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• Appendicular skeleton
– Limbs
– 126 bones
Features of a Long Bone:
Articular Cartilage:
Cushions the ends of the
bones and allows for
smooth movement.
Epiphyseal Plate:
Areas made of cartilage
allowing for the growth of
the bone.
Joints
• Where bone meets bone
• Ligament – holds bone to bone
• Types of joints:
– Immovable - skull
– Ball-and-socket - shoulder
– Hinge - knee
– Pivot – forearm
– Gliding - vertebrae
Joints
• Cartilage covers ends of movable bones
– Reduces friction
• Lubricated by fluid from capillaries
Cartilage
Bone Structure
• Periosteum – hard outer covering
– Cells for growth and repair
limbs Carpals
vertebrae Skull bones
tarsals
Ribs
Sternum
scapula
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal Line
Diaphysis
Periosteum
Articulating Cartilage
Compact Bone
• Canaliculi
• Haversian Canal
• Lamellae
• Osteon
Another picture of Compact Bone
Spongy Bone
Located along the epiphyses of long bones
Site of Erythrocyte (RBC) formation
Collagen fibers are not arranged in concentric rings. But the lamellae form
rods called . No Osteons or Haverian Systems are present.
Bone Development
• Initial skeleton of cartilage in infants
– dissolve
bone by secreting enzymes
and acids. Release Ca to
be returned to blood
stream
– cells that
produce new bone cells
referred to as osteogenesis
• Ossification Zone
Longitudinal Growth
• Controlled by 3 hormones
– Growth Hormone
• Baby to prepuberty
– Sex Hormones (estrogen/testosterone)
• Causes growth spurt at puberty
• Shapes your skeleton to your sex
– Thyroid Hormones (PTH & Calcitonin)
• PTH = parathyroid hormone
• Controls whether bone growth occurs
• Affects Appositional Growth – bone growth in
diameter
Bone Homeostasis
Bone Remodeling
• Osteons are formed by osteoblasts
• In healthy adults:
– Bone deposit = bone resorption
– Osteoblasts = Osteoclasts
• Bone Remodeling refers to the regular
mineral turnover that occurs in bone.
• In adults, 18 % of proteins and minerals
turns over yearly. Not uniform. I.e. Head
of femur is remodeled more. Why?
Bone Remodeling
Controlled by Negative Feedback Loop
• Bone Deposit • Bone Resorption
– Occurs where bone is – Osteoclasts break down
injured or added bone bone
strength is required – Calcium is taken from
– Deposits Ca+2 into bone and placed into
bone blood stream
– Lysosomes assist in the
process
– Ca and PO4 are
released; eventually
releasing the blood
stream
Bone Remodeling is controlled by 2 hormones by
a Negative Feedback Loop
• Blood Calcium is the original stimulus
• Normal Blood Ca is 9-11 mg CA/100 ml of
blood
• When blood Ca decreases (< 9 mg)
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) is released
into bloodstream.
• Bone resorption occurs causing Ca to
leave bone and goto the blood stream
• Osteoclasts are working
High levels of blood Ca (>11mg)
• When blood Ca levels are high, Calcitonin
is released.
• Causes bone deposit to occur
• Ca from the blood is stored into bone.
• (Osteoblasts and Osteocytes are working.)
• 99% of all Ca is found in bone.
• Osteoclasts
cause bone
resorption
– Controlled
by PTH
• Osteoblasts
cause bone
deposit
– Controlled
by calcitonin
• Vitamin D – aids in the absorption of Calcium into
the bone. Part of vitamin D is converted to the
hormone calcitriol which allows Ca to pass through
the S.I.(What food is Vitamin D fortified?)
i.e. rickets results from Vitamin D deficiency
• Vitamin C – helps osteoblasts function
i.e scurvy – caused from a reduction in osteoblast
activity
• Calcium tablets -
• Diet -
2nd Response to Regulating Bone
Remodeling
• Wolff’s Law
– Bone grows or remodels in response to the
forces or stresses placed on it.
– Appositional growth – growth in diameter is
controlled by the amount of mechanical stress
and gravity placed on the bone
– Heavy usage leads to heavy bones; nonuse
leads to atrophy (bone loss)
Controlling Bone Remodeling
• Hormones PTH and Calcitonin determines
whether and when bone remodeling
occurs.
• Normal Bone
Risk Factors
Sex (females more affected than
males; especially after menopasue)
Insufficient exercise or too much
exercise
Poor diet (low in Ca and protein
Smoking
Race: Black > bone density
Change in Bone Density with Age
Bone Fracture and Repair
• Simple Fractures take
8-12 weeks to heal
• Healing time
increases age due to
poor circulation
Phases of Bone Repair
– A mass of clotted
blood appears
– Blood vessels
hemorrhage, causing
internal bleeding
– Blood pools and clots
around fx area; which
closes off injured
blood vessels
• Macrophages invade and
clean area
• Fibroblasts help form
chondroblasts and
collagen fibers
• Helps to form cartilage
splint that will connect
ends of broken bones
• Osteoblasts
replace the
cartilage with
spongy bone
• Bone cells replace
cartilage from the
outside fx toward
the inside
• Cells are not
organized in the
bony callus
Continues 4 months to a year
Removes excess material; a layer of compact
bone is produced
Broken Bones
• Fracture is a break of the bone
• Simple or Complex fracture
• Regrowth of bone:
– Spongy bone forms in first few days
– Blood vessels regrow and spongy bone hardens
– Full healing takes 1-2 months
Homeostatic Imbalances
Rickets
•Disease of children due to a lack of vitamin D.
•Calcium is not deposited in bones.
•Bones become soft.
•Bowing of the bones, and other deformities occur.
Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteomalacia
•“Rickets” of adults.
•Due to a lack of vitamin D.
•Calcium is not deposited in the bones.
•Bones become brittle.
Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteoporosis
•Bone reabsorption is greater than bone deposition.
•Due to any of the following:
•Lack of estrogen in women.
•Lack of exercise to stress the bones.
•Inadequate intake of calcium and phosphorus.
•Abnormalities of vitamin D metabolism.
•Loss of muscle mass.
Age Related Dysfunctions
Arthritis: