Undrained shear strength in stability calculation

of embankments and foundations on soft clays

Swedish Geotechtzical Ztzstitute, S-581 01 Litzkopit~g,Swedetz

Received January 4, 1980
Accepted July 23, 1980
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Undrained shear strength of soft clays is usually measured by field vane tests or laboratory
tests. The relevance of the test results in stability calculations of embankments and foundations
is discussed. Empirical relations for undrained shear strengths obtained from Scandinavian
clays are compared with reported failures.

La resistance au cisaillement non drain6 des argiles molles est gCneralement mesurke par
essais au scissomktre de chantier ou par essais de laboratoire. On discute la pertinence des
resultats d'essais aux calculs de la stabilitk de remblais et de fondations. Les relations empiriques
?i la resistance au cisaillement non drain6 applicables pour les argiles scandinaves sont com-
parks ?i des cas types de ruptures.
[Traduit par la revue]
Can. Geotech. J., 17,591-602 (1980)

Introduction the recommended correction factors became equal

Although there is a growing understanding among for both tests (Fig.
For personal use only.

civil engineers that shear strength in soils is governed In Sweden the Swedish GeOtechnical Institute(SGI)
by effective stresses, most stability calculations are correction is made for undrained shear
still carried out as total stress analyses. This is likely strength determined by a vane test Or 'One
to remain the case for a long time. An effective stress regard1ess of the type loading (Statens Gee-
path analysis requires many more measurements, tekniska Institut 1970). This correction can be con-
such as pore pressure measurements and horizontal sidered a minimum correction.
stress measurements. Reliable field equipment for In many cases it has turned out that this reduction
stress measurements is not yet available. is too small. In most cases, however, the combination
The bulk of experience from engineering practice of a conservative choice of shear strength (there is
also comes from total stress analysis. always some scatter in test results), the SGI correc-
tion, and normal safety factors gives satisfactory
results. A further general reduction would lead to
Of Undrained Shear Strength from
unnecessary foundation costs. Instead special cor-
Field Vane Tests rection factors have been introduced for some types
The reliability of measured undrained shear of soils and varying safety factors are used for
strength and of stability calculations has been a different types of loading.
matter of concern in Sweden since the introduction of As the soil conditions vary considerably in different
the fall cone test and the circular slip surface method parts of Sweden, local experience plays a great part in
at the beginning of the century (Statens Jarnvagars the choice of correction factors.
Geotekniska Kommission 1922; Fellenius 1926). As In 1972 and 1973 Bjerrum proposed new general
experience was gathered it became evident that the
measured shear strength had to be reduced for high- 1.0 o d 50 loo 150 200 w, %
plastic and organic soils (Skaven-Haug 1931; Hultin
1937; Caldenius 1938; Jakobson 1946). The intro- , [r

duction of better samplers necessitated further re- L 0.8-

ductions (Svenska Geotekniska Foreningen 1962). i
z
When the field vane test was introduced it was o
first believed that no corrections had to be made
(Cadling and Odenstad 1950). However, it soon o"
I
turned out that reductions similar to those for the fall 0.4 j
test had be Since HansbO re- FIG. I . SGI-recommended correction factors for undrained
calibrated the fall cone test against the field vane test shear strength determined by field vane test or fall cone test.
0008-3674/80/040591-l2$01.OO/O
@ 1980 National Research Council of Canada/Conseil national de recherches du Canada
 592 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
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For personal use only.

FIG.2. (a) Typical values of (su/po) vane and p,/po observed in normally consolidated late glacial and postglacial
clays. (b) Principle of analysis of the stability of embankments and bearing capacity of footings on soft clay based on
corrected vane shear strength. (After Bjerrum 1973.) Notes: s, = undrained shear strength; pa = effective overburden
pressure; p, = preconsolidated pressure.

typical relations between the plasticity index and the

overconsolidation ratio due to "age." These typical
relations were based on Norwegian Geotechnical
Institute (NGI) experience from Norwegian low-
plastic clays and Bangkok clays (Fig. 2).
Bjerrum's correction factors were based on an
average of undrained shear strengths from previous
failures and soon cases were reported where these
factors had been in serious error. Other correction
factors were suggested by Pilot (1972) and Dascal
and Tournier (1975). In 1974 Ladd and Foott pro-
posed a method of calibrating the field vane test
against laboratory tests in each deposit and using the
I p%
field vane test as an index test.
FIG. 3. The combination of Bjerrum's diagrams in Fig. 2.
(After Mesri 1975.) Normalized Undrained Shear Strength
In 1975 Mesri pointed out that if Bjerrum's (1972)
correction factors for the undrained shear strength curves on the typical undrained shear strength from
determined by the field vane test. They were based field vane tests, the typical overconsolidation ratio,
on a comprehensive study of reported failures. He and reduction factors were combined, it appeared
also presented typical relations between the plasticity that the undrained shear strength for clays could be
index and the ratio of undrained shear strength from expressed as ~ f , = 0.220,' regardless of plasticity
field vane tests to effective overburden pressure and index (Fig. 3).
 LARSSON

xDATA FROM BJERRUM(195L)

eDATA FROM HANSBO(1957)
o DATA FROM KARLSSON 8 Vl BERG ( 1967)
o BANGKOK CLAY (BJERRUM 1973)
KALIX SVARTMOCKA ( HOLTZ & H O L M 1973)
o VALEN ORG. CLAY 0
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For personal use only.

FIG.4. Undrained shear strength determined by field vane tests over preconsolidation pressure versus liquid limit.

This approach was used by Trak et al. (1979), in
analysing a number of embankment failures in
Canada with good results.
The relation zf, = 0.22uP1,however, is based on
Bjerrum's (1972) typical values, which in themselves
are based on a limited number of clays. A number of
empirical relations for rVane/ u,' versus plasticity
have been proposed, e.g., Skempton (1954) and
Hansbo (1957).
For Scandinavian clays Hansbo (1957) proposed
the relation zvane = u,'(0,45w~) on the basis of his
own measurements and Norwegian measurements
(reported by Bjerrum 1954). In 1967 Karlsson and
Viberg showed that this was no unique relation and
that the scatter was considerable. Hansbo's relation
still seems to be a good average though, and Swedish
engineers often use it as a supplement to oedometer
tests (Fig. 4).
To use the liquid limit as a parameter in empirical
relations is Swedish practice, but internationally the
plasticity index is more often used. If the data in
Fig. 4 are replotted against the plasticity index, as in
Fig. 5, we find that for Swedish clays the typical
curve proposed by Bjerrum (1973) is not typical at
all. Instead it corresponds to a lower limit. Skemp-
ton's (1954) relation fits the curve better, but the
average relation equivalent to Hansbo's relation
would be rvane/ o,' = 0.08 + 0.551, (Fig. 5).
It is obvious that Bjerrum's (1973) curve is in-
fluenced by the Bangkok clay and the low-plastic
Norwegian clays.
In Figs. 4 and 5 almost all data come from Scandi-
navian clays. These clays are mainly Quaternary
(glacial and postglacial) sedimentary clays. In most
places these clays are normally or only slightly over-
consolidated, with the exception of the upper part of
the clay (dry crust). There are both marine and
lacustrine clays. The dominating clay mineral is
illite. The organic content varies, but generally clays
with a liquid limit above 100% have a fairly high
content of organic matter. If more clays from other
parts of the world had been incorporated the scatter
would certainly have been greater and the average
relation would probably have been different. It is
quite clear that although it is possible to find an
empirical relation for zvane/ up) versus plasticity for
a certain region, no unique relation exists for a larger
region and certainly not for the whole world.
Nor is the relation between the overconsolidation
ratio due to age and the plasticity index proposed by
Bjerrum supported by observations in Swedish clays.
The basis for the relation zfu = 0.220,' indepen-
dent of plasticity must thus be seriously questioned.
The calculation of the stability of embankments on
soft ground on the basis of undrained shear strength
normalized against the preconsolidation pressure
with the stress history and normalized soils engineer-
ing parameters (SHANSEP) method was proposed
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980

x DATA FROM BJERRUM (1954)

DATA FROM HANSBO 0957)
o DATA FROM KARLSSON 8 VI BERG 4 9 6 3
o BANGKOK CLAY ( BJERRUM 1973)
KAI-IX SVARTMOCKA (HOLTZ 8 HOLM 19731
0 VALEN ORG. CLAY
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For personal use only.

FIG. 5. Undrained shear strength determined by field vane tests over preconsolidation pressure versus plasticity index.

tropically consolidated undrained compression tri-

axial tests (CKoUTC), direct simple shear tests
(CKoUDSS), and extension triaxial tests (CKoUTE)
is used. As the undrained shear strength obtained in
direct simple shear tests is close to and slightly below
the average undrained shear strength, the procedure
can be simplified by using only the results from this
T,m
C
test.' The same procedure has for many years been
used by the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute in the
Extension Direct 4I
test simple Compression
active, direct shear, passive (ADP) analysis, although
shear test t o st the undrained shear strength has not been normalized
(Passive t e s t ) (Active test) against the preconsolidation pressure (Fig. 6).
A number of Scandinavian clays have been tested
FIG.6. Relevance of laboratory shear tests to shear strength in anisotropically consolidated undrained tests at a
in the field.

by Ladd and was further 'A scientific evaluation of this test in terms of stress paths
by Ladd is very doubtful, but the results in terms of undrained shear
and Foott (1974). In these calculations the average of strength have proven to be satisfactory in stability calculations
the undrained shear strengths obtained in aniso- (Ladd and ~ o o t 1974;
t Graham 1979).
 LARSSON

TABLE1. Normalized undrained shear strength from anisotropically consolidated undrained tests on some
inorganic Scandinavian clays

Triaxial tests CAU T,,/G,'

and T ~ ~ / respectively
G~',
Simple shear tests
Place WL I, Compression Extension CAU .rl,/o,' Reference
- - -

Studenterlunden Berre and Bjerrurn (1973)

Ellingsrud Aas (1976a,b)
Drarnmen plastic Berre and Bjerrum (1973)
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Drarnrnen lean Berre and Bjerrum (1973)

Sundland Berre and Bjerrum (1973)
Vaterland Berre and Bjerrum (1973)
Manglerud Berre (1972)
Mastemyr Berre (1972)
Olav Kyrres P lass Karlsrud and Myrvoll
(1976)
Backebol Unpublished
Lilla Mellosa Larsson (1977)
Favren Larsson (1977)
Kalleback Unpublished

standard testing rate, which in Scandinavia is O.6Y0/ Comparison of Normalized Undrained Shear
h (Table 1; Fig. 7). The normalized undrained shear Strength and Reported Failures
strengths show for direct shear tests and extension To check the normalized undrained strength par-
For personal use only.

tests a clear variation with plasticity. A simple
hypothesis for this variation in Scandinavian clays
was presented by the author in 1977 (Larsson 1977).
Two relations between undrained shear strengths and
preconsolidation pressure were presented: first the
relation obtained in tests carried out at a standard
testing rate, and secondly the relation obtained in
long-term undrained creep tests and a very slow un-
drained test. The latter relation can be considered a
lower limit (Fig. 8).
For comparison the average strength values ob-
tained for the organic Valen clay (P-E. Bengtsson,
personal communication, 1979) and Bangkok clay
(Berre and Bjerrum 1973) are inserted in Fig. 8. From
the literature and the author's investigations it is
evident that the behaviour of organic clays and
inorganic clays is different.
The normalized undrained active shear strength of
inorganic Scandinavian clays at a standard testing
rate is fairly constant zaCtiVe= 0.330,'. When the
clay is organic the active shear strength often in-
creases to ractiVe z 0.50,'. The undrained shear
strength anisotropy (.iaCtiVe/~,a,si.e)in inorganic
clays is about 3 for very low-plastic clays and de-
creases with increasing plasticity to almost 1 in high-
plastic clays. When the clay is organic the undrained
shear strength anisotropy is usually high, e.g., 2.5 for
Valen clay and 1.75 for Bangkok clay. There are no
empirical correlations for normalized undrained
shear strength in organic Scandinavian clays at
present.
ameters a study of reported failures of embankments,
foundations, and large-scale loading tests similar to
Bjerrum's (1973) has been made. This study incor-
porates only cases where the preconsolidation pres-
sures are established. No recalculation has been
made. The reporters' original calculations have been
used and the preconsolidation pressure has been
inserted. In those cases where the reporters have
proposed alternative methods for the calculation of
the bearing capacity of foundations the standard pro-
cedure has been preferred. For embankments the
circular slip surface method has been preferred, as it
is in accordance with Swedish practice. A few slope
failures where the slides took place along long and
almost horizontal slip surfaces have been incor-
porated for comparison (Table 2; Fig. 9).
From the data presented in Fig. 9 it can be seen
that there is a definite trend of increasing normalized
undrained shear strength with increasing plasticity,
except for the organic clays for which the trend is
uncertain. The relation rr, = 0.220,' corresponds
to an average for all the clays, but will overestimate
the undrained shear strength in very low-plastic
clays and underestimate it in high-plastic clays.
The average relation between undrained shear
strength and plasticity obtained from the field cases
corresponds well to the empirical normalized average
undrained shear strength for Scandinavian clays from
laboratory tests at a standard testing rate. The lower
limit of field data corresponds well to the empirical
lower limit. This does not mean that the empirical
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
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ACTIVE [COMPRESSION)
DIRECT SHEAR
PASSIVE (EXTENSION]
PASSIVE (EXTENSION1
For personal use only.

x 'fu ACTIVE (COMPRESSION)

'fu DIRECT SHEAR
0 'fu PASSIVE (EXTENSION1

a 'CR PASSIVE (EXTENSIONI

FIG.7. Normalized undrained shear strength from some Scandinavian inorganic clays. r,, represents the shear stress
mobilized at a deformation corresponding to the failure deformation in the compression test, which is why the peak
undrained shear strength in extension is somewhat higher.
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For personal use only.

LARSSON
 598 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980

TABLE2. Data from reported failures.

Place 'DL ID / Type of loading Reference

Scrapsgate Embankment Golder and Palmer (1955)
Fargo Grain elevator Nordlund and Deere (1970)
Vankleek Hill Silo Bozozuk (1972)
Fredrikstad Oil tank Bjerrum and overland (1957)
Transcona Grain elevator Peck and Bryant (1953)
New Liskeard Embankment Lo and Stermac (1965)
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Quebec Oil tank Brown and Paterson (1964)

Bekkelaget Quick clay slide Eide (1955)
Bangkok Embankment Eide and Holmberg (1972)
Portsmouth, NH Embankment Ladd (1972)
Kimola Long slope Kankare (1968)
SkA Edeby Load tests Pusch (1968)
Kalix Embankment Holtz and Holm (1973)
Valen Load tests Andersson and Hammar (1976)
UmeA Load tests Schwab (1976)
Portland, ME Embankment Ladd (1969)
Ellingsrud Embankment Aas (1976)
Trogstad Long slope Gregersen (1976)
Furre Quick clay slide Bjerrum et al. (1960)
Brightlingsea Full-scale failure Skempton (1948)
Hunspill Full-scale failure Skempton (1948)
Fens Full-scale failure Skempton (1948)
Gosport Full-scale failure Skempton (1948)
For personal use only.

Newport Full-scale failure Skempton (1948)

Mastenyr Test fill Clausen (1970)
MIT test embankment Embankment Silva Tulla et al. (1976)
Rang-du-Fleuve Embankment Trak et at. (1979)
Rupert-7 Embankment Dascal and Tournier (1975)
Matagami Embankment Dascal et al. (1972)
St-Alban Embankment LaRochelle et at. (1974)
Lanester Embankment Pilot (1972)
Cubzac Embankment Blondeau et al. (1977)
Littlebrook Embankment Marsland and Powell (1977)
St-Hilaire Embankment Trak et al. (1979)
Coteau Landing V-5 Embankment Trak et al. (1979)
Coteau Landing V-6 Embankment Trak er al. (1979)
*Only one oedometer test.

undrained shear strengths for Scandinavian inorganic
clays are directly applicable elsewhere, but a certain
similarity can be expected for many clays.
For organic clays the average undrained shear
strength measured in the laboratory seems to rep-
resent well the undrained shear strength in the field.
The two very low values of undrained shear
strength for long slopes are obtained from ultra-
sensitive Norwegian quick clays (St > 200). They
show that even moderate shear stresses in a clay
on the verge of collapsing from its own weight due to
leaching or similar geochemical processes may lead
to failure (e.g., Bekkelaget, Eide 1955). Apart from
these cases sensitivity does not seem to influence the
normalized undrained shear strength.
The results of the study suggest that in most cases
the undrained shear strength obtained in aniso-
tropically consolidated undrained tests at a standard
testing rate in the laboratory is applicable, provided
that the mode of shear is relevant to the field case.
The lower limit strength should correspond to truly
undrained cases where no drainage can take place2.
This criterion is only fulfilled when the loaded area
is large, the permeability is low, and the soil is very
homogeneous. For small foundations and where silt
layers are frequent in the clay or vertical drains have
been installed under the embankment the time cor-
rection will be superfluous. The rate of application
should also have some effect.
Check of Correction Factors for Undrained
Shear Strength from Field Vane Tests
To check the correction factors for field vane tests
?Sallfors (1975) and Leroueil et al. (19780,b) have shown
that until the preconsolidation pressure is reached there will
always be partial drainage, but the important question is
whether consolidation will increase the effective stress above
the preconsolidation pressure or not.
 LARSSON

EMBANKMENTS
0 FOUNDATIONS
LOADING TESTS
DATA FROM SKEMPTON ( 1948 )
+ LONG SLClPES

X
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-STANDARD RATE

LOWER LI M I T

EMBANKMENTS
For personal use only.

0 FOLlNDATl ONS
LOAD1NG TESTS
DATA FROM SKEMPTON(ISM)
+ LONG SLOPES

-- ---
-STANDARD RATE

-.
-0-
cl LOWER LIMIT
/-C

FIG.9. Normalized undrained shear strength from reported failures. The solid lines represent empirical average
normalized shear strength for inorganic Scandinavian clays. The dotted lines are based on average undrained shear
strengths obtained in laboratory tests on Valen clay and Bangkok clay (see Fig. 8).

the empirical relations .cru = 0,'(0.45~1,) and rfu=
a,'(0.08 + 0.551,) have been compared with the
average undrained shear strengths and the lower
limit undrained shear strength from the field cases.
The correction factors obtained in this way are com-
pared with Bjerrum's (1973) correction and the SGI
correction (Fig. 10).
The correction factors obtained from the compari-
son between Hansbo's (1957) relation and the
average undrained shear strength are very close to
Bjerrum's (1973), which is not surprising as they are
both obtained from averages. On the other hand, the
 600 CAN. GEOTECH. 3. VOL. 17, 1980
1.2 1 Conclusions
I I
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For personal use only.
FIG. 10. Correction factors for undrained shear strength
determined by field vane tests. For comparison only, not to be
used.
correction factors obtained from comparisons with
the lower limit shear strengths are far smaller than
Bjerrum's.
None of these corrections can be used generally.
The criterion for the correction factors calculated
by Hansbo's (1957) relation is that this relation is
valid for the undrained shear strength obtained by
field vane tests in the particular clay. Typical scatter
for Swedish clays is f20% of the empirical undrained
shear strength from z,,,, = 0,'0.45~1,, but can be
+ 50% or more.
For organic clays no empirical relation for rr,/ a,'
has been found so far, but it can be noted that for an
organic clay (WL = 65%, I, = 34%) Ladd and Foott
(1974) have reported a correction factor of 0.485
for the undrained shear strength obtained by the
field vane test, and for the organic Valen clay (WL=
120%, 1, = 80%) the correction factor is 0.39.
On the other hand, the use of general reduction
factors for the field vane test will often underestimate
the shear strength and increase the foundation cost.
The field vane test should be used as an index test.
Used with caution and local experience it can be a
very useful tool. Its usefulness increases if it is
calibrated against laboratory tests. In Scandinavian
soft inorganic clays a calibration against the pre-
consolidation pressure may be sufficient, whereas in
other clays it should at least be calibrated against the
direct simple shear test.
For calculation of embankment stability on soft
clay the average of the shear strengths obtained in
anisotropically consolidated undrained compression,
direct shear, and extension tests will give the most
reliable results.
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 LARSSON
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