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    Electric Machines and Drives (addison-wesley Series in Electrical Engineering) - Gordon R. Slemon

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    2K vizualizări280 pagini

    Electric Machines and Drives - Gordon R. Slemon

    Încărcat de

    Thalison Rodrigues
    Electric Machines and Drives (addison-wesley Series in Electrical Engineering) - Gordon R. Slemon

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Electric Machines and Drives Gordon R. Slemon University of Toronto w ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. Reading, Massachusetts # Mento Park, California © New York Don Mills, Ontario * Wokingham, England + Amsterdam © Bonn ‘Svdnev © Sineanore © Takvn'e MaAcide Symbot 4 i 1%, wr 0 DP » SOFT F FFU Ute ee eee eee eee ehh ES GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS. i Description acetleration ‘number of parallel paths turns ratio Viscous fretion constant {ubseript for base quantity magnetic flux density fesidual flux density, HHots/pole-phase capacitance Siameter subscript for direct axis ‘squivatent depth linluced voltage ‘lestrie Feld intensity Freeney tnapnetomotive force (mmf) Hevclration de to gravity "itetive al-gap length Contacte der of harmonic Ins stansfer coefficient sr Yield Intensity ive force, costes iy ator = Le a/2 = ‘rvent density pie moment of inertia Irmacure winding constant Uistrbution factor core stacking factor pitch factor Space factor winding factor Tineae current density length thickness of magnet favetance ‘magnetic moment per unit volume turns ratio conductor density umber of turns ‘squivatent sinusoidally distributed turns Subscript for output origin power Inumber of poles differential operator = dt feldy-current loss density 290° {i Unit wrt Alm Aim Ale? kom? arm ke Am ‘cond/rad Wim? DPe © Ge COT DAL EE Pee ae TR ENN NS EH EEE SE SST ONE H BROSS fe nysteresis loss density ‘magnetic moment core loss airgap power” ‘winding loss lect charge subscript for quadrature axis reactive power radius feluctance distance Laplace operator slip complex or apparent power time time period temperature voltage volume energy density ‘width energy Tinear displacement linear displacement admittance linear displacement wavelength impedance temperature coefficient of resistance delay angle rotor angle a Operator = 12 120° = ¢2 half angular width of magnet transformation ratio Angular width of phase band fnle [amination thickness partial differential ‘natural logarithm bas damping ratio. efficiency Sator angle ux inkage permeability of free space Felative permeability Tinear velocity si1ai6 2718 10") phase angle of current magnetic flux angular frequency Stator frequency rotor frequency ‘mechanical angular velocity wen: Asm? w w va @ AW vA tcork * Ve? pgaczoacs deg, cad deg, ad fad rad ep, rad ss fad wo mvs am deg, rad we’ rad/s rad/s rad/s rad/s or ¢/min This book is in the ADDISON.WESLEY SERIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Figures 1.5, 14001612, 14,117, 1.22-1.28, 1.36, 137, 21, 28, 2.12, 3283.33, 3.35, BAP-BAL, I-43, 71, 7.8, 113, 2.14, 7.17-7.19, 7.2, 2.25-7.29, 131, TAB-T.3S, and N41 are fom Eleciie Machines by G. Slemon and A. Straughen, Copyright ©) 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, MA. Reprinted with permission, Certain figures are based on materials from Afagnetocectrie Deviese Transelucers, Transformers, and Machines by G. Slemon, Copyeight ©) 166 by Joh Wikey & Sons New York, NY. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicaion Data ‘lemon, Gordon ¥. lecrie machines and drives / Gordon R. Slemon p. em. Includes ines. ISBN 0-201-57885-9 . Blectric driving, 2, Electric machines, 1. Tile ‘TK4038.5539 1992 621,31°012—4e20 viii ar Copyright © 1992 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Ine. All rights ercerved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electron, mechanical, Photo- copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 456789 10MA9594 Preface In writing this book, Ihave had we basi ob . asi objectives in mind to provide the sort of introduction to electric machines that I feel every (eh of Ineoduction y student of electrical eng and 1o provide a more indepth treatment of electri Chines and drives for those who may wish to know more abou the soba Chapters | through 6 address the first objective by providing a selection of ‘opis considered suitable fora one-erm course, During tik ned oo the student should encounter a number of basic concepts: te How ferromagnetic materials behave and why ‘of most useful electric machines. How a transformer works, frst ideally, some of its imperfections. ‘+ What are the basic useful mechanism: from electri Wy they are basic components and then taking into account is for producing force and torque energy sources and how these mechanisms can be exploited ich as commutator, indue= 19 reduce uel type of eatrc machines ton, and synchronous. How all ypes of elec machines ar inherent ines or inherently capable ofconvertin enersy fom a mechanical sore to eee form as generates soda, of converting cleric eneray to mechanical form ins oter orate See ee eee eee TEETER OBO kk ESS PREFACE + How an adequate analytical model, usually in the form of an equivalent electric circuit, can be developed for a device ‘+ That engineers, recognizing that all models are approximate representa- tions of reality, choose a model which is no more complex than necessary for the application at hand. have assumed that students taking an introductory electric machines ‘course will have some prior knowledge of electric and magnetic field concepts, bbut without much depth in ferromagnets, and also some knowledge of elemen- tary electric circuit analysis. It is my conviction that the essence of engineering is design. Accordingly, the end objective of each phase of preparatory study should be to increase the student's capability to design useful devices and systems to meet the needs of society. The educational route to this objective follows the sequence of aspects: an understanding of the physical processes, the derivation of approximate mod tls, the use of analytical techniques and, finally, design. ‘Throughout the first six chapters I have attempted to develop a sound phys- ical understanding of the energy conversion processes utilized in magnetic de vives, transformers, and machines. To emphasize the importance of this approach, consider the force tending to close the air gap in a ferromagnetic teore. This force may be calculated by use of the principles of energy conserva. tion and virtual displacement. While this method is both analytically simple and jnowerful, it provides little appreciation of the origin of the force or its arca of (ction. The insight arising from physical visualization is an important ingredt cet in arriving at an appropriate model of the device. Use of a purely mathe matical approach without adequate attention to the physical model can Frequently lead to serious error. ‘Modeling is an art which will develop as knowledge and experience grow. ‘Considerable emphasis has been given in the book to the freedom to choose a ‘model which is just adequate to meet the present need for performance predic tion. This choice cannot be made in the abstract, but requires an assessment of the actual numerical parameter values. Insofar as possible, without incurring ‘undue complexity, the governing parameters of each device have been related directly to its dimensions and to the properties ofits materials to assist in de~ ‘veloping the engineering judgment basic to modeling ‘Chapter 1 begins with a review of magnetic field concepts. It then intro~ duces the basic modeling ideas of equivalent magnetic and electric circuits. An. understanding of ferromagnetic materials is based on the visualization of mag- netic domains and how the orientation boundaries of the domain can be moved to produce intense fields around closed paths including those with air gaps. A treatment of permanent-magnet materials is integrated into this introduction in ‘view of the increasing importance of petmanent-magnet devices and machines. ‘Chapter 2 deals with the understanding and basic modeling of a two-winding transformer, followed by a few of its most important operating properties. The PREFACE important parameter of leakage inductances treated from a physical ater han a coupledcteuit pont of view Basic principles of eltromechaica nergy conversion machines are ino duced in Chapter 3. Again, an attempt has been made to develop physi un derstanding of the various machine ypes before launching imo the more detailed discussion of these machines in the following chapters ‘Commitator or drct-curren machines have ben considered ist in Chap ter 4 not because of thir importance rdaive tothe induction and Synchronous tmachines of Chapters 5 and 6, bu rather Because they are so widely used in Gletie machine laboratories in experiments on all types of rotating machines, ‘Where tis laboratory wse sno of sen cane, the study ofthe dominant eat egoris of indetion and synchronous machines can be undertaken immediatly after Chapter. Since a majority of al etre machines ae of the indution type, partic. lar emphasis hasbeen given to the concep ofthe rotating magnet ed and is interaction with currents induced ina squre-age rotor, The cements of Space-vctor notation ae introduced a compact and convenient means of tp- renting such rotating field, The estar ofa Gouble-cage or deepbat rotor are included inthe Introductory phase of study because hey ar characteristic of esenially all induction motors encountered in practice. ‘The treatment of synchronous machines in Cher 6 cnphaszs the basic nature of such machines a a source of lterating current incotrast withthe more conventional modeling a4 vote source. This approach bls oattally onthe previous modeling of induction machines. A session of permanent Imagnet machines and their use in electronically switched divs i included. Chapters 7 through Il may form th basi for several selections ofa vial fora second course fr those det who choose to purse ure the Cinating and Important specialty of electric machines and drive systems ‘Alternatively, these chapters may be usfu for ltr reference when th prac. tcing enginctr discovers need to Know somewhat more than was covered in the brie introductory couse Magnetic systems and transformers are revisited in Chapter 7, which presents more concepts onthe modeling of ferromagnetic devices, some design Concepts to aid uses in appreciating eperting inations, anda tumber of ‘magnetically basod devices and tanstormer requnly encountered in practic, Insiuetors may wih fo Incorporate selected pats ofthis chapter nto the n- troductry course slabs it tine perms ‘A rapidly increasing numberof electric drives require sources of variable voltage, current, and/or frequeny. Most of sich soures are produced though the use of semiconductor switehes. Chapter 8 presents a rit introduction to the idealized structure and behavior ofthe Bask power semiconductor systems in common use as converters Chapter 9 presents treatment of eletic drives using commutator ma chines. While the tend in variable-speed drives is now avay from thee dc vil PREFACE motors, they ate still practically significant. Also, they provide a simple and use- ful appreciation of the transient behavior of electromechanical systems for speed and position control. Induction machines are revisited in Chapter 10 but this time with a view to developing an understanding of transient as well as steady-state performance. While induction machines will continue to dominate constant-speed drive ap- plications, they will also be used extensively in variable-speed drive systems i corporating variable-frequency electric supply from power-semiconductor converters. In such applications, the transient behavior is of increased relevance. ‘The transient analysis is based on space-vector concepts, which are particularly convenient for induction machines because of their cylindrical symmetry. “The discussion of synchronous machines in Chapter 11 includes both the important class of synchronous generators used in electtie supply systems, and synchronous motors which are increasingly being used in controlled-speed elec- tic drives. Again, analytical emphasis is on transient modeling and perfor- ‘mance. Various types of permanent-magnet machines are given special attention because of their major and increasing application in drives. Selected material from Chapters 7 through 11 has been used as a basis for a senior-undergraduate elective course on controlled electric drives atthe Uni- versity of Toronto. Also, a graduate course on modeling of electric machines, hhas been based on a selection from the same chapters. Most of the models developed in this book are in the form of equivalent cir- cuits. A major reason for this choice is that nonlinear parameters ean be rep- resented direcll in circuit form in relation to the controlling variables. Very little space has been given to methods of analyzing these models since it can be as ‘sumed that parallel courses in electric circuits, differential equations, computer programming, and systems analysis will have provided an adequate range of an- lytical techniques. Where appropriate, some of these techniques have been used to derive typical operating characteristics. Most of the models derived in this book are appropriate for the solution of both dynamic and steady-state performance. They can therefore be integrated into system representations. Transient solutions for some simple situations have been included in the book. For more complex situations, the analytical and sim= ulation methods developed in companion courses on control systems may be ‘employed. ‘A substantial number of problems have been included at the end of each chapter. In most instances, the pertinent section of the book is indicated at the end of the problem statement. These problems draw on all the concepts of un- derstanding, modeling, analysis, and design. Answers for most of the problems hhave been included in a separate section to reassure the reader of progress. To the instructor who wishes to use any of these problems us cest or quiz assigi= ments, I would suggest that a new set of parameter values be used. {\ significant proportion of the problems relate to design. For these, some engineering judgment may have to be exercised in arriving at an appropriate ap- proximation and in choosing materials, configurations, and dimensions. Where PaEtace answers are given to such problems, they should be regarded as typical rather than definitive. Many engineering applications have been introduced in the problem sections only, partly to demonstrate that, with @ good grounding in ba- sic concepts, a very wide range of engineering systems can be understood, an- alyzed, and devised Lists of the principal symbols used in the book have been printed on the endpapers. Each vector and phasor quantity has bcen identified through the use cof a normal letter with an arrow above the symbol rather than the common use of boldface type. I consider the latter practice unfortunate since instructors and students cannot write in boldface. In expressing data, the International System (SI) units and notation have been employed. Conversion factors to other unit systems are given in an appendix ‘Substantial sections of the book have been derived in revised form from the book Electric Machines, by Alan Straughen and myself, published in 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. As I acknowledge this, 1 would sud that been a pleasure for me to work with this excellent publisher again. Also, number of sections and problems have been incorporated into the text in re vised form from one of my earlier bocks, Megnetoelectrie Devices ~ Transiuc ers, Transformers, and Machines, published in 1966 and now out of print. 1am _rateful to the publishers ofthat book, John Wiley and Sons, for permitting me to use this material in the present wok {Lam grateful 10 my colleagues and graduate students in the Power Devices and Systems Group at the University of Toronto for their many helpful suigges- tions and criticisms. Finally, I wish to acknowledge my deep gratitude to my wife, Margaret, not only for typing the manuscript, but mainly for her contin ued support during the gestation period of this book. Toronto ORS. CETTE KIL KEK KKK KILLA ETEELELEEETL 9 TU UU F UBF BBB aA Contents CHAPTER | Magnetic Systems Magnetic Field Concepts Equivalent Magnetic and Electric Circuits Energy in a Magnetic Field Ferromagnetism Magnetization Eddy Current Loss Core Losses Alternating Excitation Production of Magnetic Flux in Air Gap Modeling of Magnetic Systems CHAPTER 2 ‘Transformers 2a 22 23 24 25 Ideal Transformers 24.1 Transformation of Electric Circuit Elements Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer 2.2.1 Winding Resistances 2.2.2 Magnetizing Inductance 2.2.3 Core Losses 2.2.4 Leakage Inductance ‘Transformer Rating 23.1 Per Unit Values Measurement of Transformer Parameters ‘Transformer Performance CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 83 Basic Principles of Electric Machines 3.1. Forces on Electric Currents 84 3.2. Forces on Ferromagnetic Material 86 3.3. Elementary Rotating Machine 88 3.4 Placing Conductors in Slots 93 3.5 Some Elementary Types of Electric Machines 9s 3.6 Ferromagnetic Actuator 107 3.7 Reluctance Machines m3 CHAPTER 4 135 Commutator Machines 4.1 Magnetic System 135 4.2 Rotor Windings and Commutator 138 4.3 Torque and Generated Voltage 140 4.4 Equivalent Circuit 144 48. Steady-State Performance 148, 4.6 Motors Operating on Constant Voltage Supply 154 4.7 Operation as a Generator 160 CHAPTER 5 m Induction Machines S.A Sinusoidally Distributed Windings im 3.2 Rotating Magnetic Field 7 3.3 Flux Linkage and Magnetizing Inductance 181 5.4 Torque Production with Squirrel Cage Rotor 185 8.5 Equivalent Circuit Near Synchronous Speed 190 5.6 Machines with Multiple Pole Pairs 193 5.7 Leakage Inductance and Maximum Torque 196 5.8 Rotor Design for Starting Torque 208 5.9 Single-Phase Induetion Motors 206 CHAPTER 6 213 Synchronous Machines 6.1 Cylindrical Wound-Field Machines 214 6.2 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit 216 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER 8 307 Power Semiconductor Converters i o 63. Steady-State Operation 217 + 6:4 Starting and Excitation of Synchronous Machines ns 6.5 Measurement of Parameters 226 o 6.6 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines 229 [ . 6.7. Blectrically Switched Permanent Magnet Motors 23 # CHAPTER 7 241 7 Magnetic Systems and Transformers — Revisited o- 7A Analysis of Complex Magnetic Systems 2 TAA Equivalent Cieuits 22 7.12. Equivalent Cieuit for a Two-Winding Shel-Type Transforier 250 TALS. Synthesis of Magnetic Devices a2 THA Determination of Leakage Inductance frm Dimensions 22 12 Design of Inductors and Transformers 255 72.1 Heat Tranter 256 722 Inductor Design 238 723 Transformer Design x61 7.3. Design of Pernianent-Mapnet Devees 264 14 Variable Frequency Operation of Transformers 268 1.8 Transient Invush Current of a Transformer m 146 Transformers for Polyphase Systems a 16.1 Connections of Transformers for Thece Phase Syrtems ms 1.62 Polyphase Transformers 29 7.7. Some Special Transformation Devices an 27 Astotransformers 2 4.72 Instrument Transformers 2s 18 Forces in Saturable Magnetic Devices 26 8.1 Power Switching Devices sos 8.2. Controlled Rectifier Systems 310 8.24 SinglePhase Controlled Rectifier a 8.22 Three Phase Controlled Rectifier a 1.3 Choppers m 83.1" Step-Down Choppers m 83.2 Step-Up Choppers m7 83.3 Two. and Four Quadrant Choppers m9 10.8 Linear Induction Motors = == me CONTENTS convents ad 84 It 331 CHAPTEI 4 Inverters Rt “= B:41 A Simple Voltage-Source Inverter m TIER eee ceneneeneneee 463 == 8.4.2 Pulse-Width-Modulated Voltage-Source Inverters 336 Synchronous Generators, Motors, and Drives £43. Current Source Inverters 3B == 8.5 Cycloconverters 342 11.1 Modeling of Synchronous Machines 464 => 11.1.1 Cylindrical-Rotor Machines 464 11.12 Representation of Magnetic Saturation = 11.1.3 Modeling of Saliency fea 1114 Measurement of Parameters nO charreRs 347 112. Blea! Transent Performance ° > Commutatar Motor Drives 113 Eletromechancal Transient Performance 236 — MA Peraen: Magne Syctronost Motors 503 ee Aa ia: Machines with Surface-Mounted Magnets 503 9.2 Dynamic Relations for Drive Systems 354 Machines with Inset Magnets 508 > Sere eeed coal om Machines with Circumferential Magnets 510 * 24 Potion Control 365 Hysteresis Motors sit oo = 115. Variable-Frequency Synchronous Motor Drives 512 =D 416 Controlled Reetifier Drives 322 ee cae eee 513 . 7 Save Commutator Motors 76 5.2 Self-Contcolled Drive Systems 316 OX Armature Reaction and Commutation 379 11.6 Switched Reluctance Motor Drives 520 = 11.7. Stepper Motor Drives, on =o = eee CHAPTER 10 393 A _ —— > = os ppendixes sduction Motor Drives ~ A. 81 Unit Equivalents 539 ad 10.1 A Transient Model of the Induction Machine 394 B Physical Constants sat a A Tasit Me oeei of Transient Model a C Resnivty and Temperature Coetficent of Resistivity of Some 10.1.2 Instantaneous Power and Torque Relations 404 Conductive Materials 5 — 10.1.3 Steady-State Analysis 409 D. Wie Table a a WW. Modeling of Saturation Beets a2 {0-13 Modeling of Deep Rotor Bar Etfecs ais —? 10.2 Variable-Voltage, Variable-Frequency Operation 6 Answers to Problems 545 Toa.1 Fundamental-Frequency Performance 416 — 10.22 Effects of Voltage Harmonies a2 102.3 Closed-Loop Speed Control 26 7 10.3. Variable-Current, Variable-Frequency Operation 426 Index 549 {id Variable-Voltage, Constan-Frequency Operation 432 10.5 Speed Control by Rotor-Power Recovery 435 16 Unbalanced Operation 28 {0.6.1 Operation with One Phase Open “3 10.1 Practical Windings and Space Harmonics 445 “0 CHAPTER Magnetic Systems This book is concerned with a wide range of electromagnetic devices that are used for conversion of electric energy to or from mechanical energy or, in some instances, to transform electric energy to a more readily usable form. ‘The ma- chine systems considered include (1) generators for the production of electric ower from hydraulic, steam, or gas turbines, (2) transformers to transform, clectric energy from its most convenient generation voltage to a voltage level suitable for transmission and then to transform it ta voltages appropriate for distribution and use, (3) motors to convert electric energy to mechanical form, (@) electronic converters that change the available electric power to other desired forms with controllable voltage, current, or frequency, and (S) drive systems consisting of motors and converters capable of controlling the speed or position ‘of mechanical loads. “Most electric machines convert energy by use of a magnetic field as an in termediary. Therefore, it is appropriate to begin with a discussion of the con- cepts, materials, and structures that are involved in producing magnetic fields in the required form, location, and intensity. In particular, the means of direct- ing and controlling magnetic fields, in much the same way as electric currents are directed by electrical conductors, will be examined, RALALALULALLELTAULAUUULAAAAVTTUALTS SBSSSESESSESSSSSESSERSSSSEESSSEESESES CHAPTER | MAGNETIC SYSTEMS : Magnetic Field Concepts “Magnetic fields are produced by (1) electric currents, (2) permanent magnets, ‘or (3) electric fields that are changing with time, The first two are the subject of this chapter; the last can be ignored in the context of this book because itis. significant only for high-frequency systems that radiate electromagnetic energy. ‘Let us start with Ampere’s Circuital Law, which relates the intensity of magnetic field to the current that produces it, The law may be expressed in the form fitdi= [Jaa a ay I is important that expressions such as this be read with a view to visualizing the physical field. Therefore, let us first consider a system that produces a rel atively uniform magnetic field within a confined space. Figure 1.1 shows cross sections of a coil of N turns of conductor uni- formly wound around a torus made of any nonferromagnetic material, When st euerent és passed through the coil, a magnetic field with an intensity denoted. bby the vector quantity 7 is produced within the torus. Consider the closed path shown within the torus at radius r. Because of the circular symmetry, the mag~ hritudte of the field intensity must be the same at all points along the path. Ac- ‘cording to Eq. (1.1), the product of the magnetic field intensity directed along, this path and the length of the closed path is equal to the sum of all the clec- tric current passing through the area enclosed by the path. Each of the turns © ire 1.1. Coil wound on toroidal core showing magnetic field intensity £1 |LI_ MAGNETIC FIELD CONCEPTS of the coil penetrates this enclosed surface. Thus, the right-hand side of Eq. (1.1) is equal to Nior, more generally, to the product of the conductor current den- sity J and the total cross-sectional area of the N conductors. Thus, at radius r, H,Qar)=Ni A aay NM Am aay Application of the circuital law for a circular path at any radius that is not within the torus shows no net enclosed current. Therefore, the magnetic field is effectively confined to the volume within the torus. Examination of Eq. (1.3) shows thatthe field intensity will be greatest along fa path at the inside edge of the torus and least atthe outer side of the torus. If the cross-sectional radius @ of the torus is small relative to the radius of the to- ts, the value of #7 at the average value of path radius r may be used as a good approximation to the field over the whole cross section. For our purposes, the most important property of a magnetic field is de- seribed by its magnetic flux density, denoted by a vector quantity B. For free space, and practically for all nonferromagnetic materials, this quantity is related to the magnetic field intensity vector by a constant yp having a value of bos 4x x 10-7 Tam/A ay so that nfl T a3) the unit of flux density being the testa (T). Just as current density J integrated over the cross-sectional area of @ ‘conductor gives the current i, the integration of the flux density over the cross- sectional area of the magnetic field gives the magnetic flux measured in webers (Wb). Thus, for the torus of Fig. 1.1, BA Wo 6 where, for the torus of Fig. 1.1, Asa om an and His the average magnitude of the flux density directed perpendicular to the area A, Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity and is continuous around a closed path, similar to the way electric current is continuous in a conducting path. ‘The next concept that is required is that an electric current that is chang- ing with time sets up in the space both within and around the conductor an elec- tric field of intensity & which opposes the change in current. Figure 1.2 shows this electric field around a cross section of the toroidal coil of Fig. 1.1. Usually wwe are interested in the voltage that is induced either in the turns of the toroi- 3 4 CHAPTER |_MAGNETIC sysTenS (. re L2_ Electric field intensity & caused by increasing eurtent din toroidal cil dal coil or in any other coi that encircles the toroidal core. In this text, the in duced voltage is given the symbol e and isthe negative of the electromotive force (omf) of Faraday’s Law. The induced voltage may be visualized as the voltage that would occur across the ends of a slightly opened loop. By adaptation of Faraday’s Law, the induced voltage around an essentially closed path such as 42 turn of the toroidal coil is related to the flux 4 enclosed by the expression tom=fidi=® y os If the path is taken along the total length of the conductor in the toroidal coil. cach turn will be @ nearly closed path enclosing flux #. For the whole coil, the induced voltage will be ef bt 0 y us ‘The quantity N@ is the total flux linked by the coil as it wraps N times around the flux 4 and is denoted as the flux linkage X measured in webers. For the t0- roidal coil, » Wb (1.10) __12_ EQUIVALENT MAGNENC AND ELECTRIC CincuntS ‘The voltage induced in a coil may now be expressed as ay a ‘The direction or polarity of the induced voltage is always such as to oppose a change in the flux linkage. 12 Equivalent Magnetic and Electric Circuits In situations where the magnetic field is confined toa definite volume of space, such as in the torus of Fig. 1.1, itis convenient to introduce the concept of ‘magnetic eireut, just as an electric cireuit is used to denote constrained electri- cal conducting paths. This involves introduction of the concept of a mag. Retomotive force (mint) F, For a closed path, itis a scalar quantity equal to both sides of the circuital law of Eq. (1.1). Thus, s= [ida fia (2) For the torus, the mm is San OA aay White the unit of is often called an “ampere turn,” the preper unit isthe am pere because the number of tutns is dimensionless The mnif may be related to the magnetic flux in essentially the same way that potential difference or voltage is related to current in ax electrical condue tor. For the torus, with a path length (=2ar om (19) and a cross-sectional area A, the relation is B e FaM= 2 pao A ni*na as) The constant of proportionality between F and 4 is the reluctance ® of the ‘magnetic path and is defined by the relation 5 R aw 3a Wb a6) The relation between the variables may now be modeled by the equivalent mag- netic circuit of Fig. 1.3. Reluctance &t in a magnetic circuit is analogous to 18 DELALALEILLEELELKLALLALARAARAARADAD CHAPTER |_ MAGNETIC SYSTENS 5 a Figure 1.3 Equivalent magnetic circuit sistance R in an electric citcuit, both being proportional to the path length and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, The flux linkage 2 of the toroidal coil of Fig. 1.1 ean be related to the coil ‘current i by combining Eqs. (1.3, 1.5, 1.6), and (1.10) 2 Ho oe We ain = Nd = NBA = NuoHA = N? ‘The constant of proportionality between flux Tinkage and current is denoted as, the inductance L of the coil, expressed in henries (H): Mou ais) ‘The induced voltage in the coil can now be related to the time rate of change of current. From Eqs. (1.11) and (1.18), ay a di 119 5 19) 11 a voltage vs applied to the terminals of a coil of resistance and inductance 1, the current i is governed by the expression di v=Rite=Ri4L 2 V 1.20) Ri+ thG c ‘rherefore, the coil may be modeled by the electric equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.4 Figure 144 Equivalent electric circuit. 1.2_EQUVALENT MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS b — 0 dimension in men Figure 1.5 Diagram for Example 1.1 EXAMPLE I.1 Figure 1.5 shows a toroidal coil wound on a plastic ring of rectangular cross section. The coil has 200 turns of round copper wire 3 mm in diameter, (a) For a coil current of $0 A, find the magnetic flux density at the mean diameter of the ring, (b) Find the inductance of the coil, assuming the field within the coil is uni- form and equal to that at the mean diameter. (©) Determine the percentage error in assuming uniform flux density in the ring (@) Given the resistivity » of copper as 1.72 x 10-* 2-m, determine the pa- rameters of the electric equivalent cireuit of Fig. 1-4 Solution b Ne (2) At the mean diameter Hi oMi oH We Ni _ 200 x 50 - =A RE = 9098 ayn B= pg = 4x x 107? x 9095 = 0.0118 T (b) Assuming B= 0.01147, 0114 x 04 x 005 = 5715 pW 200 x S7AS x 10% = 11.43, mWb 43 107? ABI L929 10H 30 L4_FERROMAGNETSH 8 CHAPTER _ MAGNETIC SYSTENS _ Alternatively, ‘ 0.35% 8358 sins x 108 oA ~ Fe 10-7 x 01 KOS a= nt a (©) For 0.15 Energy in a Magnetic The process of setting up a magnetic field in a coit involves supplying energy to ¢ vis applied to the N-turn toroidal coil of Fig. 1.1. [Let us assume that the field inside the torus is reasonably uniform in magnivude, From Eq. (1.20), the power entering the coil at any instant in time is the coil. Suppose a volta an =u=Rtsi® w u a ‘The first term in Eq. (1.21) is the power being dissipated as heat in the coil con- ductor, and the remaining partis the power py flowing into energy storage in the magnetic field. Thus, 4x1! avwe ay at aB a "0 nai = acne w 1.2) A at a cae Wen ex desy sao he eng W rein te met el i we fovarm [annan= [4 pane can 2 9 aay lo Jomo 2u0 we Wm (1.24 ‘The stored energy can also be expressed in terms of the overall parameters and variables of the coil. From Eqs. (1.18) and (1.22), _ (125) The energy stored is then given by ae w= fon 4 26 Alternate forms of this energy expression are wee J azn 2 The stored energy may also be expressed in terms of the magnetic circuit vari- ables as J 1.28) 4 Ferromagnetism ‘The relation of Eq. (1.5) that the magnetic flux density B is equal to the mag- etic field intensity #7 multiplied by the constant yg is strictly true only for a vacuum. However, it is true to within ess than 0.001% for most materials, Of the basic elements, only a few such as iron, nickel, and cobait display a mark- ely different relationship at normal operating temperature. Using core mate. tials containing these elements arid their alloys, the flux or flux density produced TCT 5d MAGNETIC sySTEns bya given field intensity or coil current can be enormously increased. This phe- nomenon is known as ferromagnetism. A basic understanding of ferromagnetism can be developed through use of | a relatively imple model of the atom as a positively charged nucleus surrounded by an ordered cloud of negatively charged electrons. Each electron may be con- sidered to be in an orbit around the nucleus, as shown in Fig. 1.6(a). The elec- tric charge on each electron is —1.6 10-™ C, A negative charge revolving clockwise around a circular path can be considered as equivalent to an electric current i directed counterclockwise around the path. Such a loop of current will produce a magnetic field proportional to the current / and to the area A enclosed by the loop. This source of magnetic field is denoted as the magnetic moment Orbital motion ‘of electron @ wo Direction (= Cc} Figure 1.6 (a) Orbital motion of electron, (b) equivalent current loop and magnetic ‘moment, and c) electron spin and its magnetie moment _ 14 _FERROMAGNETSH Pro» & vector having a magnitude iA and a direction normal to the plane of the loop in the positive direction of the field intensity that it would produce, as shown in Fig. 1.6(6). {In addition to its orbital field, each electron produces a magnetic field that ccan be visualized by considering the electron as a charge cloud spinning on its ‘own axis, as shown in Fig. 1.6(c). The result is a spin magnetic moment, A, ‘Magnetic moments of electrons occur only as multiples of a basic quantity hav ing a magnitude of 9.27 x 10- A-m?. This quantum property is analogous to the discrete charge on each electron of ~1.6 x 10 C. The spin magnetic mo- ‘ment Bg has one unit of this basic value, and the orbital magnetic moment Bno is either ze70 or an integral multiple of this value. With each electron acting as a source of magnetic field, one might expect all atoms and materials to produce a continuous magnetic field. However, in the ‘atoms of many elements the electrons are arranged either symmetrically or at random about the nucleus so that the magnetic moments due to their spin and orbital motions cancel out, leaving the atom with no net magnetic moment. Nevertheless, the atoms of more than one-third of the known elements lack this symmetry, so that they do possess a net moment. Even when a material consists of atoms that each have a net magnetic mo- ‘ment, the arrangement of atoms in the material frequently is such that the mag- netic moment of one atom is canceled out by that of an oppositely directed near neighbor. Of the basic elements, only iron, nickel, and cobalt have the magnetic moments of adjacent atoms aligned when at room temperature, Two other el- ‘ements in the rare-carth series, dysprosium and gadolinium, have the same prop- erty, but only at lower temperature, Most of the useful magnetic materials arc based on iron, which is both pten- tiful and well aligned magnetically. I is usually alloyed with other elements, de- pending on the desired properties. These other elements are not restricted to those three or five that are naturally aligned but may include others whose at- toms have a net magnetic moment. This includes such elements as vanadium, chromium, and manganese and many of the rare-earth elements, Most of the interesting magnetic materials are crystalline, and the direction of alignment of the magnetic moments is normally along one of the erystal axe. ‘One might then expect each crystal to act as a small permanent magnet; this is known to be the case with very small iron filings, which tend to stick to any iron object. However, it was noted in Section 1.3 that considerable energy is required to produce a magnetic field in free space (Eq. [1.24]). If there is an alignment ‘of magnetic moments within the crystal that requires lower energy than the com- plete alignment along one crystal axis with a field external to the crystal, it will be preferred. Figure 1.7 shows a typical alignment in an iron crystal which has three mutually perpendicular easy axes of magnetic alignment. The magnetic ‘moments have arranged themselves into four magnetic domains, each directed along a crystal axis of easy alignment. The magnetic flux produced by the aligned moments finds a closed path within the crystal, and only a negligible amount can be observed near the domain boundaries outside the crystal. ERI MAGNETIC sysTens A Cota anes Figure 17 Orien ton of magnetic domains in a crystal of ton, {nits natural state, a block of iron consists of many crystals that normally are randomly oriented. Each crystal may contain many of these magnetic do. ‘mains, each oriented along one of the three mutually perpendicular crystal anew Each domain can be considered as a small permanent magnet. ‘The domains are normally shaped and oriented so that flux closure paths are set up within the Srystal, similar to that shown in Fig. 1.7. In most ferromagnetic materials, the domains are relatively small, having typical dimensions of the order of 1 te 100 yr, Let us now examine the process whereby the orientation of domains in a fer- romagnetic material may be changed by application of an externally produced magnetic field, Suppose a magnetic moment fy is placed in a magnetic held of ux density 8, as shown in Fig. 1.8. The moment will experience a torque = Bax Nem (1.29) tending to rotate the moment toward alignment with the field Next, consider the eros section ofa crystal shown in Fig. 1.92) consisting ‘of a number of parallel oriented domains, each of such a small width that there is no significant magnetic lux out of the erysal ends. In the microscopic creee section y between two oppositely oriented domains, the orientation of atomic magnetic moments does not change abruptly from one direction to the other but does so gradually over a domain walt, typically with a width of a few hundred atomie diameters or over a distance of 10°* to 10°” m, as shown in highly ex. panded form in Fig. 1,9(b). In this figure, the transition in alignment can be pic. Figure 1.8 Torque on a magnetic moment in a magnetic fil rmoweeas cit fo twist in a narrow paper strip, with he direction of the ‘moment being always across the width ofthe stip, Sunose an external magnetic fel is now applied to this erysal ina de netic momen sg oientation of the domains, as shown in Fig. 1-36). Maw Mal hoes tea ead sligned with the field £4 will experience no torgun os dom that ae oppositely signed. is only those moments inthe eons sea ll that experience a torque, tending to rotate them into lng win {plied ficld 7. In Fig. 1.9(b), the effect will be to move the wall downward, srg Ane width of the upper domain and reducing the width ofthe Ince ig TO Let i the crystals to change the original domain pot. tre righ gl 28) foward that of Fig. 1.9(), with larger domains are sa none we could arrange a toroidal core of ron with ll of ts crytal anes Aligned along the circumferential axis ofthe torus and with all etic magnetic inighe be sina aligned along the same axis A cross section of the cor the ‘might be visualized as minute current loops, ehh atom has a magnetic moment of 2.2 times the basie quantum 10-0. Arm. The spacing between iron aioms is about an 10" "'m. Thus, the area occupied by a single atom in be d®. Each atomic magnetic moment may be visual, ing in a loop of area d?. Thus, for one atom Pars ind? 2x 927 X10 Asn? (1.30) and jp = 0.394109 aay BETEESESEEEEE EEE EEE ECE EESSSSSSSS SS “ MAGHENIC SYSTEMS — CHAPTER _e- Magnetic domain _- Desnain wal Ho Domain walt wih Dirction of welt ion al with no net magnetie fax, (b) domain wall sre 19_() Cos seton ofc ree ‘and (¢) crystal domains following domain wall faction “a” in an applied field “The effect of a totally aligned single layer of magnetic moments is seen t© ‘be equivalent to a current ig encitling the torus. There will be one such cur pea Tor each atomic spacing d, The equivalent magnetic field intensity within the torus then will be 1s MAGNETIZATION TA, Figure 1.10 Magnetization of ferromagnet torus. dng le? tue Hes ete aC Alm 0.32) For eubie structures, d? is the volume occupied by one atom. Therefore, Eq, (1.32) expresses the maximum possible aligned moment pet unit of volume. This aligned magnetic moment per unit volume is denoted as the magne- tization Af. It represents the effect of the magnetic moments in the material just as the vector #7 represents the magnetic field intensity due to external cutrents. For iron, the maximum possible magnetization is iy _ 0.394 x 10% d 227% = 173x108 A/m 1.33) Thus, the effect of perfectly aligned magnetic moments in a toroidal iron core is equivalent to the effect of a coil around a nonmagnetic torus with a current of 1730 A per millimeter of length around its circumference. The flux density produced in the material by its ideally aligned magnetic moments is, by anal ogy with Eq. (1.5), B= polt 4x x 107x173 x 108218 34) In practice, this is a very intense field. ‘AS the temperature is inereased, the random motion of the atoms increas ingly disturbs the alignment of the net moments of adjacent atoms, thus re- ducing the net aligned magnetization M, as shown in Fig. 1.11. The Curie temperature, Te, is the value at which alignment can be considered to be com- pletely random, producing no net field in the material, For iron, this tempera- ture is 770 °C, for nickel 358 °C, and for cobalt 1115 °C. CHAPTER |_MAGNETIC sysTEMS Me Lj o raced % Figure 1.11 Dectease of magnetization with temperature. In practice, we are interested in two general classes of ferromagnetic ma- terials, one in which the magnetic alignment can be easly changed by use of a small external magnetic field and another in which the alignment strongly resists any effect of an external field. The most frequent example ofthe first class, des hoted as magneticaly soft materials, is icon alloyed with small amounts of exhey clements such as silicon. When itis rolled into thin sheets, the crystals are elon sated and partially aligned in the direction of rong. Annealing tends to roliene internal stresses and makes it easy for domain walls 10 be moved by an exter, nal field. Suppose a toroidal core is made ofthis soft iron and a magnetic field intensity 14's applied to it using a uniformly wound coil. The total magnetic flux density wil be that due to the coil plus the eect of the imperfectly aligned mag. netic moments Bais) 1 (135) A typical result is the measured magnetization curve For sheet steel, as shown in Fig. 1.12. With an applied magnetic field intensity of 1000 A/m, the value of flux density in a nonferromagnetic core would be 4x x 10-7 x 10! 0.00125 T. This is seen to be celatively insignificant in comparison with the contribution made by the alignment of magnetic moments in the sheet steel pro ducing a flux density of 1.8 T, i, some 1440 times as great Figure 1.12 also shows magnetization curves for cast steel and cast iron. In these materia the crystal alignment is more random: the erystls contain many impurities, defects, and strains, all of which make it more difficult for domain walls to be moved and which also reduce the maximum flux density that can be achieved, ‘The second class of magnetic materials is denoted as hard or permanent ‘magnet materials. These are constituted and processed in such a way as to lock in a near-permanent alignment oftheir magnetic moments. This is accomplished by appropriate selection of the alloying elements, by the production of small crystals that naturally have discontinuity at their boundaries, and by the pro. duction of internal stresses, typically by quenching the material when hot 6 _ HYSTERESIS ee eles 300” 3060350030 Naor Figure 1.12. Magneization curves, Hysteresis shbpase the colin Fig 1s wound on an ito torus in which the domains are initially oriented such thatthe net flux density across.a section of the cece wavelecne gull cute is seteased from zero, applying the field intensity #7 ran gran shown in Fig. 1.13(2), the fux density B, averaged over the ross oe tion of the core, increases, as shown in Fig. 1.13(b). At fess observed in B until H reaches a value sufficient to shift domain walls, The flux i along the crystal axes. Such rotation req Fequired for domain wall motion, The uires much greater values of H than are additional flux density achieved by ad ° « s « A - « s . - - - \ - = - = = - = - = - - See tee eee CHAPTER | _ MAGNETIC sysTENS o Figure 1.13. (a) Variation of fied intensity with time and (b) Mux density in tensity locus leading to closed 1 loop. sn approaches satura dition of more field H gradually decreases as the 0 "Now suppose that the coil current is gradually reduced. First, the domains that were rotated due to the applied HY will relax back toward their axes of crys tal orientation, However, most of the domain walls will remain in position as, the applied field His reduced to zero, leaving a residual flux density B, in the ‘core, It is only when a reversed field H, sufficient to move the domain walls, is, applied that the flux density will reduce toward zero and reverse. Figure 1.13(b) shows that the effect of repeated cycling between fields of maximum values H ‘and ~H eventually results in a B-H loop which closes on itself each cycle of re- versal. Such a loop is known as a hysteresis loop. Figure 1.14 shows a typical family of hysteresis loops for several values of ‘H, each after the loop has reached a steady repetitive state. For loops involv ing small values of overall maximum flux density, the change in flux density is produced mainly by domain wall motion. It is only as the flux density ap- proaches saturation that its increase is due mainly to domain rotation. ‘Atter a large value of positive 1’ has been applied to the core and then re- ‘moved, the flux density drops to its residual value B,, sometimes referred to as, | Magnetization a Figure 1.14 Family of steady-state hysteresis loops its remanence. The negative value of magnetic field intensity (—H,) required to reduce the flux density to zero is known as the coercive force or coercivity of the material If the tips of the first quadrant of a family of loops are joined, the result is the dashed line shows in Fig. 1.14, This is known as the magnetization curve of the material. Examples of such curves have been presented in Fig, 1.12, The limited amount of information contained in the magnetization curve is adequate for many applications In the analysis of many magnetic systems, a further simplifying approxima: tion is permissible. A typical magnetization curve for sheet steel is shown in Fig, 1.15. White this curve is nonlinear, it ean be approximated by a straight line over a limited range of flux density as shown. This line can then be modeled by the relation to T 1.36) The quantity n, is known as the relative permeability of the material, tis a di- ‘mensionless number indicating the flux density in the material relative to that Which would occur with an air core for the same magnetic field intensity. ‘The hysteresis loops of Fig. 1.14 show the B-AT relationship when the ap. plied field is increased and decreased consistently, as shown in Fig. 1.13(@), ie., Without intermediate reversals. Figure 1.16(a) shows a more complex variation Of H involving several reversals of the rate of change H with time. Each inter- ‘mediate change of increase to decrease of H creates a minor B-H loop, as shown in Fig. 1.16(b). Ferromagnetic alloys have been developed to produce a variety of B-H re- lationships; an example is shown in Fig. 1.17. In this nickeliron material, the domains can be almost perfectly aligned inthe direction of the desired magnetic field. The freedom from impurities and stresses in the material is such that a 20 CHAPTER | _MAGNENC srsTess uf apn at Figure 1.48 Magnetization curve of sheet sce witha fina approximation ficld intensity of less than 10.A/m or 10 mA/mm of magnetic path length is re {quired to move the domain walls. When the wall motion is complete, the ma terial is effectively saturated. Permanent magnet materials are designed to maintain their saturated valuc ‘of magnetization M in spite ofa large value of reversed magnetic field H. Ex amples of B-#f loops for ‘wo typical permanent magnet materials are shown in Fig, 1.18, The first of these is a mixture of the rare-carth element neodymium, with iron and boron (Nd-Fe-B). The second isa ferrite material made of the ox: ides of iron and other magnetic elements such as barium or strontium. These materials may be oriented or magnetized by applying a large positive magnetic field intensity #1, which in turn sets up the saturation value of magnetization Nf in the material. As the field His reduced to zero, the flux density reduces to the residual value B,. As a reversed field H is applied, the flux density decreases along a line having a slope only slightly greater than jg, indicating, from Eq. (1.35), that the value of magnetization is relatively unchanged at Mf. This straight line relationship continues until sufficient field intensity is applied to cause the magnetization M to reverse as indicated by the abrupt change in slope at the reversed field intensity Hp. For these matenals, any reversed field Hf lesser in magnitude than Hy may be applied to the magnet without substan- tially changing its magnetization, Thus, excursions along the straight line por tion can occur in both ditections without any appreciable minor loop. However, i a reversed field greater than Hp is applied, the magnetization will be partially reversed, and the new B-H relation will be an essentially straight line of slope neat sx parallel to the original B-HY fine. Le wysteress 21 ” ~ o Figure 1.16 (a) Variation of magnetic Fld intensity with time and (B) sino loops due to reversals in direction of increase or decease in Anne Figure 1.17 8-1 loop for deltamax (50% Ni: S0%e Fe). = = = = 2 - = - 2 2 ” » ” ” ~” o ” ” - - ” o ” ~ o ~ “ ~ ~” ~ ” ” ” » n CHAPTER |_ MAGNETIC SYSTEMS Figure 1.18 B-F1 loops for neodymium and ferrite permanent magnet material “The straight line relation for the useful B-Hf range of the permanent mag- ret material may be modeled by the equation B= Bet uno 7 37) In some permanent magnet materials such as samarium cobalt, the value of flux: density Bp at which magnetization begins to reverse may be highly negative, while in others i is still positive EXAMPLE 1.2. A toroidally wound coil has 1000 turns. Its core is made Of the sheet steel for which @ B-H magnetizing curve is given in Fig. 1.15. ‘The torus has a mean diameter of 250 mm and a square cross section of 25 x 25 mm. (a) Using the linear approximation to the B-HY curve, determine the rela- tive permeability of the core material. (b) Determine the reluctance of the core using this linear approximation. (©) Determine the corresponding value of coil inductance. es 17_HYSTERESS Loss Solution (@) Using a point on the linear approximation: B= 11ST, H= 260 A/m 5 1 = 3520 4 x 107 x 260 o x 0.25 7 1520 x ae x 10-7 x O.oH5 = 784100 AW © NP 10007 _ io @& ~ 354100 7H Hysteresis Loss I the magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material is periodically reversed, eneray will be dissipated as heat in the process of moving the domain walls past the im- purities and strains in the crystal structure. Consider a toroidal ferromagnetic core with a coil connected to an electrical source. Suppose the magnetic field intensity in the magnetic material is being cycled around the hysteresis loop of Fig. 1.19 between the maximum limits Af and ~H by varying the coil current Figure 1.19 8-41 characteristic showing hysteresis loss as the atea of the oop. 2 24 CHAPTER |_ MAGNETIC SYSTEMS direction perioditally. From Eq. (1.23), the energy input per unit volume to the ‘magnetic Field in changing the flux density from point a to point cis a (1.38) [ones ane “This energy input is represented by the area encased between the B-Hf curve and the B axis of Fig. 1.19, i.e. the area abeda, When the field intensity is now re- duced from #7 to zero, the flux density decreases to By, releasing the amount of ‘energy per unit volume represented by the area cdec. This energy is returned to the coil and to the electrical source. If 1 is now increased in a negative direc- tion to ~2f, the energy per unit volume supplied to the field from the source is given by the area efghe. If His again reduced to zero, the energy per unit vol ‘ume returned to the source is given by the area ghag. “The eyele of H has now been returned to its starting point, and the stored ‘energy at the end of the eycle must be the same as it was atthe beginning. Thus, there isa loss of energy per unit volume during this eyele, represented by the aabeda ~ eee + efghe ~ ghag = abcefya = area of loop (139) ‘Therefore, the energy dissipated per unit volume of material and per complete cycle isthe area enclosed by the B-#f loop for the particular limiting values of maximum /7 or B. If this is designated as w, the power dissipated in a core of volume V, cycled at a frequency J, due to this hysteresis effect will be Prom f¥ W (0.40) This is known as the hysteresis loss. ‘The volume ¥ of the torus ean be expressed as the product of its cross sectional area A and its flux path length ¢. Suppose, for a core, we rescale its B-H1 characteristic, such as the one shown in Fig. 1.17, to represent the relation between the magnetic flux & = B4 and the mmf 5 = #¢, The atea of the resul- tant &-5 loop then represents the hysteresis loss per eycle in the toroidal core. “The energy loss per cycle is a nonlinear function of the maximum value of flux density B, as can be seen from the typical family of loops in Fig. 1.14. The hysteresis loss relationship can be modeled approximately for a given magnetic material by n= kf" Wim? ay where ky and n are empirically determined constants, The value of the expe nent n is usually in the range 1.5.

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