Definition of Terms

 Data communication is the transfer of data from one device to another via some
form of transmission medium.
 A data communications system must transmit data to the correct destination in an
accurate and timely manner.
 A network is a set of communication devices connected by media links.
 Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network. Devices may be
arranged in a mesh, star, bus, or ring topology.
 An internet is a network of networks.
 The Internet is a collection of many separate networks.
 TCP/IP is the protocol suite for the Internet.
 A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication; the key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can
work together as expected.
 Forums are special-interest groups that quickly evaluate and standardize new
technologies.
 A Request for Comment (RFC) is an idea or concept that is a precursor to an
Internet standard.
Five Components of Data Communications
 message
 sender
 receiver
 medium
 protocol
Different forms of information
 Text
 numbers
 images
 audio
 video
Data flow between two devices
 Simplex – Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive.
 Half-duplex – Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
 Full-duplex – Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
Three criteria for an effective and efficient network
 Performance – Measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. It
is evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.
 Reliability – Measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
 Security – Include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.
Types of Connection (Line configurations)
 Point-to-point connection – two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated
link.
 Multipoint connection – three or more devices share a link.
Four Basic Topologies
 Mesh – Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
 Star – Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub.
 Ring – Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
 Bus – One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Network Categories
 Local area network (LAN) – data communication system within a building, plant,
or campus, or between nearby buildings.
 Metropolitan-area network (MAN) – data communication system covering an area
the size of a town or city.
 Wide area network (WAN) – data communication system spanning states,
countries, or the whole world.
Internet service providers (ISPs)
 Local
 Regional
 National
 International
Key Elements of a Protocol
 Syntax – structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
 Semantics – the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing – refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent.
Some of the organizations involved in standards
creation
 ISO
 ITU-T
 ANSI
 IEEE
 EIA

 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to a digital signal.

 Line coding methods must eliminate the dc component and provide a means of
synchronization between the sender and the receiver.
 NRZ, RZ, Manchester, and differential Manchester encoding are the most popular
polar encoding methods.
 AMI is a popular bipolar encoding method.
 In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I the
inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit.
 NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.
 NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem.
 In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of
the bit is used for synchronization.
 The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that
of NRZ.
 In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
 Block coding provides redundancy to ensure synchronization and inherent
errordetection. Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it replaces
each m-bit group with an n-bit group.
 In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal
elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.
 Block coding can improve the performance of line coding through redundancy and
error correction.
 Block coding involves grouping the bits, substitution, and line coding.
 Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it replaces each m-bit group
with an n-bit group.
 B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.
 HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V depending on the
number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution.
 Scrambling provides synchronization without increasing the number of bits. Two
common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and HDB3.
 The number of different values allowed in a signal is the signal level. The number of
symbols that represent data is the data level.
 Bit rate is a function of the pulse rate and data level.
 The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data (digitization)
is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
 The first step in PCM is sampling. The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where
Ts is the sample interval or period. The inverse of the sampling interval is called
the sampling rate or sampling frequency and denoted by fs, where fs =lITs. There
are three sampling methods: ideal, natural, and flat-top.
 PCM involves sampling, quantizing, and line coding.
 According to the Nyquist theorem, to reproduce the original analog signal, one
necessary condition is that the sampling rate be at least twice the highest frequency
in the original signal.
 Other sampling techniques have been developed to reduce the complexity of PCM.
The simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for
each sample; DM finds the change from the previous sample.
 Digital transmission can be either parallel or serial in mode.
 While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial
transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
 In parallel transmission, a group of bits is sent simultaneously, with each bit on a
separate line.
 In serial transmission, there is only one line and the bits are sent sequentially.
Three techniques involve digital-to-digital
conversion
 Line coding
 Block coding
 Scrambling
Five categories of Line coding
 Unipolar – the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below.
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme
in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit O.
 Polar – the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. In polar NRZ encoding,
we use two levels of voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of polar NRZ:
NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
 Bipolar – there are three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero. The voltage
level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other element
alternates between positive and negative.
 Multilevel – The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required
bandwidth has resulted in the creation of many schemes. The goal is to increase the
number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of m data elements into a pattern of n
signal elements.
 Multitransition– MLT-3, a scheme that maps one bit to one signal element. The
signal rate is the same as that for NRZ-I, but with greater complexity (three levels
 and complex transition rules). It turns out that the shape of the signal in this scheme
helps to reduce the required bandwidth.
Line coding schemes

Summary of line coding schemes

Common Block coding methods

 4B/5B – A block coding technique in which 4 bits are encoded into a 5-bit code. The
four binary/five binary (4B/5B) coding scheme was designed to be used in
combination
with NRZ-I.
 8B/10B – A block coding technique in which 8 bits are encoded into a lO-bit code.
 8B/6T – A three-level line encoding scheme that encodes a block of 8 bits into a
signal
of 6 ternary pulses.
Two common scrambling techniques
 B8ZS – bipolar with 8-zero substitution (B8ZS), a scrambling technique in which a
stream of 8
zeros are replaced by a predefined pattern to improve bit synchronization.
 HDB3 – High-density bipolar 3-zero (HDB3) is commonly used outside of North
America. Four consecutive zero-level voltages are replaced with a sequence of
OOOV or BOOV. The reason for two different substitutions is to maintain the even
number of nonzero pulses after each substitution.
The three sampling methods
 Ideal – pulses from the analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method
and cannot be easily implemented.
 Natural – a high-speed switch is turned on for only the small period of time when
the sampling occurs.
 Flat-top – The most common sampling method, called sample and hold, however,
creates flat-top samples by using a circuit.
Three subclasses of serial transmission
 Asynchronous – send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1 s) at
the end of each byte.
 Synchronous – send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
 Isochronous – provides synchronized for the entire stream of bits must. In other
words, it guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
Data transmission and modes

Note: You can proceed to take the multiple choice exam regarding this
topic. Digital Transmission – Set 1 MCQs

 Data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals to be transmitted.

 Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous
values. Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
 Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite numberof
values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
 In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic
digital signals.
 A signal is periodic if it consists of a continuously repeating pattern.
 Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
 Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
 Change in a short span of time means high frequency. Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time O.
 A time-domain graph plots amplitude as a function of time.
 A frequency-domain graph plots each sine wave’s peak amplitude against its
frequency.
 A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain.
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send
a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
 The spectrum of a signal consists of the sine waves that make up the signal.
 If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with
discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives
a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
 Bit rate (number of bits per second) and bit interval (duration of 1 bit) are terms
used to describe digital signals.
 A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.
 Bit rate and bandwidth are proportional to each other.
 Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital
signal is possible only if we have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.
 Baseband transmission means sending a digital or an analog signal without
modulation
using a low-pass channel.
 Broadband transmission means modulating a digital or an analog signal using a
band-pass channel.
 If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot send a digital signal
directly to the channel; we need to convert the digital signal to an analog
signalbefore transmission.
 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate. For a noisy channel, we need to use the Shannon capacity to find
the maximum bit rate.
 The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how
many signal levels we need.
 Optical signals have very high frequencies. A high frequency means a short wave
length because the wave length is inversely proportional to the frequency (λ = v/f),
where v is the propagation speed in the media.
 Attenuation is the loss of a signal’s energy due to the resistance of the medium.
 The decibel measures the relative strength of two signals or a signal at two different
points.
 Distortion is the alteration of a signal due to the differing propagation speeds of each
of the frequencies that make up a signal.
 Noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
 The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
 The wavelength of a frequency is defined as the propagation speed divided by the
frequency.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how
many signal levels we need.
 The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
Data can be
 Analog
 Digital
Comparison of analog and digital signals

Units of period and frequency

Characteristics of a Sine Wave

 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
Can Impair a Signal
 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise
We can evaluate transmission media by
 Throughput – a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
An actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
 Propagation speed – depends on the medium and on the frequency of the signal. In
a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 x 108 m/s. It is lower in air and it is
much lower in cable.
 Propagation time – measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to
the destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the
propagation
speed.
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two
contexts.
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal
or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a
channel or link.
Formulas
 Frequency and Period

 Number of bits of each Level

 Decibel

, dB = 20 log10(V2/V1)

 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

SNR = Average Signla Power/Average Noise Power
SNRdb = 10log10SNR

 Analog transmission refers to the transmission of analog signals using a band-pass

channel. Baseband digital or analog signals are converted to a complex analog signal
with a range of frequencies suitable for the channel.
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of
an analog signal based on the information in the digital data. It is also called
modulation of a digital signal. The baseband digital signal representing the digital
data modulates the carrier to create a broadband analog signal.
 In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create
signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes.
 In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent
data. The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal
element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element changes. Both
peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
 In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes.
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a combination of ASK and PSK.
QAM uses two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature, with different
amplitude levels for each carrier.
 QAM enables a higher data transmission rate than other digital-to-analog methods.
 Baud rate and bit rate are not synonymous. Bit rate is the number of bits
transmitted per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per
second. One signal unit can represent one or more bits.
 The minimum required bandwidth for ASK and PSK is the baud rate.
 The minimum required bandwidth (BW) for FSK modulation is BW = f c1 .f c0 + N
baud , where f c1 is the frequency representing a 1 bit, f c0 is the frequency
representing a 0 bit, and N baud is the baud rate.
 A regular telephone line uses frequencies between 600 and 3000 Hz for data
communication.
 ASK modulation is especially susceptible to noise because the amplitude is more
affected by noise than the phase or frequency.
 Because it uses two carrier frequencies, FSK modulation requires more bandwidth
than ASK and PSK.
 Trellis coding is a technique that uses redundancy to provide a lower error rate.
 The 56K modems are asymmetric; they download at a rate of 56 Kbps and upload at
33.6 Kbps.
 A constellation diagram shows us the amplitude and phase of a signal element,
particularly when we are using two carriers (one in-phase and one quadrature).
 Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an
analog signal. Conversion is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a
bandpass bandwidth is available to us.
 In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with
the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the
carrier remain the same; only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the
information.
 In PM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and
phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information
signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly.
 In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and
frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the
information signal changes, the phase of the carrier changes correspondingly.
 In AM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be twice the bandwidth of
the modulating signal.
 In FM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be 10 times the bandwidth
of the modulating signal.
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
Digital-to-analog modulation can be accomplished
using the following
 Amplitude shift keying (ASK) – the amplitude of the carrier signal varies.
 Frequency shift keying (FSK) – the frequency of the carrier signal varies.
 Phase shift keying (PSK) – the phase of the carrier signal varies.
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) – both the phase and amplitude of the
carrier signal vary. It combines ASK and PSK.
PSK and QAM modulation have two advantages
over ASK:
 They are not as susceptible to noise.
 Each signal change can represent more than one bit.
Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished
in three ways:
 amplitude modulation (AM)
 frequency modulation (FM)
 phase modulation (PM)
The Total Bandwidth Required:
 The total bandwidth required for AM can be determined from the bandwidth of the
audio signal: BAM = 2B.
 The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the bandwidth of the
audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.
 The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the bandwidth and
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal: BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
AM band allocation
FM band allocation

 Bandwidth utilization is the use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals.

 Efficiency can be achieved by using multiplexing; privacy and antijammingcan be
achieved by using spreading.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
 In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. The
word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a link
that carries a transmission.
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) and wave-division multiplexing (WDM) are
techniques for analog signals, while time-division multiplexing (TDM) is for digital
signals.
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied
when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of
the signals to be transmitted.
 Telephone companies use FDM to combine voice channels into successively larger
groups for more efficient transmission.
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high bandwidth
capability of fiber-optic cable. WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine
optical signals.
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. TDM is a digital multiplexing
technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
 Framing bits allow the TDM multiplexer to synchronize properly.
 Interleaving – process of sending a unit in the multiplexing and receiving on the
demultiplexing side.
 Digital signal (DS) is a hierarchy of TDM signals.
 T lines (T-1 to T-4) are the implementation of DS services. A T-1 line consists of 24
voice channels.
 T lines are used in North America. The European standard defines a variation called
E lines.
 Inverse multiplexing splits a data stream from one high-speed line onto multiple
lower-speed lines.
 In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from different sources to fit into a
larger bandwidth.
 Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications in which stations
must be able to share the medium without interception by an eavesdropper and
without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder. To achieve these goals,
spread spectrum techniques add redundancy.
 The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different
carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the
signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates
another carrier frequency.
 The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique expands the bandwidth of
a signal by replacing each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. In other words,
each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips.
Three basic Multiplexing Techniques
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) – each signal modulates a different carrier
frequency. The modulated carriers are combined to form a new signal that is then
sent across the link. In FDM, multiplexers modulate and combine signals while
demultiplexers decompose and demodulate. Also in FDM, guard bands keep the
modulated signals from overlapping and interfering with one another.
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) – similar in concept to FDM, however,
the signals being multiplexed are light waves.
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) – digital signals from n devices are interleaved
with one another, forming a frame of data (bits, bytes, or any other data unit).
Two different schemes of TDM
 Synchronous TDM – each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it
is not sending data. The data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is
n times shorter.
 Statistical TDM – slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency.
Digital hierarchy
DS and T line rates

E line rates

 Transmission media lie below the physical layer.

 A guided medium provides a physical conduit from one device to another.
 Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are the most popular types of
guided media.
 Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. Twisting
allows each wire to have approximately the same noise environment. Twisting
 ensures that both wires are equally, but inversely, affected by external influences
such as noise.
 Twistedpair cable is used for voice and data communications.
 Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor and a shield. Coaxial cable can carry
signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Coaxial cable is used in
cable TV networks and traditional Ethernet LANs.
 Coaxial cable has the following layers (starting from the center): a metallic rod-
shaped inner conductor, an insulator covering the rod, a metallic outer conductor
(shield), an insulator covering the shield, and a plastic cover.
 The inner core of an optical fiber is surrounded by cladding. The core is denser than
the cladding, so a light beam traveling through the core is reflected at the boundary
between the core and the cladding if the incident angle is more than the critical angle.
 Fiber-optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded by
cladding, all encased in an outside jacket.
 Fiber-optic cables carry data signals in the form of light. The signal is propagated
along the inner core by reflection.
 Fiber optic transmission is becoming increasingly popular due to its noise resistance,
low attenuation, and high-bandwidth capabilities.
 Fiber-optic cable is used in backbone networks, cable TV networks, and Fast
Ethernet networks.
 Signal propagation in optical fibers can be multimode (multiple beams from a light
source) or single-mode (essentially one beam from a light source).
 In multimode step-index propagation, the core density is constant and the light
beam changes direction suddenly at the interface between the core and the cladding.
 In multimode graded-index propagation, the core density decreases with distance
from the center. This causes a curving of the light beams.
 Unguided media (free space) transport electromagnetic waves without the use of a
physical conductor.
 Wireless data are transmitted through ground propagation, sky propagation, and
line-of- sight propagation.
 In sky propagation radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere and are then
reflected back to earth. In line-of-sight propagation signals are transmitted in a
straight line from antenna to antenna.
 Wireless waves can be classified as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared waves.
Radio waves are omnidirectional; microwaves are unidirectional.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional. The radio wave band is under government
regulation.
 Microwaves are unidirectional; the propagation is line of sight. Microwaves are
used for cellular phone, satellite, and wireless LAN communications.
 Microwaves are used for cellular phone, satellite, and wireless LAN
communications.
 The parabolic dish antenna and the horn antenna are used for transmission and
reception of microwaves.
 Infrared waves are used for short-range communications such as those between a
PC and a peripheral device. It can also be used for indoor LANs.
Categories of Transmission Media
 Guided media – have physical boundaries
 Unguided media – are unbounded.
Three Major classes of Guided Media
 Twisted-pair cable
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
Propagation modes
 Single mode – uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
 Multimode – multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different
paths. It can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index
Modes

Fiber Types
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Categories of coaxial cables

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless
communication
Propagation methods
 Ground Propagation
 Sky Propagation
 Line-of-sight Propagation

Frequency Bands

Wireless Transmission
 Radio Wave – used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and
paging systems.
 Micro Wave – used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks, and wireless LANs.
 Infrared – used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight
propagation.