Digestive system

The table shows the main structures and associated organs of the human alimentary canal (or
gut), and their functions.

Structure Function
Where food enters the alimentary
Mouth canal and digestion begins
Salivary glands Produce saliva containing amylase
Muscular tube which moves
Oesophagus ingested food to the stomach
Muscular organ where digestion
Stomach continues
Pancreas Produces digestive enzymes
Liver Produces bile
Stores bile before releasing it into
Gall bladder the duodenum
Small intestine - Where food is mixed with
duodenum digestive enzymes and bile
Small intestine - Where digested food is absorbed
ileum into the blood and lymph
Large intestine -
colon Where water is reabsorbed
Large intestine -
rectum Where faeces are stored
Large intestine - Where faeces leave the alimentary
anus canal
 Digestive enzymes
Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water-soluble
molecules using mechanical and chemical processes. Mechanical digestion includes:
 chewing in the mouth
 churning in the stomach

Chemical digestion involves enzymes. These are proteins that function as biological catalysts.

Different enzymes
Enzymes can break down nutrients into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed. For
example, amylase causes the breakdown ofstarch into simple sugars.
 Where enzymes are produced

End- Where
Enzyme Substrate
products produced

Salivary Salivary
amylase Starch Maltose glands

Stomach,
Protease Protein Amino acids pancreas

Lipids (fats Fatty acids

Lipase and oils) and glycerol Pancreas

Pancreatic
amylase Starch Maltose Pancreas

Small
Maltase Maltose Glucose intestine

Where digestion happens

 Proteases catalyse the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine
 Lipases catalyse the breakdown of fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol in the small intestine
 Amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch into maltose in the mouth and small intestine
 Maltase catalyses the breakdown of maltose into glucose in the small intestine
 Other substances in digestion
Different enzymes work best at different pH values. The pH varies in the gut.

The mouth
Saliva is slightly alkaline. Enzymes in saliva convert starch into glucose:
 amylase catalyses: starch → maltose
 maltase catalyses: maltose → glucose

The digestion of starch to glucose needs two enzymes

In the stomach
The stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It kills many harmfulmicroorganisms that might
have been swallowed along with the food. The enzymes in the stomach work best
in acidic conditions – at a low pH.

Bile
After it has been in the stomach, food travels to the small intestine. The enzymes in the small
intestine work best in alkaline conditions - but the food is acidic after being in the
stomach. Bile is a substance produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
 Bile and enzyme production in the liver and pancreas
Bile is secreted into the small intestine where it has two effects:
 it neutralises the acid - providing the alkaline conditions needed in the small intestine
 it emulsifies fats - providing a larger surface area over which the lipase enzymes can work

Absorption
Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into
the blood or lymph.
The small intestine is the region where digested food is absorbed. Most absorption happens in
the ileum. This is the longest part of the small intestine and is between 2-4 metres long. The
small intestine has a large internal surface area for absorption to happen quickly and efficiently.

The villi
The villi (one is called a villus) are tiny, finger-shaped structures that increase the surface area.
They have several important features:
 wall just one cell thick - ensures that there is only a short distance for absorption to happen by diffusion and active
transport
 network of blood capillaries - transports glucose and amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood
 internal structure called a lacteal - transports fatty acids and glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph
The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to the liver.
 Assimilation and egestion
Digested and undigested foods have different outcomes once they have passed through the
alimentary canal (gut).

Assimilation
Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they
are used. For example:
 glucose is used in respiration to provide energy
 amino acids are used to build new proteins

The liver is also where toxins, such as alcohol, are broken down
The liver is important in assimilation. For example, it converts glucose into glycogen (a complex
carbohydrate used for storage) and amino acids into proteins.
The liver is involved in the process ofdeamination. This is the removal of the nitrogen-
containing part of amino acids, to form urea, followed by the release of energy from the
remainder of the amino acid.

Egestion
The small intestine absorbs most of the water in the contents of the gut. By the time the contents
reach the end of the small intestine, most of the digested food has also been absorbed.
The remaining material consists of:
 water
 bacteria (living and dead)
 cells from the lining of the gut
 indigestible substances - such as cellulose from plant cell walls
The colon is the first part of the large intestine. It absorbs most of the remaining water. This
leaves semi-solid waste material calledfaeces. The faeces are stored in the rectum, the last part
of the large intestine. Egestion happens when these faeces pass out of the body through the anus.