1.1.

Background

1.2. Literature Overview

1.2.1. Biomass
Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. Burning
biomass releases carbon emissions, but has been classed as a renewable energy source in the EU
and UN legal frameworks, because plant stocks can be replaced with new growth.[1] Also, since
the plants build themselves using carbon dioxide and release oxygen as they grow, the net balance
of the carbon dioxide after the matter has burned is zero, meaning no extra carbon dioxide is added
to the atmosphere. It has become popular among coal power stations, which switch from coal to
biomass in order to convert to renewable energy generation without wasting existing generating
plant and infrastructure. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not
used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass.[2] As an energy source,
biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting
it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different
methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.
1.2.1.1. Source Biomass
Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time when people began
burning wood to make fire.[3] Even today, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in
many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams (104.9 × 1015 g –
about 105 billion metric tons) of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land.[4]
Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today;[3] examples include forest residues (such
as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid
waste. Wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass (second-generation biofuels) as
fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from wood waste streams to be
processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping
liquor or "black liquor," a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard
industry.[citation needed] In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be
converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be
grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus,[5] switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar,
willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[6] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to
oil palm (palm oil).
Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories. First-
generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in
this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel which can be used directly in a
fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based
resources for fuel production only aggravates the food shortage problem.[7] Second-generation
biofuels, on the other hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture and
municipal waste. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and
is a low-value waste for many industries. Despite being the favored alternative, economical
production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These
issues arise mainly due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic
biomass.[8][9][10]
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output
per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yields
7.5–8 tonnes of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yields 3.5–5 tonnes per hectare in the
UK.[11] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to
produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through
a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first-generation
biofuel.
The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, and
landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is projected to be the largest non-hydroelectric
renewable resource of electricity in the US between 2000 and 2020.[12]
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels
like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane
gas, also called landfill gas or biogas. Crops such as corn and sugarcane can be fermented to
produce the transportation fuel ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced
from leftover food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[13] Several biodiesel companies
simply collect used restaurant cooking oil and convert it into biodiesel.[14] Also, biomass-to-liquids
(called "BTLs") and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[15][16]
There is research involving algae or algae-derived biomass, as this non-food resource can be
produced at rates five to ten times those of other types of land-based agriculture, such as corn and
soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane,
as well as biodiesel and hydrogen. Efforts are being made to identify which species of algae are
most suitable for energy production. Genetic engineering approaches could also be utilized to
improve microalgae as a source of biofuel.[17]
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood
residues, are common in the US. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue)
and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in
the UK.[18]
Sewage sludge can be another source of biomass. For example, the Omni Processor is a process
which uses sewage sludge as fuel in a process of sewage sludge treatment, with surplus electrical
energy being generated for export.

1.2.3. Ethylene Oxide

Ethylene oxide is a colourless flammable gas produced by direct oxidation of ethylene in the
presence of a silver catalyst. Because of its special molecular structure, ethylene oxide easily
participates in the addition reaction, allowing it to easily polymerize into larger compounds. It
therefore has a range of uses in the chemical sector.

1.2.4. Ethylene Oxide Properties and Toxicity

Ethylene oxide, called oxirane by IUPAC, is an organic compound with the formula C2H4O. It is
a cyclic ether and the simplest epoxide: a three-membered ring consisting of one oxygen atom and
two carbon atoms. Ethylene oxide is a colorless and flammable gas with a faintly sweet odor.
Because it is a strained ring, ethylene oxide easily participates in a number of addition reactions
that result in ring-opening. Ethylene oxide is isomeric with acetaldehyde and with vinyl alcohol.
Ethylene oxide is industrially produced by oxidation of ethylene in the presence of silver catalyst.
The reactivity that is responsible for many of ethylene oxide's hazards also make it useful.
Although too dangerous for direct household use and generally unfamiliar to consumers, ethylene
oxide is used for making many consumer products as well as non-consumer chemicals and
intermediates. These products include detergents, thickeners, solvents, plastics, and various
organic chemicals such as ethylene glycol, ethanolamines, simple and complex glycols, polyglycol
ethers, and other compounds. Although it is a vital raw material with diverse applications,
including the manufacture of products like polysorbate 20 and polyethylene glycol (PEG) that are
often more effective and less toxic than alternative materials, ethylene oxide itself is a very
hazardous substance. At room temperature it is a flammable, carcinogenic, mutagenic, irritating,
and anaesthetic gas.[8]

As a toxic gas that leaves no residue on items it contacts, ethylene oxide is a surface disinfectant
that is widely used in hospitals and the medical equipment industry to replace steam in the
sterilization of heat-sensitive tools and equipment, such as disposable plastic syringes.[9] It is so
extremely flammable and explosive that it is used as a main component of thermobaric
weapons;[10][11] therefore, it is commonly handled and shipped as a refrigerated liquid to control its
hazardous nature.[8]

Chemical Properties

Appearance Colorless Gas

Boiling Point 10.7°C
CAS Number 75-21-8
ChEBI 27561
Density 0.882 g/ml
EINECS Number 200-849-9
IUPAC Name Ethylene Oxide
InChI 1S/C2H4O/c1-2-3-1/h1-2H2
InChIKey IAYPIBMASNFSPL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Melting Point −111.3°C
Molar Mass 44.05 g/mol
Molecular Formula C2H4O
NFPA 704 H-3,F-4,R-3,C-NA
RTECS Number KX2450000
Related Compounds Aziridine;Ethylene Sulfide;Borirane
Solubility Miscible
Oxirane;Epoxyethane;Ethylene Oxide;Dimethylene
Oxide;Oxacyclopropane;Ethyleneoxide;Ethyleneoxy;1,2-
Synonyms Epoxyethane;Dihydrooxirene;ETO;Ethene
Oxide;Oxacyclopropane;Oxane;Oxidoethane;Oxirene, dihydro-
;Oxyfume;Oxyfume 12;Oxyfume 2002;T-Gas

Ethylene Oxide Uses

The largest outlet for ethylene oxide (EO) is ethylene glycol (EG), which accounts for three-
quarters of EO consumption globally. Other derivatives include ethoxylates, ethanolamines, glycol
ethers and polyethylene glycols.
Monoethylene glycol (MEG) is the primary glycol which is used mainly to make polyester
followed by automotive antifreeze. MEG demand is expected to grow at 6%/year globally. This is
partly driven by the strong demand for polyester fibre in Asia where it is used in the production of
textiles.
However, this has been at the expense of the developed markets of western Europe and North
America where polyester fibre demand is stagnant. Fortunately, demand for
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle resin has grown strongly in all regions of the world as it
replaces glass used in water, carbonated drinks and food containers. Demand growth for PET bottle
resin has now slowed because of the manufacture of thinner bottles and increased recycling.
The second largest market for MEG is antifreeze formulations. This market is in a slight decline
due to antifreeze recycling, long-life coolants and substitution by propylene-glycol based
antifreeze.
In the production of MEG, diethylene glycol (DEG) and triethylene glycol (TEG) are also
produced. DEG is used in the manufacture of polyurethanes, where it is employed as a component
in polyester polyols, and in unsaturated polyesters. TEG’s main use is in natural gas dehydration
with other applications in solvents, polyurethanes and plasticisers.
The percentage of domestic ethylene oxide consumed in ethylene glycols varies widely amongst
regions. According to US-based consultant SRI Consulting, this varies widely among regions –
Western Europe (44%), Japan (63%), North America (65%), China (68%), other Asia (94%), and
Africa/Middle East (99%).
The second largest outlet for EO, at 11% of total consumption, is in surface active agents, primarily
non-ionic alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs) and detergent alcohol ethoxylates (AEs). APEs are used
as non-ionic surfactants or as intermediates for the production of anionic alcohol ether
sulphates/phosphates for home laundry and dishwashing formulations.
AEs are biodegradable products used in hard surface cleaning products. They are expected to see
good demand growth, partly due to declining demand for nonyl-phenol ethoxylates, which are
suffering from environmental and safety concerns.
A general trend from end-product manufacturers is to reformulate or blend surfactants to optimise
performance and price of the finished products. This trend has tended to reduce the volume of
surfactants used in end-products.
Global ethyoxylation capacity is reported to be tight. However, the large investment required,
based on a hazardous process using EO, is a barrier for some manufacturers.
As a percentage of domestic EO consumption, consumption by surface active agents also varies
widely among regions – North America (11%), western Europe (26%), Japan (22%) and China
(26%), according to SRI Consulting.
Other EO derivatives include glycol ethers (used in solvents and fuels), ethanolamines (used in
surfactants, personal care products, etc), polyols for polyurethane systems, polyethylene glycols
(used in toothpaste, medicines, etc) and polyalkylene glycols (used in antifoam agents, hydraulic
lubricants, etc).
Overall, EO demand is expected to grow at around 5%/year globally during 2009-2014, forecasts
SRI Consulting. Good growth is expected in its two largest end uses, ethylene glycol and surface-
active agents. Growth will be the slowest for glycol ethers while ethanolamines demand growth is
expected to be strong.
Demand growth in the US is expected to be much lower than the global average at 2.5%/year
through to 2010. According to ICB, US demand will grow to 4.24m tonnes in 2010.
Imports and exports of EO are negligible as it is not widely traded due to its explosive nature.
However, as considerable new EG capacity comes on stream in China and the Middle East, the
implication is that EG imports into the US will increase, reducing domestic demand for EO.

Analysis

Raw Material Analysis

Raw Material Selection
Raw Materials Availability and Potential
Location Analysis
Plant location is very important in the design of a plant. The consideration of choosing plant
location is, the location that can affect the unit cost of production and distribution process. The
location could make the cost of delivering product or delivering raw material in a low cost, while
the price and volume of sales of products will be able to generate maximum profits for the
company. Plant site selection is one of the main factors that determine the success and survival of
a plant. Determining the location of the plant must considering one of the two main principles in
determining the location of the plant, which is close to the raw material (raw material oriented),
and / or close to the market (market oriented) or both. In addition, the availability of utilities in the
area also became an important aspect to consider.
A. Primary Factor

Distance from Source Material

Plant location should be near from the source of Raw Material. This contributes to make effective
and efficient process, especially in terms of time and operating costs. When the source of raw
materials is near the plant, it will facilitate the delivery because it takes a short time and the cost
to transport raw materials also will be cheaper due to short distance. Based on the availability of
raw materials, Kalimantan can be considered, because it is one of Indonesia's largest palm oil
producer that generated oil palm empty fruit bunch as a solid waste of CPO, and also a source of
our plant, that is oil palm empty fruit bunch ash. There are many CPO manufactures in around
Kalimantan, such as PTPN XIII, PT Agronusa Investama, PT Kayung Agro Lestari, PT Agrolestari
Mandiri and there are about 50 CPO plant in around West Kalimantan. For the efficiency, we
decided to only collect the raw material (oil palm empty fruit bunch ash), only from one CPO
plant. But we also provide a backup (another CPO plant), in case, the raw material in the main
source is insufficient. We will build our plant in West Kalimantan.
Distance from Market

Knowing the target market is one of important aspect in determining the location of the plant. Pure
potassium chloride plant is categorized as new in Indonesia because potassium chloride production
in Indonesia mostly is in fertilizer form. Response and feedback are important for a new plant. We
should know the target market of potassium chloride and then choosing a location close to the
marketing target, so the obstacle at the time of release can be minimized or reduced. Because we
built our plant in Sambas, West Kalimantan, this makes our plant near from the distribution market.
Potassium chloride is a highly versatile chemical with several industrial uses. Literature shows
potential uses as water softeners, food products, soaps, de-icers, batteries, drilling muds, and
pharmaceuticals.
Our market in Indonesia would be located around Java, Sumatera, and also Kalimantan which
make the distribution cost is lower. We also try to delivered and widening our target to become
international market. We try to export our product to mining industry in Singapore, Malaysia, and
Brunei Darussalam. Due these consideration, we choose to build our plant in Sambas, West
Kalimantan.
Transportation

Transportation facilities will influence the process of delivering the products (potassium chloride)
and also transport of raw materials (oil palm empty fruit bunch) from the source. Transportation
facilities, either by land, sea, or air will be used to help us in meeting the needs of industries, both
domestic and internationally. In order to meet the needs, we prefer the location that have
infrastructures such as roads and harbor. Therefore, we chose the plant location in Sambas which
near to the harbor (for shipping) and not so far from the town.
In this area (Sambas) we can get the adequate land transportation and sea transportation (near
harbor). The consideration to build plant area near the harbor is to make the cost of export in a low
price. Distribution of potassium chloride for industries in Java will be delivered by land
transportation. But, delivering potassium chloride to Java made cost of distribution a little bit
expensive.
Availability of Utilities

The plant can doing the production effectively if the plant is supported with an adequate utilities,
such as water, electricity, and other supporting utilities. The availability of utilities in the plant
location is one of the important factors in considering the plant site selection. The main utilities
that need to exist is power generation, water supply, and infrastructure for communication. The
plant location is must have at least the utility that mentioned above, so the process production can
run optimally. Because we will build the plant next to the CPO plant which has been established
for years, so the matter of utilities not become problem anymore.
B. Secondary Factor

Soil and Climate

Soil and climate conditions is one of the main factors in choosing a plant location. We need to
choose the area, which is not vulnerable to the danger like landslides, earthquakes, and floods, as
a location for our plant. Therefore, choose a location next to the CPO plant is right choise, because
its geographical conditions already known. As for the climate conditions, the climate in Sambas
has no difference with the climate in Indonesia in general, so the climate condition don’t have a
great impact on process production.
C. Plant Area Facility

After considering the factors of selecting location for potassium chloride plant, we decide to built
our plant beside PT Agronusa Investama (part of Wilmar Group) in Sambas, West Kalimantan. PT
Agronusa Investama is a large Crude Palm Oil (CPO) producer, with a production capacity reached
60 tons/day. So, the CPO

Market Analysis
Supply and Demand Analysis
Production Capacity
http://www.worldofchemicals.com/chemicals/chemical-properties/ethylene-oxide.html