Suhr 1

Boston Suhr

Tallman

AP Calculus

12 March 2018

Integrals and Derivatives

At the core of calculus are concepts of integrals and derivatives. They form the basis upon

which all other calculus is built, and effectively define the mathematical field as a whole.

Unsurprisingly, then, they are directly related to each other, and share many intricate dynamics

with one another.

The Integral. In essence, the integral is the area underneath a function, the space taken up by

a curve. In some cases, it returns as a single number with the definite integral, which is the area

under a specific bounded area of the function, and with the indefinite integral, it returns as a

function that represents how much area the integrated function takes up as it progresses along the

x-axis.

The integral is conceptualized as an infinite series of infinitely thin rectangles contained

under the function. The height of this rectangle is the value of the function, f(x), while the width,

dx, is the value from one value for x to the next; because x values are continuous on a graph,

there is no numerical value that corresponds to the smallest gap from one x to the next, therefore

dx is infinitely small, but not zero. This leads the rectangles to, themselves, have an infinitely

small area, and the infinite sum of all of them comprises the integral. The following notates the

integral.

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
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The values of a and b correspond to the bounds of a definite integral; if they are left blank,

the integral is indefinite. If they are assigned values, the integral only sums the areas of

rectangles between x values of the bottom or lower bound and the upper bound, which are placed

correspondingly in the above notation. Otherwise, the integral is indefinite, and the resulting

function starts summing the area starting where x equals zero. Area to the right of the starting

bound is positive because dx is positive while to the left both are negative—note that if f(x) is

negative at a given value then the area of the corresponding rectangle will be the inverse of

whatever it would normally be if f(x) were positive. Thus, if a and b were swapped in a definite

integral, the result would be the negative of what it would be if they were not switched.

𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

Figure 1. A graph of a function, f1(x), and its indefinite integral, f2(x).

Figure 1, above, shows a basic indefinite integral. Here f2(x), a cubic function, represents the

area underneath f1(x), which is quadratic. The former is at a higher power of x because it

represents the value along the y-axis, which is already in units of x2, multiplied by the value

along the x-axis, which is in units of x, so the product between the two results in units of x3.
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The Derivative. The derivative, meanwhile, is the opposite of the integral, such that the

indefinite integral is also known as the antiderivative. The derivative does not split into definite

and indefinite varieties as the integral does; rather, the derivative always returns a function,

which at any given point is equivalent to the instantaneous rate of change of the parent function

at that point. This instantaneous rate of change is the conceptual equivalent of the slope of a

linear function, only the difference between the values of x, and therefore the difference of the

values for f(x), are infinitely small. This can be expressed as such.

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐)
lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

This will return the instantaneous rate of change of f(x) where the value of x equals c, or the

slope of the line tangent to f(x) at x=c. These slopes can also be represented in terms of dx and

dy, where dx is the difference between two infinitely close x values and dy is the difference in the

y values of the function at those values of x; dividing the latter by the former results in the

derivative, also notated f’(x), which will give the instantaneous rate of change of f(x) for any

value of x.

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Figure 2. A graph of a function, f1(x), and its derivative, f2(x).

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Figure 2, above, shows the quartic function f1(x) and its cubic derivative, f2(x). Here, the unit

relationship between the parent function and the derivative is opposite of the relationship

between a parent function and its indefinite integral: the y-axis is in units of x4, which is being

divided by the x-axis unit of x, so the result is in units of x3, one power lower.

The Relationship Between the Two. As stated earlier, the indefinite integral, or antiderivative,

is the opposite of the derivative, and this leads to relationships between the two, even so far as

the second derivative, that is, the derivative of the derivative, of an equation relating to its shape.

Take the function for velocity over time of v(x)=x2/6; here the x-axis would be in units of

meters per second. This would have a derivative of a(x)=x/3, which corresponds to acceleration

over time since it is velocity over time and returns in units per second2, and an antiderivative of

d(x)=x3/12, which corresponds to distance since it is velocity multiplied by time and returns in

meters. Further, v(x) is the derivative of d(x), and a(x) is its second derivative.

Figure 3. A graph of d(x), v(x), and a(x) on the same axis.

Figure 3, above, illustrates the rough relationship derivatives and integrals have with their

parent functions. As value for acceleration increases, the rate that the velocity increases also

does; as the velocity increases, the rate at which the distance also does as well.
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Another potential example is that of, say, a momentum over time graph, p(x)=-x4+5x3-

7x2+3x+1. This would have a derivative of a force over time graph, f(x), as momentum is

measured in Newton seconds which is being divided by seconds along the x-axis, measuring the

force over time, and an integral of the less useful kilogram meter over time graph, d(x), as a

Newton meter is also a kilogram meter per second, so multiplying this by second along the x-

axis leaves just Newton meters, which might measure the distance a mass was pushed.

Figure 4. A graph of d(x), p(x), and f(x) on the same axis.

Figure 4, above, shows the same trend of relationship as figure 3, however in a much more

complicated application; now the graph shows that when f(x) becomes negative, its direct

integral, p(x), starts decreasing.

Relationships Between Graphs. Derivatives can be used to find information beyond that of

just the trends of the graphs: they can deliver information on specific unique points and the

concavity of their parents.

Take derivative of a function that consists of two semicircles and two line segments where

f(1)=3, as shown below.

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Figure 5. The graph of the derivative of f(x), f’(x).

First, the local minimums and maximums can be found from the given graph: if the parent

function is increasing wherever f’(x) is positive and decreasing wherever f’(x) is negative, then

any zeros of f’(x) were one side is positive and the other is negative are relative extrema. If the

left is positive and the right is negative, then it is a local maximum, and if the left side is negative

and the right is positive, then it is a local minimum. Knowing this, f(x) has two local maximums

within [5, 5]: x=-3, and x=4, the two points where the derivative function becomes negative.

The second derivative of the parent function can be used to find its points of inflection,

anywhere its concavity changes. If the second derivative is zero and the first derivative levels

off, then the parent function has a point of inflection at that value of x; it also has a point of

inflection at a value of x if the first derivative is non-differentiable at that value for x and the

second derivative has opposite signs on either side of that x value. The points of inflection for

f(x), then, are at x=-4 and x=-1, the two points where the second derivative is 0 as the first

derivative have relative extrema, and at x=2, where the first derivative suddenly switches from
 Suhr 7

being a positive slope line to a negative slope line, thus making it non-differentiable with

opposite signs of the second derivative on either side.

The second derivative can further be used to determine the concavity of the parent function

for a given segment. If the second derivative is positive, the parent function is concave up; if the

second derivative is negative, the parent function is concave down. The parent function, f(x), is

concave for x intervals of (-5,-4) and (-1, 2), as those are intervals where the rate of change of the

first derivative is positive. The parent function is concave up with positive slope for the intervals

(-5, -4) and (1, 2), as those are the intervals where both the first and second derivative are

positive.

The absolute minimum value of the parent function is at x of 1, which is defined as being

equal to 3. This x value is the absolute minimum for f(x) in the interval [-5, 5] because it comes

immediately after the only major section of negative slope for the parent function. The integral

under the second semicircle is the most powerful force causing the parent function to be negative

slope and it comes after only a slight amount of positive slope, leading it to be the minimum

value within the given interval.

Lastly, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus allows integrals of the given derivative to be

found. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus observes that the definite integral of a derivative

function, f’(x), from the bounds a to b is equivalent to the value of f(a) minus f(b).

𝑏
∫ 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) − 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑎

If a variable were used for one of the bounds this holds true, and allows the integral starting

from points other than the origin to be found, and can be used here to find the integral from 1 to x

of the derivative function.

 Suhr 8

𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1)

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 3

Figure 6. The simplification of g(x) using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 3

𝑔′ (𝑥) ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∗ 𝑥 ′ − 0

𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥)

Figure 7. The simplification of the derivative of g(x).

𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

𝑔′′ (𝑥) ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) ∗ 𝑥 ′

𝑔′′ (𝑥) = 𝑓′′(𝑥)

Figure 8. The simplification of the second derivative of g(x).

Figures 7 and 8, above, show that the derivative of g(x) are the same derivative of f(x), which

is because g(x) is only a translated function of f(x), and its instantaneous rates of change do not

change. Knowing this, the values of g(3), g’(3), and g’’(3) can be found. The value of f(3) can be

found by adding the integral of the given derivative from 1 to 3 to the given value of f(1), which

comes out to be 5.5. The given piecewise function is linear at x of 3, so its instantaneous rate of

change at that point is the same of the slope of the line, which is -1.

𝑔(3) = 𝑓(3) − 3 = 5.5 − 3 = 2.5

𝑔′ (3) = 𝑓 ′ (3) = 1

𝑔′′ (3) = 𝑓 ′′ (3) = −1

Figure 9. The solutions for g(3), g’(3), and g’’(3).

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The Intermediate and Mean Value Theorems. Also vital to calculus are two seemingly innate

properties of most continuous graphs: the Intermediate Value Theorem and the Mean Value

Theorem.

The Intermediate Value Theorem observes that, for any continuous graph with a given

function, f(x), and if there are values a and b such that when x equals either then f(b)>f(a), then

the graph of f(x) must contain all values of (f(a), f(b)) within the interval for x if (a, b). Basically,

it means in order for a continuous graph to go from one value to another, it has to hit all other

values between those two to do so.

The Intermediate Value Theorem, meanwhile, posits that for a given function f(x), if it is

continuous for the x interval of [a, b] and differentiable for the x interval of (a, b), then there

must be some value c, such that f’(c) equals the mean slope between f(a) and f(b).

𝑓(𝑎) − 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑓(𝑐) =
𝑎−𝑏

This effectively means that a continuously differentiable function will contain the average slope

between two points as the instantaneous rate of change at some point between those two points.

Consider functions f(x), g(x), and h(x), such that f(x) and g(x) are differentiable for all real

numbers g(x) is strictly increasing, and h(x) is defined as f(g(x))-6. The functions f(x) and g(x)

fulfill the following table

Table 1

Values of f(x) and g(x) and their derivatives at selected values of x.

x f(x) f'’(x) g(x) g’(x)

1 3 4 2 5
2 9 2 3 1
3 10 -4 4 2
4 -1 3 6 7
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Because of h(x)’s definition, it is both differentiable for all real numbers and continuous;

because f(x) is differentiable for all real numbers, and g(x) is strictly increasing and continuous,

then f(g(x)) is also differentiable for all real numbers, which also makes it continuous, as

functions are not differentiable at points of discontinuity. The values of h(1) and h(3) can be

found using the values present in table 1.

ℎ(1) = 𝑓(𝑔(1)) − 6

ℎ(1) = 𝑓(2) − 6

ℎ(1) = 9 − 6

ℎ(1) = 3

ℎ(3) = 𝑓(𝑔(3)) − 6

ℎ(3) = 𝑓(4) − 6

ℎ(3) = −1 − 6

ℎ(3) = −7

Figure 10. Calculations for h(1) and h(3).

Because h(x) is continuous, then within the x interval of (1, 3), h(x) must fill all values in the

interval (3, -7). Therefore, there must be some value, r, within the interval (1, 3), such that h(r)

equal -5, as -5 falls within the interval (3,-7), by the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Using these calculated values, the mean slope between the two points for h(x) can be found.

ℎ(1) − ℎ(3) 3 − −7
=
1−3 1−3
10
= −5
−2

Figure 11. The average slope from h(1) to h(3).

 Suhr 11

Now, because h(x) is differentiable for all real numbers it is differentiable for all values of x

in the interval (1, 3), and, because the mean slope between h(1) and h(3) is -5, there must be

some value, c, within the interval (1, 3) such that h’(c)=-5.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus can also apply with the given information here

despite the lack of a graph. Assume the function w(x) is defined as follows.

𝑔(𝑥)
𝑤(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1

Therefore the derivative of w(x) would be calculated like this.

𝑔(𝑥)
𝑤(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1

𝑤(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑓(1)

𝑤(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 3

𝑤′(𝑥) ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ∗ 𝑔′ (𝑥) ∗ 𝑥 ′ − 0

𝑤 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ∗ 𝑔′(𝑥)

Figure 12. The derivative of w(x).

With this, the value for w’(3) can be found.

𝑤 ′ (3) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(3)) ∗ 𝑔′ (3)

𝑤 ′ (3) = 𝑓 ′ (4) ∗ 2

𝑤 ′ (3) = 3 ∗ 2 = 6

Figure 13. The calculation of w’(3).

A table like this could also be used to find derivatives pertaining to the inverse function of

those presented. The derivative of the inverse of g(x) could be found as follows.

𝑦 = 𝑔−1 (𝑥)
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1
𝑦′ =
𝑔′(𝑦)

With this the derivative of the inverse of g(x) at x of 2 could be found.

𝑦 = 𝑔−1 (2)

𝑦=1

1
𝑦′ =
𝑔′(1)

1
𝑦′ =
5

Figure 14. The derivative of the inverse of g(x) at x of 2.

This can be used to find the tangent line at this value of x; as the value of g-1(2) is known to

be 1, the line tangent to that function at x of 2 is as follows.

1
𝑦= 𝑥+1
5

Lastly, assume h(x) could also be defined as follows.

ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑏(𝑥)

𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

Therefore, the derivative of h(3) would be found as such.

ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑏(𝑥)

ℎ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑏 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑏(𝑥)

𝑥
ℎ′ (𝑥) = + 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))

3
ℎ′ (𝑥) = + 𝑓 −1 (3)
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (3))

3
ℎ′ (𝑥) = +1
𝑓 ′ (1)
 Suhr 13

3
ℎ′ (𝑥) = +1=2
3

Figure 15. The calculation for h’(3).

Overall, integrals and derivatives are intricately connected due to their direct relationship to

one another, and as such leave room for multiple useful interactions between values of the two.