19 - Lecture To My Kids

Chapter 19 Chemical Thermodynamics
The amazing organization of

living systems, from complex
molecular structures such as the
nucleosome, to cells, to tissues, and
finally to whole plants and animals,
is an unending source of wonder
and delight to the chemists,
biochemists, physicists, and
biologists who study them. Energy
must be spent, somehow, to keep
all of these organized systems in
good working order. But we have
not yet learned enough about energy
to understand how the underlying
chemical and physical processes of
life are governed.
© 2015 Pearson Education,
Education Inc.
Review: The Laws of Thermodynamics
• Two bodies at the same temperature have or are at thermal
equilibrium.
• Energy (E) in the universe (system + surroundings) is conserved.

• E = heat (q) + work (w or PDV)
• H = q (at constant P)
• Total entropy (S) of the universe (total) MUST increase in a

spontaneous process.
• Suniverse = DSsystem + DSsurroundings > 0
– Order  disorder
• Explains why heat NEVER flows from a cold body to a hot
body.??
• Entropy of a substance at absolute zero (0K) for a pure substance is

zero.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

First Law of Thermodynamics
• You will recall from Chapter 5 that

energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• Therefore, the total energy of the
universe is a constant.
• Energy can, however, be converted
from one form to another or transferred
from a system to the surroundings or
vice versa.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics:
That’s all there is!
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
– The total energy of the universe cannot change.
– However, it can transfer (flow) from one place to another.

Euniverse = 0 = DEsystem + DEsurroundings
• Energy conservation:
– Example:
• In an exothermic (放熱) reaction, “lost” heat from the system
goes into the surroundings.
– Two ways energy is “lost” from a system

– Converted to heat, q
– Used to do work, w
– E = q + w or DH + PDV, where DH (enthalpy)

~ DE is a state function.
– Internal energy change independent of how done

You Can’t Break Even: The Energy Tax
• Every energy transition results in a

“loss” of energy.
– Conversion of energy to heat,
which is “lost” by heating up the
surroundings
• Example:
– Recharging a battery with 100 kJ of
useful energy will require more
than 100 kJ.

Kinetics vs. Thermodynamics
• How to predict if a reaction can occur at a

reasonable rate (speed, intermediate states)
Potential Energy (kJ)
KINETICS
• How to predict if a
reaction can occur,
given enough time
(initial and final states,
spontaneity)
THERMODYNAMICS
Reaction progress 

Enthalpy/Entropy
• Enthalpy is the heat absorbed by a

system during a constant-pressure
process.
• Entropy is a measure of the
randomness in a system.
• Both play a role in determining
whether a process is spontaneous.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Spontaneous Processes
• Spontaneous processes
proceed without any outside
assistance.
• The gas in vessel A will
spontaneously effuse into
vessel B, but it will not
spontaneously return to
vessel A.
• Processes that are
spontaneous in one direction
are nonspontaneous in the
reverse direction. Chemical
Thermodynamics

Give It Some Thought
If a process is nonspontaneous, does that mean the

process cannot occur under any circumstances?
a. Yes, nonspontaneous processes can never occur under

any circumstances.
b. No, nonspontaneous processes can occur with some
continuous external assistance.
© 2015 Pearson Education

Experimental Factors Affect
Spontaneous Processes
• Temperature and pressure can affect spontaneity.
• An example of how temperature affects spontaneity is ice
melting or freezing.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Sample Exercise 19.1 Identifying Spontaneous Processes
Predict whether each process is spontaneous as described,
spontaneous in the reverse direction, or at equilibrium: (a) Water at
40 ℃ gets hotter when a piece of metal heated to 150 ℃ is added.
(b) Water at room temperature decomposes into H2(g) and O2(g).
(c) Benzene vapor, C6H6(g), at a pressure of 1 atm condenses to

liquid benzene at the normal boiling point of benzene, 80.1 ℃.
Chemistry: The Central Science, 13th Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Brown/LeMay/Bursten/Murphy/Woodward/Stoltzfus
Which process is not
spontaneous at 25 degrees
Celsius?
a. the melting of an ice cube

b. the sublimation of dry ice
c. the boiling of liquid nitrogen
d. the freezing of ethyl alcohol
All spontaneous processes
are
a. reversible.
b. isothermal.
c. irreversible.
d. exothermic.
Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Heat
transference
Reversible process: The system changes so that the

system and surroundings can be returned to the original
state by exactly reversing the process. This maximizes
work done by a system on the surroundings.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Reversible and Irreversible Processes
W=0
W>0
Irreversible processes cannot be undone by exactly reversing

the change to the system or cannot have the process exactly
followed in reverse. Also, any spontaneous process is
irreversible! The fact that the same path cannot be followed to
restore the system to its original state indicates that
Chemical
Thermodynamics
the process is irreversible.
Entropy (熵)
• Entropy can be thought of as a measure
of the randomness of a system.
• It is a state function:
• It can be found by heat transfer from

surroundings at a given temperature (K):
qrev is for any two states of the system.

The S for any isothermal process between states, not Chemical
Thermodynamics
just the reversible one.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of the universe increases
in any spontaneous processes.
This results in the following
relationships:
spontaneous
processes
Sys. Univ.
Surr. Chemical
Thermodynamics

Calculating ΔS for a Phase Change
Elemental mercury is a silver liquid at room temperature. Its
normal freezing point is −38.9 ℃, and its molar enthalpy of
fusion is ΔHfusion = 2.29 kJ ⁄ mol.
What is the entropy change of the system when 50.0 g of Hg(l)
freezes at the normal freezing point?
The Entropy Change When a Gas
Expands Isothermally
In general, the entropy of any system increases as the
system becomes more random or more spread out. Thus, we
expect the spontaneous expansion of a gas to result in an
increase in entropy.
Imagine that we allow the gas to undergo a reversible

isothermal expansion by infinitesimally decreasing the external
pressure on the piston.
For an ideal gas expands isothermally, E = 0. Because E =

qrev + wrev = 0, qrev = -wrev = nRT ln(V2/V1).
The rusting of iron is spontaneous and is accompanied
by a decrease in the entropy of the system (the iron and
oxygen). What can we conclude about the entropy
change of the surroundings?
a. We need to know if the change involves a closed

or open system to make a conclusion.
b. The entropy of the surroundings must increase by
the same amount as the entropy decrease of the system.
c. The entropy of the surroundings must increase by a
greater amount than the entropy decrease of the system.
d. The entropy of the surroundings must decrease by
a smaller amount than the entropy decrease of the system.

Entropy on the Molecular Scale
• Boltzmann described entropy on the molecular level.

• Gas molecule expansion: Two molecules are in the
apparatus above; both start in one side. What is the
likelihood they both will end up there? (1/2)2
23
• If one mole is used? (1/2)6.02×10 ! (No chance!)
• Gases spontaneously expand to fill the volume given.
• Most probable arrangement of molecules: approximately
equal molecules in each side Chemical
Thermodynamics

Statistical Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics looks at bulk properties of
substances (the big picture).
• We have seen what happens on the molecular
scale.
• How do they relate?
• We use statistics (probability) to relate them. The
field is called statistical thermodynamics.
• Microstate: A single possible arrangement of
position and kinetic energy of molecules
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Boltzmann’s Use of Microstates
• Because there are so many possible
microstates, we can’t look at every picture.
• W represents the number of microstates.
• Entropy is a measure of how many
microstates are associated with a
particular macroscopic state.
• The connection between the number of
microstates and the entropy of the system is:
k is the Boltzmann constant, 1.38 * 10-23 J/K. Chemical

Thermodynamics

Entropy Change
• Since entropy is a state function, the final
value minus the initial value will give the
overall change.
• In this case, an increase in the number of

microstates results in a positive entropy
change (more disorder).
Chemical
Thermodynamics

What is the entropy of a system that has only a
single microstate?
a. S = 0
b. S = 1
c. S > 0
d. S < 0

Effect of Volume and Temperature
Change on the System
• If we increase volume, there are more positions
possible for the molecules. This results in more
microstates, so increased entropy.
• If we increase temperature, the average kinetic
energy increases. This results in a greater
distribution of molecular speeds. Therefore,
there are more possible kinetic energy values,
resulting in more microstates, increasing
entropy.(next slide) Chemical
Thermodynamics

Chapter 10: Main Tenets of Kinetic-
Molecular Theory
4) Energy can be transferred
between molecules during
collisions, but the average
kinetic energy of the
molecules does not change
with time, as long as the
temperature of the gas
remains constant.
5) The average kinetic
energy of the molecules is
proportional to the
absolute temperature.
Gases

Molecular Motions
• Molecules exhibit several types of motion.
 Translation: Movement of the entire molecule
from one place to another
 Vibration: Periodic motion of atoms within a
molecule
 Rotation: Rotation of the molecule about an axis
• Note: More atoms means more microstates
(more possible molecular motions).
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Can an argon atom undergo vibrational motion?
a. Yes, molecules and single atoms experience the same

types of motion.
b. No, a molecule can vibrate and rotate; a single atom
undergoes neither.

Entropy on the Molecular Scale
• The number of microstates and, therefore, the
entropy tend to increase with increases in
 temperature.
 volume.
 the number of independently moving
molecules.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Entropy and Physical States
• Entropy increases with the freedom of motion of molecules.
• S(g) > S(l) > S(s)
• Entropy of a system increases for processes where
 gases form from either solids or liquids.
 liquids or solutions form from solids.
 the number of gas molecules increases
during a chemical reaction.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Sample Exercise 19.3 Predicting the Sign of ΔS
Predict whether ∆S is positive or negative for each process,

assuming each occurs at constant temperature:
(a) H2O(l) → H2O(g)

(b) Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s)
(c) 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s)
(d) N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)
Sample Exercise 19.4 Predicting Relative Entropies
In each pair, choose the system that has greater entropy and
explain your choice:
(a) 1 mol of NaCl(s) or 1 mol of HCl(g) at 25 ℃,

(b) 2 mol of HCl(g) or 1 mol of HCl(g) at 25 ℃,
(c) 1 mol of HCl(g) or 1 mol of Ar(g) at 298 K.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
• The entropy of a pure

crystalline substance at
absolute zero is 0.
• Consider all atoms or
molecules in the perfect
lattice at 0 K; there will
only be one microstate.
• S = k ln W = k ln 1 = 0
Why does the plot show vertical jumps

at the melting and boiling points? Chemical
Thermodynamics

If you are told that the entropy of a system is zero,
what do you know about the system?
a. The system is a substance at the triple point.

b. The system is pure liquid at 0 K (absolute zero).
c. The contents of the system are at their
standard states.
d. The system must be a perfect crystal at 0 K
(absolute zero).

Standard Entropies
We can use experimental measurements to
determine the absolute value of the entropy, S.
• The reference for entropy is 0 K,
so the values for elements are not
0 J/mol K at 298 K.
• Standard molar enthalpy for gases
are generally greater than liquids
and solids. (Be careful of size!)
• Standard entropies increase with
molar mass.
• Standard entropies increase with
number of atoms in a formula. Chemical
Thermodynamics

Entropy Changes
Entropy changes for a reaction can be
calculated in a manner analogous to that by
which DH is calculated:
DS° = nDS°(products) – mDS°(reactants)
where n and m are the coefficients in the

balanced chemical equation.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

19.5 Calculating ΔS゜ from Tabulated Entropies
Calculate the change in the standard entropy of the system, ∆S゜,

for the synthesis of ammonia from N2(g)
and H2(g) at 298 K:
What might you expect for the value of S° for
butane, C4H10?
a. 270 J/mol-K to 300 J/mole-K

b. 280 J/mol-K to 305 J/mole-K
c. 310 J/mol-K to 315 J/mole-K
d. 320 J/mol-K to 340 J/mole-K

Entropy Changes in Surroundings
• Heat that flows into or out of the system
changes the entropy of the surroundings.
• For an isothermal process
• At constant pressure, qsys is simply DH°

for the system.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Entropy Change in the Universe
• The universe is composed of the system
and the surroundings.
• Therefore,
DSuniverse = DSsystem + DSsurroundings
• For spontaneous processes
DSuniverse > 0
Chemical
Thermodynamics

If a process is exothermic, does the entropy of the
surroundings (a) always increase, (b) always
decrease, or (c) sometimes increase and sometimes
decrease, depending on the process?
a. Always increase
b. Always decrease
c. Sometimes increases and sometimes decreases,
depending on the process

Total Entropy and Spontaneity
• ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings
• Substitute for the entropy of the surroundings:
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem – ΔHsystem/T
• Multiply by −T:
−TΔSuniverse = −TΔSsystem + ΔHsystem
• Rearrange:
−TΔSuniverse = ΔHsystem − TΔSsystem
• Call −TΔSuniverse the Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG):
• ΔG = Δ H − T ΔS
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Gibbs Free Energy
The endothermic processes for the dissolution of
ammonium nitrate in water are spontaneous. (an increase
in the entropy of the system).
However, the highly exothermic formation of sodium
chloride from its constituent elements is spontaneous. (a
decrease in the entropy of the system).
So we use H and S to predict whether a given reaction

occurring at constant temperature and pressure will be
spontaneous
Chemical
Thermodynamics

What Is Gibbs Free Energy?
• A thermodynamic quantity that combines enthalpy (H) and entropy
(S) into a single quantity
G = H – TS
• The energy a chemical reaction uses to do work

– Energy available after bonds are broken and formed to do
chemical or biochemical work
• The maximum amount of work energy that can be released to the

surroundings by a system that is at a constant temperature and
pressure
• Often called the chemical potential energy because it is analogous

to the storing of energy in a mechanical system

Standard Free Energy Changes
Are the processes that move a
system toward equilibrium
spontaneous or nonspontaneous?
a. Spontaneous
b. Nonspontaneous
In any spontaneous process

carried out at constant temperature
and pressure, the free energy
always decreases.

What are the criteria for spontaneity
(a) in terms of entropy and

The entropy of the universe increases.
(b) in terms of free energy?
The free energy of a system decreases at

constant temperature.

Gibbs Free Energy
1. If DG is negative, the
forward reaction is
spontaneous.
2. If DG is 0, the system is
at equilibrium.
3. If DG is positive, the
reaction is spontaneous
in the reverse direction.
Q = reaction quotient
Chemical
Thermodynamics

19.6 Calculating Free-Energy Change from ΔH, ΔT, and ΔS
Calculate the standard free-energy change for the formation of
NO(g) from N2(g) and O2(g) at 298 K:
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)
given that ∆H゜ = 180.7 kJ and ΔS゜ = 24.7 J ⁄ K. Is the reaction
spontaneous under these conditions?
Standard Free Energy of Formation
When a substance is formed from its elements
under defined standard conditions, we call the
enthalpy change as standard enthalpies of
formation, Hf°and also call the free-energy
change for its formation as standard free energies
of formation, Gf°.
The standard freeenergy

change for chemical processes.
19.7 Calculating Standard Free-Energy Change from Free
Energies of Formation
(a) Use data from Appendix C to calculate the standard free-

energy change for the reaction
P4(g) + 6 Cl2(g) → 4 PCl3(g) at 298 K. (b) What is ΔG゜ for the
reverse of this reaction?
Sample Exercise 19.8 Predicting and Calculating ΔG°
In Section 5.7 we used Hess’s law to calculate ∆H゜ for the
combustion of propane gas at 298 K:
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l) ΔH゜ = −2220 kJ
(a) Without using data from Appendix C, predict whether ΔG゜ for
this reaction is more negative or less negative than ΔH゜
Sample Exercise 19.8 Predicting and Calculating ΔG°
In Section 5.7 we used Hess’s law to calculate ∆H゜ for the
combustion of propane gas at 298 K:
1C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l) ΔH゜ = −2220 kJ
(b) Use data from Appendix C to calculate ΔG゜ for the reaction at
298 K. Is your prediction from part (a) correct?
Free Energy Changes
• How does ΔG change with temperature?

• ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
• Since reactions are spontaneous if ΔG < 0, the
sign of enthalpy and entropy and the magnitude
of the temperature matters to spontaneity.
Chemical
Thermodynamics

∆Go = ∆Ho - T∆So
Gibbs free = total energy change - energy lost due

energy change for the system to its dispersal
at specific T
If reaction is
• exothermic (negative ∆Ho) [A → heat + A’: H = A’ – A = (-)]
• and entropy increases (positive ∆So)
• then ∆Go must be NEGATIVE
The reaction is spontaneous (and product favored).
If reaction is
• endothermic (positive ∆Ho)
• and entropy decreases (negative ∆So)
• then ∆Go must be POSITIVE
The reaction is not spontaneous (and is reactant favored).

DGo Value Summary Table

Temperature INDEPENDENT
∆Ho ∆So ∆Go Reaction Spontaneity
exo(–) increase(+) – Product favored Spontaneous
endo(+) decrease(-) + Reactant favored Not spontaneous
Temperature DEPENDENT
∆Ho ∆So ∆Go Reaction Spontaneity
exo(–) decrease(-) + High temperature Not spontaneous
exo(–) decrease(-) - Low temperature Spontaneous
endo(+) increase(+) - High temperature Spontaneous

endo(+) increase(+) + Low temperature Not spontaneous

The normal boiling point of benzene is 80 °C. At
100 °C and 1 atm, which term is greater in
magnitude for the vaporization of benzene, ΔH or
TΔS?
a. ∆H = T∆S
b. ∆H < T∆S
c. ∆H > T∆S
d. Cannot determine without additional information

19.9 Determining the Effect of Temperature on
Spontaneity
The Haber process for the production of ammonia involves the
equilibrium
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
Assume that ∆H゜ and ∆S゜ for this reaction do not change with
temperature. (a) Predict the direction in which ∆G for the reaction
changes with increasing temperature. (b) Calculate ∆G at 25 ℃ and
at 500 ℃.
19.9 Determining the Effect of Temperature on
Spontaneity
The Haber process for the production of ammonia involves the
equilibrium
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
Assume that ∆H゜ and ∆S゜ for this reaction do not change with
temperature. (a) Predict the direction in which ∆G for the reaction
changes with increasing temperature. (b) Calculate ∆G at 25 ℃ and
at 500 ℃.
Free Energy and Equilibrium
Under any conditions, standard or

nonstandard, the free energy change can be
found this way:
DG = DG° + RT ln Q
(Under standard conditions, concentrations are 1 M,

so Q = 1 and ln Q = 0; the last term drops out.)
Chemical
Thermodynamics

Free Energy and Equilibrium
• At equilibrium, Q = K, and DG = 0.
• The equation becomes
0 = DG° + RT ln K
• Rearranging, this becomes
DG° = RT ln K
or
K = e DG/RT
Chemical
Thermodynamics

19.10 Relating ΔG to a Phase Change at Equilibrium
(a) Write the chemical equation that defines the normal boiling
point of liquid carbon tetrachloride, CCl4(l).
(b) What is the value of ∆G゜ for the equilibrium in part (a)? (c)
Use data from Appendix C and Equation 19.12 to estimate the
normal boiling point of CCl4.
19.11 Calculating the Free-Energy Change under
Nonstandard Conditions
Calculate ΔG at 298 K for a mixture of 1.0 atm N2, 3.0 atm H2, and
0.50 atm NH3 being used in the Haber process:
19.12 Calculating an Equilibrium Constant from ΔG°
The standard free-energy change for the Haber process at 25 ℃
was obtained in Sample Exercise 19.9 for the Haber reaction:
Use this value of ∆G゜ to calculate the equilibrium constant for the
process at 25 ℃.
DG° = RT ln K
Driving Nonspontaneous
Reactions: Coupling Reactions
The extraction of copper metal from the mineral chalcocite,
which contains Cu2S. The decomposition of Cu2S to its
elements is nonspontaneous:
We can do this by coupling the reaction to another one so

that the overall reaction is spontaneous.
spontaneous
Driving Nonspontaneous
Reactions: Coupling Reactions
This energy can be used to drive nonspontaneous

reactions in the body.
Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Consider the simple salts NaCl(s) and AgCl(s). We will examine the equilibria in which
these salts dissolve in water to form aqueous solutions of ions:
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
(a) Calculate the value of ΔG゜ at 298 K for each of the preceding reactions. (b) The two
values from part (a) are very different. Is this difference primarily due to the enthalpy
term or the entropy term of the standard free-energy change? (c) Use the values of ΔG゜ to
calculate the Ksp values for the two salts at 298 K. (d) Sodium chloride is considered a
soluble salt, whereas silver chloride is considered insoluble. Are these descriptions
consistent with the answers to part (c)? (e) How will ΔG゜ for the solution process of
these salts change with increasing T? What effect
should this change have on the solubility of the salts?
values from part (a) are very different. Is this difference primarily due to the
enthalpy term or the entropy term of the standard free-energy change? (c) Use the
values of ΔG゜ to calculate the Ksp values for the two salts at 298 K. (d) Sodium chloride
is considered a soluble salt, whereas silver chloride is considered insoluble. Are these
descriptions consistent with the answers to part (c)? (e) How will ΔG゜ for the solution
process of these salts change with increasing T? What effect
term or the entropy term of the standard free-energy change? (c) Use the values of ΔG゜
to calculate the Ksp values for the two salts at 298 K. (d) Sodium chloride is
considered a soluble salt, whereas silver chloride is considered insoluble. Are these
descriptions consistent with the answers to part (c)? (e) How will ΔG゜ for the solution
process of these salts change with increasing T? What effect
term or the entropy term of the standard free-energy change? (c) Use the values of ΔG゜ to
calculate the Ksp values for the two salts at 298 K. (d) Sodium chloride is considered a
soluble salt, whereas silver chloride is considered insoluble. Are these descriptions
consistent with the answers to part (c)? (e) How will ΔG゜ for the solution process of
these salts change with increasing T? What effect

19 - Lecture To My Kids

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

19 - Lecture To My Kids

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Chapter 19 Chemical Thermodynamics

The amazing organization of

• Energy (E) in the universe (system + surroundings) is conserved.

• Total entropy (S) of the universe (total) MUST increase in a

• Entropy of a substance at absolute zero (0K) for a pure substance is

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

• You will recall from Chapter 5 that

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

– However, it can transfer (flow) from one place to another.

– Two ways energy is “lost” from a system

– E = q + w or DH + PDV, where DH (enthalpy)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Every energy transition results in a

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

• How to predict if a reaction can occur at a

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Enthalpy is the heat absorbed by a

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

If a process is nonspontaneous, does that mean the

a. Yes, nonspontaneous processes can never occur under

© 2015 Pearson Education

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

(b) Water at room temperature decomposes into H2(g) and O2(g).

(c) Benzene vapor, C6H6(g), at a pressure of 1 atm condenses to

a. the melting of an ice cube

Reversible process: The system changes so that the

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Irreversible processes cannot be undone by exactly reversing

• It can be found by heat transfer from

qrev is for any two states of the system.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Imagine that we allow the gas to undergo a reversible

For an ideal gas expands isothermally, E = 0. Because E =

a. We need to know if the change involves a closed

© 2015 Pearson Education

• Boltzmann described entropy on the molecular level.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

k is the Boltzmann constant, 1.38 * 10-23 J/K. Chemical

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• In this case, an increase in the number of

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. Yes, molecules and single atoms experience the same

© 2015 Pearson Education

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Predict whether ∆S is positive or negative for each process,

(a) H2O(l) → H2O(g)

(a) 1 mol of NaCl(s) or 1 mol of HCl(g) at 25 ℃,

• The entropy of a pure

Why does the plot show vertical jumps

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. The system is a substance at the triple point.

© 2015 Pearson Education

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

where n and m are the coefficients in the

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Calculate the change in the standard entropy of the system, ∆S゜,