8. Choose THICK for the first
parameter.

9. Choose DEFMAX for the

second parameter.

10. OK.

Finally, you will determine the correlation coefficients between the random output parameters
and the random input variables.

11. Main Menu >

Prob Design>-Prob
Results-
Trends>Correl
Matrix

263
12. Choose Input-
Output for the Type
of Matrix.

13. OK.

14. OK

Note the correlation coefficients. After reviewing the results, choose File>Close.

264
Step 8: Generate HTML report and exit.

You will now generate an HTML report for your probabilistic analysis. It includes
deterministic model information, probabilistic model information, and probabilistic analysis
results.

Main Menu > Prob Design>-Prob

Results-Report>Report Options

OK (use the default options).

Main Menu > Prob Design>-Prob

Results-Report>Generate Report

Enter report file name, your first name,

and your last name.

OK.

You will find the report and all related files in your current directory in a subdirectory with the
report file name.

Toolbar: Quit
Choose Quit - No Save!
OK

Congratulations! You have completed this tutorial.

265
 11.0 APDL PROGRAMMING

11.1 Introduction

APDL stands for ANSYS Parametric Design Language, a scripting language that
you can use to automate common tasks or even build your model in terms of
parameters (variables). While all ANSYS commands can be used as part of the
scripting language, the APDL commands discussed here are the true scripting
commands and encompass a wide range of other features such as repeating a
command, macros, if-then-else branching, do-loops, and scalar, vector and matrix
operations. While APDL is the foundation for sophisticated features such as
design optimization, probabilistic design analysis and adaptive meshing, it also
offers many conveniences that you can use in your day-to-day analyses.

APDL is also a macro language to create macros. You can record a frequently used
sequence of ANSYS commands in a macro file (these are sometimes called
command files). Creating a macro enables you to, in effect, create your own custom
ANSYS command. In addition to executing a series of ANSYS commands, a macro
can call GUI functions or pass values into arguments.

11.2 Create The Analysis File

The analysis file is a key component and crucial to ANSYS optimization and
probabilistic design analysis. The program uses the analysis file to form the loop
file, which is used to perform analysis loops. Any type of ANSYS analysis
(structural, thermal, magnetic, etc.; linear or nonlinear) can be incorporated in the
analysis file.

There are two ways to create an analysis file:

 Input commands line by line with a system editor.

266
  Create the analysis interactively through ANSYS and use the ANSYS
command log as the basis for the analysis file.

Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. Creating the file with a
system editor is the same as creating a batch input file for the analysis. This
method allows you full control of parametric definitions through exact command
inputs. It also eliminates the need to clean out unnecessary commands later.
However, if you are not moderately familiar with ANSYS commands, this method
may be inconvenient. You may find it easier to perform the initial analysis
interactively, and then use the resulting command log as the basis for the analysis
file. In this case, final editing of the log file may be required in order to make it
suitable for optimization looping.

11.2.1 Analysis File using Log Files

The ANSYS program records every command it executes, whether typed in

directly or executed by a function in the Graphical User Interface (GUI), in two
places: the session log file and the internal database command log.

 The session log file is a text file which is saved in your working directory.
 The database command log is saved in the ANSYS database. You can copy
this log to a file at any time by choosing Utility Menu> File> Write DB Log
File.

Both files are command logs that can be used as input to the ANSYS program.

Session Log File

Every ANSYS session produces a session log named Jobname.LOG. The default
jobname is FILE or file, depending on the operating system. The program opens the
log file when you first enter the program, and closes it when you exit the program.
The session log file provides a complete record of your ANSYS session (in terms of

267
commands) and is quite valuable as a means of recovering from a system crash or
catastrophic user mistake. By reading in a renamed copy of your log file (or by
submitting it as a batch file), you can re-execute every command in your log file,
recreating your database exactly as it existed previously.

Your log file is also useful as a debugging tool that can help to reveal any mistakes
you might have made in an ANSYS session. Should you require help from your
ASD in debugging an ANSYS session, he or she will almost certainly ask to see a
copy of your log file.

Each new ANSYS session appends commands to the existing file Jobname.LOG.
(That is, the log file is not overwritten during a new ANSYS session, but added
to.) A "time stamp," consisting of the current date and time, is included so that
you can identify the start of each session. Use /FILNAME,1 to start a new log file
for the session.

You can list your entire log file during an interactive run by picking Utility
Menu> List> Files> Log File. Because this file is in ASCII format, you can view
and edit it readily using an external text editor.

Database Command Log

ANSYS captures commands generated (or typed in) during an ANSYS session not
only in the log file but also in memory. This in-memory version of the command
history is called the internal database log. When you save the database, the
program saves this command log in the database file (Jobname.DB) along with the
other database information.

Use either Utility Menu> File> Write DB Log File or the LGWRITE command to
write the database command log to a named ASCII file. You can then edit this file,
make desired changes, and use the file as command input to the program. This
capability is especially useful if you want to use the command history that was

268
created during an interactive session, but have somehow lost or corrupted the
session log file (Jobname.LOG) that was associated with your database.

If you create your database in multiple sessions by saving and resuming the
database file, the ANSYS program keeps the database log continuous by
appending each new command that is processed. Therefore, the internal database
log is not fragmented; it will represent the complete database.

11.2.2 Using a Command Log File as Input

The procedure for re-executing the commands contained in a Jobname.LOG file or in

the database log consists of three main steps:

Step 1: Establish the Command Log File

The method to do this depends on whether you use the session log file or the
database log.

Session Log File

To establish a command log file from the session log file, (Jobname.LOG) perform
these steps:

1. Rename or copy the session log file to a different name.

2. List the log file by choosing Utility Menu> List> Files> Log File.
3. Choose File> Save as from the Log File window.

Database Command Log

To establish a command log file from the database log, pick Utility Menu> File>
Write DB Log File. You can specify a file name or use the default name,
Jobname.LGW. You also have the option (with the Kedit field) to write all commands
(default), essential commands only (Kedit = REMOVE), or essential commands
with nonessential commands commented out (Kedit = COMMENT).

269
Step 2: Edit the Command Log File

Sometimes, you will need to edit your command log file before using it as program
input. As you edit your log file, you may want to add comments or indentation to
improve its readability. You can add comments to your log file by using the
comment character (!).

Step 3: Read in the Edited Log File

In an interactive session, pick Utility Menu> File> Read Input from to read in the
edited command log file.

270
Tutorial 15: Stress Analysis of Bicycle Wrench.

PROBLEM STATEMENT: Find the von Mises stresses for the bicycle wrench made of
steel shown under the given distributed and boundary condition.
Material Properties: Modulus of elasticity: E = 200 GPa
Poisson’s ratio: ν = 0.32
Geometry: Lengths and radii as shown
Thickness: 3mm
Loading: Distributed load: 88 N/cm
Constraints: ux, uy, uz = 0 at left hexagon

7 mm side R = 1.25 cm
88 N / cm

1.5 cm

1 cm 3 cm 1 cm
9 mm side
Fixed all around

Bicycle Wrench

STEP 1: Establish the Command Log File

First, solve the problem interactively and then save the database log file.

1. Start ANSYS
File -> Save As -> Tutorial 1 -> OK

2. Use the structural solid element PLANE82 for FEM modeling:

Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add ->
Structural Mass-Solid -> Select 8node 82 -> OK -> Options -> Element Behavior:
Select Plane Stress w/thk -> OK -> Close

3. Enter Real Constants for the element type chosen:

Preprocessor -> Real Constants -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add -> OK ->
Enter Thickness THK = 0.3 -> OK -> Close

4. Enter material property data for specified steel:

271
Preprocessor -> Material Props -> Material Model -> Structural -> Linear ->
Elastic -> Isotropic -> Enter Young’s modulus EX = 200e9 and Poisson’s ratio
PRXY = 0.32 -> OK -> Close

5. Create geometry for two similar rectangles 1.5 cm by 3 cm at locations (2.25,

0.5) and (7.25, 0.5):
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas-Rectangle -> By 2 Corners -> In
dialogue box enter WP X = 2.25, WP Y = 0.5, Width = 3, Height = 1.5 -> Apply ->
Enter values for next rectangle: WP X = 7.25, WP Y = 0.5, Width = 3, Height = 1.5
-> OK

6. Create geometry for three circles, all of 1.25 cm radius:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Circle -> Solid Circle -> In
dialogue box enter WP X = 1.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> Apply -> Enter
values for next circle -> WP X = 6.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> Apply ->
Enter values for next circle -> WP X = 11.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> OK

7. Perform the Boolean operation add to union the areas together:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Add -> Areas -> Pick All

8. Create geometry for three hexagons, two of 7 mm side (at the ends) and one of 9
mm side (in the center):
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Polygon -> Hexagon -> In dialogue
box enter WP X = 1.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.7 -> Theta = 120 -> Apply ->
Enter values for next hexagon -> WP X = 6.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.9 -> Theta
= 120 -> Apply -> Enter values for next hexagon -> WP X = 11.25, WP Y = 1.25,
Radius = 0.7 -> Theta = 120 -> OK

9. Perform the Boolean operation subtract to get the hexagonal holes in the
wrenchthe body:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Subtract -> Areas -> Click on
the solid portion of wrench -> Apply -> One by one pick the three hexagonal areas
-> OK

10. Now create a mesh in the final wrench shape, first refining the mesh size:
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Size Controls -> ManualSize -> Global > Size -> Enter
Size = 0.1 -> OK
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Areas -> Free -> Click on wrench -> OK

11. Apply the boundary conditions and the load:

Preprocessor -> Loads -> Analysis Type -> New Analysis -> Static -> OK
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Displacement ->
On Key Points -> Click on the six corner points of the left hexagon -> OK -> Select
All DOF -> OK
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural -> Pressure -> On
Lines -> Pick the line indicated in problem statement (top line of right arm) -> OK
-> Enter VALUE = 88 -> OK

272
12. Perform the solution:
Solution -> Solve -> Current LS -> OK

13. Start post-processing: Check the deformed shape:

General Post Proc -> Plot Results -> Deformed Shape -> Def + undef edge -> OK

14. To establish a command log file from the database log, pick Utility Menu>
File> Write DB Log File. You can specify a file name or use the default name,
Jobname.LGW.

Step 2: Edit the Command Log File

Using any text editor, you can edit either one of the following files:

Session log file: Tutorial 1.log

Database command log file: Tutorial 1.lgw

Note: One may prefer to edit database command lof file having essential commands with
nonessential commands commented out using character (!) . The nonessential
comments have been highlighted below.

/BATCH
! /COM,ANSYS RELEASE 11.0 UP20070125 11:04:23
08/30/2008
/input,menust,tmp,'',,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1
! /GRA,POWER
! /GST,ON
! /PLO,INFO,3
! /GRO,CURL,ON
! /CPLANE,1
! /REPLOT,RESIZE
WPSTYLE,,,,,,,,0
! SAVE, Tutorial-1,db,C:\A6_ANS~1\FINOPT~1\OPTIMI~1\
/PREP7
!*
ET,1,PLANE82
!*
KEYOPT,1,3,3
KEYOPT,1,5,0
KEYOPT,1,6,0
!*
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
!*
R,1,0.3,
!*
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,

273
!*
MPTEMP,,,,,,,,
MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,EX,1,,200e9
MPDATA,PRXY,1,,0.32
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
BLC4,2.25,0.5,3,1.5
BLC4,7.25,.5,3,1.5
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
CYL4,1.25,1.25,1.25
CYL4,6.25,1.25,1.25
CYL4,11.25,1.25,1.25
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
FLST,2,5,5,ORDE,2
FITEM,2,1
FITEM,2,-5
AADD,P51X
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
RPR4,6,1.25,1.25,0.7,120
RPR4,6,6.25,1.25,0.9,120
RPR4,6,11.25,1.25,0.7,120
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
! /REPLOT,RESIZE
! alist, all
FLST,3,3,5,ORDE,2
FITEM,3,1
FITEM,3,-3
ASBA, 6,P51X
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
ESIZE,0.1,0,
MSHKEY,0
CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 4
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
!*
AMESH,_Y1
!*
CMDELE,_Y
CMDELE,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y2
!*
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
!*
ANTYPE,0
! /ZOOM,1,SCRN,-0.465951,-0.036231,-0.465951,0.144092
FLST,2,6,3,ORDE,6
FITEM,2,9
FITEM,2,13
FITEM,2,15
274
FITEM,2,19
FITEM,2,21
FITEM,2,-22
!*
/GO
DK,P51X, , , ,0,ALL, , , , , ,
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
! /AUTO,1
! /REP,FAST
FLST,2,1,4,ORDE,1
FITEM,2,7
/GO
!*
SFL,P51X,PRES,88,
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
FINISH
/SOL
! /STATUS,SOLU
SOLVE
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
FINISH
/POST1
! PLDISP,2
! SAVE, Tutorial 1,db,
! LGWRITE,'Tutorial
1','lgw','C:\A6_ANS~1\FINOPT~1\OPTIMI~1\',COMMENT

After removing nonessential comments and adding comments:

/PREP7
!* Selection of Element Type
ET,1,PLANE82
KEYOPT,1,3,3 ! Option plane with thickness
KEYOPT,1,5,0
KEYOPT,1,6,0
!* Enter thickness value as a real constant
R,1,0.3,
!* Enter material properties
MPTEMP,,,,,,,,
MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,EX,1,,200e9
MPDATA,PRXY,1,,0.32
! Create geometric model
BLC4,2.25,0.5,3,1.5
BLC4,7.25,.5,3,1.5
CYL4,1.25,1.25,1.25
CYL4,6.25,1.25,1.25
CYL4,11.25,1.25,1.25
! Add rectangles with three circular areas
FLST,2,5,5,ORDE,2
FITEM,2,1
275
FITEM,2,-5
AADD,P51X
! Create three hexagonal areas
RPR4,6,1.25,1.25,0.7,120
RPR4,6,6.25,1.25,0.9,120
RPR4,6,11.25,1.25,0.7,120
! Subtract hexagonals to create final shape
FLST,3,3,5,ORDE,2
FITEM,3,1
FITEM,3,-3
ASBA, 6,P51X
! Meshing of the geometry
ESIZE,0.1,0,
MSHKEY,0
CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 4
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
AMESH,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y
CMDELE,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y2
!*
ANTYPE,0 ! Set analysis type for Static Analysis
!
! Apply displacement boundary conditions
FLST,2,6,3,ORDE,6
FITEM,2,9
FITEM,2,13
FITEM,2,15
FITEM,2,19
FITEM,2,21
FITEM,2,-22
/GO
DK,P51X, , , ,0,ALL, , , , , ,
! Apply pressure
FLST,2,1,4,ORDE,1
FITEM,2,7
/GO
SFL,P51X,PRES,88,
FINISH ! Save and Exit the Preprocessor (PREP7)
!
/SOL ! Enter Solution phase
SOLVE
FINISH

Step 3: Read in the Edited Log File

276
In an interactive session, pick Utility Menu> File> Read Input from to read in the
edited command log file.

277
Tutorial 16: Heat Loss from a Cylindrical Cooling Fin.

h=10 W/m2.K
Tb=100۫ T∞=25۫C

Air

L=1.32 m

D=2.5cm

Problem Statement: A very long rod 25mm in diameter has one end maintained at 100۫C.
The surface of the rod is exposed to ambient air at 25۫C with a convection heat transfer
coefficient of 10 W/m2.K. Determine the heat loss from the rod constructed of pure copper.
Geometric Properties Value Distribution
Diameter 25 mm Uniform
Length 1320 mm Uniform

Material Properties Nominal Value Distribution

At Average Temperature
Thermal Conductivity Coefficient 398 W/m-K
T= (Tb+T∞ )/2 = 62.5۫C ~355K
2
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient 10 W/m .K

Loading Nominal Value Location

Temperature Thermal Load 100۫C At the base of the fin.
At the cylindrical edge and the flat
Convection Thermal Load 10 W/m2.K
face at the tip of the fin.

Reference: F. P. Incropera, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Singapore, 1985, pg. 104, Example 3.7.

278
STEP 1: Establish the Command Log File

First, solve the problem interactively and then save the database log file.

1. Set preference for thermal analysis:

Preference > Thermal > OK

2. Use the thermal solid element Quad4node55 for FEM modeling:

Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add ->
Thermal Mass-Solid -> Select 4node 55 -> OK -> Options -> Element Behavior:
Select Axisymmetric -> OK -> Close

3. Enter material property data for specified steel:

Preprocessor -> Material Props -> Material Model -> Thermal > Conductivity >
Isotropic > Enter conductivity value KXX = 398 > OK -> Close

4. Create geometry for one rectangles 12.5E-3 m by 1.32 m at locations (0,0):

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas-Rectangle -> By 2 Corners -> In
dialogue box enter WP X = 0, WP Y = 0, Width = 12.5E-3, Height = 1.3 -> OK

5. Now, to create a mesh, first refining the mesh size by psecifying the number of
elements along the length (line numbers 2 and 4) = 600 and along radius (line
numbers 1 and 3) = 5:
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Size Controls -> ManualSize -> Lines > Picked Lines >
type 2 then press Enter > type 4 then press Enter-> OK > Enter # of divisions =
600 > Apply > type 1 then press Enter > type 3 then press Enter-> OK > Enter #
of divisions = 5 -> OK

6. Now create the mesh:

Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Areas -> Free -> Click on the area of select
Pick All -> OK

7. Select type of analysis:

Solution > Analysis Type -> New Analysis -> Steady-State -> OK

8. Apply the temperature boundary condition:

Solution > Define Loads > Apply -> Thermal > Temperature > On Line > Enter
line No. = 1 > Select TEMP and enter value = 100 > OK.

9. Apply the convective boundary conditions:

Solution > Define Loads > Apply -> Thermal > Convection > On Lines > Enter line
Numbers = 2, 3 and 4 (after typing each number press ENTER key) > OK > Enter
Film Coeff = 10 and Bulk Temperature = 25 > OK.

10. Perform the solution:

Solution -> Solve -> Current LS -> OK

279
11. To establish a command log file from the database log, pick Utility Menu>
File> Write DB Log File. You can specify a file name or use the default name,
Jobname.LGW.

Step 2: Edit the Command Log File

Using any text editor, edit the Database command log file: Tutorial 2.lgw

/BATCH
! /COM,ANSYS RELEASE 11.0 UP20070125 13:36:28 08/30/2008
/input,start110,ans,'C:\Program Files\ANSYS
Inc\v110\ANSYS\apdl\',,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1
!*
/NOPR
/PMETH,OFF,0
KEYW,PR_SET,1
KEYW,PR_STRUC,0
KEYW,PR_THERM,1
KEYW,PR_FLUID,0
KEYW,PR_ELMAG,0
KEYW,MAGNOD,0
KEYW,MAGEDG,0
KEYW,MAGHFE,0
KEYW,MAGELC,0
KEYW,PR_MULTI,0
KEYW,PR_CFD,0
/GO
!*
! /COM,
! /COM,Preferences for GUI filtering have been set to display:
! /COM, Thermal
!*
/PREP7
!*
ET,1,PLANE55
!*
KEYOPT,1,1,0
KEYOPT,1,3,1
KEYOPT,1,4,0
KEYOPT,1,8,0
KEYOPT,1,9,0
!*
! SAVE, Tutorial 2,db,
!*
MPTEMP,,,,,,,,
MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,KXX,1,,398
! SAVE, Tutorial 2,db,
BLC4,0,0,12.5e-3,1.32
! SAVE, Tutorial 2,db,
! /PNUM,KP,0
! /PNUM,LINE,1
! /PNUM,AREA,0
! /PNUM,VOLU,0
! /PNUM,NODE,0
! /PNUM,TABN,0

280
! /PNUM,SVAL,0
! /NUMBER,0
!*
! /PNUM,ELEM,0
! /REPLOT
!*
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
! /DIST,1,0.729,1
! /REP,FAST
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,5,2
FITEM,5,4
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,600, , , , ,1
!*
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,5,1
FITEM,5,3
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,5, , , , ,1
!*
MSHKEY,0
CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 1
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
!*
AMESH,_Y1
!*
CMDELE,_Y
CMDELE,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y2
!*

281
FINISH
/SOL
!*
ANTYPE,0
! /AUTO,1
! /REP,FAST
! /ZOOM,1,SCRN,0.362883,-0.778990,0.337117,-0.538560
FLST,2,1,4,ORDE,1
FITEM,2,1
!*
/GO
DL,P51X, ,TEMP,100,0
FLST,2,3,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,2,2
FITEM,2,-4
/GO
!*
SFL,P51X,CONV,10, ,25,
! /STATUS,SOLU
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST1
!*
! /EFACET,1
! PLNSOL, TEMP,, 0
! LGWRITE,'Tutorial 2','lgw','C:\A6_ANS~1\FINOPT~1\OPTIMI~1\',COMMENT

After editing:

/PMETH,OFF,0 ! Setting preference

KEYW,PR_SET,1
KEYW,PR_STRUC,0
KEYW,PR_THERM,1
KEYW,PR_FLUID,0
KEYW,PR_ELMAG,0
KEYW,MAGNOD,0
KEYW,MAGEDG,0
KEYW,MAGHFE,0
KEYW,MAGELC,0
KEYW,PR_MULTI,0
KEYW,PR_CFD,0

/PREP7 ! Enter into preprocessor (PREP7)

!*
ET,1,PLANE55 ! Set element type with axisymmteric option
!*
KEYOPT,1,1,0
KEYOPT,1,3,1
KEYOPT,1,4,0
KEYOPT,1,8,0
KEYOPT,1,9,0

MPTEMP,,,,,,,, ! Enter material properties

MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,KXX,1,,398

282
BLC4,0,0,12.5e-3,1.32 ! Geometric modeling

FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2 ! Divide lines 2 and 4 into 600 divisions

FITEM,5,2
FITEM,5,4
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,600, , , , ,1
!*
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2 ! Divide lines 1 and 3 into 5 divisions
FITEM,5,1
FITEM,5,3
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,5, , , , ,1
!*

MSHKEY,0 ! Mesh the area

CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 1
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
!*
AMESH,_Y1
!*
CMDELE,_Y
CMDELE,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y2
!*
FINISH ! Save and exit preprocessor

/SOL ! Enter Solution module

!*
ANTYPE,0 ! Set analysis type as steady-state

FLST,2,1,4,ORDE,1 ! Specify temperature boundary conditions on line 1

FITEM,2,1
DL,P51X, ,TEMP,100,0

FLST,2,3,4,ORDE,2 ! Specify convective b/conditions on lines, 2,3 & 4

FITEM,2,2
FITEM,2,-4
SFL,P51X,CONV,10, ,25,

SOLVE ! Solve the problem

FINISH

283
Step 3: Read in the Edited Log File

In an interactive session, pick Utility Menu> File> Read Input from to read in the
edited command log file.

Further editing for design optimization:

1. Define fin length (L) and fin radius (R) as PARAMETERS to be used as design variable.

2. Using APDL commands get the fin heat trasnfer rate (THEAT) and fin tip temperature
(Tempend) to be sued in the objective function and state variable.

3. Define objective function as ObjFunct=C-TOTALHEAT

/PMETH,OFF,0 ! Setting preference

KEYW,PR_SET,1
KEYW,PR_STRUC,0
KEYW,PR_THERM,1
KEYW,PR_FLUID,0
KEYW,PR_ELMAG,0
KEYW,MAGNOD,0
KEYW,MAGEDG,0
KEYW,MAGHFE,0
KEYW,MAGELC,0
KEYW,PR_MULTI,0
KEYW,PR_CFD,0
!
! **************************************************PREPROCESSING
!

/PREP7 ! Enter into preprocessor (PREP7)

!*
ET,1,PLANE55 ! Set element type with axisymmteric option
!*
KEYOPT,1,1,0
KEYOPT,1,3,1
KEYOPT,1,4,0
KEYOPT,1,8,0
KEYOPT,1,9,0

MPTEMP,,,,,,,, ! Enter material properties

MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,KXX,1,,398

L=1.32 ! Set fin length as parameter L

R=12.5e-3 ! Set fin radius as parameter R
BLC4,0,0,R,L ! Geometric modeling in terms of R and L
284
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2 ! Divide lines 2 and 4 into 600 divisions
FITEM,5,2
FITEM,5,4
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,600, , , , ,1
!*
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2 ! Divide lines 1 and 3 into 5 divisions
FITEM,5,1
FITEM,5,3
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,5, , , , ,1
!*

MSHKEY,0 ! Mesh the area

CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 1
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
!*
AMESH,_Y1
!*
CMDELE,_Y
CMDELE,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y2
!*
FINISH ! Save and exit preprocessor
!
! ******************************************************SOLUTION
!
/SOL ! Enter Solution module
!*
ANTYPE,0 ! Set analysis type as steady-state

FLST,2,1,4,ORDE,1 ! Specify temperature boundary conditions on line 1

FITEM,2,1
DL,P51X, ,TEMP,100,0

FLST,2,3,4,ORDE,2 ! Specify convective b/conditions on lines, 2,3 & 4

FITEM,2,2
FITEM,2,-4
SFL,P51X,CONV,10, ,25,

SOLVE ! Solve the problem

FINISH

! ************************************************** POST PROCESSING

!
/POST1

FSUM

285
*GET,THEAT,FSUM,HEAT
*SET,TOTALHEAT,-THEAT
ObjFunct=10000-TOTALHEAT
ALLSEL
*GET,Tempend,NODE,607,TEMP,

FINISH

286
 12.0 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION

12.1 Introduction

Optimizing a structure or manufactured product refers to a sequence of analyses

aimed at reducing the weight or cost of the structure or product while maintaining
the functionality of the structure or product, and that meets all Engineering
requirements, and that can be manufactured and assembled. This process may
include modifications to the structural or product topology, component
thicknesses, and material properties. The optimization process is iterative where
the specified design variables are altered, in the course of the optimization
process, in a manner that modifies the objective function (structural or product
weight or cost) in an advantageous manner. “The term optimization, or
mathematical programming, refers to the study of problems in which one seeks to
minimize or maximize a real function by systematically choosing the values of real
or integer variables from within an allowed set”. Using the computer to achieve
the most efficient design of a product, Finite element analysis (FEA) and other
methods are used. The Finite Element Method (FEM) is among the most powerful
tool for nonlinear simulations. In the past, design engineers have performed a
combination of manual and automated methods to accomplish design
optimization. They have applied FEA to parts of a CAD drawing, determined what
components needed work and then redrew the object manually. Increasingly,
software that is tightly integrated with the CAD program can perform the
analysis and automatically redraw the object.

12.1.1 Optimum Design

The optimum design is the best design in some predefined sense. Among many examples, the
optimum design for a frame structure may be the one with minimum weight or maximum
frequency; in heat transfer, the minimum temperature; or in magnetic motor design, the
maximum peak torque. In many other situations minimization of a single function may not be
287
the only goal, and attention must also be directed to the satisfaction of predefined constraints
placed on the design (e.g., limits on stress, geometry, displacement, heat flow).

The independent variables in an optimization analysis are the design variables.

The vector of design variables is indicated by:

(1)

Design variables are subject to n constraints with upper and lower limits, that is,

(2)

where:

n = number of design variables.

The design variable constraints are often referred to as side constraints and define
what is commonly called feasible design space.

Now, minimize

(3)

subject to

(4)

(5)

(6)

where:

f = objective function
gi, hi, wi = state variables containing the design, with underbar and overbars
representing lower and upper bounds respectively

288
m1 + m2 + m3 = number of state variables constraints with various upper and
lower limit valuesThe state variables can also be referred to as dependent
variables in that they vary with the vector x of design variables.

(Equation 3) through (Equation 6) represent a constrained minimization problem

whose aim is the minimization of the objective function f under the constraints
imposed by (Equation 2), (Equation 4), (Equation 5), and (Equation 6). Design
configurations that satisfy all constraints are referred to as feasible designs.
Design configurations with one or more violations are termed infeasible. In
defining feasible design space, a tolerance is added to each state variable limit. So
if x* is a given design set defined as

(7)

The design is deemed feasible only if

(8)

(9)

(10)

where:

αi, βi, and γi = tolerances

and

(11)

(Equation 8) to (Equation 11) are the defining statements of a feasible design set.

As design sets are generated by methods or tools (discussed below) and if an

objective function is defined, the best design set is computed and its number is
stored. The best set is determined under one of the following conditions.
289
 1. If one or more feasible sets exist the best design set is the feasible one with
the lowest objective function value. In other words, it is the set that most
closely agrees with the mathematical goals expressed by (Equation 3) to
(Equation 6).
2. If all design sets are infeasible, the best design set is the one closest to
being feasible, irrespective of its objective function value.

12.1.2 Optimum Design Fundamentals

Some of the fundamental concepts needed to understand optimization process are

explained below:

Problem formulation: Problem formulation is normally the most difficult part of

the process. It is the selection of design variables, constraints, objectives, and
models of the disciplines. A further consideration is the strength and breadth of
the interdisciplinary coupling in the problem.

Design variables: A design variable is a specification that is controllable from the

point of view of the designer. For instance, the thickness of a structural member
can be considered a design variable. Another might be the material the member is
made out of. Design variables can be continuous (such as a wing span), discrete
(such as the number of ribs in a wing), or boolean (such as whether to build a
monoplane or a biplane). Design problems with continuous variables are normally
solved more easily. Design variables are often bounded, that is, they often have
maximum and minimum values. Depending on the solution method, these bounds
can be treated as constraints or separately.

Constraints: A constraint is a condition that must be satisfied in order for the

design to be feasible. An example of a constraint in aircraft design is that the lift
generated by a wing must be equal to the weight of the aircraft. In addition to

290
physical laws, constraints can reflect resource limitations, user requirements, or
bounds on the validity of the analysis models. Constraints can be used explicitly
by the solution algorithm or can be incorporated into the objective using Lagrange
multipliers.

Objectives: An objective is a numerical value that is to be maximized or

minimized. For example, a designer may wish to maximize profit or minimize
weight. Many solution methods work only with single objectives. When using
these methods, the designer normally weights the various objectives and sums
them to form a single objective. Other methods allow multi-objective optimization.

Models: The designer must also choose models to relate the constraints and the
objectives to the design variables. These models are dependent on the discipline
involved. They may be empirical models, such as a regression analysis of aircraft
prices, theoretical models, such as from computational fluid dynamics, or reduced-
order models of either of these. In choosing the models the designer must trade off
fidelity with analysis time. The multidisciplinary nature of most design problems
complicates model choice and implementation. Often several iterations are
necessary between the disciplines in order to find the values of the objectives and
constraints. As an example, the aerodynamic loads on a wing affect the structural
deformation of the wing. The structural deformation in turn changes the shape of
the wing and the aerodynamic loads. Therefore, in analysing a wing, the
aerodynamic and structural analyses must be run a number of times in turn until
the loads and deformation converge.

Standard form: Once the design variables, constraints, objectives, and the
relationships between them have been chosen, the problem can be expressed in
the following form: find x that minimizes J(x) subject to g(x)≤0, h(x)=0 and xlb
≤ x ≤ xub, where J is an objective, x is a vector of design variables, g is a vector of
inequality constraints, h is a vector of equality constraints, xlb and xub and are
vectors of lower and upper bounds on the design variables. Maximization
problems can be converted to minimization problems by multiplying the objective

291
by -1. Constraints can be reversed in a similar manner. Equality constraints can
be replaced by two inequality constraints.

Optimization Tree: The optimization in divided into three types, namely, the
continuous, discrete and multi-objective optimization. The various ways for
optimization along with the procedures to be followed are listed in the figure
below.

Figure 3.1 Optimization Tree listing the optimization methods [ ]

Problem solution: The problem is normally solved using appropriate techniques

from the field of optimization. These include gradient-based algorithms,
population-based algorithms, or others. Very simple problems can sometimes be
expressed linearly; in that case the techniques of linear programming are
applicable.

Gradient-based methods Population-based Other methods

methods

292
 Newton's method
 Steepest descent
 Conjugate gradient
 Sequential quadratic
programming
 Genetic algorithms  Random search
 Memetic algorithms  Grid search
 Particle swarm  Simulated annealing
optimization  Harmony search
 Direct search

12.1.3 Applications and Examples

Applications
1. Design of structures and manufactured products to reduce weight while
maintaining required structural, functional, and manufacturing
characteristics.
2. Optimization of component thickness and shape based on user defined
objective and constraints.
3. Structural and product design constrained by size, weight, frequency, etc.
4. Feasible structural and product designs subject to size and shape constraints.
5. Design of structures and manufactured products for minimum cost, weight, or
size.

Examples
A few examples of optimization are listed below
1. Optimization of structural crashworthiness behaviour, e.g. automotive
industry, aviation and aeronautical industry, transportation safety, etc.
2. Optimization of sheet metal forming processes, e.g. optimization of tool
geometry with respect to springback compensation,
3. Identification and optimization of material parameters in non-linear material
models.

293
12.2 Design Optimization Using Ansys

The optimization module is an integral part of the ANSYS program that can be
employed to determine the optimum design. The ANSYS program can determine
an optimum design, a design that meets all specified requirements yet demands a
minimum in terms of expenses such as such as weight, surface area, volume,
stress, cost, and other factors. An optimum design is one that is as effective as
possible. Virtually any aspect of design can be optimized: dimensions (such as
thickness), shape (such as fillet radii), placement of supports, cost of fabrication,
natural frequency, material property, and so on. Among many examples, the
optimum design for a frame structure may be the one with minimum weight or
maximum frequency; in heat transfer, the minimum temperature; or in magnetic
motor design, the maximum peak torque. Any ANSYS item that can be expressed
in terms of parameters is a candidate for design optimization. In many other
situations minimization of a single function may not be the only goal, and
attention must also be directed to the satisfaction of predefined constraints placed
on the design (e.g., limits on stress, geometry, displacement, heat flow).

12.2.1 Design Optimization Terminology and Information Flow

While working towards an optimum design, the ANSYS optimization routines

employ three types of variables that characterize the design process: design
variables, state variables, and the objective function. These variables are
represented by scalar parameters in ANSYS Parametric Design Language
(APDL). The use of APDL is an essential step in the optimization process. The
independent variables in an optimization analysis are the design variables. To
understand the terminology involved in design optimization, consider the
following problem:

Find the minimum-weight design of a beam of rectangular cross section subject to

the following constraints:

 Total stress σ should not exceed σmax [σ < σ max]

294
 Beam deflection Δ should not exceed Δmax [Δ < Δmax]
 Beam height h should not exceed hmax [h < hmax]

Figure 3.2 Example of a Beam for Design Optimization

Design Variables (DVs) : Independent quantities, varied to achieve the optimum

design. Upper and lower limits are specified to serve as "constraints" on the design
variables. These limits define the range of variation for the DV. In the above beam
example, width b and height h are obvious candidates for DVs. Both b and h
cannot be zero or negative, so their lower limit would be b,h > 0.0. Also, h has an
upper limit of hmax. Up to 60 DVs may be defined in an ANSYS design
optimization problem.

State Variables (SVs) : Quantities that constrain the design. Also known as
"dependent variables," they are typically response quantities that are functions of
the design variables. A state variable may have a maximum and minimum limit,
or it may be "single sided," having only one limit . Our beam example has two SVs:
σ (the total stress) and Δ (the beam deflection). You can define up to 100 SVs in an
ANSYS design optimization problem.

Objective Function : The dependent variable that you are attempting to minimize.
It should be a function of the DVs (that is, changing the values of the DVs should
change the value of the objective function). In the beam example, the total weight
of the beam could be the objective function (to be minimized). You may define only
one objective function in an ANSYS design optimization problem.

295
Optimization Variables : Collectively, the design variables, state variables, and
the objective function. In an ANSYS optimization, these variables are represented
by user-named variables called parameters. You must identify which parameters
in the model are DVs, which are SVs, and which is the objective function.

Design Set or Design : A unique set of parameter values representing a given

model configuration. Typically, a design set is characterized by the optimization
variable values; however, all model parameters (including those not identified as
optimization variables) are included in the set.

Feasible Design : A design that satisfies all specified constraints (those on the SVs
as well as on the DVs. If any one of the constraints is not satisfied, the design is
considered infeasible. The best design is the one which satisfies all constraints
and produces the minimum objective function value. (If all design sets are
infeasible, the best design set is the one closest to being feasible, irrespective of its
objective function value.).

Analysis File : An ANSYS input file containing a complete analysis sequence

(preprocessing, solution, and postprocessing). The file must contain a
parametrically defined model, using parameters to represent all inputs and
outputs to be used as DVs, SVs, and the objective function.

Loop File : An optimization file (named Jobname.LOOP), created automatically

via the analysis file. The design optimizer uses the loop file to perform analysis
loops.

Loop : A single pass through the analysis file. Output for the last loop performed
is saved in file Jobname.OPO. An optimization iteration (or simply iteration) is
one or more analysis loops which result in a new design set. Typically, an iteration
equates to one loop; however, for the first order method, one iteration represents
more than one loop.

Optimization Database : contains the current optimization environment, which

includes optimization variable definitions, parameters, all optimization

296
specifications, and accumulated design sets. This database can be saved (to
Jobname.OPT) or resumed at any time in the optimizer.

The following figure illustrates the flow of information during an optimization

analysis.

Figure 3.3: Optimization Data

Flow

The analysis file must exist as a separate entity. The optimization database is not
part of the ANSYS model database.

12.2.2 Optimization Methods

The ANSYS optimization procedure offers several methods and tools that in
various ways attempt to address the mathematical problem stated above. ANSYS
optimization methods perform actual minimization of the objective function of
(Equation 3). It will be shown that they transform the constrained problem into an
unconstrained one that is eventually minimized. Design tools, on the other hand,

297
do not directly perform minimization. Use of the tools offer alternate means for
understanding design space and the behavior of the dependent variables. Methods
and tools are discussed in the sections that follow.

The ANSYS program uses two optimization methods to accommodate a wide

range of optimization problems:

 The subproblem approximation method is an advanced zero-order method

that can be efficiently applied to most engineering problems.
 The first order method is based on design sensitivities and is more suitable
for problems that require high accuracy.

For both the subproblem approximation and first order methods, the program
performs a series of analysis-evaluation-modification cycles. That is, an analysis of
the initial design is performed, the results are evaluated against specified design
criteria, and the design is modified as necessary. The process is repeated until all
specified criteria are met.

12.2.2.1 SUBPROBLEM APPROXIMATION METHOD

The subproblem approximation method can be described as an advanced zero-

order method in that it requires only the values of the dependent variables, and
not their derivatives. There are two concepts that play a key role in the
subproblem approximation method: the use of approximations for the objective
function and state variables, and the conversion of the constrained optimization
problem to an unconstrained problem.

Approximations: For this method, the program establishes the relationship

between the objective function and the DVs by curve fitting. This is done by
calculating the objective function for several sets of DV values (that is, for several
designs) and performing a least squares fit between the data points. The resulting
298
curve (or surface) is called an approximation. Each optimization loop generates a
new data point, and the objective function approximation is updated. It is this
approximation that is minimized instead of the actual objective function. State
variables are handled in the same manner. An approximation is generated for
each state variable and updated at the end of each loop.

Conversion to an Unconstrained Problem: State variables and limits on design

variables are used to constrain the design and make the optimization problem a
constrained one. The ANSYS program converts this problem to an unconstrained
optimization problem because minimization techniques for the latter are more
efficient. The conversion is done by adding penalties to the objective function
approximation to account for the imposed constraints.

Convergence Checking: At the end of each loop, a check for convergence (or
termination) is made. The problem is said to be converged if the current, previous,
or best design is feasible and any of the following conditions are satisfied:

 The change in objective function from the best feasible design to the
current design is less than the objective function tolerance.
 The change in objective function between the last two designs is less than
the objective function tolerance.
 The changes in all design variables from the current design to the best
feasible design are less then their respective tolerances.
 The changes in all design variables between the last two designs are less
than their respective tolerances.

Sometimes the solution may terminate before convergence is reached. This

happens if one of the following conditions is true:

 The number of loops specified has been performed.

 The number of consecutive infeasible designs has reached the specified
limit. The default number is 7.

299
12.2.2.2 FIRST ORDER METHOD

Like the subproblem approximation method, the first order method converts the
problem to an unconstrained one by adding penalty functions to the objective
function. However, unlike the subproblem approximation method, the actual finite
element representation is minimized and not an approximation. The first order
method uses gradients of the dependent variables with respect to the design
variables. For each iteration, gradient calculations (which may employ a steepest
descent or conjugate direction method) are performed in order to determine a
search direction, and a line search strategy is adopted to minimize the
unconstrained problem. Thus, each iteration is composed of a number of sub-
iterations that include search direction and gradient computations. That is why
one optimization iteration for the first order method performs several analysis
loops.

Convergence Checking: First order iterations continue until either convergence is

achieved or termination occurs. The problem is said to be converged if, when
comparing the current iteration design set to the previous and best sets, one of the
following conditions is satisfied:

 The change in objective function from the best design to the current
design is less than the objective function tolerance.
 The change in objective function from the previous design to the current
design is less than the objective function tolerance.

12.2.3 Optimization Design Tools

In addition to the two optimization techniques, the ANSYS program offers a set of
strategic tools that can be used to enhance the efficiency of the design process. For
example, a number of random design iterations can be performed. The initial data
points from the random design calculations can serve as starting points to feed the
optimization methods.

300
SINGLE-LOOP ANALYSIS TOOL:

This is a simple and very direct tool for understanding design space. It is not
necessary but it may be useful to compute values of state variables or the objective
function. The design variables are all explicitly defined by the user. A single loop
is equivalent to one complete finite element analysis (FEA) At the beginning of
each iteration, the user defines design variable values,

and executes a single loop or iteration. If either state variables or the objective
function are defined, corresponding state variable and objective function values
will result.

RANDOM TOOL

Multiple loops are performed, with random design variable values at each loop.
This design tool will fill the design variable vector with randomly generated
values for each iteration. Each random design iteration is equivalent to one
complete analysis loop. A maximum number of loops and a desired number of
feasible loops can be specified. This tool is useful for studying the overall design
space, and for establishing feasible design sets for subsequent optimization
analysis. Random iterations continue until either one of the following conditions is
satisfied:

nr = N r

nf = N f

where:

nr = number of random iterations performed per each execution

301
nf = total number of feasible design sets (including feasible sets from previous
executions)
Nr = maximum number of iterations
Nf = desired number of feasible design sets

SWEEP TOOL

The sweep tool is used to scan global design space that is centered on a user-
defined, reference design set. Upon execution, a sweep is made in the direction of
each design variable while holding all other design variables fixed at their
reference values. The state variables and the objective function are computed and
stored for subsequent display at each sweep evaluation point.

A sweep execution will produce ns design sets calculated from

where:

n = number of design variables

Ns = number of evaluations to be made in the direction of each design variable

FACTORIAL TOOL

This is a statistical tool that is used to generate design sets at all extreme
combinations of design variable values. This technique is related to the technology
known as design of experiment that uses a 2-level, full and fractional factorial
analysis. The primary aim is to compute main and interaction effects for the
objective function and the state variables.

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GRADIENT TOOL

The gradient tool computes the gradient of the state variables and the objective
function with respect to the design variables. A reference design set is defined as
the point of evaluation for the gradient. Using this tool, you can investigate local
design sensitivities.

12.2.4 General Process for Design Optimization

One can approach an ANSYS optimization in two ways: as a batch run or

interactively via the graphical user interface (GUI). If you are familiar with
ANSYS commands, you can perform the entire optimization by creating an
ANSYS command input file and submitting it as a batch job. This may be a more
efficient method for complex analyses (for example, nonlinear) that require
extensive run time. Alternatively, the interactive features of optimization offer
greater flexibility and immediate feedback for review of loop results. When
performing optimization through the GUI, it is important to first establish the
analysis file for your model. Then all operations within the optimizer can be
performed interactively, allowing the freedom to probe your design space before
the actual optimization is done. The insights you gain from your initial
investigations can help to narrow your design space and achieve greater efficiency
during the optimization process. (The interactive features can also be used to
process batch optimization results)

The process involved in design optimization consists of the following general steps.
The steps may vary slightly, depending on whether you are performing
optimization interactively (through the GUI), in batch mode, or across multiple
machines.

1. Create an analysis file to be used during looping. This file should represent a
complete analysis sequence and must do the following:

 Build the model parametrically (PREP7).

303
  Obtain the solution(s) (SOLUTION).
 Retrieve and assign to parameters the response quantities that will be
used as state variables and objective functions (POST1/POST26).

2. Enter OPT and specify the analysis file (OPT).

3. Declare optimization variables (OPT).
4. Choose optimization tool or method (OPT).
5. Specify optimization looping controls (OPT).
6. Initiate optimization analysis (OPT).
7. Review the resulting design sets data (OPT) and post-process results
(POST1/POST26).

STEP 1: CREATE THE ANALYSIS FILE

The analysis file is a key component and crucial to ANSYS optimization. The
program uses the analysis file to form the loop file, which is used to perform
analysis loops. Any type of ANSYS analysis (structural, thermal, magnetic, etc.;
linear or nonlinear) can be incorporated in the analysis file. In this file, the model
must be defined in terms of parameters (which are usually the DVs), and results
data must be retrieved in terms of parameters (for SVs and the objective function).
Only numerical scalar parameters are used by the design optimizer. There are two
ways to create an analysis file:

 Input commands line by line with a system editor.

 Create the analysis interactively through ANSYS and use the ANSYS
command log as the basis for the analysis file.

No matter how you intend to create the analysis file, the basic information that it
must contain is the same. The steps it must include are explained next.

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BUILD THE MODEL PARAMETRICALLY

PREP7 is used to build the model in terms of the DV parameters. For our beam
example, the DV parameters are B (width) and H (height), so the element real
constants are expressed in terms of B and H:

/PREP7
! Initialize DV parameters:
B=2.0 ! Initialize width
H=3.0 ! Initialize height
!
ET,1,BEAM3 ! 2-D beam element
AREA=B*H ! Beam cross-sectional area
IZZ=(B*(H**3))/12 ! Moment of inertia about Z
R,1,AREA,IZZ,H ! Real constants in terms of DV parameters
!
! Rest of the model:
MP,EX,1,30E6 ! Young's modulus
N,1 ! Nodes
N,11,120
FILL
E,1,2 ! Elements
EGEN,10,1,-1
FINISH ! Leave PREP7

OBTAIN THE SOLUTION

The SOLUTION processor is used to define the analysis type and analysis options,
apply loads, specify load step options, and initiate the finite element solution. The
SOLUTION input for the beam example could look like this:

/SOLU
ANTYPE,STATIC ! Static analysis (default)
D,1,UX,0,,11,10,UY ! UX=UY=0 at the two ends of the beam
SFBEAM,ALL,1,PRES,100 ! Transverse pressure (load per unit length) = 100
SOLVE
FINISH ! Leave SOLUTION

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RETRIEVE RESULTS PARAMETRICALLY

This is where we retrieve results data and assign them to parameters. These
parameters usually represent SVs and the objective function. The *GET command
(Utility Menu> Parameters> Get Scalar Data), which assigns ANSYS calculated
values to parameters, is used to retrieve the data. POST1 is typically used for this
step, especially if the data are to be stored, summed, or otherwise manipulated.

In our beam example, the weight of the beam is the objective function (to be
minimized). Because weight is directly proportional to volume, and assuming
uniform density, minimizing the total volume of the beam is the same as
minimizing its weight. Therefore, we can use volume as the objective function. The
SVs for this example are the total stress and deflection. The parameters for these
data may be defined as follows:

/POST1
SET,...
NSORT,U,Y ! Sorts nodes based on UY deflection
*GET,DMAX,SORT,,MAX ! Parameter DMAX = maximum deflection
!
! Derived data for line elements are accessed through ETABLE:
ETABLE,VOLU,VOLU ! VOLU = volume of each element
ETABLE,SMAX_I,NMISC,1 ! SMAX_I = max. stress at end I of each element
ETABLE,SMAX_J,NMISC,3 ! SMAX_J = max. stress at end J of each element
!
SSUM ! Sums the data in each column of the element table
*GET,VOLUME,SSUM,,ITEM,VOLU ! Parameter VOLUME = total volume
ESORT,ETAB,SMAX_I,,1 ! Sorts elements based on absolute value of SMAX_I
*GET,SMAXI,SORT,,MAX ! Parameter SMAXI = max. value of SMAX_I
ESORT,ETAB,SMAX_J,,1 ! Sorts elements based on absolute value of SMAX_J
*GET,SMAXJ,SORT,,MAX ! Parameter SMAXJ = max. value of SMAX_J
SMAX=SMAXI>SMAXJ ! Parameter SMAX = greater of SMAXI and SMAXJ
FINISH
...

306
STEP 2: ENTER OPT AND SPECIFY THE ANALYSIS FILE

The remaining steps are performed within the OPT processor. When you first
enter the optimizer, any parameters that exist in the ANSYS database are
automatically established as design set number 1. To enter the optimizer, use one
of these methods:

Command(s): /OPT

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt

In interactive mode, you must specify the analysis file name. To specify the
analysis file name, use one of these methods:

Command(s): OPANL

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Analysis File> Assign

STEP 3: DECLARE OPTIMIZATION VARIABLES

The next step is to declare optimization variables, that is, specify which
parameters are DVs, which ones are SVs, and which one is the objective function.
As mentioned earlier, up to 60 DVs and up to 100 SVs are allowed, but only one
objective function is allowed. To declare optimization variables, use one of these
methods:

Command(s): OPVAR

Main Menu> Design Opt> Design Variables

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> State Variables
Main Menu> Design Opt> Objective

Minimum and maximum constraints can be specified for SVs and DVs. No
constraints are needed for the objective function. Each variable has a tolerance

307
value associated with it, which you may input or let default to a program
calculated value.

STEP 4 : CHOOSE OPTIMIZATION TOOL OR METHOD

In the ANSYS program, several different optimization tools and methods are
available. Single loop is the default. To specify a tool or method to be used for
subsequent optimization looping, use one of these methods:

Command(s): OPTYPE

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Method/Tool

STEP 5 : SPECIFY OPTIMIZATION LOOPING CONTROLS

Each method and tool has certain looping controls associated with it, such as
maximum number of iterations, etc. All of the commands that you use to set these
controls are accessed by the menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Method/Tool

There are also a number of general controls which affect how data is saved during
optimization. They are as follows:

 To specify the file where optimization data is to be saved (defaults to

Jobname.OPT):

Command(s): OPDATA

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Controls

 To determine whether information from the best design set is saved (by
default, the database and results files are saved only for the last design
set):

308
 Command(s): OPKEEP

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Controls

STEP 6 : INITIATE OPTIMIZATION ANALYSIS

After all appropriate controls have been specified, you can initiate looping:

Command(s): OPEXE

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Run

Upon execution of OPEXE, an optimization loop file (Jobname.LOOP) is written from

the analysis file. This loop file, which is transparent to the user, is used by the
optimizer to perform analysis loops. Looping will continue until convergence,
termination (not converged, but maximum loop limit or maximum sequential
infeasible solutions encountered), or completion (for example, requested number of
loops for random design generation) has been reached.

The values of all optimization variables and other parameters at the end of each
iteration are stored on the optimization data file (Jobname.OPT). Up to 130 such
sets are stored. When the 130th set is encountered, the data associated with the
"worst" design are discarded.

STEP 7 :. REVIEW DESIGN SETS DATA

After optimization looping is complete, you can review the resulting design sets in
a variety of ways using the commands described in this section. These commands
can be applied to the results from any optimization method or tool.

To list the values of parameters for specified set numbers:

Command(s): OPLIST

309
GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Design Sets> List

To graph specified parameters versus set number so you can track how a variable
changed from iteration to iteration:

Command(s): PLVAROPT

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Graphs/Tables

In addition to reviewing the optimization data, you may wish to postprocess the
analysis results using POST1 or POST26. By default, results are saved for the last
design set in file Jobname.RST (or .RTH, etc., depending on the type of analysis). The
results and the database for the best design set will also be available if
OPKEEP,ON was issued before looping. The "best results" will be in file
Jobname.BRST (.BRTH, etc.), and the "best database" will be in Jobname.BDB.

12.2.5 Guidelines for Performing Optimization Analysis

12.2.5.1. CHOOSING DESIGN VARIABLES

DVs are usually geometric parameters such as length, thickness, diameter, or

model coordinates. They are restricted to positive values. Some points to
remember about DVs are:

 Use as few DVs as possible. Obviously, more DVs demand more iterations and,
therefore, more computer time. One way to reduce the number of design
variables is to eliminate some DVs by expressing them in terms of others,
commonly referred to as design variable linking.

 Specify a reasonable range of values for the design variables (MIN and MAX).
Too wide a range may result in poor representation of design space, whereas

310
 too narrow a range may exclude "good" designs. Remember that only positive
values are allowed, and that an upper limit must be specified.

 Choose DVs such that they permit practical optimum designs.

12.2.5.2. CHOOSING STATE VARIABLES

SVs are usually response quantities that constrain the design. Examples of SVs
are stresses, temperatures, heat flow rates, frequencies, deflections, absorbed
energy, elapsed time, and so on. A state variable need not be an ANSYS-
calculated quantity; virtually any parameter can be defined as a state variable.
Some points to keep in mind while choosing state variables are:

 When defining SVs (OPVAR command), a blank input in the MIN field is
interpreted as "no lower limit." Similarly, a blank in the MAX field is
interpreted as "no upper limit." A zero input in either of these fields is
interpreted as a zero limit.
 Choose enough SVs to sufficiently constrain the design. In a stress analysis, for
example, choosing the maximum stress as the only SV may not be a good idea
because the location of the maximum stress may change from loop to loop. Also
avoid the other extreme which would be to choose the stress in every element
as a state variable. The preferred method is to define the stresses at a few key
locations as state variables.
 For the subproblem approximation method, if possible, choose SVs that have a
linear or quadratic relationship with the DVs.
 If a state variable has both an upper and lower limit, specify a reasonable
range of limit values. Avoid very small ranges, because feasible designs may
not exist. A stress range of 500 to 1000 psi, for example, is better than 900 to
1000 psi.
 If an equality constraint is to be specified (such as frequency = 386.4 Hz),
define two state variables for the same quantity and bracket the desired value,
as illustrated below:

311
 *GET,FREQ,ACTIVE,,SET,FREQ ! Parameter FREQ = calculated
frequency
FREQ1=FREQ
FREQ2=FREQ
/OPT
OPVAR,FREQ1,SV,,387 ! Upper limit on FREQ1 = 387
OPVAR,FREQ2,SV,386 ! Lower limit on FREQ2 = 386

 Avoid choosing SVs near singularities (such as concentrated loads) by using

selecting before defining the parameters.

12.2.5.3. CHOOSING THE OBJECTIVE FUNCTION

The objective function is the quantity that you are trying to minimize or
maximize. Some points to remember about choosing the objective function are:

 The ANSYS program always tries to minimize the objective function. If you
need to maximize a quantity x, restate the problem and minimize the quantity
x1 = C-x or x1 = 1/x, where C is a number much larger than the expected value
of x. C-x is generally a better way to define the objective function than 1/x
because the latter, being an inverse relationship, cannot be as accurately
represented by the approximations used in the subproblem approximation
method.
 The objective function should remain positive throughout the optimization,
because negative values may cause numerical problems. To prevent negative
values from occurring, simply add a sufficiently large positive number to the
objective function (larger than the highest expected objective function value).

12.2.5.4. RESTARTING AN OPTIMIZATION ANALYSIS

To restart an optimization analysis, simply resume the optimization database file

(Jobname.OPT):
312
Command(s): OPRESU

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Opt Database> Resume

Once the data is read in, you can respecify optimization type, controls, etc., and
initiate looping. (The analysis file corresponding to the resumed database must be
available in order to perform optimization.) To initiate looping:

Command(s): OPEXE

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Run

You can use (Main Menu> Design Opt> Opt Database> Resume) in an interactive
session to resume optimization data. If there is data in the optimization database
at the time you want to resume, you should first clear the optimization database.
To clear the optimization database:

Command(s): OPCLR

GUI: Main Menu> Design Opt> Opt Database> Clear & Reset

Because the ANSYS database is not affected by the OPCLR command, it may also
be necessary to clear the ANSYS database if the resumed optimization problem is
totally independent of the previous one. To clear the ANSYS database:

Command(s): /CLEAR

GUI: Utility Menu> File> Clear & Start New

12.2.6 Sample Optimization Analysis

In the following example, you will perform an optimization analysis of a hexagonal

steel plate using the GUI for the analysis.
313
Problem Description: You will build a parametric model of a hexagonal steel plate,
using thickness t1 and fillet radius fil as the parameters. All other dimensions are
fixed. This example uses a 2-D model and takes advantage of symmetry.

Problem Specifications: The loading for this example is tensile pressure (traction)
of 100 MPa at the three flat faces.

The following material properties are used for this analysis:

Thickness = 10 mm

Young's modulus (E) = 2.07e5 MPa

Poisson's ratio (υ) = 0.3

Step 1: Test Analysis File

To test the analysis file, you clear the database and then read input from the
hexplate.lgw file.

1. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Clear & Start New. Click on OK.
2. When the Verify dialog box appears, click Yes.
3. Change the jobname. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Change
Jobname. The Change Jobname dialog box appears.
4. Change the jobname to hexplate and click on OK.
5. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Read Input from. In the Files list,
click on hexplate.lgw. Then click on OK. You see a replay of the entire
analysis. Click on Close when the “Solution is done!” message appears.

! ******************************* inrad=200*cos(30)-20 ! Inner radius

! First Pass: Create analysis file. t1=30 ! Thickness
! ******************************** fil=10 ! Fillet radius
*create,hexplate
! /prep7
! GEOMETRY (in mm) ! Create the three bounding annuli
!----------------- cyl4,-200,,inrad,-30,inrad+t1,30
*afun,deg !Degree units for trig. functions cyl4,200*cos(60),200*sin(60),inrad,-
90,inrad+t1,-150
314
cyl4,200*cos(60),200*sin(- ! MESHING
60),inrad,90,inrad+t1,150 ! -------
aplot et,1,82,,,3 ! Plane stress with thickness
aadd,all r,1,10 ! Thickness
adele,all ! Delete area, keep lines mp,ex,1,2.07e5 ! Young's modulus of
lplot steel, MPa
! Fillets on inner slot mp,nuxy,1,0.3 ! Poisson's ratio
lsel,,radius,,inrad+t1 ! Select inner arcs smrt,3
l1 = lsnext(0) ! Get their line numbers amesh,all
l2 = lsnext(l1) eplot
l3 = lsnext(l2) finish
lfillet,l1,l2,fil ! Fillets
lfillet,l2,l3,fil ! LOADING
lfillet,l3,l1,fil ! -------
lsel,all /solu
lplot csys,1
! Keep only symmetric portion lsel,u,loc,y,1,59
wprot,,90 dl,all,,symm ! Symmetry b.c.
lsbw,all csys,0
wprot,,,60 lsel,,loc,x,100
lsbw,all
csys,1 sfl,all,pres,-50 ! Pressure load (MPa)
lsel,u,loc,y,0,60 lsel,all
ldele,all,,,1 lplot
lsel,all
ksll
ksel,inve ! SOLUTION
kdele,all ! Delete unnecessary keypoints ! --------
ksel,all eqslv,pcg
lplot solve
! Create missing lines and combine right
edge lines
csys,0 ! POSTPROCESSING
ksel,,loc,y,0 ! --------------
lstr,kpnext(0),kpnext(kpnext(0)) /post1
! Bottom symmetry edge plnsol,s,eqv ! Equivalent stress contours
ksel,all /dscale,,off ! Displacement scaling off
csys,1 /expand,6,polar,half,,60
ksel,,loc,y,60 !Symmetry expansion
lstr,kpnext(0),kpnext(kpnext(0)) /replot
! 60-deg. symm. edge /expand
ksel,all !Retrieve max equivalent stress & volume
csys,0 nsort,s,eqv
lsel,,loc,x,100 *get,smax,sort,,max
lcomb,all ! Add lines at the right edge ! smax = max. equivalent stress
lsel,all etable,evol,volu
! Create the area ssum
al,all *get,vtot,ssum,,item,evol
aplot ! vtot = total volume
finish

315
*end

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Step 2: Enter the Optimizer and Identify Analysis File

In the next several steps of this problem, you optimize the design. The over-
designed steel plate under tension loading of 100 MPa needs to be optimized for
minimum weight subject to a maximum von Mises stress limit of 150 MPa. You are
allowed to vary the thickness t1 and fillet radius fil. First, enter the optimizer and
identify the analysis file.

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Analysis File> Assign. The
Assign Analysis File dialog box appears.
2. In the Files list, click once on hexplate.lgw and then click on OK.

Step 3: Identify the Optimization Variables

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Design Variables. The Design
Variables dialog box appears.
2. Click on Add. The Define a Design Variable dialog box appears.
3. In the list of parameter names, click on T1. Type 20.5 in the MIN field and 40
in the MAX field. Click on Apply.
4. In the list of parameter names, click on FIL. Type 5 in the MIN field and 15 in
the MAX field. Click on OK.
5. Click on Close to close the Design Variables dialog box.
6. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> State Variables. The State
Variables dialog box appears.
7. Click on Add. The Define a State Variable dialog box appears.
8. In the list of parameter names, click on SMAX. Type 150 in the MAX field.
Click on OK.
9. Click on Close to close the State Variables dialog box.
10. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Objective. The Define Objective
Function dialog box appears.

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11. In the list of parameter names, click on VTOT. Set the TOLER field to 1.0.
Click on OK.

Step 4: Run the Optimization

This step involves specifying run time controls and the optimization method, saving
the optimization database, and executing the run.

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Controls. The Specify Run Time
Controls dialog box appears.
2. Change the OPKEEP setting from “Do not save” to “Save.” Click on OK.
3. Specify an optimization method. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt>
Method/Tool. The Specify Optimization Method dialog box appears.
4. Choose Sub-Problem. Click on OK. Click OK again.
5. Save the optimization database. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt>
Opt Database> Save. In the Selection field, type hexplate.opt0. Click on OK.
6. Execute the run. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Run. Review
the settings and click on OK. (If you receive any warning messages during the
run, close them.)
7. Notes will appear to let you know which design set ANSYS is currently
running. When the run converges, review the Execution Summary. Click on
OK.

Step 5: Review the Results

In this step, you start by listing design sets, then graph the objective function and
state variables versus set number.

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Design Sets> List. The List
Design Sets dialog box appears.
2. Verify that the ALL Sets option is selected. Click on OK.
3. Review the information that appears in the window. Click on Close.

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Finite Element Analysis in Mechanical Design February 2010
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4. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Graphs/Tables. The Graph/List
Tables of Design Set Parameters dialog box appears.
5. For X-variable parameter, select Set number. For Y-variable parameters,
select VTOT. Click on OK. Review the graph.
6. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Graphs/Tables. The Graph/List
Tables of Design Set Parameters dialog box appears.
7. For X-variable parameter, select Set number. For Y-variable parameters,
select SMAX. Unselect VTOT by clicking on it. Click on OK. Review the graph.

Step 6: Restore the Best Design

In this step, you restore the best design. First, however, save the optimization
database to a file.

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Opt Database> Save. The Save
Optimization Data dialog box appears.
2. In the Selection field, type hexplate.opt1. Then click on OK.
3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Finish
4. Issue the following commands in the ANSYS Input window. After you type
each command in the window, press ENTER.

resume,hexplate,bdb

/post1

file,hexplate,brst

lplot

5. Choose menu path Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> First Set.
6. Choose menu path Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour
Plot> Nodal Solu. The Contour Nodal Solution Data dialog box appears.
7. Choose Stress from the list on the left. Choose von Mises SEQV from the list
on the right. Click on OK. Review the plot.
8. Choose menu path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Displacement Scaling. For
DMULT, select 0.0 (off). Click on OK.

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9. Choose menu path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Symmetry Expansion>
User-Specified Expansion. The Expansion by Values dialog box appears.
10. Fill in the 1st Expansion of Symmetry section. For NREPEAT, type 6. For
TYPE, choose Polar. For PATTERN, choose Alternate Symm. Type 0, 60, and 0
in the DX, DY, and DZ fields, respectively. Click on OK.

Step 7: Exit ANSYS

Click on Quit in the ANSYS Toolbar. Select an option to save, then click on OK.

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Finite Element Analysis in Mechanical Design February 2010
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Tutorial 17: Design Optimization Tutorial

Title: Optimization of Heat Transfer Rate from a Cylindrical Pin Fin

Problem Description:

h=10 W/m2.K
Tb=100۫ T∞=25۫C

Air

L=1.32 m

D=2.5cm

A very long rod 25mm in diameter has one end maintained at 100۫C. The surface of
the rod is exposed to ambient air at 25۫C with a convection heat transfer coefficient
of 10 W/m2.K. Determine the heat loss from the rod constructed of pure copper.

Geometric Properties Value Distribution

Diameter 25 mm Uniform
Length 1320 mm Uniform

Material Properties Nominal Value Distribution

At Average Temperature
Thermal Conductivity
398 W/m-K
Coefficient
T= (Tb+T∞ )/2 = 62.5۫C ~355K
Convection Heat
10 W/m2.K
Transfer Coefficient

Loading Nominal Value Location

Temperature
100۫C At the base of the fin.
Thermal Load
Convection Thermal 10 W/m2.K At the cylindrical edge and the flat

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Finite Element Analysis in Mechanical Design February 2010
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Load face at the tip of the fin.

Reference: F. P. Incropera, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd Edition,

John Wiley & Sons, Singapore, 1985, pg. 104, Example 3.7.

Approach and Assumptions

 Since the problem is axisymmetric only a small sector of elements is needed.
A rectangular strip is used for approximating the cylindrical fin.
 The analysis is carried out for steady-state conditions.
 Material properties are considered to be constant.
 One-dimensional conduction along the rod.
 Negligible radiation exchange with surroundings
 Uniform heat transfer coefficient

Solutions/Results

Results FEA Book (Incropera)

Units Watts (W) Watts (W)
Total Heat Loss 29.09103 29.4

Input file using log file

You can perform the example optimization analysis of a cylindrical fin using the
ANSYS commands shown below. Items prefaced with an exclamation point (!) are
comments.

The analysis happens in essentially two passes. In the first pass, you create the
analysis file. In the second pass, you create the optimization input. If you prefer,
you can perform the second pass of the example analysis using the GUI method
rather than ANSYS commands.

/BATCH
! ***************************************
/PREP7
!
ET,1,PLANE55
!*
KEYOPT,1,1,0
KEYOPT,1,3,1
KEYOPT,1,4,0
KEYOPT,1,8,0
KEYOPT,1,9,0
!
! ************ Material Properties ( Conduction and Convection Coefficients) :
Pure Copper
!* At Degree : 355 kelvin
MPTEMP,,,,,,,,
MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,KXX,1,,398

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MPTEMP,,,,,,,,
MPTEMP,1,0
MPDATA,HF,1,,10
!
! ******************************************** Geometry
*SET,L,1.32 ! LENGTH IN M
*SET,R,12.5E-3 ! RADIUS IN M
BLC4,0,0,R,L
!
! ******************************************** Meshing
MSHKEY,0
CM,_Y,AREA
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,5,2
FITEM,5,4
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,600, , , , ,1
!*
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,5,1
FITEM,5,3
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
!*
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,5, , , , ,1
!*
CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 1
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
!*
MSHKEY,1
AMESH,_Y1
MSHKEY,0
!*
CMDELE,_Y
CMDELE,_Y1
CMDELE,_Y2

FINISH

! ******************************************************** SOLUTION
/SOLU

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!

ANTYPE,0 ! Steady-State Thermal Analysis

!
FLST,2,1,4,ORDE,1
FITEM,2,1
DL,P51X, ,TEMP,100,0 ! Prescribed temperature at the left end
!
FLST,2,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,2,2
FITEM,2,-3
SFL,P51X,CONV,10, ,25, ! Convective boundary condition
!
SOLVE

FINISH

!
! ************************************************************ POST
PROCESSING
/POST1

FSUM
*GET,THEAT,FSUM,HEAT
*SET,TOTALHEAT,-THEAT
ObjFunct=10000-TOTALHEAT
ALLSEL
*GET,Tempend,NODE,607,TEMP,

FINISH

Optimization Problem

Using a BATCH file for the analysis describes this example optimization analysis
as consisting of two passes. In the first you create an analysis file, and in the
second you create the optimization input. It is better to avoid graphical picking
operations when defining a parametric model. Thus, the GUI method is not
recommended for performing the first pass of the example analysis and will not be
presented here. However, it is acceptable to perform the optimization pass of the
cylindrical fin example using the GUI method instead of the ANSYS commands
shown earlier. The GUI procedure for performing the optimization pass follows.

Summary of Steps
1. Enter the Design Optimization (Design Opt) and execute the file for the
deterministic model (Fin.txt)
2. Specify Fin.txt as the analysis file for the design optimization analysis.
3. Define the design variables, state variables and objective function for your
design optimization analysis. For this problem, you define the length and
radius of the cylindrical fin as design variables, temperature at the tip of the
fin as state variable, and total heat dissipated as the objective function.

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4. Run the optimization. Select a suitable method for optimization.
5. Obtain solution.
6. Perform postprocessing to visualize and evaluate the design sets of
optimization results.
7. Save the optimization database.
8. Generate HTML report and exit.

STEP-BY-STEP ANALYSIS

Step 1: Test Analysis File.

To test the analysis file, you clear the database and then read input from the Fin.lgw file.

6. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Read Input from. In the Files list, click on
Fin.lgw. Then click on OK. You see a replay of the entire analysis. Click on Close when
the “Solution is done!” message appears.

5. Main Menu > Design Opt

6. Utility Menu >File>Read

Input from
7. Choose the file Fin.txt from
your working directory.
8. OK.

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Step 2: Enter the Optimizer and Identify Analysis File .

In the next several steps of this problem, you optimize the design. The previously designed
cylindrical fin under thermal loading of 100۫C at the base of the fin needs to be optimized for
maximum heat loss through the surface subjected to a maximum temperature limit at the tip of
the fin to 40۫C. You are allowed to vary the length L and the radius R.

First, enter the optimizer and identify the analysis file.

3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Design Opt> Analysis File> Assign. The Assign
Analysis File dialog box appears.
4. In the Files list, click once on Fin.lgw and then click on OK.

4. Main Menu> Design Opt>

Analysis File> Assign

5. Choose the file Fin from

your working directory.
Use the Browse button if you
choose.
6. OK.

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Step 3: Identify the Optimization Variables.

You will now define the Design Variables (DV) and their limits.
1. Main Menu> Design Opt> Design Variables

Define Length and Radius as design variable.

2. Add a Design
variable.

3. Choose L as the
parameter.

4. Type 0.3 m in the

MIN field.

5. Type 1.5 m in the

MAX field

6. Apply

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7. Choose R as the
parameter.

8. Type 0.01 m in the

MIN field.

9. Type 0.05 m in the

MAX field.

10. OK

11. Close.

Define State Variables and the constraining limits.

12. Main Menu> Design Opt>

State Variables.

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13. Add a State variable.

14. Click on TEMPEND.

15. Type 40۫ C in the MAX

field.

16. OK

17. Close.

Define Objective Function and its tolerance.

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18. Main Menu> Design Opt>
Objective.

19. Click on TOTALHEAT

20. OK

Step 4: Run the Optimization.

This step involves specifying run time controls and the optimization method, saving the
optimization database, and executing the run.

1. Main Menu> Design

Opt> Controls.

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2. Change OPKEEP setting
from ‘Do not save’ to
‘Save’.

3. OK

4. Main Menu> Design

Opt> Method/Tool .

5. Choose Sub-Problem

6. OK

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7. OK

9. Main Menu> Design

Opt> Opt Database> Save

10. To save the

optimization database,
type Fin.opt0

11. OK

12. Main Menu> Design

Opt> Run

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13. OK

14. Solution Converges

Click OK

Step 5: Review the Results.

In this step, you start by listing design sets, then graph the objective function and state variables
versus set number.

1. Main Menu> Design Opt>

Design Sets> List.

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2. Select ALL Sets

3. OK

4. Review results and Close

5. Main Menu> Design Opt>

Graphs/Tables

6. For X-Variable select Set

number

7. For Y- variable select

ObjFunct

8. OK

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9. Review the Graph for
Objective function

10. Main Menu> Design Opt>

Graphs/Tables

11. For X-Variable select Set

number

12. For Y- variable select

TOTALHEAT

13. Unselect OBJFUNCT

14. OK

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15. Review the Graph

Step 6: Restore the Best Design.

1. Main Menu> Design

Opt> Opt Database>
Save.

2. Type Fin.opt1

3. OK

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4. Main Menu> Finish.

5. Type in Ansys Input

Window

Resume,Fin,bdb
/post1
File,Fin,brth
lplot
6. Utility Menu>
PlotCtrls> Style>
Symmetry Expansion>
User-Specified Expansion.

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7. Main Menu> General
Postproc> Plot Results>
Contour Plot> Nodal Solu.

8. Review results

Step 4: Exit ANSYS.

Toolbar: Quit
Choose Quit – Select an option to Save!
OK

Congratulations! You have completed this tutorial.

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Exercise Problems
Problem 1 [Solid Modeling]
Build a solid model of an automobile connecting rod using bottom-up modeling techniques.

Wrist pin end

C
L
Crank pin end
45o
45o

Spline through six control points

1.8
0.3
0.4R
0.5 0.4 0.33 0.28 C
L
1.4R
1.0R 0.7R

2.5

3.25

4.0

4.75

6.5

All dimensions in inches

Problem 2 [Solid Modeling]

Develop the geometrical model in 2D for the above Bracket Structure using ANSYS.

Problem 3 [Solid Modeling]

Develop the geometrical model for the given problem.

Problem 4 [Static Analysis]

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Consider a balcony truss as shown in the figure. We are interested in determining the deflection
of each joint under loading shown in the figure. All members are made from Douglas-fir wood
with a modulus of elasticity E = 1.90 x 106 psi and a cross-sectional area of 8 in2.

Problem 5 [Static Analysis]

The members of the floor truss shown in the figure of Problem 3 have a cross-sectional area of
approximately 21.5 in2 and are made of Doughlas-fir wood with a modulus of elasticity of
E=1.9 x 106 psi.
(a) determine the deflection of each joint, stresses in each member, and the reaction forces.
(b) Replace one of the fixed boundary conditions with rollers and solve the problem again.
Discuss the difference in results.

Problem 6 [Thermal Analysis]

A long thick-walled cylinder is
maintained at a temperature Ti on the
inner surface and To on the outer
surface. Determine the temperature
distribution through the wall thickness.
Also determine the axial stress a and
the tangential (hoop) stress t at the
inner and outer surfaces.

Material Properties Geometric Properties Loading

E = 30 x 106 psi a = 0.1875 inches Ti = -1°C
= 1.435 x 10-5 in/in-°C b = 0.625 inches To = 0°C
= 0.3
k = 3Btu/hr-in-°C

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Problem 7 [Static Analysis]
Consider a machine structure with steel
columns. One column is subjected to the
loading as shown in the figure. Under axial
loading assumption and using linear
elements, the vertical displacements of the
column at various bracket-column
connection points were determined to be:

d1y = 0
d2y = 0.03283 in.
d3y = 0.05784 in.
d4y = 0.07504 in.
d5y = 0.08442 in.

The modulus of elasticity E = 29 x 106 psi,

and area of A = 39.7 in2 were used in the
calculations.

Determine the deflection of point A.

Problem 8 [Static Analysis]

Consider a plate with a variable cross section supporting a load of
1500 lb, as shown in the figure. The plate is made of stainless steel
with a modulus of elasticity E=10.6 x 106 psi, poisson’s ratio =0.30
and yield strength Sy=40,000 psi. The thickness of the plate is 0.125
inches. For the given structure, determine the following using ANSYS:
(a) Deformed shape of the structure
(b) Distribution of normal stress in the vertical direction
(c) Distribution of von Mises stress in the elements.
(d) Write down the value of maximum von Mises stress and it’s
location.
(e) Calculate the factor of safety for the given structure guarding
against static failure using Distortion Energy Theory.
(f) Suggest a solution to reduce the maximum von Mises stress to
half. Show the von Mises stress distribution for your suggested
solution.

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Problem 9 [Static Analysis: Structural + Thermal]

The bracket shown in figure is attached to a process equipment. The bracket is subjected to a
distributed load of 100 N/cm2 on the top surface as shown in the figure. The bracket is made of
steel, with a modulus elasticity of 207 GPa,  = 0.3 and yield strength of 280 MPa. It is fixed
around the hole surfaces.
(a) Using ANSYS make a solid model of the bracket
(b) Using FEA, determine
i. deformed shape
ii. maximum principal stress distribution
iii. von Mises distribution
iv. factor of safety based on Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST) and
Distortion Energy Theory (DET).

(c) The bracket of the above problem is attached to a process equipment such that the
temperature of the bracket wall in contact with the component is 80oC. Determine the
temperature distribution in the bracket, given the following data:
Toutside = 15oC
houtside = 30 W/m2.K
k = 47 W/m.K

(d) Determine the thermal stress distribution in the structure.

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Problem 10 [Thermal Analysis]

Aluminum fins of a rectangular

profile, shown in Figure, are
used to remove heat from a
surface whose temperature is
100oC. The temperature of the
ambient air is 20oC. The thermal
conductivity of aluminum is 168
W/m.oK (W/m.oC). The natural
convective heat transfer
coefficient associated with the
surrounding air is 30 W/m2.oK
(W/m2.oC). The fins are 80 mm
long, 5 mm wide, and 1 mm
thick.
(a) Determine the
temperature distribution
along the fin using the
finite element model
shown in the Figure with
four elements.
(b) Compute the heat loss
per fin.

Problem 11 [

Write down the details of your idealization

for required analysis type(s), loading,
boundary conditions and other details for
the finite element analysis of the following
problems. Also prepare a list of data you
need to complete your model and the list
of output results you would like to get for
your design decisions.

(a) Traffic Signpost

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(b) Empty Coffee Pot

Imagine that by mistake, an empty coffee pot has been

left on a heating plate as shown in the Figure. Assuming
that the heater puts approximately 200 Watts into the
bottom of the pot, determine the temperature distribution
within the glass if the surrounding air is at 25oC, with a
corresponding heat transfer coefficient h = 15 W/m2.oK.
The pot is cylindrical is shape, with a diameter of 14 cm
and height os 14 cm, and the glass is 3 mm thick

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References
Logan, Daryl L.: A First Course in the Finite element Method, 3rd Edition, Thomas Learning
Publishing, 2001.

Cook, Robert D.:Finite Element Modelling for Stress Analysis, 1st Edition, John Wiley, 1995.

Reddy, J.N.: An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill, 1993.

Bathe, K. Finite Element Procedures, Prectice Hall, 1996.

Chandrupatla, Belegundu, “Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering”

Zienkiewicz, Taylor, “The Finite Element Method”

Mish, Herrmann, Haws, "Finite Element Procedures in Applied Mechanics"

Felippa, “Introduction to FEM”

ANSYS User’s Manuals, ANSYS Release 7.0.

ANSYS Workshop Handouts

University of Alberta Website

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Appendix A: Titles of Finite Element Books

A Bibliography for Finite Elements , Whiteman, J. R., 1975
A First Course in the Finite Element Method , Logan, D. L., 1986, 1992
A First Course in the Finite Element Method , Bickford, W. B., 1990, 1993
, Schmid, W., 1996
An Introduction to the Finite Element Method With Applications to Nonlinear Problems ,
White, R. E., 1985
Applied Finite Element Analysis , Segerlind, L. J., 1976, 1984, 1987
B. M. Fraeijs de Veubeke Memorial Volume of Selected Papers , Geradin, M., ed., 1980
Basic Principles of the Finite Element Method , Entwistle, K. M., 1999
BASIC-Programme zur Methode der Finiten Elemente , Adam, J., 1986
Boundary and Finite Elements Theory and Problems , Raamachandran, J., 2000
Building Better Products With Finite Element Analysis , Adams, V. and Askenazi, A., 1998
Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis , Cook, R. D., 1974, 1981, 1989, 2001
FE-Modelling of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials , Schmauder, S., ed., 1993, CP
FE-Simulation of 3-D Sheet Metal Forming Processes in Automotive Industry , Anon., 1991,
CP
FEM in the Design Process , Robinson, J., ed., 1990, CP
Finite Element Analysis: Theory and Application With ANSYS , Moaveni, S., 1999, 2003
Finite Element Analysis and Applications , Wait, R. and Mitchell, A. R., 1985
Finite Element Analysis for Engineering Design , Reddy, J. N., et al., 1988
Finite Element Analysis for Heat Transfer , Huang, H. C. and Usmani, A. S., 1994
Finite Element Analysis for Undergraduates, Akin, J. E., 1986
Finite Element Analysis- From Concepts to Applications, Burnett, D. S., 1987
Finite Element Analysis- Fundamentals, Gallagher, R. H., 1975
Finite Element Analysis in Engineering Design, Rajasekaran, S., 1993
Finite Element Method- Basics, Samuelsson, A. and Wiberg, N. E., 1998
Finite Element Method in Mechanical Design, Knight, C. E., 1993
Finite Element Modeling of Composite Materials and Structures, Matthews, F. L. et al., eds.,
2000
Finite Element Multidisciplinary Analysis, Gupta, K. K. and Meek, J. L., 2000
Finite Element Plasticity and Metalforming Analysis, Rowe, G. W. et al., 1991
Finite Element Procedures , Bathe, K. J., 1995
Finite Elements: Techniques and Developments , Topping, B. H. V., ed., 2000 CP
Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering , Chandrupatla, T. R. and Belegundu, A. D.,
1991, 1997, 2001
Introductory Finite Element Method , Desai, C. S. and Kundu, T., 2001
Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics for Finite Element Analysis , Bonet, J. and Wood, R. D.,
1997
Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures , Belytschko, T. et al., 2000
Practical Aspects of Finite Element Modelling of Polymer Processing , Nassehi, V., 2002
Practical Guide to Finite Elements , Lepi, S. M., 1998
Quality Assurance in FEM Technology , Robinson, J., ed., 1987, CP
Quality Assurance and Standards in Finite Element Methods , Anon., 1989, CP
Schaum's Outline of Finite Element Analysis , Buchanan, G. R., 1995
Structural Dynamic Systems Computational Techniques and Optimization: Finite Element
Analysis Techniques , Leondes, C. T., ed., 1998
Structural Mechanics Software Series, Volume IV , Perrone, N. and Pilkey, W.,
The Finite Element Method Using MATLAB , Kwon, Y. W. and Bang, H., 1996, 2000
The Mathematics of Finite Elements and Applications IX , Whiteman, J. R., ed., The

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Mathematics of Finite Elements and Applications X , Whiteman, J. R., ed., 2000, CP
Using Finite Elements in Mechanical Design ,Mottram, J. T. and Shaw, C. T., 1996
What Every Engineer Should Know About Finite Element Analysis , Brauer, J. R., ed., 1988

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Appendix B: Some Useful FEA Websites on INTERNET

1. IFER - Internet Finite Element Resources - next search Next: Notes. INTERNET FINITE
ELEMENT RESOURCES. Introduction. This document describes and provides access to FE
software via the Internet.

2. ANSYS, Inc. - Develops, markets and supports a family of mechanical computer-aided

engineering software products. (Nasdaq: ANSS)[ Teoma, Ask Jeeves ] http://www.ansys.com

3. Finite Element People - Finite Element People: (in alphabetical order) This is the home
page of finite element people, defined as researchers/scientists that work in
using/developing/improving/analyzing finite ...[ MSN, Open-Directory ] http://www-
math.cudenver.edu/~lfranca/links/fem_people.html

4. ABAQUS - ABAQUS, Inc. develops the ABAQUS suite of general-purpose nonlinear

finite element analysis (FEA) programs for mechanical, structural, civil,[ Teoma, Ask Jeeves ]
http://www.hks.com

5. ALGOR.com - center for mechanical design technology: finite element - Finite element
analysis and mechanical event simulation software for virtual prototyping.[ Teoma, Ask Jeeves ]
http://www.algor.com

6. Marc Home Page - Nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) software for engineering
structural analysis offering automated nonlinear analysis of contact problems as found in rubber,
metal forming and other ...[ Ask Jeeves, Teoma ] http://www.marc.com

7. Finite Element Software - Simple finite element software for engineering stress analysis of
2D problems. [ Open-Directory ] http://www.finite-element-analysis-software.com

8. Finite Element Method Universal Resource - FEMur - Serving the Finite Element
Community Since 1995 #1 Top Ten Finite Element Links on the Web! Introduction to FEMur...[
Teoma ] http://femur.wpi.edu

9. Finite Element Books - Welcome to the Information Retrieval on Finite Element Books
This catalogue is committed to offering fast access to information about Finite Element books
and Conference proceedings ...[ Ask Jeeves ] http://ohio.ikp.liu.se/fe

10. Software: FEA Finite Element Analysis - Finite element software for analyzing composite
and plastic structures.[ About.com ]
http://composite.about.com/cs/swfiniteelement/index.htm

11. Finite Element Books - Welcome to the Information Retrieval on Finite Element Books...[
Teoma ] http://ohio.ikp.liu.se/fe/index.html

12. MSC.Software Corporation - Finite element analysis (FEA) software for engineering
structural analysis offering automated nonlinear analysis of contact problems as found in rubber,
metal forming and other applications.[ Ask Jeeves ] http://www.macsch.com

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Finite Element Analysis in Mechanical Design February 2010
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13. Finite Element Books - Welcome to the Information Retrieval on Finite Element Books
This catalogue is committed to offering fast access to information about Finite Element books
and Conference proceedings ...[ MSN ] http://www.solid.ikp.liu.se/fe

14. SAMTECH Finite element software - Publishes the SAMCEF general purpose finite
element software, MECANO, a flexible mechanism simulation software and OOFELIE, an
Object Oriented Finite Element program with an Interactive ...[ Open-Directory ]
http://www.samtech.fr

15. Livermore Software Technology Corporation - Development source for the LS-DYNA
non-linear finite element analysis software program.[ Teoma ] http://www.lstc.com

16. Machine Design - Exploring the Heart With FEA - Modeling the heart becomes both easier
and more effective using non-linear finite-element analysis, as described by the April 2000
piece.[ Looksmart-Directory ]
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m3125/7_72/61892869/p1/article

17. NAFEMS - ...in conjunction with the FENet project, are currently undertaking a world-
wide survey on the use of finite element and related technology.[ Teoma ]
http://www.nafems.org

18. NASTRAN - A general purpose, finite element, computer code used to conduct stress
analysis of a laminate.[ About.com ] http://composite.about.com/library/glossary/n/bldef-
n3561.htm

19. FEA-Based Optimization - Resources for finite element analysis, finite element method,
FEA, FEM, design optimization and engineering optimization. [ Open-Directory ]
http://www.fea-optimization.com

20. Altair Engineering - Altair Engineering is a leading global product design consulting
company and the developer of HyperMesh and the HyperWorks CAE suite of finite...[ Teoma ]
http://www.altair.com

21. Machine Design - FEA Tools for Engineering Analysts - Finite element technology
undergoes so many innovations that it's hard to keep up. Browse a few in this June 2000
FindArticles piece.[ Looksmart-Directory ]
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m3125/11_72/63508162/p1/articl

22. Integrated Engineering Software - IES offers structural engineering software for frame
analysis, concrete design, and wood truss design. The structural analysis and design tools come
with free support.[ Looksmart ]. http://www.iesweb com [Sponsored Source Listing]

23. Welcome to AutoFEA - Finite Element Analysis Software - JL Analyzer - Finite Element
and Stress Analysis Software, provides Product optimisation and[ Ask Jeeves ]
http://www.autofea.com

24. Structural Analysis, Inc. - Provides engineering consulting services and the mTAB finite
element analysis (FEA) software package for Windows.[ Looksmart-Directory ]
http://www.sai-mtab.com

25. LUSAS - Civil, Structural, Bridge, Composite, and General Engineering - Information
about LUSAS Civil, Structural, Bridge, Composite, and Analyst engineering analysis software

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Finite Element Analysis in Mechanical Design February 2010
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products and related nonlinear, dynamics and thermal analysis options.[ Ask Jeeves ]
http://www.lusas.com

26. Tutorial: Finite Element Method - FEM Discretization The starting point of the finite
element method (FEM) is the subdivision of the domain into small subdomains called elements.
Although the elements need not be triangles, ...[ Ask Jeeves ] http://www.uni-
karlsruhe.de/~vecfem/guide/xvem/help/Tutorial.FEM.

27. Concise Finite Element for 3D structures - Three dimensional finite element program for
piping or structural engineer, scientist, technologist. Calculator of moment of inertia of any
section composed of straight lines and arcs. [ Open-Directory ]
http://www.members.aol.com/jirip/index.html

28. Introduction to FEA and FEM by Dermot Monaghan, Finite Element Method, - A
comprehensive site introducing Finite Element Technology[ Ask Jeeves ]
http://www.dermotmonaghan.com

29. Finite Element Analysis - Not really finite element, but I'm not making a new top level yet:
The Technical Research Centre of Finland. FEMur - the Finite Element Method Universal
Resource. Conferences A list of ...[ Ask Jeeves ]
http://duke.usask.ca/~macphed/finite/finite.html

30. INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT METHOD - INTRODUCTION TO FINITE

ELEMENT METHOD Normed spaces. Lax-Milgram theorem. Variation formulation of some
boundary value problems for partial differential equations. Galerkin's method, ...[ Ask Jeeves ]
http://citrus.meil.pw.edu.pl/html/ma040.html

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Appendix C: FEA Commercial Software List

This is a collection of links to electronic information related to FEA. The aim is to give an
overview of the vast recourses available on the net for people working with CAE. Any
comments or suggestions on how to improve this page are highly appreciated.

Mechanical FEA
ABAQUS(tm) DIANA(R)
ADAMS/FEA(tm) GENESIS Structural Optimization Software
ADINA(tm) LS-DYNA3D
AFEMS(tm) MARC
ALGOR(tm) ME/NASTRAN
ANSYS(R) NISA Family of Programs
C-MOLD(R) software Stardyne
CESAR-LCPC STRAP
COSMOS/M
Fluid FEA Electro Mechanical FEA
ADINA(tm) CANEL
COSMOS/Flow PZFlex
Fluent EMSS
Icepak(tm) PERMAS(R)
NISA/3D-FLUID TES: thermal and electrical FEA

Acoustical FEA

ABAQUS(tm)
WASCAT
GeoFLEX
PERMAS(R)

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