Unit 11:

Electrical
hazards and
control
Aims: understand:

• The hazards and risks associated with the use of

electrical equipment and systems operating at mains
voltages;
• The measures that should be taken to minimize the
risks.

Specific outcome.

Be able to:

• Identify the hazards and evaluate the consequential

risks from the use of electricity in the workplace;
• Advice on the control measures that should be taken
when working with electrical systems or using
electrical equipment.

Reference:

Maintaining Portable and Transportable Electrical

equipment (HSG107), HSE Books.

Electricity at Work -Safe Working Practices (HSG85), HSE Books.

Tuition time: 3 hours.

• hazards and control
• 1.2 Basic Circuitry
• 1.2.1 Video: Introduction to electricity
• 1.3 Principles of electricity
• Question 1
• 1.3.2 Voltage and current
• 1.3.3 Relationship between voltage, current and resistance
• Question 2
• Question 3
• Question 4
• 1.3.4 Conductors, insulators, and electron flow
• Question
• Question 5
• 1.4 Hazards of electricity
• Question 6
• Question 7
• 1.4.1 First-aid treatment for electric shock
• 1.4.2 Other ways in which electricity can cause harm to humans
• Question 8
• 1.4.3 Other hazards associated with electricity - Fire hazards
• 1.4.4 Other hazards associated with electricity - Explosion hazard
• 1.4.5 Other hazards associated with electricity - static electricity
• 1.4.6 Damage to electronic components
• 1.4.7 Video: Dangers of Electricity
• Question 9
• Question 10
• 1.5 Portable electrical equipment
• 1.5.1 Portable electrical equipment
• 1.6 Control measures
• 1.6.1 Selection and suitability of equipment
• 1.6.2 Fuses as control measures
• 1.6.3 Circuit breaker
• 1.6.4 Earthing Principles as control measures
• 1.6.5 Isolation as control measures
• 1.6.6 Live working
• 1.6.7 Reduced low voltage systems as control measures
• 1.6.8 Residual current devices as control measures
• 1.6.9 Double - insulation as control measures
• Question 11
• 1.7 Inspection and maintenance strategies
• 1.7.1 Competence to test
• 1.7.2 Test equipment
• 1.7.3 Frequency of inspection and testing
• 1.7.4 Test parameters
• 1.7.5 Records of inspection and testing
• 1.7.6 On-site Testing
• 1.7.7 Other factors to consider
• Question 12
• Question 13
• 2.0 Summary
1.2

Basic Circuitry

A circuit is an unbroken loop of conductive material that allows

electrons to flow through continuously without beginning or end.

If a circuit is "broken," that means its conductive elements no longer

form a complete path and a continuous electron flow cannot occur in it.

The location of a break in a circuit is irrelevant to its inability to sustain

continuous electron flow. Any break, anywhere in a circuit prevents electron
flow throughout the circuit.

1.3

Principles of electricity

M ost places of work, whether they are industrial units, small

businesses, shops, offices, hotels or catering establishments will involve people
working in an environment on or near electricity. Almost all of industry's
motive power is derived from electricity.

When misdirected or misused, electrical energy can severely burn, injure

or kill individuals. Many hundreds of accidents each year are caused by
electricity and about 25% of those involve portable electrical appliances. Whilst
only about 3% of all industrial accidents are electrical, nearly 7% of all
industrial fatalities are caused by electricity; this suggests that an electrical
accident is approximately 20 times more likely to prove fatal than most other
types of accident.
1.3.2

Voltage and current

W e need more than just a continuous path (circuit) before a continuous

flow of electrons will occur; we also need some means to push these electrons
around the circuit.

Just like marbles in a tube or water in a pipe, it takes some kind of

influencing force to initiate flow. With electrons, this force is the same force at
work, as in static electricity - the force produced by an imbalance of electric
charge.

When the electrons are poised in that static condition (just like water
sitting still, high in a reservoir), the energy stored there is called potential
energy, because it has the possibility (potential) of release that has not been
fully realized yet.

When you scuff your rubber-soled shoes against a fabric carpet on a dry
day, you create an imbalance of electric charge between yourself and the carpet.
The action of scuffing your feet stores energy in the form of an imbalance of
electrons forced from their original locations.

If this charge (static electricity) is stationary, you won't be aware that

energy is being stored at all. However, once you place your hand against a
metal doorknob (with lots of electron mobility to neutralize your electric
charge), that stored energy will be released in the form of a sudden flow of
electrons through your hand, and you will perceive it as an electric shock.

This potential energy, stored in the form of an electric charge imbalanced

and capable of provoking electrons to flow through a conductor, can be
expressed as a term called voltage, which technically is a measure of potential
energy per unit charge of electrons, or something a physicist would call specific
potential energy. Voltage is also called 'electromotive force ', or E .M .F. )

Because voltage is an expression of potential energy, representing the possibility or

potential for energy release as the electrons move from one "level" to another, it is always
referenced between two points, sometimes this is called 'potential difference'.
1.3.3

Relationship between voltage, current and

resistance

I f two points with a potential difference are connected by a conductive

material, this potential for work is measured as a voltage.

When connected as described, the surplus electrons at the negatively

charged terminal will attempt to flow to the area of deficit or positively charged
terminal; this electron flow is called an electric current.

The amount of opposition to this flow will be determined by the nature of

the conductive material forming the current path and is known as its resistance.

1.3.4

Conductors, insulators, and electron flow

T he electrons of different types of atoms have different degrees of

freedom to move around.

With some types of materials, such as metals, the outermost electrons in

the atoms are so loosely bound that they chaotically move in the space between
the atoms of that material by nothing more than the influence of room-
temperature heat energy.

Because these virtually unbound electrons are free to leave their

respective atoms and float around in the space between adjacent atoms, they are
often called free electrons.

In other types of materials such as glass, the atoms' electrons have very
little freedom to move around. While external forces such as physical rubbing
can force some of these electrons to leave their respective atoms and transfer to
the atoms of another material, they do not move between atoms within that
material very easily.
 This relative mobility of electrons within a material is known as electric
conductivity. Conductivity is determined by the types of atoms in a material (the
number of protons in each atom's nucleus, determining its chemical identity)
and how the atoms are linked together with one another.

Materials with high electron mobility (many free electrons) are called
conductors, while materials with low electron mobility (few or no free
electrons) are called insulators.

Here are a few common examples of conductors and insulators:

Conductors:
• Silver.
• Copper.
• Gold.
• Aluminium.
• Iron.
• Steel.
• Brass.
• Bronze.
• Mercury.
• Graphite.
• Dirty water.
• Concrete.

Insulators:
• Glass.
• Rubber.
• Oil.
• Asphalt.
• Fibere Glass.
• Porcelain.
• Ceramic.
• Quartz.
• (Dry) cotton.
• (Dry) paper.
• (Dry) wood.
• Plastic.
• Air.
• Diamond.
• Pure water.
 1.4 Hazards of electricity The Mechanism of
Electric Shock.

T wo life-supporting functions of the body can be affected and in some cases

disabled by electricity, namely the circulatory and the respiratory systems.

The respiratory control signal is passed from the brain to the diaphragm. The
diaphragm comprises a large flat muscle situated immediately below the base of
the lung and this muscle initiates the breathing cycle.

The mechanisms which control the body's circulatory and respiratory functions
are electro-chemical systems, situated in the upper torso. The most dangerous
path for an electrical current to take is through the body's upper trunk. This
could be as a result of an electric shock resulting from hand to hand or hand to
foot contact.

The severity of an electric shock will depend on the magnitude and duration of
the current which flows.

Much will depend upon the electrical resistance of the body. Most of the human
body's resistance to the flow of electric current is provided by the skin. The
actual value of this resistance is dependent on the skin's thickness, its moisture
content and the applied voltage. All of these are personal, climatic and
environmental variables.

The resistance figures quoted below represent average values and are given to
emphasise the uncertain degree of low voltage hazards.

At mains voltage (240 V), the body's resistance allows a current of 240 milli-
Amperes (mA) to flow. This level of current would prove fatal if the contact
occurred for longer than a few milliseconds.

At 90 V (the voltage likely to be present on, for example, the faulty metal case
of a piece of portable electrical equipment, with a phase to earth short circuit
and before fuse failure), the body's resistance increases carrying a potentially
fatal current of 45mA.

It is generally accepted that a potential below 50 V ac extra low voltage (ELV)

is unlikely to prove fatal. The body may only pass a current in the region of
12.5 mA and no permanent harm will be done.
The experience may still prove painful and cause a consequential non-electrical
injury. In some circumstances related to age, health and environmental
conditions even ELV may be fatal to humans. A farm or domestic animal can
be killed by ELV as low as 25 V.

Effects of Electric Current.

T he human threshold of perception of a 50 Hertz electric current (UK mains

frequency) is approximately 1.5 mA; below this level, it is unlikely

that any sensation of current flow will be felt.

As the prospective current level increases, contraction of the muscles occurs

resulting in the person gripping the points of contact and being "held-on".

A further small increase in current will cause the respiratory muscles and heart
muscles to be affected.

At 50 mA, ventricular fibrillation may occur (i.e. the heart

"flutters" rapidly and no longer serves as a pump). This can result in death.

A current of 100 mA is likely to prove fatal.

Relatively small amounts of current flowing through the body will cause serious
damage. This current is related to the applied voltage, the current path through
the body and the resistance of this path is also time-related.

The fundamental aim of electric shock prevention measures is to ensure that the
human body is subjected to the minimum voltage and current for the shortest
period of time.
In summary: the factors affecting the severity
of the shock are

• duration;
• path of current;
• size of current;
• voltage;
• frequency;
• personal susceptibility;
• environment;
• possible proctection afforded by PPE.
1.4.1

First-
First-aid treatment for
electric shock

If possible, the electricity supply should be switched off

as appropriate - removing the plug, switching off at the main
fuse box, etc.

If this is not possible, the victim must be moved as quickly

as possible away from the source of power and this must be
achieved without endangering anyone else

The victim should be pulled away from the source by

means of a non-conducting implement such as a wooden
broom handle (dry) or a sheet or garment used as a lasso.

If very high voltages are involved, such improvisation may

be very dangerous to the rescuers; for example if the victim is
found slumped over equipment in an electricity sub-station,
extreme care needs to be exercised.

If the victim is unconscious and has stopped breathing,

artificial resuscitation must be started immediately and
continued, even if the victim appears to be dead.
Help should have been called at the earliest opportunity and in many cases could be the very first resc
ue action of all.
1.4.2

Other ways in which electricity can cause harm to humans

Damage to the nervous system.

An electrical shock can cause serious interference to the body's

own electrically-based brain/central nervous system.

Burns.

Apparently small entry and exit marks where the current

entered and left the body may hide awful internal burns which can
fester and lead to septicaemia and may be hard to treat, perhaps
requiring amputation or plastic surgery.

Secondary effects.

These include falls, which may turn a relatively minor

electrical shock into a serious accident, loss of control of equipment
and so on.
1.4.3

Other hazards associated with electricity - Fire hazards

Fires.

A large percentage of fires are of an electrical origin, caused by one or

more of the following:

Sparks.

A spark arises from a sudden discharge through the air between two
conductors, or from one conductor to earth. The current produced is usually
small so that serious fires are unlikely unless explosive gases or vapors are
present, or highly flammable material is in contact with the conductor.

Arcs.

A n arc is a much larger and brighter discharge where the current flow
may be hundreds of amps. It usually arises when a circuit is broken or when a
conductor melts or fractures leaving a gap, across which current continues to
flow. When an arc is established, the air in the vicinity becomes ionized and
forms a conductor which may allow current to flow to a nearby metal
framework. Any combustible material in the vicinity could therefore lead to a
fire.
Short circuits.

A short circuit is formed when the current finds a path from the
outward conductor wire to the return wire other than through the equipment to
which it is connected. The current flow may be large because of the low
resistance of the leads, and arcing often occurs at the contact between the
conductors. Insulation may therefore be burned and set fire to adjacent
flammable material. Batteries have a low internal resistance and can give rise to
very large currents under short circuit conditions, causing a large arc from
which molten metal may be splashed.

Over load of old wiring.

W iring must not be overloaded, otherwise it will overheat and the

insulation will be damaged. This may lead to a short circuit. At some place in
the conductor, or more likely at connection points.

The insulation of wiring which has been in use for a number of years
tends to become brittle and, where alterations and additions are required, the
cable must always be checked by a competent electrician and replaced
completely if there are indications of failure of the insulation.

Installations should be protected against overloading and short

circuits by fuses or circuit breakers.
 In addition to the examples of electrical good practice which we will discuss in this unit,
you will appreciate that control of waste material and preventing the build-up of rubbish
also play an important part in averting workplace fires.

• 1.4.3 Other hazards associated with electricity - Fire hazards

• 1.4.4 Other hazards associated with electricity - Explosion hazard
• 1.4.5 Other hazards associated with electricity - static electricity
• 1.4.6 Damage to electronic components
• 1.4.7 Video: Dangers of Electricity
• Question 9
• Question 10
• 1.5 Portable electrical equipment
• 1.5.1 Portable electrical equipment
• 1.6 Control measures
• 1.6.1 Selection and suitability of equipment
• 1.6.2 Fuses as control measures
• 1.6.3 Circuit breaker
• 1.6.4 Earthing Principles as control measures
• 1.6.5 Isolation as control measures
• 1.6.6 Live working
• 1.6.7 Reduced low voltage systems as control measures
• 1.6.8 Residual current devices as control measures
• 1.6.9 Double - insulation as control measures
• Question 11
• 1.7 Inspection and maintenance strategies
• 1.7.1 Competence to test
• 1.7.2 Test equipment
• 1.7.3 Frequency of inspection and testing
• 1.7.4 Test parameters
• 1.7.5 Records of inspection and testing
• 1.7.6 On-site Testing
• 1.7.7 Other factors to consider
• Question 12
• Question 13
• 2.0 Summary
1.4.4 Other hazards associated with electricity - Explosion hazard

The main causes of electrically-induced explosions are listed below:

(i) In situations where flammable gases or vapours are present so that

a spark could ignite an event. In such environments all electrical
equipment should be flame-proof.

(ii) Where electric arcing takes place in a confined space causing

intense local heating with a consequent bursting of the enclosure
by the expansion of trapped air.

(iii) Rechargeable batteries emitting hydrogen when being charged,

giving rise to an explosive atmosphere. Such operations should be
carried out in a well-ventilated area, the temperature of which
should not exceed 18o C.

There is one further very important electrical cause of fires

and explosion (and other hazards) which we need to discuss, and
this is static electricity.
1.4.5 Other hazards associated with electricity - static electricity

S tatic electricity is trapped electricity: either trapped on an insulating

material or trapped on a conducting material which is, in turn, insulated from
the rest of the environment.

An example of the latter might be the electrostatic charge which builds

up on a metal shopping trolley which, because of the insulating wheels and
floor, remains trapped on the trolley until you touch a metal handrail etc which
does have a contact to earth.

Thus, the key to the control of static electricity is to provide a conducting

path so that the charge will not continue to build up but will flow away to earth
without causing harm.

Many different industrial processes are liable to generate electrostatic charges:

• Flow of liquid through pipelines.

• Movement of material (animal feed stocks, coal, granulated
plastic, custard powder) along conveyors, sliding down a
chute into storage bins, sliding through discharge valves and
so on.
• Transfer of powered material by blowing (this is often used
in the bulk transfer of powdered/fine grained material).
• The movement of vehicles and people on insulating floors.

1.4.6 Damage to electronic components

In addition to the fire/explosion hazards which are our main concern in
this unit, the sudden discharge of static electricity can damage electronic
equipment/components - circuit boards, control panels and so on.

During the manufacture, assembly and operation of such vulnerable

equipment, safeguards will need to be taken to prevent static charges from
building up.
1.5 Portable electrical equipment

Portable appliances.

Portable appliances are defined as:

• anything with a plug on it;

• anything capable of being readily disconnected from and
reconnected to the electrical system.

In practice, what constitutes a "portable appliance" is open to debate

because the distinction is largely academic.

The electrical system is required to be constructed and maintained in

such a way as to prevent danger arising, so far as is reasonably practicable.

Any electrical appliance, whether portable or not, is part of that system

and must therefore be safe at all times.

The reasons why more emphasis should be given to portable appliances

(however defined) include:

• Increased likelihood of mechanical damage during movement of

the equipment.
• The variety of potential work environments, particularly in the case
of equipment used outdoors.
• The need for identification so as to ensure that equipment has been
subjected to appropriate tests and examinations.
• For ease of traceability and to assist record keeping.

Another consideration is whether equipment is physically moved during the

process of use, for example a vacuum cleaner, or remains in a static position,
e.g. a microwave oven. This factor must be taken into account when deciding
the frequency of electrical test and examination.
1.5.1 Portable electrical equipment

There is no specified time schedule for inspection or testing of

electrical equipment.

What you, or an external contractor, need to decide is what

equipment you have, where it is used, how often and how likely is it to
become defective in those circumstance.

The UK Health and Safety Executive have been concerned in the

past that wrong advice on this was being given by some service providers
so published IND(G)236L: Maintaining Portable Electrical Equipment
in Offices and Other Low Risk Environments. Updated in 1996 and is
available from HSE Books.

For industrial premises, the information in IND(G)236L is a useful

starting point for you to begin your electrical risk assessment and plan
appropriate inspection, testing and maintenance.

Nearly a quarter of all reportable electrical accidents involve portable

equipment.

Most of these accidents result in electric shock; others result in fires,

often caused by faulty leads to appliances. A major cause of such
accidents is failure to maintain the equipment.

The likelihood of accidents occurring and their severity will vary,

depending on the type of electrical equipment, the way in which it is
used and the environment in which it is used.

One high risk situation is the use of Pressure water cleaner outside,
powered by 240 volt electrical supply, with the cable trailing on the
ground where it can be damaged by vehicles and other equipment, and
where surface water is present.
 Damage to the cable or other parts is likely to result in the operator or
others receiving an electric shock.

Similar risks result when other electrical equipment, such as drills

and portable grinders, are used in a harsh and sometimes wet
environment, such as on a construction site where there is a high
probability of mechanical damage.

Lower risks result from floor cleaners or kettles, which are generally
used in a less hazardous environment, e.g. offices and hotels, but can be
subject to intensive use and wear. This can eventually lead to faults
which can also result in shock, burns or a fire. Other common accident
causes are:

• The use of unsuitable equipment: e.g. flexible cable being

dragged through areas where oils, greases or solvents are
present. In these areas, a cable should be selected which has a
sheath resistant to those chemicals.
•
• Use of defective equipment: e.g. badly-made joints in
flexible cables which can expose bare live conductors. Operators
should be instructed never to make their own repairs, never to
use defective equipment, to withdraw it from use and not re-use
it until repaired and checked by a competent person.
•
• Misuse of equipment: e.g. attempting to service equipment
without disconnecting it from the electricity supply rather than
withdrawing it from service for inspection by a competent
person.
•
• Inadequate maintenance: e.g. no system of regular
inspection or testing and repair of equipment. Regular
inspections of portable equipment are particularly important
due to the hard use which it often suffers.
•

We should note that the hazards associated with hand-held tools

are particularly significant as the hand is likely to be gripping the tool
when in operation, making it more difficult - or impossible - for the
operator to let go in the event of a fault.
1.5 Control measures
Hazards involved in the use of work equipment may result from
inadequate design, construction, installation, selection, maintenance
or use of electric equipment.

An electrical system may be dangerous because it contains a

fault or it is being used in a dangerous manner.

Frequently, those working on or near systems are not fully

aware of the dangers.

The main techniques of controlling and minimising risks

associated with electricity are the correct selection, installation and
maintenance of equipment, the insulation of live parts and the
retention of the electric current in the correct place at the correctly-
rated value.

Control measures include:

• Selection and suitability of equipment.

• Suitably-trained competent users.
• Fuses.
• Earthing.
• Isolation.
• Reduced low voltage systems.
• Residual current devices.
• Double insulation.

• Inspection and maintenance strategies:

o user checks;
o formal inspection and tests;
o frequency of inspection and testing;
o records of inspection and testing;
o inspection and testing of Portable Appliance Testing
(PAT).
1.6.1 Selection and suitability of equipment
The selection and suitability of equipment is the first consideration. Why
use a 240v cabled drill whilst installing an external satellite dish when you
could use a battery-operated drill?

1.6.2 Fuses as control measures

Control of over-current.
There are two definable types of over current: overload and
fault current.

Overload.
This occurs in a healthy circuit where equipment has been
mechanically overloaded or an excessive number of appliances
have been added to a system. The consequences of overload
usually involve overheating and, if uncontrolled, fire.

Overload protection relies upon the detection of excess

current and disconnection when predetermined time limits have
been exceeded. Two detection methods are employed:

(a) thermal: using wire fuses;

(b) magnetic: using circuit breakers.

The two methods may be combined for certain conditions. It

will be appreciated that the current level for overload
disconnection will always be in excess of the normal working
load. This will usually be measured in terms of amps and
inevitably will be greater than human electric shock tolerance
which is measured in thousandths of an amp (mA).
Fault Current.
When a fault current arises from phase-to-earth or phase-
to-neutral, a low resistance "fault loop impedance" will cause
sufficient over-current to flow, to melt a fuse or trip a circuit
breaker (i.e. disconnect the supply).

Note - for the purposes of this explanation, the term 'impedance'

is synonymous with electrical resistance.

1.6.3 Circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is a mechanical device in the form of a

switch that automatically opens if the circuit is overloaded.

These types of protective devices should be chosen so their

rating is above the operating current required by the equipment but
less than the current rating of the cable in the circuit.
1.6.4 Earthing Principles as control measures

Earthing provides an electrical distribution system with basic safety

characteristics.
Initially, it could be supposed that an unearthed system would be safer than its
earthed equivalent.

Most electric shocks that people receive are between a live conductor and earth;
these shocks would not be possible on an isolated (unearthed) system. For this
reason, isolated systems with special transformers are used locally in very
hazardous surroundings such as laboratories or workshops where electronic
equipment with earthed cases is opened up for repair. This is a specialised
condition and the isolation feature is continuously monitored.

On public electricity networks, however, there would be

no guarantee that an isolated system would remain
unearthed indefinitely.

At some stage, an accidental connection would occur either on a damaged

underground distribution cable or with a faulty appliance on private premises.

One such occurrence alone would not be noticed or cause a direct problem;
however, the inherent safety of an isolated system would no longer exist.

Inevitably, a second earth fault would arise and an uncontrolled current would
circulate through earth via the faulty connections. This situation would probably
cause a fire.

Public supply systems are therefore earthed and it is now common practice to
improve the earth/neutral bond by creating multiple connections throughout the
supply network. This is known as Protective Multiple Earthing (PME).

Interconnection of earth and neutral paths provides the lowest possible fault
impedance. The consequence of a PME connection is that both fault and load
current are shared between earth and neutral in proportion to their respective
resistances.

As the proportionate share of this current is an unknown factor, interconnection

of earth and neutral is only permitted on the supply authority's system since it is
dangerous to make any earth/neutral connection within a consumer's
installation.
1.6.5 Isolation as control measures

With every electrical system, provision must be made for switching off
the supply.

It is essential to provide suitable means first for cutting off the supply and
secondly for isolation. This is the cornerstone for a safe system of work based
on de-energised plant.

Isolation is the disconnection and separation of the electrical equipment

from every source of electrical energy in such a way that both disconnection
and separation are secure.

There are various forms of isolation involving locking-off or removal of

parts of the circuit.

The need to ensure that, if at all possible, the circuit is dead when being
worked upon leads us on to situations where this is not possible, and live
working must be undertaken.
1.6.6
Live working
working
The first precaution is to ensure that live working is indeed unavoidable -
it is not enough for management to say that they did not want to stop
production. There must be absolutely compelling reasons why live working has
to be undertaken.

... w ork on or near live electrical equipment shall only take place if it is
unreasonable for the equipment in all circumstances to be dead, reasonable
in all circumstances for work to be carried out on or near the equipment when
it is live and suitable precautions have been taken.

Regulation 14 of The UK Electricity at Work Regulations 1989

Once this live working need has been established, then the engineers
working on the live system must be protected by an appropriate system of
work:

• Exposed live parts kept to a minimum, both in terms of the time

of exposure and the actual amount of live material that is
exposed.
 •
• Use of protective equipment such as insulated tools, protective
clothing (including gloves and footwear) and other protective
devices such as insulated mats.
•
• Use of accurate circuit diagrams and information.
•
• Permit-to-works may be required (a permit-to-work is a formal
written system of work with each step being approved before
the next step is commenced).
•
• A competent person on stand-by may also be required.

1.6.7

Reduced low voltage systems as control measures

Where environmental conditions are harsh, as on construction sites or in

areas that are wet, the use of safe or low voltages is advisable and an excellent
way of reducing shock risk.

Special 110 V appliances are used which operate from 55-0-55 V centre-
tap earthed transformers. These appliances may be Class 1 or Class 2
construction.

Rechargeable battery operated tools.

In addition to safety, these have the advantage that no supply connection

is required and leads are avoided. These tools require regular maintenance to
ensure good battery connections. Batteries should be handled with care and not
carried with terminals unprotected in pockets or in tool boxes.
Reduced low voltage systems.
These are most appropriate for most industrial applications but the risk of
cable damage must always be taken into account. Transformers are required
either to supply individual tools or for fixed circuitry. Plugs and sockets are
normally colour-coded yellow.

Supplementary protection may be given to the user with the use of 30

mA RCD protection. Any socket outlet which may reasonably be expected to
supply portable equipment outdoors should have supplementary RCD
protection. This applies to all types of equipment.

1.6.7
Residual current devices as control measures

No electro-mechanical device can be 100% reliable. An RCD relies upon

moving parts and speed of contact separation. For this reason, a sensitive RCD
may only be used to provide supplementary personal shock protection.

The primary protection against contact with live parts must be by way of
insulation and appropriate mechanical protection. Supplementary shock
protection may then be added with an RCD which will disconnect 30 mA in
200 mS (milli-seconds) equivalent to 0.2 seconds and 150 mA in 40 mS (0.04
seconds).

Higher rating may be used to give protection against fire or large earth
faults in circumstances where there is an inherent earth leakage associated with
equipment. Over-sensitive operation is not desirable. In some cases rapid, low
fault-current disconnection may be inconvenient or even introduce
consequential dangers.

A residual current device may be combined with an over current mechanism in

which case the combined unit is termed a Residual Current Breaker with Overload
protection (RCBO).
1.7

Inspection and maintenance strategies

An on-site judgement must be made to take into account the conditions of

service and type of equipment. Two levels of regular inspection are suggested.

Basically, a frequent visual check by the user of the equipment should be

undertaken. The intended user requires some basic instruction to know what to
look for.

The physical inspection.

The most important and relevant test is the visual inspection

since approximately 80% of equipment defects are found at this first
stage. A detailed physical inspection by a competent and
conscientious person will make a significant contribution to hazard
elimination.

Typical hazards may include:

• Incorrectly wired plugs.

• Loose plug-top connections.
• Wrong value fuses or fuses replaced with a metal foil
or bar.
• Plug cord grips not gripping the cord outer sheath.
• Damaged flexible cord.
• Unsafe cable joints.
• Damaged case-mounted components (e.g. fuse-
holders, voltage selectors, neon indicators, etc).

All physical defects must be corrected at this stage, before any

electrical tests are attempted. Unless a cable is damaged near to its
end when it may be shortened, all flexible cords which show any sign
of damage should be replaced, since cable repairs and joints are
unlikely to meet the stringent safety standards required.
1.7.1

Competence to test

All persons who undertake work involving electricity

must be competent to prevent danger arising from that work.

Those being considered for competence in testing portable

equipment should have practical experience or adequate
knowledge of:

(a) the principles of electricity together with a sound

appreciation of the source and nature of electrical
hazards;

(b) the precautions required to avoid danger;

(c) whether it is safe for testing to continue following an

abnormal result;

(d) the relevant safety standards;

(e) the hazards which may arise because of the testing

location;

(f) the operating principles of the test equipment and

the unit under test;

(g) appliance testing and the use of test equipment;

(h) the interpretation of test results;

(i) the correct frequency of testing.

1.7.2 Test equipment

E ach of the following tests may be carried out by a dedicated test

instrument. However, to ensure that the tests are conducted in a safe
sequence, the use of a Portable Appliance Tester (PAT) is strongly
recommended.

The PAT will conduct each test using the correct test voltages and
currents in a sequence that will ensure that if a failure occurs, there will
be no danger to the test person.

A variety of PATs are available, and a range of features are offered.

Displays may be analogue or digital, and while some units offer manual
operation (i.e. select a test by operating a switch, then press the test
button), others are fully automatic and once initiated, will automatically
run through the complete sequence of tests, stopping if any one of the
test registers "fail". Some fully automatic testers will store hundreds of
results that can be downloaded onto a computer database.

The type and extent of tests are a matter of judgment by the

competent operative. Guidance must be taken from manufacturers' type
tests, PAT equipment suppliers' instructions and only after suitable
training.

Extreme care must be taken with high voltage flash testing. This
may be unnecessary unless an appliance has been completely overhauled
and full manufacturers' test procedures are necessary. Flash testing is
hazardous and may cause damage to sensitive equipment.
1 . The unit under test should never be touched during the
test process.

2. During current consumption tests, the unit under test

will have normal power applied and will therefore operate in
the usual manner. All machinery guards should be in place
and all cutting blades and boring bits should be removed
before testing begins. Portable tools may need to be secured
to prevent them moving across the test bench when power is
applied.
1.7.3 Frequency of inspection and testing

The following is a suggestion for the frequency of

inspections, but these must be adjusted to suit the conditions of
use.

Business Use External Visual Check Full Electrical Test

Equipment hire. Before issue and after return. Before issue.

Construction. Daily. 3 months.

Industrial. Before use. 6 months.

Commercial and office. 36 months. 12 months.

Premises used by the public. 36 months. 12 months.

Further guidance can be found in EEA recommendations

for periodic safety checks for business equipment (available from
the EEA).

The underlying principle regarding frequency of testing is

that duty-holders (i.e. the person who has the equipment "within
their control") should decide upon the frequency of testing based
on the following criteria:

(a) the type of environment in which the equipment

is used (i.e. indoors, outdoors, hazardous
atmospheres, construction sites, etc)

(b) the conditions of use and hence the roughness

with which it is handled (e.g. a hand-held electric
drill will be more roughly used in the company's
engineering workshop than in the development
laboratory).
 If the testing is being conducted for a non-technical third
party, the duty holder should discuss the frequency of testing
with the competent test person when the initial survey of
equipment is being carried out.

Should the electrical equipment or tools be held in a central

store between periods of use, they should be inspected on issue
and on return in addition to the periodic safety test.

Any item that develops a fault during use should be

immediately disconnected, clearly labelled with the suspected
fault and returned for repair. A suitable label is shown below.

FAULTY - DO NOT USE

EQUIPMENT TYPE
MODEL SERIAL NO
FAULT DESCRIPTION
REPORTED BY DATE

The label should not be of the same colour

as the "safety test /pass" label; a red background
with a white or black legend is recommended.
1.7.4 Test parameters

The regular simple visual check should consist of the following:

• Visual check for signs of damage to the equipment

and its supply cord.
• Check lead and plug and cord-grip at both ends.
• Check any extension leads.

If any faults are found, the equipment should be withdrawn from service for
repairs followed by a full test.

The objective of a full electrical inspection is to ensure that the safety

measures designed into equipment are still effective and are liable to remain
effective until the next scheduled test date.

It may therefore be argued that the "type approval" tests conducted by the
manufacturer could be used as a reference for the routine periodic safety tests.

The argument is valid providing it is realised that certain tests during

manufacture are conducted with some circuit components removed to prevent
them sustaining damage.

In addition, all type approval tests are conducted in a specifically-

designed area to ensure the safety of the test person.

It is therefore necessary to modify the manufacturers' type approval tests

when conducting routine safety testing, to ensure that sensitive equipment is not
damaged and so that the tests may be conducted in safety in a variety of
environments.

Such considerations are encompassed in the design of specially-produced

Portable Appliance Testers (PATs).
1.7.5
Records of inspection and testing

Record Keeping.

With electrical fixed plant, the duty holder should keep an inventory of
equipment to be tested and a repair history.

Records of all portable/transportable equipment test results should be

kept in a form that will allow their inspection and reproduction when required.

The records may be kept in the form of a paper copy if the quantity of
equipment to be tested is small. Each test result should be recorded as the tests
progress and care should be taken to reproduce the test figures accurately.

When the volume of equipment to be tested is high, it may be more

convenient to use a computer database that can readily accommodate the large
amount of data involved. The use of a database will reduce the time required to
manage the work and allow the testing function manager to automatically
remind the equipment user that subsequent routine testing is due.

Modern portable appliance test equipment will automatically download

the test results to a computer workstation and specially written software will
hold the records, forecast future routine work due and hold an inventory of
equipment against locations, etc. Should a database be used, the test data should
be in a readily reproducible form and password protected.
 Irrespective of the recording system used, a copy of the last test figures
recorded should be available to the test person when conducting subsequent
tests, so that a judgement may be made regarding the significance of any
variation with the new test results.

The users of the portable appliances will require certain information to

allow the duty holders to fulfill their statutory responsibilities.

The test person should fix a label to equipment that has been successfully
tested, giving the following information:

(a) The date tested;

(b) The identity of the test person;

(c) The date of the next test.

Such a label will allow the duty holder to install a management system
whereby no electrical item may be used outside of the two dates shown on the
safety test label. Items that fail the safety tests should be immediately
withdrawn from service for repair.

A suitable "PASS" label is shown below.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY TESTED

DATE TESTED NAME

DATE NEXT TEST DUE

A label colour of white lettering on a green background would visually indicate a

"safe condition".
 1.7.6 On-site Testing

The on-site location may not be under the direct control of the test person
and thus may present extra hazards compared with a purpose-built workshop.

Where such dangers cannot be satisfactorily eliminated, the testing

activity should be transferred to a more suitable location or preferably to a
properly-designated test area.

Test persons have a legal responsibility to conduct the testing process in a

manner that ensures both their own safety and the safety of all others who may
be in the vicinity.
1.7.7

Other factors to consider

Electrical Installations in Buildings.

The usual distribution system in industrial and commercial
buildings will be three phase 240/415 V. This supply is potentially
lethal and can cause fires. The duty holder has an obligation to
ensure that new work and maintenance is carried out by competent
electrical personnel.

Permanent records of all electrical activity should be

retained for future reference.

Temporary installations.
Particular concern should be given to temporary
installations. No relaxation of safety rules or protection is
permissible. Temporary installations must be designed to at least
the same standard as permanent installations and must be inspected
and tested more frequently (i.e. every three months).

Strict control must be enforced to resist any temptation to

carry out an installation that is unprotected physically or
electrically.

Cabling and Wiring Systems.

There is a range of wiring systems, each of which has
technical or commercial advantages for particular locations.
Competent advice should be sought before specifying a system.
There is no one common answer to every condition. Invariably,
more than one wiring system will be used in a building.

Factors which need to be considered when choosing a wiring

system are listed in the IEE Wiring Regulations and divided into
three categories.
Environment.

This includes factors of ambient temperature and

climatic conditions. Hazardous locations must be taken
into account and the relationship with other engineering
services, pollutants or industrial activities.

Utilisation.

This includes occupational details and competence

of occupants to handle emergencies. Fire and explosion
risks may require special attention, taking into account
evacuation facilities.

Construction of buildings.
Levels of combustibility must be considered together with
life expectancy of the installation and maintainability.

Working on or near live electrical equipment should only

take place if it is unreasonable for equipment in all circumstances
to be dead.

1. ? True
2. ? False

The most important and relevant test of electrical equipment is via a ......

1. ? Full physical inspection

2. ? Visual inspections
2.0 Summary
This summary section will refer you back to the learning outcomes and summarise the notes.

Identify the hazards and evaluate the consequential risks from the use of electricity in
the workplace:-

Hazards of Electricity

• Electric Shock.
• Fires
• Sparks
• Arcs
• Short circuits
• Overloading and old wiring
• Explosion Hazard
• Static Electricity

Advise on the control measures that should be taken when working with electrical
systems or using electrical equipment.

The main techniques of controlling and minimising risks associated with electricity are the
correct selection, installation and maintenance of equipment, the insulation of live parts and
the retention of the electric current in the correct place at the correctly rated value.

Control measures include:

• Selection and suitability of equipment.

• Fuses.
• Earthing.
• Isolation.
• Reduced low voltage systems.
• Residual current devices.
• Double insulation.
• Inspection and maintenance strategies:

o user checks;
o formal inspection and tests;
o frequency of inspection and testing;
o records of inspection and testing;
o inspection and testing of Portable Appliance
Testing (PAT).

Electrical Hazards Congratulations

end of lesson reached