Nationalism

Nationalism

Definition: belief that the nation is the central principle of political organisation

Origins and Development:

 Born during the French Revolution: people rose up in the

name of the people to create a ‘French nation’
 Revolutionary and democratic creed – highlighting ‘subjects
of the crown’ should be become ‘citizens of France’
 Invasions in Europe promoted a national identity and unity
 Enthusiasm for the movement was originally just in the
middle classes who wanted national unity and a
constitutional government
 By the end of the 19th century nationalism was incredibly popular, beginning to encompass all
aspects of the political spectrum: no longer just liberal
 Came to stand for social cohesion, order and stability in the growing challenge of socialism
 Sought to integrate the increasingly powerful working class into the nation to preserve the
traditional social structure in society
 Patriotic fever was celebrated by the commemoration of past national glories and military
victories
 However, this created chauvinism and xenophobia, with each nation claiming superiority and
regarding other nations as enemies and alien – intensified colonial expansion
 Contributed to a mood of international rivalry and suspicion which led to WW1
 Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference, advocated the principle of national self
determination – consolidating the completion of national building
 National uprisings took place in colonial countries wanting ‘national liberation’

Core Themes: The Nation

 Nation should be the central principle of political organisation

 Nations are cultural entities: collections of people bound together by shared values and
traditions with a common language, religion and history, often in the same geographical area
 Language is one of the key symbols of nationhood: embodies distinctive values and forms
familiarity and belonging in a nation
 However different nations share the same language, e.g. USA and England but
these people do not see themselves as members of the same nation
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 Some nations share a national identity with the lack of a national language, e.g.
Switzerland where French, German and Italian are spoken
 Religion is another key component: expresses common moral values and beliefs
 Northern Ireland: people who the same language are divided by religion
 Divisions in nations do not always result in rival nationalisms, e.g. UK
 Countries all with the same faith do not feel they are unified under one nation,
e.g. Poland, Brazil and Italy are all primarily Catholic but are not one nation
 Can be based on ethnic or racial unity in some circumstances, e.g. Nazi regime
 Nationalism is usually more culturally than biologically based
 Nationalism of US blacks is not based on race but shared history and culture
 Nations usually share a common history and traditions
 National identity is preserved by recalling past glories, national independence, birthdays of
national leaders and common cultural beliefs
 Nationalist features can also be based on future expectations
 Varying combination of cultural factors rather than a precise formula
 Nations can only be defined subjectively by members, not by set external factors
 It’s a psycho-political entity: group of people who regard themselves as a natural political
community, distinguished by shared loyalty or affection in the form of patriotism
 Objective difficulties such as small population or lack of economic resources are
of little significance if people are insisting on ‘national rights’
 All nationalists agree that nations are a blend of cultural and psycho-political factors
 Nations are held together by primordial (ancient/deep-rooted) bonds
 Civil Nationalism: importance of civil consciousness and patriotic loyalty

Core Themes: Organic Society

 Humankind is naturally divided into a collection of nations with

distinctive identities
 National ties and loyalties are found in all communities
 Primoridalist approach: national identity is historically embedded –
nations have a common cultural heritage and language which can
predate statehood or independence
 Anthony Smith (1989) highlights importance primordialism by stressing
continuity between modern nations and pre-modern ethnic communities
 Modern nations are essentially updated versions of immemorial ethnic communities
 Modernist Approach: national identity is forged in response to changing situations and historical
challenges
 Ernest Gellner (1983) – nationalism is linked to modernisation, especially
industrialisation – emerging industrial societies promoted social mobility, self-
striving and competition
 National community is deep rooted and enduring
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 Benedict Anderson (1983) emergence of capitalism and modern mass

communications has formed nations in the form of ‘imagined community’
 Constructivist approach: national identity is an ideological construct serving the interests of
large powerful groups
 Eric Hobsbawm (1983): nations are based on ‘invented traditions’
 Nationalism creates nations not the other way around – been a controlling
device for ruling classes to reduce the risk of class rebellion by ensuring national
loyalty is stronger than class solidarity

Core Themes: Self-Determination

 Stress of popular sovereignty, expressing idea of general will

 Sovereign power rests with the nation
 The nation is a natural political community
 Nationhood and statehood are intrinsically linked
 National identity is based upon the desire for the people to attain or maintain political
independence which is expressed through national self determination
 Unification: process in which a collection of separate political entities sharing cultural
characteristics are integrated into a single state
 Nation states can be created by independence from foreign rule, e.g. Poland became an
independent republic in 1918 and again in 1945
 The nation state is the highest most desirable form of political organization
 It offers both cultural cohesion and political unity: when people with common values can self-
govern then nationality and citizenship coincide
 Nationalism also acts to legitimise the authority of government as they must act in the ‘national
interest’
 Nationalists believe that forces have created a world of independent nation states
 The nation state is seen by nationalists as the only viable political unit
 Nationalism does not always go as far as separatism and can just be federalism or devolution

Core Themes: Culturalism

 Some forms are related to ethno-cultural aspirations and demands

 Cultural nationalism: emphasises the strengthening or defence of cultural identity
 Want to regenerate the nation as a distinctive civilization
 Political nationalism is rational and principled, cultural nationalism is ‘mystical’ and based on
romantic belief in the nation as a unique history and organic whole
 Cultural nationalism is bottom-up : draws on popular rituals, traditions and legends rather than
an elite of ‘higher’ culture
 Cultural nationalism can help modernization, gives people a means of ‘recreating’ a nation
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 Rousseau is seen as the father of political nationalism, John Herder is seen as the architect of
cultural nationalism
 Herder, Johann Fichte and Friedrich Jahn believed in the uniqueness and superiority of the
German culture
 Herder: each nation possesses a ‘Volksgeist’ (spirit of the people) which is revealed in songs,
myths and legends – providing a nation with a source of creativity
 The role of a nation is to develop an awareness and appreciation of
national traditions and collective memories rather than have a
political aim of statehood
 Endorsed by the black panthers and Nation of Islam with ‘Black
Nationalism’
 Cultural forms of nationalism are viewed as tolerant and consistent
with progressive political goals – differing from ethic nationalism
 Ethnicity refers to loyalty towards a distinctive population, cultural group or territorial area
 Ethnic groups suggest that they are united by blood – impossible to join ethnic groups
 Ethnic nationalism is exclusive and linked to racialism
 Cultural and ethnic forms are viewed as related, called ‘ethnocultural nationalism’
 Chauvinistic or hostile to other nations or minority fears, fuelled by pride and fear
 Cultural nationalism is associated with assimilation and cultural ‘purity’ – incompatible with
multiculturalism
Civic Nationalism Ethnocultural Nationalism Nationalism and Politics
Political Nation Cultural/Historic Nation
Inclusive Exclusive  Nationalism has been both
Universalism Particularism liberating and oppressive
Equal Nations Unique Nations  Both progressive and
Rational/Principled Mystical/Emotional regressive
National Sovereignty National Spirit  Has entrenched established
Voluntaristic Organic identities
Based on Citizenship Based on Descent  Celebrated national glories
Civil Loyalty Ethnic Allegiance  Both rational and irrational
Cultural Diversity Cultural Unity  Appeals to principled beliefs
 Bred from non-rational drives and emotions, including ancient fears and hatreds
 Ideological shapelessness is a product of numerous factors
 Emerged in very different historical contexts
 Shaped by contrasting cultural inheritances
 Used to advance a wide variety of political causes and aspirations
 Reflects capacity of nationalism to fuse with and absorb other political doctrines and ideas
 Created a series of rival nationalist traditions:
 Liberal nationalism
 Conservative nationalism
 Expansionist nationalism
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 Anti-Colonial/Post colonial Nationalism

Liberal Nationalism:

 Oldest form of nationalism dating back to the French revolution

 Influenced Simon Bolivar who led the Latin American independence movement
 Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points were based on liberal nationalist principles
 Shaped by J.J Rousseau’s defence of popular sovereignty – ‘general will’
 Founded on defence of individual freedom
 Nationalists see nations as sovereign entities entitled to rights – right to self determination
 Liberal nationalism is a liberating force
 It opposes all forms of foreign domination and oppression
 Stands for the ideal of self-government – constitutionalism & representation
 Believe that all nations are equal
 Ultimate aim is the construction of a world of independent nation states
 J.S Mill: ‘the boundaries of government should coincide in the main with those of nationality’
 Believe principle of balance or natural harmony applies to the nations of the world
 Wilson believed WW1 was caused by an ‘old
order’ dominated by militaristic and autocratic empires
 Promotes unity within a nation and
brotherhood amongst all nations on the basis of
mutual respect for national rights and characteristics
 Looks at the idea of cosmopolitanism and
internationalism
 Grounded in the fear of an international ‘state of nature’
 National self-determination is a mixed blessing: whilst is forbids foreign control it creates a
world where nation states pursue their own interests even at the expense of others
 National interdependence: promoting mutual understanding and co-operation
 Liberals traditionally support the idea of free trade: economic interdependence means costs of
international conflict are so great that warfare becomes unthinkable
 Proposed that national ambition should be checked by the construction of international
organisations to bring order to an otherwise lawless international scene, e.g. UN
 Critics claim it is naive and romantic
 Progressive and liberating face of nationalism and is seen as rational and tolerant
 They ignore the darker side of nationalism – such as tribalism
 See nationalism as a universal principle but have less understanding of the emotional power
nationalism which can lead to jingoism
 Misguided in its belief that the nation state is key to political international harmony
 A problem is that it implies all nations lived in convenient geographical locations
 The ideal of a politically unified and culturally homogeneous nation states can only be achieved
by deporting minority groups and imposing a ban on migration
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Conservative Nationalism:

 In the early 19th century conservatives saw nationalism as a radical, dangerous force
 Conservative statesmen (Disraeli, Bismarck and even Tsar Alexander III) became sympathetic to
the idea of nationalism – seeing it as a way of maintaining social order and defending tradition
 Tends to develop in established nation states rather than ones in the process of becoming
nation states
 Don’t care about self determination but more about social cohesion and public order brought
about by patriotism
 Society is organic: nations emerge naturally from the desire of humans
 Humans are thought to be limited and imperfect who seek meaning and security within a
national community
 Principle goal is to maintain national loyalty by encouraging patriotism – especially to combat
the idea of class solidarity encouraged by socialists
 By incorporating the working class in the nation, nationalism has been seen as the antidote to
social revolution
 Charles De Gaulle (French President 1959-69) harnessed nationalism in France
 Appealed to national pride by endorsing an
independent defence and foreign policy
 Appeals to the belief in tradition and history
 Nationalism becomes a defence for traditional institutions
and way of life
 Nostalgic and backward looking: reflects on past national
glories or triumph
 Often use rituals and commemorations to present past
military victories as defining moments
 They use traditional institutions as symbols of national
identity, e.g. monarchy
 Particularly prominent when sense of national identity is threatened or in danger
 Immigration and supra-nationalism (like the EU) have kept this form of nationalism alive
 Conservatives believe that cultural diversity leads to instability and conflict
 Stable and successful societies must be based on shared values and a common culture –
immigration needs to be restricted or minority groups need to integrate
 Believe supranational pose a threat to national identity and cultural bonds of society
 ‘Euroscepticism’ is particularly strong within the Conservatives
 Defend sovereign national institutions and distinctive national currency, seeing them as vital
signs of national identity
 A stable political union cannot be forged out of national, language and cultural diversity
 Critics say their arguments are based on misguided assumptions
 Conservative nationalism can be seen as a form of elite nationalism
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 The ‘nation’ is invented and defined by political leaders who will use it for selfish purposes
 Can serve to promote intolerance and bigotry
 Portrays immigrants/foreigners as a threat, legitimizing racialist and xenophobic fears

Expansionist Nationalism

 The dominant image of nationalism is one of aggression and militarism – opposite of self
determination
 Apparent in the late 19th century as European powers ‘scrambled for Africa’ to boost national
glory
 Imperialism of late 19th century was supported by popular nationalism: national prestige was
linked to possession of an empire and colonial
victories
 Jingoism described the mood of this popular
nationalism
 Aggression and expansionist nationalism reached its
highpoint in the inter-war years when
authoritarian/fascist regimes embarked on imperial
expansion and world domination
 Chauvinism: some nations are thought to be
superior – evident in European imperialism
 Europeans portrayed imperialism as a moral duty thinking it would bring the benefits of
civilization
 National chauvinism comes from a feeling of intense/hysterical national enthusiasm
 Individual is swept away on a tide of patriotic emotion with the desire for aggression, expansion
and war – called ‘integral nationalism’
 Individuals and independent groups lose their identity within an powerful nation – it’s existence
and meaning is beyond the life of any single individual
 Military glory and conquest are the ultimate evidence of national greatness
 The civilian population is effectively militarised – infected with values of loyalty, complete
dedication and self-sacrifice
 When the honour or integrity of nation is questioned, citizens become unimportant
 Strong appeal for the isolated and powerless as it offers security and the prospect of security,
self respect and pride
 Require a heightened sense of belonging to a distinct national group – stimulated by ‘national
integration’: seeing other races as a threat or an enemy
 In the face of an enemy, the nation draws together and experiences its own sense of identity
and importance
 Commonly been reflected in racist ideologies, dividing the world and are a breeding ground for
racist ideas
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Anti-Colonial and Postcolonial Nationalism:

 Due to imperialism nationalism became a worldwide phenomenon

 Experience of colonial rule forged a nationhood and desire for national liberation amongst the
people of Asia and Africa
 During 20th century: the political geography of the world was transformed by anti-colonialism
 During the interwar period independence movements were threatening the empires of France
and England – with the final collapse occurring after WW2
 Mounting national pressure and
declining domestic economic performance
meant in most cases colonial powers departed
peacefully
 In some cases, decolonisation was
characterised by revolution and armed
struggles
 Anti-colonial movements often voiced
the ideas of liberal nationalism
 For African and Asian nations,
independence was closely related to their
economic underdevelopment and subordination to industrialised states
 Came to express the desire for national liberation in political and economic terms
 Gandhi: political philosophy of fusing Indian nationhood with the ethics of non violent and self
sacrifice, rooted in Hinduism – home rule was spiritual as well as political
 Franz Fanon: emphasised links between anti-colonialism and violence
 Colonization was not just political but also a way new species of man are
created
 Only experience of violence is powerful enough to bring about psycho-political
regeneration
 Attracted to socialism – more related to internationalism than nationalism alone
 Socialism embodies values such as community and co-operation which were already established
in many traditional, preindustrial societies
 Socialism provided an explanation for inequality and exploitation, leading to a greater
understanding allowing colonial rule to be more effectively challenged
 During 1960s and 70s many people were drawn to Marxist ideas – believing colonialism is an
extended form of class oppression
 Lenin portrayed colonialism as an economic tool – for capitalist countries to exploit
 The class struggle then became a struggle against colonial exploitation and oppression
 The overthrow of colonial rule implied social revolution as well as political independence
 Reaction against the dominance of the West
 This can be closely linked to religious fundamentalism
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Nationalism in a Global Age:

 Globalisation greatly undermines the idea of a nation state

 It has limited a nation states ability to function as a self sufficient economic unit
 Trend for cultural globalisation is impacting nations individual cultures
 Growth of global interconnectedness has reconfigured our sense of political community and
expanded moral sensibilities
 Nationalism is being superseded (made old fashioned) by cosmopolitanism
 Transborder information and communication flows has reduced the ignorance of other societies
 Moral cosmopolitanism is growing with people seeing themselves as global citizens
 National divisions are increasingly being seen as arbitrary and sustained by ignorance
 International migration has been rapidly increasing limiting nationalism – increasing levels of
cultural and ethnic diversity
 Led to a change from nationalism to multiculturalism – though some say multicultural
nationalism
 Growth of transnational communities challenge nation states as a homeland is not seen as being
necessary for a nation to exist
 Transnational communities can be seen as ‘deterritorialized nations’ or ‘global tribes’
 However, there has recently appeared to be a resurgence of nationalism
 National self-assertion is a strategy of growing significance for powerful states
 E.g. China’s economic revival appears to be alongside rising nationalism
 Forms of cultural and ethnic nationalism have flourished from 1990s+
 Nationalism has seemed to revive to combat globalisation
 Nationalism often prospers in conditions of fear, insecurity and social dislocation as it is seen to
provide unity, certainty and strength
 Nationalism in defined by its rejection of diversity and cultural mixing

Key Thinkers:

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)

 French moral and political philosopher
 Commonly viewed as the architect of political nationalism
 Argued the ‘natural man’ could only throw off corruption, exploitation and domination imposed
by society through a radical form of democracy – ‘general will’
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
 Portrayed as the father of cultural nationalism
 Leading intellectual opponent to the Enlightenment
 Emphasis that the nation is an organic group with a common spirit
 Major work: Reflections of the History of Mankind (1784-91)
Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-72)
 An Italian nationalist
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 Liberal nationalist fusing the belief that a nation has a distinctive language and
cultural community with principles of liberal republicanism
 Nations are individual and equal with the right to self-govern
 One of the earliest thinkers to link liberal nationalism with perpetual peace
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
 As the 28th President he introduced the 14 points – promoting self
determination
 Wilsonian liberalism is associated with the idea that constructing a world of
nation-states is the best way of preventing war
Charles Maurras (1868-1952)
 Key exponent of right wing nationalism, influencing fascism
 ‘Integral nationalism’ – organic unity of the nation/rejection of
individualism/stress on hierarchy and traditional institutions
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948)
 Campaigned for Indian independence
 Ethic of nonviolent resistance gave the movement strong moral authority
 Believed the universe is regulated by the primacy of truth and humankind is
‘ultimately one’
Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)
 Founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)
 Early advocate of black nationalism – establishing black pride
Frantz Fanon (1925-61)
 View on anti-colonial struggle – The Wretched of the Earth (1965)
 Only total revolution and absolute violence can help colonized people to
liberate themselves from the constraints of imperialism