PTN (PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORK) – use the largest computer network in the world to interconnect millions of

subscribers or such a way that function as a single entity.

- Does not require special skills or knowledge.
SWITCHING FUNCTION- identifies and connect the subscribers to suitable transmission path
SIGNALING FUNCTION- supply and interpret control and supervisory signals needed to perform the operation.
2 types of PTN subscribers
1. Private
2. Public
1. Subscribers to the private sector- costumers who lease equipment transmission media and services from
telephone companies on permanent basis.
Private Line circuit/ Dedicated circuit- the leased circuit are designed and configured for their use only
Service Provider- the public telephone companies that lease equipment and provide services to other private
companies.
2. Subscriber to the public sector- share equipment and facilities that are available to all public subscribers to the
network
Common Usage Equipment- the shared equipment available to the public subscriber which included transmission
facilities and telephone switches.
Public switched telephone Network- or simply as dial up network.
o Where subscribers to the public network are interconnect only temporarily through switches.
NODES- is a switching point
PTN- intended for transferring voice not digital data.
- To use PTN it is necessary to use modem to convert the data to a form more suitable for transmission over the
wireless carrier system.
4 telephone Network Equipment
1. Instrument- any device use to originate and terminate calls to transit and receive signals into and out of telephone
network.
- Often referred as station equipment.
- Station- location of instrument
- Subscriber- is the operator or user of the instrument.
2. Local Loops- simply dedicated cable facility used to connect an instrument at a subscriber’s station to the closest
telephone office.
- Local Loop- connected to public switched telephone network are 2 wire metallic pairs
- Used w/ private line data circuit are 4 wire configuration.
3. Trunk Circuit- similar to a local loop except trunk circuits are used to interconnect 2 telephone office.
- Used for common usage connection
4. Exchanges- is central location where subscribers are interconnected either temporarily or on permanent basis.
- Local Exchange- or sometimes dial switches or local dial switches
- Exchange connected directly to local loops
 - Central Exchange- also called central telephone exchange, central office , central wire center, central exchange,
central office exchange or simply central.
Telephone Exchange- purpose is to provide a path for a call to be completed between 2 parties.
3 Function of Switch
1. Identify the subscriber
2. Setup or establish a communication path.
3. Supervise the calling process.
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𝑁=
2
n= # of station ( parties)
N= # of interconnecting lines
Central telephone Exchange- allows any telephone connected to it to be connected to any of the other telephones
connected to the exchange w/out requiring separate cable, pairs and telephone for each connection.
Community- Served by only one telephone company.
- It is divided into Zones
- Zone- Served by a different cetral telephone exchange.
Switch Boards- 1st local telephone exchange.
o Sometimes called patch panesl or patch boards.
Party Line- each telephone line could have 10 or more subscribers connected to central office exchange using same loop.
o Are less expensive than private lines but they are also convenient.
Private telephone line – is non expensive because only telephone from one residences are connected to a local loop.
Ring Down System- the operator would ring the destination and when someone answered the telephone the operator
would remove her plug from the jack and connect the calling to the called parties.
Automated Switching System- - is a system of sensors, switches and other electrical and electronic devices that allows
subscribers to give instructions directly to the swtich w/ out having to go through an operator.
Mechanical Dialer- allowed subscriber to manually dial the telephone number of the party they wished to call.
Stepping relay- after a digit was entered , a realy in the switching machine connected the caller to another relay.
Step by Step (SXS) switch or Strowger Switch- the stepping process continued until all the digits of the telephone
number were entered.
Crosshair (XBAR) switch- an electromechanical switching machine. Used sets of contact points mounted on horizontal
and vertical bars.
Crosspoints or contact points
Electronic Switching System (ESS)- it replace the crossbar switch the one that improve the step by step switch.
Stored program Control (SPC) – use software to control practically all switching functions.
Totally automated central office exchanges- which allows a caller located virtually anywhere in the world to direct dial
virtually anyone else in the world.
Circuit- is simply the path over which voice, data or video signals propagate. Sometimes called lines.
Circuit Switch- is a programmable matrix that allows circuit to be connect to one another.
Circuit Switching – the switch capable of interconnect any circuit connect to it to any other circuit connect to it.
Local Exchange- exchanges connected directly to local loops
Central Offices (CO) – because local exchange are centrally located within the area they serve.
Intra Office Call- or sometimes an intra-switch call. A telephone call completed within a single local exchange.
Interoffice calls- calls place between two stations that are connect to different local exchange.
- Sometimes called inter switch calls.
Trunks/ Interoffice Trunks- telephone switching machines in local exchange are interconnect to other local exchange
office on special facilities.
Tandem- means inconjuction with or associated with.
Tandem Switch- is called the switcher’s switch.
Tandem Trunks- sometimes intermediate trunks.
- Trunk circuit that terminate in tandem switches.
Toll Office- interstate long distance telephone calls require a special telephone office.
Toll connecting trunk- sometimes called interoffice toll trunk.
- When subscriber initiates a long distance call, the local exchange connects the caller to a toll office through a
facility.
Area Code- the NPA assigned a unique three digit #.
Exchange code (Prefix) - smaller service areas each with its own three digit number.
Extension Number – each subscriber to a central office prefix is assigned a four digit extension number.
Telephone Sets- convert acoustic energy to electrical signal and vice versa.
Terminating Set- or term set or hybrid
- Which split the two direction of signal propagation so that the actual long distance route can be accomplished on a
4 wire basis.
Switching Hierarchy- allows a certain degree of route selection when establishing a telephone call.
Route- is a path between two subscribers and is comprised of one or more switches, two local loops and one or more trunk
circuit.
Blocking- if a call cannot be completed because the necessary trunk circuit or switching path are not available the calling
party receives an equipment busy signal.
5 Classification of Switching office.
1. Class 5 end office-local exchange where subscriber loops terminated and received dial tone.
- Flat rate- subscriber receive unlimited local call service in return for payment of a fixed change each month.
- Access tandem office- some class 5 offices were classified as class 4/5.
2.Class 4 toll center
- 2 types of class 4 office.
- Class 4C- toll center provide human operator for both outward and inward calling service.
- Class 4P- has only outward operator service or perhaps no operator service at all.
3. Class 3 primary center- provide service to small group of class 4 office w/ in small area of a state.
4. Class 2 Sectional center- no operator service were provided but it could serve the same swithching function as
class 3 and 4.
5. Class 1 regional center- hard direct trunks to all the other regional centers.
- Region- regional centers served a large area.
- Sections- Each region was subdivided into smaller area.
Progressive Switching Schemes
- Established an end to end route mainly through trial and error.
Intermediate Links- are toll trunks in tandem, excluding the two terminating links at the ends of the connection.
Direct Link- would be the first choice, exist between the originating and destination toll centers.
24-1 .Microwaves- described as electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range from approximately 500MHz to
300GHz or more.
- In high frequency have shortwave length. (100GHz Microwave signal has 0.3m while 100MHz has 3m.)
Types of Microwave System
Short haul- such as interstate or feeder service microwave system.
-used to carry information for short distances between cities.
Long haul- used to carry information for long distances such as interstate and backbone route application.
Microwave Radio System- ranges from less than 12 voice band channesl to more than 22,000 channels.
Terminal Station- information originated and terminates here.
Repeater- regenerate the signal, relay information to the next downlink, microwave station.
Microwave Radio- propagate signals through Earth’s atmosphere between transmitter and receiver often located at top of
tower’s space about 15 to 30 miles apart.

24-2. Advantages of Microwave Radio

1. Radio systems don’t require a right of way acquisition between stations.
2. Each station requires the purchase or lease of only a small area of land.
3. Because of their high operating frequencies, microwave radio systems can carry large quantities of information.
4. High frequencies mean short wavelengths, which require relatively small antennas.
5. Radio signals are more easily propagated around physical obstacles such as water and high mountains
6. Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.
7. Distances between switching centers are less.
8. Underground facilities are minimized.
9. Minimum delay times are introduced.
10. Minimal crosstalk exists between voice channels.
11. Increased reliability and less maintenance are important factors.
Disadvantages of Microwave Radio
1. It is more difficult to analyze and design circuits at microwave frequencies.
2. Measuring techniques are more difficult to perfect and implement at microwave frequencies
3. It is difficult to implement conventional circuit components (resistors, capacitors, inductors and so on) at microwave
frequencies.
4. Transient time is more critical at microwave frequencies.
5. It is often use specialized components for microwave frequencies.
6. Microwave frequencies propagate in a straight line, which limits their use to line-of-sight applications.

24-3. Analog vs. Digital Microwave

- Microwave radio system are frequency modulation whi is analog.
Digital Modulation
- Which is either PSK or QAM were used when the system have been developed.
- The primary difference between satellite and terrestrial radio systems are similar to terrestrial is that satellite system
propagate signals outside Earth atmosphere. Thus, capable of conveying signals which is much farther while
utilizing fewer transmitter and receivers.

24-4 .Frequency vs. Amplitude Modulation

- Frequency Modulation is used in microwave radio system rather than AM because AM signal are more sensitive to
amplitude nonlinearities in wideband microwave amplifier.
- It’s insensitive to this type iof nonlinear distortion
- Sensitive to random noise and can propagate w/ lower transmit power.
Amplitude Modulation
- Intermodulation noises- caused by repeater noises caused by repeater amplitude non linearity.
- AM system intermodulation noise is a function of signal amplitude but in FM. It is a function of signal amplitude and
magnitude of frequency deviation.
- FM are more suitable than AM for microwave.
Baseband is composite signal that modulates the FM carrier.

24-5. Frequency Modulated Microwave Radio System

Baseband is comprise of:
1. Freq. division- multiplexed voice band channels.
2. Time division multiplexed voice band channels.
3. Broadcast quality composite video or picture phone.
4. Wideband data.

24-5-1. FM Microwave Radio Transmitter

- Pre emphasis network provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the higher baseband frequencies. This allows the
lower baseband frequencies to phase modulate it. This scheme allows the lower baseband frequencies to
frequency modulate the IF carrier and the higher baseband frequencies to phase modulate it.
- IF Carrier and its associated sidebands- are up converted to the microwave regions by mixer oscillator and band
pass filter.
- Mixing- is used to translate the IF frequencies to RF frequencies
- Microwave generators consists of a crystal oscillator followed by a series of frequency multipliers.

24-5-2 FM Microwave Radio Receiver

- The channel separation network provides the isolation and filtering necessary to separate individual microwave
channels and direct them to their respective receivers.

24-6 FM microwave Radio Repeaters

- Long Haul microwave systems span distances considerably longer.
- With systems that are longer than 40 miles or when geographical obstructions, such as mountain, block the
transmission path repeaters are needed.
- Location of an INTERMEADIATE REPEATER sites is greatly influenced by the nature of the terrain between and
surrounding the sites.
- Consideration in repeater : flat areas, path (hop) lengths
o Flat areas- increasing path length will dictate increasing the antenna towers, transmit power and line of
sight path clearance and signal strength.
- Three types of Microwave repeaters
o IF- the received RF carrier is don-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, reshaped, up-converted to an RF
frequency, and then transmitted.
o Baseband- intelligence is unmodified by the repeater.
o RF- IF carrier is converted to an RF carrier and then retransmitted.

24-7 Diversity
- “Microwave systems use line-of site transmission; therefore a direct signal path must exist between the
transmit and receive antennas. Consequently if that signal path undergoes a severe degradation, a service
interruption will occur”
- “Over time radio path losses vary with atmospheric conditions that can vary significantly causing a
corresponding reduction in the signal strength.
 - “When there is more than one transmission path or method of transmission available, the system can
select the path or method that produces the highest-quality received signal”
- Diversity suggests that there is more than one transmission path or method of transmission available between a
transmitter and receivers. The purpose of diversity is to increase the reliability of the system by increasing it
availability.

24-7-1 Frequency Diversity

- “Modulating two different RF carrier frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF
signal to a given destination. At the destination, both carriers are demodulated, and the one that yields the
better quality IF signal is selected”
- Frequency diversity arrangements provide complete and simple equipment redundance and have the additional
advantage of providing two complete transmitter-to receiver electrical paths.
- Disadvantage of Frequency Diversity – it doubles the amount of frequency spectrum and equipment necessary.

24-7-2 Space Diversity

- “The output of a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that are physically separated by an appreciable
number of wavelength. At the receiving end there may be more than one antenna providing the input signal
to the receiver.
- “Multiple antenna used means they may also separate the appreciable number of wavelengths”
- Space Diversity arrangements provide for path redundancy but not equipment redundancy.
- Space diversity is more expensive than frequency diversity because of the additional antennas and waveguide.
- Space diversity provided efficient frequency spectrum usage and a substantially greater protection than frequency
diversity.

24-7-3 Polarization Diversity

- “Electromagnetic waves of different polarizations do not necessarily experience the same transmission
impairments”
- A single RF carrier is propagated with two different electromagnetic polarizations.
- One transmit/receive antenna pair is vertically polarized and the other is horizontally polarized.
24-7-4 Receiver Diversity
- “Using more than one receiver for a single radio-frequency channel”
- With frequency diversity it is necessary to also use receiver diversity because each transmitted frequency
requires its own receiver.
24-7-5 Quad Diversity
- “Another form of hybrid diversity and provides the most reliable transmission and also most expensive”
- Quad diversity is simple it combined frequency, space, polarization and receiver diversity into one system.
- Its disadvantage is providing redundant electronic equipment, frequencies, antennas and waveguide, which are
economic burdens.
24-7-6 Hybrid Diversity
- Specialized form of diversity that consists of a standard frequency diversity path where the two transmitter/receiver
pairs at one end of the path are separated from each other and connected to different antennas that are vertically
separated as in space diversity.
24-7-8 Protection Switching Arrangements
- To avoid service interruption during periods of deep fades or equipment failures, alternate facilities are temporarily
made available in a protection switching arrangement.
- Protection arrangements provide protection for a much larger section of the communications system that generally
includes several repeaters spanning a distance of 100 miles or more.
 - Diversity system also provides 100% protection to a single radio channel whereas a protection switching
arrangements are usually shared between several radio channels.

Two Types of protections switching arrangements

Hot standby- each working radio channel has a dedicated backup or spare channel. This system offers 100% protection for
each working radio channel
Diversity Protection- a single back up channel is made available to as many as 11 working channels. This system offers
100 % protection only to the first working channel to fail. If two radio channels fail at the same time, a service interruption
will occur.
FIGURE EXPLANATION

24-8-1 Hot Standby (Figure 24-7a)- shows a single channel hot standby protection switching arrangement. At the
transmitting end, the IF goes into a head-end bridge, which splits the signal power and directs it to the working and the
spare (standby) microwave channels simultaneously. Consequently both he working and the standby channels are carrying
the same baseband information. At the receiving end the IF switch passes the If signal from the working channel to the FM
terminal equipment. The IF switch continuously monitors the received signal power on the working channel and if it fails
switches to the standby channel. When the IF signal on the working channel is restored, the IF switch resumes its normal
position.

24-8-2 Diversity (Figure 24-7b) shows a diversity protection switching arrangement. This system has two working channels
(C1 and C2) one spare channel and an auxiliary channel. The IF switch at the receive end continuously monitors the receive
signal strength of both working channels. If either one should fail. The IF switch detects a loss of carrier and sends back to
the transmitting station IF switch a VF (voice frequency) tone-encoded signal that directs it to switch the IF signal from the
failed channel onto the spare microwave channel. When the failed channel is restored, the IF switches resume their normal
positions. The auxiliary channel simply provides a transmission path between the two IF switches. Typically the auxiliary
channel is a low-capacity low- power microwave radio that is designed to be used for a maintenance channel only.

24-8-3 Reliability- the numbers of repeater stations between protection switches depends on the reliability objectives of the
system.

24-9-1 FM radio Stations- There are two types of FM microwave stations: terminal and repeaters.
Terminal Stations- are points in the system where baseband signals either originate or terminate.
- Consists of: BASEBAND WIRELEINE ENTRANCE LINK, FM-IF, RF sections.
o Wireline Entrance Link- Often in large communications networks such as AT&T.
 The building that houses the station is quite large
 The similar equipment is desirable to be physically placed at a common location, which simplifies
alarm systems providing dc power to the equipment, maintenance and other general cabling
requirements.
Repeater Stations- are points in a system where baseband signals may be reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply
repeated.
Ring-around- prevent power that leaks out the back side of a transmitter entering signal.
System Gain- the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the minimum output power to a
receiver.
Free Space Path Loss- the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum
with no absorption or reflection energy.
Branching and Feeder Loss- Depends on individual components specification and diversity arrangement.
Fade Margin- a fudge factor included in system gain equations that consider non-ideal and less predictable ckt.
Multipath losses- also known as multipath propagation detrimental to the system performance.
Terrain sensitivity- to physical stress is conditioned by the interaction of vegetation and substrate characteristics.
Reliability- the numbers of repeater stations between protection switches depends on the reliability objectives of the
system.Error free suitable transmission.
Receiver Threshold- the most important parameter considered when evaluating the performance of the microwave
communications system.
Carrier to noise- the ratio of the wideband carrier to the wideband noise power .
Noise Figure- simply noise factor stated in dB and is parameter commonly used to indicate the quality of receiver.