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JENNIE-KEITH Ross
Swarlhinore College
and
MARC HOWARD Ross
Bryn Mawr College
126
The public agenda consists of all issues which Expansion is far from automatic. Opponents
(1) are the subject of widespread attention or at will actively attempt to contain expansion, in par-
least awareness; (2) require action, in the view of a ticular if the status quo is to their advantage. Sec-
sizeable proportion of the public; and (3) are the ond, those initially committed to a cause may be-
appropriate concern of some governmental unit, come disillusioned as they perceive the conflict
in the perception of community members. An being redefined away from "their" interests.
issue requires the recognition of only a major por- Finally, the proponents of an issue in many politi-
tion of the polity, not of all its members. Opera- cal systems face overwhelming odds of apathy and
tional referents of terms such as "wide-spread," inertia among those they seek to involve."
"sizeable," and "major portion," will vary not Agenda building, then, is a problem particularly
only cross-culturally; but also from community to appropriate for comparative analysis. It occurs in
community.6 Every local community will have a every political system from the smallest to the
public agenda. If this community is subsumed in a largest, from the simplest to the most complex,
wider political system there will be some overlap while at the same time there are important varia-
of items from the public agendas of communities tions in its form and structure. Despite the great
at higher levels. variation possible in the history of any particular
Issues typically arise in small groups. These issue, we suggest four major stages which shape
groups are always concerned with expanding all issue careers: initiation, specification, expan-
awareness of the issue, either because they want to sion, and entrance. Three models of agenda build-
promote expansion or because they want to pre- ing are also proposed to describe variation in
vent it.7 Such characteristics as social status, eco- origination of issues inside or outside govern-
nomic mobility, length of residence in a com- ment, and in the degree and direction of efforts to
munity and degree of residential separation are expand issues beyond the initiating groups. In the
latent resources which, given the right conditions, final section, we present two kinds of propositions:
can be used to promote group interest, unity and (1) cross-cultural propositions about agenda build-
action.8 Given different resource bases, groups ing which identify differences in the process across
work to get an issue on the agenda in different polities, and (2) intrasocietal propositions which
ways. identify effects on agenda building of different
The possibility of issue redefinition is an addi- social, structural, and political positions within the
tional source of power inherent in the process of same society.
issue expansion. Redefinition involves the substi-
Models of Agenda Building
tution of one issue for another, usually a more
specific issue being redefined into a more general Analytically we identify three different models
one.9 An extended expansion process is likely to of agenda building depending on variation in the
include several redefinitions of the issues, as in- four major characteristics of issue careers: initia-
creasingly diverse groups become involved.'0 tion, specification, expansion, and entrance. 12 The
first, the outside initiative model, accounts for the
6 See Matthew A. Crenson, The Un-Politics of Air Pollu-
process through which issues arise in nongovern-
tion (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), pp. 88-91; mental groups and are then expanded sufficiently
and Cecile Trop and Leslie L. Roos, Jr., "Public Opinion
and the Environment," The Politics of Ecosuicide ed. to reach, first, the public agenda and, finally, the
Leslie L. Roos, Jr., (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win- formal agenda. The second, the mobilization
ston, 1971), pp. 53-63. model, considers issues which are initiated inside
' E. E. Schattschneider, The Semi-Sovereign People
government and consequently achieve formal
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), chapter 1.
8 For emphasis on a wide variety of characteristics, see: agenda status almost automatically. Successful
Robert L. Crain et al., The Politics of Community Con- implementation of these issues often requires,
flict: The Fluoridation Dispute (Indianapolis: Bobbs- however, that they be placed on a public agenda as
Merrill, 1969); Joseph Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status
Politics and the American Temperance Movement (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1963); Norman H. Nie, American Population Policy (Lexington, Ma: Heath, 1973);
G. Bingham Powell, Jr. and Kenneth Prewitt "Social Lewis A. Coser, The Functions of Social Conflict (Glencoe,
Structure and Political Participation: Developmental Ill.: Free Press, 1956); and Paul Peterson, "British Interest
Relationships, Part I," American Political Science Review, Group Theory Reexamined," Comparative Politics, 4
63 (June, 1969), 361-378; "Part II," 63 (September, 1969), (April, 1971), 381-402.
808-832; and Sidney Verba, Norman H. Nie and Jae-on ' Crain, The Politics of Community Conflict, pp. 226-
Kim, "The Modes of Democratic Participation: A Cross- 227.
National Comparison," Sage Professional Papers in 12 Nelson Polsby has also investigated the sources of
Comparative Politics, 2, No. 01-013 (Beverley Hills, Calif., successful issue initiation and found two general strategies
Sage Publishers, 1971). which he has called "inside" and "outside" patterns of
Schattschneider, chapter 4. access. Nelson W. Polsby, "Policy Initiation in the Ameri-
10 Ibid., chapter 4; James Coleman, Community Con- can Political System," in The Use and Abuse of Social Sci-
flict (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957); Peter Bachrach and ence, ed. Irving Louis Horowitz (New Brunswick, N.J.:
Elihu Bergman, Power and Choice: The Formation of Transaction Books, 1971), pp. 296-308.
13 For example, see James B. Christoph, Capital 15 See Crenson, Un-politics-of-Air Pollution, pp. 42-44;
Punishment and British Politics (Chicago: University of Josephs Himes, "The Functions of Racial Conflict," Social
Chicago Press, 1962) pp. 26-33; Jennie-Keith Hill [Ross], Forces, 45 (September, 1966), 1-10; and Ronald Ingle-
"The Culture of Retirement" (Ph.D. Dissertation, De- hart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational
partment of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political
1968); and Jennie-Keith Ross, "Social Borders: Defini- Science Review, 65 (December, 1971), 991-1017.
tions of Diversity," Current Anthropology, 16 (March, 16 For example, see Dennis Austin, Politics in Ghana:
1975), 53-72. 1946-1960 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1964), and
14 See Lorna Marshall, "Sharing, Talking and Giving: Richard Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties (Princeton:
Relief of Social Tensions Among !Kung Bushmen," Princeton University Press, 1963).
Africa, 31 (1961), 231-246; and Colin Turnbull, The 17 Cobb and Elder, Participation in American Politics,
Forest People (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1961). pp. 103-109.
Attention groups are groups in the population A good example of an issue which was effec-
which are likely to be aware of a conflict early on, tively expanded to the general public is that of in-
and which can be mobilized relatively rapidly dependence in many African and Asian countries
whenever an issue enters the group's sphere of con- in the 1950s and early 1960s. In many countries,
cern. Whereas identification group involvement independence movements led by relatively small,
centers on the group affiliations of the combatants, educated elites were successful in forcing the
attention group participation tends to be more de- colonial powers to consider seriously the possibil-
pendent on the issues involved in a conflict.18 Be- ity of political independence only after large num-
cause attention groups are highly interested in bers of the general public became involved in mass
public issues, they often become involved in con- movements.21
troversies regardless of the wishes of the identi- In many traditional societies, disputes arising
fication group. Thus, for example, an agricultural among community members provide a large num-
protection group in France may quickly become ber of issues which vie for a place on the formal
involved in a conflict which begins with a con- agenda, and studies of the legal process by an-
sumers' group arguing that agricultural protec- thropologists provide a wide range of cases for
tionism increases food prices. From the perspec- comparative analysis. Among the Arusha in
tive of the consumers' group the involvement of Tanzania, for example, individuals do not usually
the agricultural group is a mixed blessing. Their bring cases directly to the entire community for
entrance into the controversy is, needless to say, settlement. Instead they must expand their issue to
on the other side. At the same time, their interest other community members who might support
and involvement is useful in attracting attention their side in a dispute or present their case to a
to the issue and in increasing public knowledge formal tribunal; these attention groups may be
about it. In some controversies, expansion of an age-sets or kinship groups.
issue to various attention groups in the population Among the Arusha, resolution of a case depends
is sufficient to attain formal agenda status and upon the relationship between the disputants.
serious consideration from decision makers. In Cases involving age-mates are heard before an
other situations, further expansion to the mass age-group enclave, intra-parish disputes are pre-
public may take place first.'9 sented to the parish assembly, while disputes be-
Within the mass public, Cobb and Elder dis- tween members of the same lineage are heard by a
tinguish between the attentive public and the gen- lineage conclave. Finally, when disputes remain
eral public. The former usually comprise a small unresolved through all the lower levels, they may
minority of the population and include those peo- eventually be taken to the courts.22 There are a
ple who are most informed about and interested in number of potential arenas in which a dispute may
public issues. While they have strong views on be heard and resolved, or in our terms, within
many public issues, members of the attentive pub- Arusha society there are a number of formal
lic may be far from united. Thus, as an issue ex- agendas. Once an issue is on the public agenda it
pands and attracts more attention and as more can relatively easily reach the formal agenda also,
members of the attentive public become involved, probably in part because there are several of these
they are likely to be drawn into both sides of the available.
controversy. Furthermore, because they have (4) Entrance. Success in issue expansion may
strong views on most public matters, they are place an issue on the public agenda. It then be-
likely to be among the least persuadable elements comes a problem that concerns a relatively large
of the population once an issue gets defined in a number of people who view it as an appropriate
particular manner, whatever the efforts of the focus for formal action. Entrance represents
early participants. movement from the public agenda to the formal
In contrast, the general public is the last group agenda, where serious consideration of the issue
to become involved in controversies. Its interest in by decision makers can take place.
most issues is likely to be short lived; effective and The difficulty of making this transition varies
sustained involvement of the general public in an widely across political systems. For the Arusha, as
issue is relatively rare. At the same time, when we have seen, public agenda status makes highly
issues can be defined broadly enough, the involve- probable formal consideration of an issue. Among
ment of the general public is often crucial in forc- the Bushmen entrance is such a minimal problem
ing decision makers to place an item on the formal that the public-formal distinction almost disap-
agenda.20
21 For example, see F. M. Bourret, Ghana: The Road to
18
Ibid., p. 106. Independence 1919-1957 (Stanford: Stanford University
19 Peterson, "British Interest Group Theory Re-ex- Press, 1960).
amined," pp. 381-402. 22 See Philip H. Gulliver, Social Control in an African
20 Cobb and Elder, Participation in American Politics, Society (Boston: Boston University Press, 1963), pp.
pp. 107-108. 173-275.
23 Marshall, "Sharing," pp. 231-246. 25 Cobb and Elder, Participation in American Politics,
24 Bachrach and Baratz "Two Faces of Power," pp. pp. 112-113.
947-952. 26 Crenson, "Un-politics of Air Pollution," pp. 58-75.
specific and negative symbols as "lesbians." campaign launched in Cincinnati in 1947. Despite
An important strategy in issue expansion is to a large number of messages in all the media, survey
associate a particular issue with emotionally laden results showed that virtually no one in the city
symbols which have a wide acceptance in the was even aware that the campaign was being
society.27 In America both the civil rights and waged, much less changed their views on the or-
30
women's liberation movements have stressed the ganization.
symbols of equality; in Ireland, groups seeking in- One of the most frequent weaknesses of or-
dependence for Ulster have stressed the notion of a ganizations seeking to expand an issue is that their
"united free country." campaigns "convince the convinced," rather than
The use of these relatively familiar and positive bringing in new groups who have no opinion on the
symbols in connection with a new issue helps to issue or who see no connection between the issue
develop an initial favorable reaction in the mass and their own concerns. Frequently the commit-
public, which might otherwise be hostile or ment and enthusiasm of grievance group members
skeptical. At the same time this is a way of saying blind them to the. symbols which would be most
to the established authorities that the group does effective in attracting additional supporters.
not pose any particular threat to the government Strategic choices, not always consciously made,
and in fact is working within the context of the are also important as grievance groups, or more
existing framework. It is a way of preventing gov- properly, coalitions working to expand an issue to
ernment harassment and opposition at a time the public agenda, also seek entrance to the formal
when public support for the group or issue is not agenda. At the same time, they must be aware that
very strong.28 the strategy used in getting on the formal agenda
In addition to the issue characteristics and emo- may affect the way in which the issue is decided.
tional symbols used in defining an issue, a griev- Although we discuss four different strategies for
ance group has at its disposal the material re- attaining entrance, these may also be used in the
sources as well as the energy and commitment of expansion stage; in some cases the distinction be-
its members. How a group utilizes these resources tween the stages is analytic rather than temporal,
in seeking to attain public agenda status can vary i.e., they may occur simultaneously. Four basic
greatly. Some will choose to invest a great deal of strategies are: (1) violence and threats of vio-
their resources in trying to obtain widespread lence;31 (2) institutional sanctions, such as with-
public attention through the mass media, while holding votes, money or work ;32 (3) working
others are more likely to work in private for the through brokers such as political parties and inter-
support of existing attention groups. The use of est groups; and (4) direct access.33 The method(s)
expansion strategies is partially determined by the a group chooses will depend on its positions) in
types of interests a group reflects. A group with a the society, the importance of the issue to the
minimum of financial resources but with a large group, the length of time that an issue has re-
following tends to use the outside initiative mained on the public agenda without moving to
strategy. Given no other resources, their only hope the formal agenda; and the group's estimate of the
is to attract sufficient external support to reinforce probability of attaining a position on the formal
their own position.29 agenda as a result of each strategy.
In general, we would expect that the greater the In evaluating the outside initiative model, three
resources a group expends, the greater its chances key considerations are: the type of issue being dis-
of success. At the same time, it is important to rec- cussed (e.g., how threatening is it to the established
ognize that success is not likely to be a simple func- groups in power), the extent to which a group is
tion of resources expended, and in fact, unless the isolated in making its claims (e.g., is it running out
issue characteristics are also considered, large re- of options to advance its cause?), and the length
source expenditure can produce small returns. A of time lag in attaining formal agenda status once
striking example of this is the pro-United Nations it is on the public agenda. In general, we expect
that a) the more important the issue, b) the more
27 See Murray Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics isolated the original grievance group, c) the longer
(Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1964); and Politics as
Symbolic Action: Mass Arousal and Quiesence, (Chicago: 30 Shirley A. Star and Helen MacGill Hughes, "Report
Markham, 1971); and Richard Merelman, "Learning and on an Educational Campaign: the Cincinnati Plan for the
Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 60 (June, United Nations," American Journal of Sociology, 55
1966), 548-561. (January, 1950), 389-400.
28 For ex-ample, see William A. Gamson, Power and 31 See H. L. Nieburg, "Violence, Law, and the Informal
Discontent (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1968); and "Stable Polity," Journal of Conflict Resolution, 13 (June 1969), 192-
Unrepresentation in American Society," American Be- 209.
havioral Scientst, 12 (November-December, 1968), 15-21. 32 See, for example, Lipsky, Protest in City Politics,
29 Michael Lipsky, Protest in City Politics: Rent Strikes, pp. 175-181.
Housing and the Power of the Poor, (Chicago: Rand Mc- 3 Cobb and Elder, Participation, pp. 151-159; and
Nally, 1971), p. 7. Crenson, Un-politics, pp. 133-158.
reliance for both the nation and local communities further depend upon local actions and public sup-
were required, and there would be severe restric- port.
tions on capital accumulation and wealth, particu- (3) Expansion. Even though the new programs
larly by politicians. Large banks and businesses may become government policy as soon as they
within the nation were to be nationalized and the are announced, implementation is often contingent
capital they produced used in financing local de- on public acceptance and changes in behavior,
velopment.38 "Other nations aim for the moon, which may range from the payment of new taxes
while Tanzania aims at the village," concluded to the donation of labor to the community. Under
the President. Nyerere's program, rural communities in Tan-
Another issue which requires mobilization of zania were asked to hold meetings to discuss ways
the public is population planning. Often there is in which they could meaningfully implement pro-
widespread ignorance of a plan even after it is grams of self-reliance.42 Rural meetings and re-
announced. The problem for the nation's leader- sulting programs required a prior support for the
ship is making the plan visible to large segments program in general, and an understanding, at
of the population.39 least by local leaders, of ways in which it could be
(2) Specification. The announcement of a new implemented. The problem is not at all trivial, be-
policy, such as the Arusha Declaration in Tan- cause one of the most important barriers to the
zania or the War on Poverty in the United States, implementation of general development programs
usually provides few concrete details. Following on the most local level is that no one is very sure
the initial announcement political leaders and what they mean in local terms. There may be sev-
their associates begin spelling out what is expected eral political meetings where everyone applauds
of the public in terms of cooperation or support, the leaders for their new policy, but no consequent
material resources, work, or changes in behavior tangible changes at the village level.
patterns. Through specification the leaders hope To attempt to combat this problem, political
to make the program clearer to the public, at the leaders who initiated the new program try to ex-
same time both building support and letting citi- pand the issue to new groups in the population in
zens know what is required of them. In a study of the same way that outside grievance groups seek
Tswana in South Africa, Schapera reports that expansion of their issue in the outside initiative
chiefs often presented to the public assembly laws model. The purpose is the same. It is an attempt
drawn up in prior consultation with their ad- to draw additional participants into the effort to
visers.40 In one particular case, Isang, chief of the implement the program, as particular groups are
Kgatla, felt that there was an excess of beer drink- shown how the program is relevant to them. The
ing. He called a meeting of his close advisers and issue begins with the identification group, which
the local ward-heads who voted to support the in this case consists of political leaders who an-
chief's proposal to curb beer brewing and drinking. nounce the new program. They first take the issue
The decision was then presented to the public, to attention groups, seeking their public state-
although the popular assembly was not asked to ments of support as well as explaining in a more
discuss and approve the law. It was assumed that private setting what the new program means, and
its acceptance by the ward leaders represented how the group should participate in its imple-
public approval.41 Compliance with the law de- mentation. Attempts at informal and formal co-
pends upon the local actions of the ward-heads as optation of leaders of specialized elites are often
the chief alone is unable to implement new law part of mobilization efforts.43
effectively. Thus, in this situation, a political This aspect of mobilization can also be illus-
leader places an issue on the formal agenda and trated in Tanzania. In the period immediately
insures that it will be heard. Then, before a group following the announcement of the Arusha Dec-
of lower political authorities, the public specifica- laration, local branches of the political party, as
tion takes place. Its implementation, however, will well as women's organizations, labor unions,
ethnic groups, and other existing groups in the
society pledged both their public and private
and Self-Reliance," in African Politics and Society ed.
support to the program and began taking steps to
Irving Leonard Markovitz (New York: Free Press, 1970). implement it. This is not to suggest there was no
3 See John Hatch, Tanzania: A Profile (New York: opposition. Because of Nyerere's control of the
Praeger, 1972), pp. 195-197. party and government as well as his widespread
For a description of such a campaign, gee Jason
3
Finkle, "Politics, Development Strategies and Family
popularity, however, opposition was more private
Planning Strategy in India and Pakistan," Journal of than public. For example, many political officials
Comparative Administration, 3 (December, 1971), 259-295.
40 See Isaac Schapera, Tribal Innovators: Tswana chiefs
42Hatch, Tanzania, pp. 197-198.
and social change, 1795-1940 (New York: Humanities 43For example, see Frederick J. Fleron Jr., "Coopta-
Press, 1970). tion as a Mechanism of Adaptation to Change," Polity, 2
41 Schapera, p. 27. (Winter, 1969), 176-201.
privately grumbled about their salary cuts and the groups and by the attentive public are necessary.
restriction on house ownerships. Nonetheless, Their acceptance of the program followed by in-
they publicly supported the policy and personally action is the equivalent of a nondecision to ignore
complied with it.44 the government's priorities and, in effect, to kill the
Often, the opposition of a crucial attention program.
group can mean the failure of a mobilization (4) Entrance. The problem of entrance is one of
effort. In the instance of birth control, the position moving from the formal to the public agenda, as a
of key religious groups, particularly the Catholic significant portion of the public comes to recog-
Church, can determine the program's fate. Church nize the program of the government as dealing
opposition in Malaysia led to the ultimate failure with an important problem (even if they disagree
of the program in the late 1960s, even though less with the specific ways in which the government
than 2% of the population was Catholic. The proposes to deal with this problem).46
Church was highly mobilized, had articulate lead-
ers and was strong in urban areas where the pro- Strategies. The same strategic assets are available
gram was focused. Even the opposition of a major to the government, as it seeks to expand the issue
attention group, however, does not guarantee to the public agenda, as are open to grievance
defeat for a program. In the Philippines, a birth groups in the outside initiative model: (1) issue
control campaign also launched in the late 1960s characteristics, and (2) material resources.
was more successful even though the Church did While the material resources of governmental
not endorse the endeavor. While the percentage of groups initiating a policy are almost always larger
Catholics was higher in the Philippines than in than those of outside grievance groups, the charac-
Malaysia, the Church was undergoing a series of teristics of the issues as they are presented to the
power struggles which meant that all other issues public remain a crucial element in whether or not
were subordinated in importance. The govern- the policy is successfully implemented. Of great
ment was able to exploit a power vacuum by en- importance is the association of the new program
couraging different factions in the Church to vie with known and accepted emotional symbols
for power while implementing its population while, at the same time, the public is persuaded
program.45 that the new program "is not just more of the
A second target for issue expansion is the at- same old thing." It must be new enough to be
tentive public. In situations where policies are exciting, but traditional enough to be understood
initiated by political leaders, as we have outlined and to produce positive affect in the population.
in the model, expansion to a well-informed at- In India and Pakistan, attempts to win public
tentive public is relatively easy. The announce- support for a population control effort in the 1960s
ment of a new program almost always attracts the were largely unsuccessful because of the type of
attention and interest of members of the attentive campaign used. The issue was defined in terms of
public. Prominent officials have much easier access long range gains focusing on complex statistics
to the agenda of public discussion than outside which made it difficult to gain public acceptance.47
grievance groups. What is more problematic, What may have been needed was definition of the
however, is how the attentive public will react to issue in terms of more immediate benefits, such as
the new program. The French Education Minister better nutrition for a smaller number of children.
knows that a series of proposals for educational In addition to the problem of issue definition,
reform will be a topic of discussion and concern mobilization efforts may fail because of faulty
among the attentive public, while at the same time, planning. Often, bureaucrats in various parts of
he is far less sure of their support for his proposals. the country have insufficient information about
The presentation of the new program to the national issues to gain access to public agendas at
attentive public, as well as to various attention the local level. Bureaucrats may also become
groups, is crucial, because in effect they become jealous of their prerogatives and maintain their
the links between the political leaders and the mass power at all costs. Mobilization efforts can fail if
public. These people are likely to be key opinion if there is a poor information exchange and if
leaders who channel not only information, but, national leaders are unable to convince bureau-
even more importantly, their opinions about the crats that local level implementation of programs
worth of the program to the rest of the popula- would be in their own self-interest.48
tion. For the government program to be imple- 46 Expansion from formal to public agenda on the na-
mented successfully, efforts both by attention tional level may be followed or accompanied by a public
to formal agenda-building process as the issue is placed on
44 Hatch, pp. 199-205. lower-level agendas.
45 For example, see Gayl Ness and Hirofumi Ando, 4 Finkle, "Development Strategies" pp. 259-295.
"The Politics of Population Planning in Malaysia and the 4 See Aaron Wildavsky, "Why Planning Fails in
Philippines," Journal of Comparative Administration 3 Nepal," Administrative Science Quarterly, 17 (December,
(December, 1971), 296-329. 1972), 508-528.
Organizational structure also influences the they do not want the issue on the public agenda.
extent to which mobilization efforts are successful. Instead they seek a more "private" decision within
If there is some structural mechanism which en- the government, and generally stand to be de-
ables leaders to meet with representatives from feated when the issue is sufficiently expanded to
the various groups or regions frequently, it can include public groups that might be opposed to it.
help bridge the gap between formal announcement Bureaucrats are also often afraid that the public
and public awareness. In Liberia, the government will misunderstand a technical problem if it be-
announced a Unification Policy in the late 1960s comes a matter for public debate.5
and it was able to reach local public agendas in This strategy, for example, was used in the early
part because the local chiefs had access to the gov- phases of the American supersonic transport
ernment through frequent Executive Council (SST) conflict in 1971 and is often attempted by
meetings and served as a bridge between national groups seeking potentially controversial defense
and local officials. The campaign also stressed the contracts in the United States. Similarly, highly
use of positive symbols such as "equality" and placed bureaucrats in developing countries often
negative symbols referring to the enemies who adopt this attitude. They suggest that the public
were opposed to the Unification Program.49 does not (and cannot) understand the technical
issues involved in development planning; develop-
Mobilization model: summary. The mobilization ment is then best left in the hands of those people
model describes the process of agenda building in who do know what is going on (themselves).5"
situations where political leaders initiate a policy, (1) and (2) Initiation and specification. An
but require the support of the mass public for its 'inside" group, meaning a group or agency within
implementation. Announcement of a new pro- the government, or a group with close ties to
gram automatically places an issue on the formal governmental leaders, may articulate a grievance
agenda, and in fact may represent the end result or a new policy proposal. Following the initial
of governmental decision making as well. The statement of a problem, which is aimed primarily
crucial problem is to move the issue from the at other governmental leaders and decision mak-
formal agenda to the public agenda. The mobiliza- ers, the originating group or agency makes a
tion model is most likely to appear frequently in series of concrete proposals. Despite their close
more hierarchical societies, and in those where ties to the decision makers, the originating group
supernatural powers attributed to the leader em- is not yet assured of success, for typically, more
phasize the distance between him or her and the issues are presented to top leaders than they
followers. can possibly consider. Thus, in order to give their
issue a higher priority, its initial advocates seek
Inside Access Model. A third model describes the limited issue expansion. Groups using the inside
situation in which it is easiest to be successful in access model tend to be more homogeneous than
achieving both formal agenda status and imple- groups attempting to advance their cause using the
mentation of the proposed policy with the fewest other two patterns. Because of their privileged
changes. In this model policy originates within a position, inside groups tend to be closer knit in
governmental agency, or within a group which has background, mores and goals; such congruence
easy and frequent access to political decision is an asset in attempts to attract support.52
makers. As in the mobilization model, the issue (3) Expansion. Limited issue expansion means
reaches the formal agenda relatively easily because that the policy initiators might seek to involve an
of the position of the initiating group. identification group and selected attention groups,
The inside access model significantly differs both of which may help create the feeling of urgen-
from the mobilization model, however, in that the cy and importance necessary to attain a quick and
group originally articulating the policy does not favorable response from decision makers. This is
seek to expand the issue to the public agenda-i.e., done in a relatively private setting as the attentive
it does not try to force decision makers to place
it on the formal agenda (as in the outside initiative 50 For example, see Lewis Anthony Dexter, "Congress-
model) or to build support for its implementation men and the Making of Military Policy," in New Perspec-
(as in the mobilization model). Instead expansion tives on the House of Representatives, ed. Robert L. Pea-
is aimed at particular influential groups which can body and Nelson W. Polsby (Chicago: Rand McNally,
1963), pp. 305-324.
be important in the passage and implementation 1 See, for example, Lucien W. Pye, Politics, Personality
of the policy, while at the same time, the initiators and Nation-Building: Burma's Search for Identity (New
try to limit issue expansion to the public because Haven: Yale University Press, 1962); and James Scott,
Political Ideology in Malaysia (New Haven: Yale Univ.
Press, 1968).
4 Thomas P. Wrubel, "Liberia: The Dynamics of 52 G. William Domhoff, The Higher Circles: The
Continuity," Journal of Modern African Studies, 9 (July Governing Class in America (New York: Vintage Books,
1971), pp. 189-204. 1970), pp. 111-155.
public may be only dimly aware that the issue is through inside channels will not fare as well if the
being considered at all, and the mass public is issue becomes public, regardless of the symbolic
totally unaware of its existence. The supporters ploys at their disposal.55
of the proposal feel that selective pressure from In comparison with expansion strategies under
groups close to the decision makers is preferable the outside initiative and mobilization models, the
to public pressure, which may create a situation in inside access model places greater emphasis on
which they lose control over the issue." tangible, as opposed to symbolic, rewards for
In a parliamentary system, for example, one those groups and individuals supporting the pro-
ministry can easily become involved in a problem posals.56 In attracting support, the initiating group
that concerns one or more additional ministries. employs bargaining and administrative language
High-ranking civil servants, or even the ministers styles, as opposed to hortatory and legal ones.
themselves, may then approach officials in the At the same time there may be a large-scale organi-
other ministries seeking support for their propos- zational commitment to behind-the-scenes ac-
als. A second example is the efforts of an interest tion to obtain support for the proposal. Logroll-
group seeking special favors from government to ing, or agreements between groups to support
approach either officials in a ministry where it has each other's proposals, also occurs.57 Not all
particularly close ties or members of the legisla- policies that originate within the governmental
ture who can be expected to work behind the scenes units necessarily fit this model. When govern-
in its interest. mental leaders as well as civil servants, believe that
(4) Entrance. Entrance means attaining formal passage and implementation can only occur if
agenda status. It does not mean that the issue is on sufficient pressure is brought from outside on other
the public agenda. In general, entrance is not spec- political leaders, they will attempt to involve the
tacular and public. Violence and threats of vio- public in an issue through the processes described
lence are almost never employed. The preferred in the outside initiative model.
strategies for attaining entrance are through
direct access or through brokers. Institutional Inside access model: summary. The third model
sanctions may be used against individuals resisting describes a pattern of agenda building and policy
the program, although what is more likely is the formation which attempts to exclude the partici-
use of special favors and the payment of money to pation of the public. Proposals arise within gov-
those who cooperate.54 ernmental units or in groups close to the govern-
ment. The issue is then expanded to identification
Strategies. Expansion strategies are aimed at and attention groups in order to create sufficient
bringing in identification and attention groups pressure on decision makers to place the item on
which can be crucial in assuring support for the the formal agenda. At no point is the public
program, and at the same time, avoiding expan- greatly involved, and the initiators make no effort
sion to the attentive and mass publics. The road to to get the issue on to the public agenda. On the
the formal agenda is not through the public
contrary, they try to keep it off. The inside access
agenda. In Illinois, for instance, the Corps of model will occur with greatest frequency in
Engineers planned to build a dam site which societies characterized by high concentration of
would require bulldozing certain property valued wealth and status.
by conservationists. Conservationists found out
about the intentions of the Corps and made the
Agenda levels and combinations of agenda-building
issue public, stressing that other alternatives were
models. In the previous discussion, and in the
not explored, that the benefits did not override the
propositions which follow, the models are treated
costs, and that the proposed dam was not eco-
separately. These are conceptual rather than em-
nomically justified. As a consequence, the Corps pirical models; most occurrences of agenda
retreated and proposed a more limited alternative.
building will certainly be more complex, combin-
Ordinarily, those trying to reach a formal agenda
5 See Bruce Hannon and Julie Cannon, "The Corps
For example, see Cobb and Elder, pp. 71-77. Out-Engineered," in The Politics of'Ecosuicide, pp. 220-
4 This resembles very closely the literature on political 227.
corruption; for example, see James C. Scott, Comparative 56 For examples of such cases, see Andrew Hacker,
Political Corruption (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- "Pressure Politics in Pennsylvania: The Truckers vs. The
Hall, 1972), "Patron-Client Politics and Political Change Railroads," in The Uses of Power. 7 Cases in American
in Southeast Asia," American Political Science Review, 66 Politics, ed. Alan Westin (New York: Harcourt, Brace &
(March, 1972), 91-113; Arnold Heidenheimer, "The World, 1962); and Edward Furash, "The Problem of
Analysis of Administrative Corruption," in Political Cor- Technology Transfer," in The Study of Policy Formation,
ruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. ed. Raymond Bauer and Kenneth Gergen (New York:
Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Free Press, 1968).
1970); and Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," in 5 Peterson, "British Interest Group Theory Re-exam-
Heidenheimer. ined," pp. 381-402.
ing models as well as levels of agendas. In most in a society; agenda access is expected to vary with
societies, an issue may potentially appear on patterns of stratification:
many agendas. Attempts to achieve agenda status (1) The more egalitarian a society, the more likely that
for any issue may be aimed at one of these agendas the outside initiative pattern will predominate;
at a time, in different possible sequences, or at (2) The greater the concentration of wealth and status
some or all of them simultaneously. Since the in a society, the more likely that the inside access
three models of agenda building may also occur pattern will predominate:
in various combinations during the history of any (3) The greater the social distance between political
issue, many permutations of agendas and agenda leaders and followers, or the more political leaders
are seen as endowed with special insight or super-
building are possible. An issue which reaches natural powers, the more likely that the mobiliza-
higher level decision makers via either inside tion pattern will predominate:
access or outside initiative, for example, may in a (4) The more complex the social structure and econ-
second stage be transmitted by them, through omy of a society, the less likely that any single
mobilization or inside access efforts, to lower level pattern will predominate.
agendas of local communities or associations.
Many issues take the opposite route, from lower Variation in success rates across societies
level to higher level agendas; and some groups
try to put their concerns before several different Success refers to placing an issue on the formal
sets of decision makers at the same time. agenda for serious attention by decision makers,
not necessarily to emerging victorious after the
III. Agenda Building and ComparativePolitics decision-making stage. So far our reading of case
materials suggests that achieving agenda status is
The outside initiative, mobilization and inside more problematic in modern nations than in small
access models describe three ways in which the face-to-face communities. In addition:
public can influence the structure of political
agendas. Initially, we hypothesize that examples (1) The greater the social homogeneity of a commun-
ity, the higher the success rates in achieving agenda
of all three models can be found in any society, status;
although there will be clear tendencies for some (2) The greater the rate of internal migration and
types of polity to favor one of the models over the population increase in a community, the more
others. A second area for comparative analysis is difficult it will be to attain agenda status;
variation in the rates of success at achieving (3) The greater the number of potential agendas on
agenda status in different political systems, a which an issue can be placed, the more likely that
variable which we would also expect to be related success rates will be high;
to the model of agenda building predominant in a (4) The less potential issues require redistribution of
system. A third important problem in agenda material resources in a society, the higher success
rates will be.
building is variation in the process within a single
political system, which then can be compared to
patterns in other polities. Here research might Intergroup variation in patterns within societies
focus on the strategies that different groups utilize
depending upon their position in the social struc- Some of the most important variations in the
ture. A fourth area of concern is development of agenda-building process are a result of differences
generalizations about the agenda-building process in social and political positions across groups
across both polities and models in order to identify within any society. As a result, these groups utilize
common factors influencing conflict expansion, different means of trying to achieve agenda status.
mobilization of group interests, and ultimate suc- (1) Groups that are relatively weak in material re-
cess or failure in attaining agenda status. Some sources, but potentially large in numbers are most
examples of these four types of propositions fol- likely to succeed in using the outside initiative
low. pattern:
(2) The more isolated the original grievance group
Occurrenceof the models across societies (i.e., identification group), the more likely the
group will be to utilize violence or threats of
Are there agenda-building styles that tend to violence in trying to place the issue on the agenda;
dominate in different political systems? We think (3) The greater the extent to which regions or neigh-
borhoods are economically or ethnically homo-
so, although we are less certain about the exact
geneous, the more mobilizable their residents will
nature of this dominance. In addition, if it exists, be in agenda conflicts.
this dominance will probably be more marked in (4) The more a group represents lower status interests
distinguishing successful attempts to achieve for- in a society the more likely it is to use the outside
mal agenda status than those which fail. As men- initiative pattern; the more it represents upper
tioned earlier, one of the most important clusters status interests, the more likely it is to use the in-
of variables is the structure of wealth and status side access pattern.