Nutrition, Digestion and Excretion

BIO 100 - Chapter 21

The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

• Digestion
– Breakdown of ingested food
– Absorption of nutrients into the blood
• Metabolism
– Production of cellular energy (ATP)
– Constructive and degradative cellular activities
Digestive System
2 main organ groups
– Alimentary canal – continuous coiled hollow tube
– Accessory digestive organs
Organs of the Alimentary Canal
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
Processes of the Mouth
• Mastication (chewing) of food
• Mixing masticated food with saliva
• Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
• Allowing for the sense of taste
Pharynx Anatomy
• Nasopharynx –
not part of the digestive system
• Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
• Laryngopharynx – below the oropharynx and connected to the esophagus
Pharynx Function
• Serves as a passageway for air and food
• Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
– Longitudinal inner layer
– Circular outer layer
• Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers
(peristalsis)
Esophagus
• Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
• Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
• Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the
pharynx)
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
• Mucosa
– Innermost layer
– Moist membrane – epithelium, connective tissue (lamina propria); smooth
muscle layer
• Submucosa
– Just beneath the mucosa
– Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and lymphatics
• Muscularis externa – smooth muscle
– Inner circular layer
– Outer longitudinal layer
• Serosa
– Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum
– Layer of serous fluid-producing cells
Stomach Anatomy
• Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Regions of the stomach
– Cardiac region – near the heart
– Fundus; Body, Phylorus
– Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter
• Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
• External regions
– Lesser & greater curvature
• Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
– Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
– Greater omentum – attaches the greater curvature to the posterior body
wall
– Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs
 Stomach Functions
• Acts as a storage tank for food
• Site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach
• Simple columnar epithelium
– Mucous neck cells – produce sticky alkaline mucus
– Gastric glands – secrete gastric juice
– Chief cells – produce protein digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
– Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid
– Endocrine cells – produce gastrin

Small Intestine
• The body’s major digestive organ
• Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
• Muscular tube extending form the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
Duodenum
– Attached to the stomach
– Curves around the head of the pancreas
Jejunum
– Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
Ileum
– Extends from jejunum to large intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme
– Intestinal cells
– Pancreas
• Bile enters from the gall bladder
Villi of the Small Intestine
• Fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
• Give the small intestine more surface area
• Small projections of the plasma membrane
• Found on absorptive cells
Folds of the Small Intestine
• Deep submucosa has Peyer’s patches (collections of lymphatic tissue)
 Large Intestine
• Larger in diameter, but shorter than the small intestine
• Frames the internal abdomen

Functions of the Large Intestine

• Absorption of water
• Eliminates indigestible food from the body as feces
• Does not participate in digestion of food
• Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a lubricant
Structures of the Large Intestine
• Cecum – saclike first part of the large intestine
• Appendix
– Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed
(appendicitis)
– Hangs from the cecum
• Colon
– Ascending
– Transverse
– Descending
– S-shaped sigmoidal
• Rectum
• Anus – external body opening
Accessory Digestive Organs
• Salivary glands
• Teeth
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gall bladder
Salivary Glands
• Saliva-producing glands
– Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
– Submandibular glands
– Sublingual glands
Saliva
• Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
• Helps to form a food bolus
• Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
• Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
Teeth
• The role is to masticate (chew) food
• Humans have two sets of teeth
– Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
– 20 teeth are fully formed by age two
• Permanent teeth
– Replace deciduous teeth beginning between the ages of 6 to 12
– A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth
Pancreas
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all
categories of food
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme
• Endocrine products of pancreas
– Insulin
– Glucagons
Liver
• Largest gland in the body
• Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
• Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall
by the falciform ligament
• Connected to the gall bladder via the common hepatic duct
Bile
• Produced by cells in the liver
• Composition
– Bile salts
– Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin)
– Cholesterol
– Phospholipids
– Electrolytes
Gall Bladder
• Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
• Stores bile from the liver by way of the cystic duct
• Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the presence of fatty food
• Gallstones can cause blockages
Processes of the Digestive System
• Ingestion – getting food into the mouth
• Propulsion – moving foods from one region of the digestive system to
another
• Mechanical digestion
– Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
– Churning of food in the stomach
– Segmentation in the small intestine

Processes of the Digestive System

• Chemical Digestion
– Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks
– Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
• Proteins are broken to amino acids
• Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
• Absorption
– End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
– Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph capillaries
• Defecation
– Elimination of indigestible substances as feces
Digestive Activities of the Mouth
• Mechanical breakdown
– Food is physically broken down by chewing
• Chemical digestion
– Food mixes with saliva
– Breaks starch into maltose by salivary amylase
• These organs have no digestive function
• Serve as passageways to the stomach
Deglutition (Swallowing)
• Buccal phase - occurs in the mouth
– Voluntary
– Food is formed into a bolus and forced into the pharynx by the tongue
• Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
– Involuntary transport of the bolus
– Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
– The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against it

Food Breakdown in the Stomach

• Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal factors
• Presence of food or falling pH causes the release of gastrin
• Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce protein-digesting enzymes
• Hydrocholoric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic
Necessity of an Extremely Acid Environment in the Stomach
• Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
• Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
• Protein digestion enzymes
– Pepsin – an active protein digesting enzyme
– Rennin – works on digesting milk protein
• The only absorption that occurs in the stomach is of alcohol and aspirin
Propulsion in the Stomach
• Food must first be well mixed
• Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower stomach
• The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (30 ml at a time)
• The stomach empties in four to six hours
Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Pancreatic enzymes
– Help complete digestion of starch (pancreatic amylase)
– Carry out about half of all protein digestion (trypsin, etc.)
– Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
– Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
– Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme

What Stimulates the Release of Pancreatic Juices?

• Vagus nerve
• Local hormones
– Secretin
– Cholecystokinin
Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Water is absorbed along the length of the small intestine
• End products of digestion
– Most substances are absorbed by active transport through cell
membranes
– Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
Propulsion in the Small Intestine
• Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
• Segmental movements
– Mix chyme with digestive juices
– Aid in propelling food
Food Breakdown and Absorption
in the Large Intestine
• No digestive enzymes are produced
• Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
– Produce some vitamin K and B
– Release gases
• Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
• Remaining materials are eliminated via feces
Propulsion in the Large Intestine
• Sluggish peristalsis
• Mass movements
– Slow, powerful movements
– Occur three to four times per day
• Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex
– Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
– Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal sphincter
Nutrition
• Nutrient – substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and
repair
• Categories of nutrients
– Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins
– Vitamins Mineral Water
Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
• Carbohydrates
– Most are derived from plants
– Exceptions: lactose from milk and small amounts of glycogens from meats
• Lipids
– Saturated fats from animal products
– Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils
– Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products
• Proteins
– Complete proteins – contain all essential amino acids
• Most are from animal products
– Legumes and beans also have proteins, but are incomplete
• Vitamins
– Most vitamins are used as cofactors and act with enzymes
– Found in all major food groups
• Minerals
– Play many roles in the body
– Most mineral-rich foods are vegetables, legumes, milk, and some meats
 Metabolism
• Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
– Catabolism – substances are broken down to simpler substances
– Anabolism – larger molecules are built from smaller ones
– Energy is released during catabolism

Cellular Respiration
• Oxygen-using events take place within the cell to create ATP from ADP
• Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Hydrogen atoms are combined with oxygen to form water
• Energy produced by these reactions adds a phosphorus to ADP to
produce ATP
• ATP can be broken down to release energy for cellular use

Protein Metabolism
• Proteins are conserved by body cells because they are used for most
cellular structures
• Ingested proteins are broken down to amino acids
• Amino acids are used to make ATP, only when proteins are overabundant
or in short of other sources

Role of the Liver in Metabolism

• Several roles in digestion
• Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
• Degrades hormones
• Produce cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and clotting proteins)
• Plays a central role in metabolism
Metabolic Functions of the Liver
• Glycogenesis
– Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen
– Glycogen molecules are stored in the liver
• Glycogenolysis
– Glucose is released from the liver after conversion from glycogen
• Gluconeogenesis
– Glucose is produced from fats and proteins
Cholesterol Metabolism
• Functions of cholesterol
– Serves as a structural basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D
– Is a major building block of plasma membranes
• Most cholesterol is produced in the liver and is not from diet
Cholesterol Transport
• Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in the bloodstream
• They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein complexes)
– (LDL) Low-density lipoproteins transport to body cells
– (HDL) High-density lipoproteins transport from body cells to the liver
Developmental Aspects GI
• The alimentary canal is a continuous tube by the 5th week of development
• Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of the alimentary tube
• The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the placenta
• In newborns, feeding must be frequent, peristalsis is inefficient, and
vomiting is common
• Teething begins around age six months
• Metabolism decreases with old age

• Middle age digestive problems

– Ulcers
– Gall bladder problems
• Activity of digestive tract in old age
– Fewer digestive juices
– Peristalsis slows
– Diverticulosis and cancer are more common

The Urinary System

Organs of the Urinary system
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
Functions of the Urinary System
• Elimination of waste products
– Nitrogenous wastes
– Toxins
– Drugs
Location of the Kidneys
• Against the dorsal body wall
• The right kidney is slightly lower than the left
• Attached to ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves at renal hilus
• Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland
Coverings of the Kidneys
• Renal capsule
– Surrounds each kidney
• Adipose capsule
– Surrounds the kidney
– Provides protection to the kidney
– Helps keep the kidney in its correct location
Regions of the Kidney
• Renal cortex – outer region
• Renal medulla – inside the cortex
• Renal pelvis – inner collecting tube
Nephrons
• The structural & functional units of the kidneys
• Responsible for forming urine
• Main structures of the nephrons
– Glomerulus
– Renal tubule
Nephron anatomy: the Glomerulus
• A specialized
capillary bed
• Attached to
arterioles on both sides (maintains
high pressure)
Renal Tubule
• Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
• Proximal convoluted tubule
• Loop of Henle
• Distal convoluted tubule
Urine Formation Processes
• Filtration
• Reabsorption
• Secretion
Filtration
• Nonselective passive process
• Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
• Blood cells cannot pass out to the capillaries
• Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal
tubule
 Reabsorption
• The peritubular capillaries reabsorb several materials
– Some water
– Glucose
– Amino acids
– Ions
• Some reabsorption is passive, most is active
• Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
Materials Not Reabsorbed
• Nitrogenous waste products
– Urea
– Uric acid
– Creatinine
• Excess water
Characteristics of Urine Used for Medical Diagnosis
• Colored somewhat yellow due to the pigment urochrome (from the
destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
• Sterile, Slightly aromatic
• Normal pH of around 6
Ureters
• Slender tubes attaching the kidney to the bladder
– Continuous with the renal pelvis
– Enter the posterior aspect of the bladder
• Runs behind the peritoneum
• Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
Urinary Bladder
• Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
• Temporarily stores urine
Urinary Bladder Wall
• Three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle)
• Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
• Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
• Bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure
Urethra
• Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the
body by peristalsis
• Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters
– Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary)
– External urethral sphincter (voluntary)
 Urethra Gender Differences
• Length
– Females – 3–4 cm (1 inch)
– Males – 20 cm (8 inches)
• Location
– Females – along wall of the vagina
– Males – through the prostate and penis
• Function
– Females – only carries urine
– Males – carries urine and is a passageway for sperm cells
Micturition (Voiding) = terms mean urinating
• Both sphincter muscles must open to allow voiding
– The internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder
– Activation is from an impulse sent to the spinal cord and then back via the
pelvic splanchnic nerves
– The external urethral sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed
Maintaining Water Balance
• Normal amount of water in the human body
– Young adult females – 50%
– Young adult males – 60%
– Babies – 75%
– Old age – 45%
• Water is necessary for many body functions and levels must be
maintained
The Link Between Water and Salt
• Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one
compartment to another
– Alters blood volume and blood pressure
– Can impair the activity of cells
Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Reabsorption
• Regulation is primarily by hormones
– Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive water loss in urine
– Aldosterone regulates sodium ion content of extracellular fluid
• Triggered by the rennin-angiotensin mechanism
• Cells in the kidneys and hypothalamus are active monitors
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance in Blood
• Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45 to maintain homeostasis
– Alkalosis – pH above 7.45
– Acidosis – pH below 7.35
• Most ions originate as byproducts of cellular metabolism
 Maintains Acid-Base Balance in Blood
• Most acid-base balance is maintained by the kidneys
• Other acid-base controlling systems
– Blood buffers and Respiration
Blood Buffers
• Molecules react to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen ion (H +)
concentrations
• Three major chemical buffer systems
– Bicarbonate buffer system
– Phosphate buffer system
– Protein buffer system
Respiratory System Controls of Acid-Base Balance
• Carbon dioxide in the blood is converted to bicarbonate ion and
transported in the plasma
• Increases in hydrogen ion concentration produces more carbonic acid
• Excess hydrogen ion can be blown off with the release of carbon dioxide
from the lungs
• Respiratory rate can rise and fall depending on changing blood pH
Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance
• Excrete bicarbonate ions if needed
• Conserve or generate new bicarbonate ions if needed
• Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0
Developmental Aspects of the
Urinary System
• Functional kidneys are developed by the third month
• The bladder is small in a newborn; urine cannot be concentrated
• Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter starts until age 18 months
• Urinary infections are the only common problems before old age

Aging and the Urinary System

• There is a progressive decline in urinary function
• The bladder shrinks with aging
• Urinary retention is common in males
– Prostate enlargement