Solar & Heliospheric Energetic Particles and Cosmic Rays

Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere - Particles are accelerated in the solar

system at shocks where co-rotating high-speed solar wind stream interact
with slower solar, at shocks driven by CMEs, and at the solar wind
termination shock. In addition to the study of acceleration processes, cosmic
ray transport in the heliosphere is investigated as a necessary component to
the understanding of other cosmic ray observations. Cosmic ray intensity can also provide a
diagnostic of solar wind conditions complementary to conventional plasma and magnetic
field measurements.
Solar Energetic Particles - Current experiments seek to understand the acceleration
process in both solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). They are also seeking to
understand why the abundance of 3He can vary by orders of magnitude from flare to flare
and why heavy ions are frequently enhanced in 3He-rich events.

Galactic Topics

Stars
Goddard Scientists study individual stars-- supermassive stars, Wolf-Rayet
stars, chromospherically active stars, luminous blue variables-- and also
stellar populations in the Milky Way and in nearby galaxies like M31. Using
FUSE and HST, we study the X-ray-modified stellar winds from high-mass
X-ray binaries the explosion debris from supernova 1987A, and molecular
hydrogen in planetary nebulae.
Extremely massive stars play a role in chemical enrichment and galactic evolution. They
mark the end of their lives as supernovae explosions in which a single supernova can
equal the entire radiant output of a galaxy. Some members of this class have been
suggested to produce the "hypernovae". The energy emitted in a "hypernova" is perhaps
equivalent to the radiant energy output of an entire universe of galaxies. Such
extraordinary explosions require stellar precursors of unusually large mass, and so should
be rare. The Milky Way possesses one possible member of this class, the massive,
luminous, and relatively nearby star, Eta Carinae. Eta Carinae is unstable, and is
surrounded by ejecta from an eruption in the mid-19th century. X-rays are produced as
the ejecta expands into the circumstellar medium near the star at speeds of 100-1000
km/s.

Stars researchers include: Ted Gull, Ken Carpenter, Mike Corcoran, Rosina Iping, Bill
Danchi, Sally Heap, Randy Kimble, Allen Sweigart, George Sonneborn, Jon Morse, Derck
Massa, Chuck Bowers, Jay Rajagopal, Aki Roberge

Compact Objects/Binaries
Compact objects (white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes), are an
excellent laboratory for physics under extreme conditions. In particular,
when they are in close binary systems, they can shine brightly in the high
energy sky due to accretion - when matter from the binary companion falling
into the deep gravitational potential wells of these compact objects, it can
release a significant fraction of its rest mass energy in the process. GSFC
researchers study accretion in binaries in a wide variety of situations using
X-ray (Chandra, XMM-Newton, Suzaku, RXTE, Swift), UV (HST, FUSE),
optical (ground-based), and IR (Spitzer) instruments. We see a wide range of dramatic
phenomena from such systems, including pulsations from rapidly-spinning neutron stars,
intense bursts from thermonuclear burning, eclipses, and dips due to occulting material on
the disk edge. X-ray Spectroscopy and fast timing studies reveal a wealth of information
about the physical processes taking place in these complex systems.
Studies of X-rays emitted from the vicinities of black holes rely on the application of
General Relativity, and may one day strongly constrain the theory in the strong gravity
limit. We develop 3-dimensional numerical simulations of Einstein's gravitational field
equations to model strong field binary black hole merger interactions and to calculate the
resulting gravitational waveforms.

Studies of neutron star X-ray emissions have provided an increasingly tight constraint on
the nuclear equation of state - how matter at the nuclear density really behaves. Some
binaries involving two white dwarfs or one white dwarf and one neutron star are so
compact that they are expected to be strong sources of gravitational waves for LISA, and
will eventually merge. Merging white dwarfs, or perhaps some other variety of accreting
white dwarfs, are progenitors of Type Ia supernovae and hence the studies of such
systems have potential relevance to cosmology.

Compact Objects/Binaries researchers include: Tod Strohmayer, Craig Markwardt,

John Cannizzo, Chris Shrader, Lorella Angelini, Nick White, Frank Marshall, Rich Kelley,
Tim Kallman

Supernova Remnants
The violent explosion of a massive star at the end of its life is called a
supernova. A supernova is one of the most energetic events in the
universe, and causes a single star to briefly outshine the entire galaxy in
which it is located. Supernova remnants are the dramatic objects produced
by these violent explosions. The tenuous gas in the interior of the
supernova remnant glows at X-ray wavelengths, and X-ray observations are a valuable
source of information on the interactions between the explosion and the surrounding gas.
Acceleration of galactic cosmic rays by supernova remnants should be limited to about
1015 eV, because particles of higher energy cannot be contained, and therefore cannot be
accelerated, within the remnants. This is supported by a change in the spectral shape at
about this energy, which may indicate the presence of an additional source of cosmic
rays, perhaps extragalactic in origin. The limits of supernova shock acceleration and the
signature of any new sources are being actively studied.

Extrasolar Planets
Besides the many missions and programs aimed at planet detection,
current exoplanet research at Goddard includes transit spectroscopy,
searches for planets around white dwarfs, research in to the nature of the
habitable zone, and theoretical studies of planet formation. A number of the
extrasolar planets detected so far exhibit a transit across their parent star as seen from
Earth. These planets have offered the deepest look yet into the nature of planets outside the
solar system. Using the SpitzerSpace Telescope, our team has recently detected one
planet's secondary eclipse---the time when the planet disappears behind the star. This
observation represents the first detected of radiation emitted from an extrasolar planet.
Exo-planet researchers include: Drake Deming, Marc Kuchner, Bill Danchi , Bruce
Woodgate, Jeremy Richardson, Mark Clampin, Sally Heap, Chuck Bowers, Aki Roberge

Videos about the first detection of light from an exoplanet

 Goddard's Astrobiology Node
 Goddard's Solar System Exploration Division
Milky Way Galaxy
The electron-positron annihilation feature at 0.511 MeV is used to probe sources and
conditions in the Milky Way's galactic center region. Produced as energetic cosmic rays
illuminating interstellar clouds, diffuse gamma-ray emission can be used to infer the origin
and flux of cosmic rays within the Galaxy.
Extra-galactic Topics

Galaxy Formation and Evolution

Galaxy formation and evolution covers a wide range of observations conducted with a wide
variety of telescopes and techniques, and using both imaging and spectroscopy. Ongoing
projects address such topics as the faint blue galaxy problem, the powering source of ultra-
luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs), and the star formation history of the Universe.
Examples of the observations used for these projects include the Hubble Deep Fields,
Spitzer imaging and spectroscopy, and ground-based studies in the optical through
millimeter.
Over cosmic time, the evolution of galaxies can be traced by measuring characteristics of
their star formation - such as the star formation rate or their metal content. Science topics
such as the history of the assembly of galaxies and the formation of the elements in the
universe are addressed with galaxy evolution observations. Of particular power for such
observations are those conducted in the far-infrared, since this long wavelength light
escapes from the obscured cores of highly star forming galaxies. Recent observations
with the SHARC-II submillimeter camera and upcoming observations with MUSTANG and
GISMO millimeter cameras have added to the picture we have of the star formation
history of the universe. Goddard is also involved in the SOFIA observatory via the HAWC
and SAFIRE instruments that will provide far-infrared imaging and spectroscopy to shed
more light on these topics.

Galaxy Formation and Evolution researchers include: Dominic Benford, Eli Dwek, Jon
Gardner, Sally Heap, Harvey Moseley, Bill Oegerle, Johannes Staguhn (UMD), and Bruce
Woodgate.

AGN
Active galaxies contain a core (or nucleus) of emission that is embedded in an otherwise
typical galaxy. This core may be highly variable and bright compared to the rest of the
galaxy. X-rays penetrate outward from the core and provide scientists with unique insights
into the physical processes occurring there. At the very center of the galaxy core lies a
supermassive black hole. Dense material accretes onto the black hole releasing large
amounts of gravitational energy. X-rays coming from close to the black hole are
gravitationally redshifted, introducing a characteristic distortion in spectral features, such as
the relativistically broadened iron K fluorescence line.
Clusters of Galaxies
Most galaxies in the Universe do not exist in isolation but are gravitationally bound with other
galaxies. Small associations, called groups, may have a few dozen galaxies which extend
over a million light years. Larger and rarer associations may have thousands of galaxies
which extend tens of millions of light years. X-ray emission arises from hot (10-100 million
degrees) intracluster gas trapped in the potential well of the cluster. It is thought that the
metals in clusters were formed by stars in elliptical galaxies and were driven out into the
intracluster medium by supernovae winds. The total mass of clusters appears to be larger
(by factors of 10-30) than can be accounted for by the visible matter in the galaxies and gas.
Hence, clusters are believed to contain dark matter, in addition to the baryonic matter (the
"ordinary" matter in the stars and gas). The properties of dark matter are not well understood
and its presence is only detected through gravitational influence.
Galaxy Clusters researchers include: Ann Hornschmeier (Cardiff), Rich Mushotzky, Bill
Oegerle

Gamma-Ray Bursts
Gamma-ray bursts are sudden, brief flashes of gamma rays that occur
about once a day at random positions in the sky. They are the most
powerful know explosions in the Universe, and are seen as far back as
630 million years after the Big Bang. Some of these bursts are caused by
the explosions of stars more than 20 times more massive than the Sun,
while others are thought to be occur when two neutron stars collide.
However, the details of how these burst are produced and exactly what physical forces
are involved is still a mystery to astronomers.

The GRB research group in the ASD is leading the Swift GRB mission. Studies of GRBs
using space-based observatories have advanced dramatically with many recent results
being returned by the Swift observatory. Key results include:

1.the discovery of optical and X-ray afterglows of short gamma-ray bursts, which
has allowed astronomers to show that they are not produced by the explosions of
massive stars, but by colliding neutron stars,
2.studies of the early universe from GRBs detected at large distances,
3.the discovery that GRB afterglows are significantly more complex than thought
before the launch of Swift,
4.the detection of a nearby GRB in coincidence with a rare hyper-energetic
supernova,
5.studies of the brightest gamma-ray flash ever recorded, which was produced by a
magnetar in our Galaxy,
6.the first sensitive survey of the hard X-ray sky leading to the discovery that more
than half of all active galactic nuclei are obscured by gas and dust, and
7.the largest data base of UV observations of supernovae, which can be used to
study the nature of the mysterious dark energy.

Swift is expected to continue operating for 10 years.

With the new Fermi (formerly GLAST) mission, ASD scientists will again have
considerable capabilities for GRB research, combining data from its specialized burst
monitor (GBM) and its primary instrument (LAT). The GLAST Burst Monitor (GBM) has a
large field-of-view, so it will be able to see bursts from over two-thirds of the sky at one
time. This will allow it to provide locations for follow-up observations of these enigmatic
explosions. The GBM works at a lower energy range than the LAT, so together these two
instruments provide the widest range of energy detection in the gamma-ray regime for any
satellite ever built. The ASD GRB research group is a major participant in the Energetic X-
ray Imaging Survey Telescope (EXIST) mission concept studied by Prof. J. Grindlay
(Harvard).

GRB researchers include: Lorella Angelini, Scott Barthelmy, Patricia Boyd, Tom Cline,
Jay Cummings, Neil Gehrels, Stephen Holland, Hans Krimm, Frank Marshall, Ann
Parsons, Taka Sakamoto (NPP), Goro Sato (USRA), and Mike Stamatikos (NPP)