Formulae Handbook For CBSE Class 10 Science and Maths

Formulae Handbook for CBSE
Class 10 Science and Maths

Features of this eBook:
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 Included important diagrams of CBSE Class 10 Science
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formulae for better revision
1 Formulae Handbook for CBSE Class 10 Science and Maths
Table of Contents
TERM-1
Science
1. Chemical Reactions and Equations ............................................................................................. 3

2. Acids, Bases and Salts ................................................................................................................10
3. Metals & Non-Metals ................................................................................................................. 17
4. Life Processes ............................................................................................................................ 25
5. Control and Co-ordination ......................................................................................................... 31
6. Electricity .................................................................................................................................. 35
7. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current ......................................................................................... 40
8. Sources of Energy ..................................................................................................................... 45
Maths
1. Real Number ............................................................................................................................. 48

2. Polynomials............................................................................................................................... 49
3. Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables ............................................................................... 52
4. Triangles ................................................................................................................................... 54
5. Introduction to Trigonometry................................................................................................... 63
6. Statistics .................................................................................................................................... 67
TERM-2
Science
1. Carbon and its Compounds ........................................................................................................ 71

2. Periodic Classification of Elements .......................................................................................... 78
3. How Do Organisms Reproduce? ................................................................................................81
4. Heredity and Evolution............................................................................................................. 85
5. Reflection and Refraction ......................................................................................................... 89
6. Human Eye and the Colourful World ....................................................................................... 96
7. Management of Natural Resources ......................................................................................... 100
8. Our Environment .................................................................................................................... 102
Maths
1. Quadratic Equations.................................................................................................................105
2. Arithmetic Progressions .......................................................................................................... 107
NCERT Solutions CBSE Sample Papers RD Sharma Solutions

3. Circles (Tangents to a Circle) ................................................................................................... 110

4. Constructions ........................................................................................................................... 113
5. Areas Related to Circles ........................................................................................................... 117
6. Surface Areas & Volumes ........................................................................................................ 120
7. Applications of Trigonometry .................................................................................................. 122
8. Co-ordinate Geometry ............................................................................................................. 123
9. Probability................................................................................................................................ 126
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE ..................................................................................................128

TERM-1
1. Chemical Reactions and Equations

Key Points and Concepts
A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products, conditions of reaction and
their physical states symbolically.
 Oxidation: loss of electrons.

 Reduction: gain of electrons.
 Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 .xH2O.
Reactant: The substance which takes part in a chemical reaction is called reactant. For
example, in the breaking up of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide,
calcium carbonate is the reactant. Similarly, sodium and water are the reactants when they
react.
Product: A product is a new substance formed in a chemical reaction. For example, hydrogen
and sodium hydroxide are the products of the reaction between sodium and water.
2Na + 2H 2O  2NaOH + H 2
sodium water sodiumhy droxide hydrogen
Similarly, in the breaking up of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide and carbon dioxide are the
products.
CaCO3  CaO  CO2

calciumcarbonate calciumoxide carbondioxide
Valency: The number of electrons shared by an atom is called its valency. It is also called the
combining capacity of an atom, e.g., Cl atom can share one valence electron, its valency is 1,
Oxygen can share two valence electrons, its valency is 2. Nitrogen can share 3 valence electrons,
its valency is 3, Carbon can share 4 valency electrons, and therefore its valency is 4 and so on.
Element C Cl
Valency 4 1 i.e., CCl4 is formula
Some more examples are:

Element H O H Cl H S N H P Cl N O
Valency 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 5 2
H2O HCl H2S NH3 PCl3 N2O5

Some Common Monoatomic Ions
+1 Charge +2Charge +3 Charge

Name of Formula Formula Formula
Name of ion Name of ion
ion
Copper ion Barium ion Ba2+ Aluminium ion Al3+
Cu+
(Cuprous ion) Cobalt ion Co2+ Auric ion Au3+
Potassium Chromium (III)
K+ Strontium ion Sr2+ Cr3+
ion ion
Iron (II) ion Iron (III) ion
Silver ion Ag+ Fe2+ Fe3+
(Ferrous ion) (Ferric ion)
Sodium ion Na+ *Copper (II) ion Cu2+ Scandium ion Sc3+
Lithium ion Li+ *Lead (II) ion Pb2+ Arsenic ion As3+
Cadmium ion Cd2+ Bismuth ion Bi3+
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Antimony ion Sb3+
Manganese (II)
Aurous Au+ Mn2+
ion
*Mercury (I) ion Hg22
Zinc ion Zn2+
– 1 Charge – 2Charge – 3 Charge

Formula Formula Formula
Name of ion Name of ion Name of ion
Bromide ion Br– Oxide ion O2– Nitride ion N3–
Chloride ion Cl– Sulphide ion S2– Phosphide ion P3–
Fluoride ion F– Boride ion B3–
Iodide ion I–
Note: These elements show more than one valency. So a Roman numeral shows their valency in
a bracket.
Some Common Polyatomic Ions
– 1 Charge – 2Charge – 3 Charge

Formula Formula Formula
Name of ion Name of ion Name of ion
Hydrogen
carbonate Carbonate ion CO32 Phosphate ion PO34
HCO3
or bicarbonate Manganate ion MnO24 Arsenate ion AsO34
ion
Hydrogen
Thiosulphate
sulphate HSO 4 S2O32 Arsenite ion
ion AsO33
or (bisulphate SiO 32
Silicate ion
ion)

Hydroxide ion OH– Sulphate ion SO 24 Phosphite ion PO33

Nitrate ion NO3 Sulphite ion SO 32
Chlorate ion ClO3 Chromate ion CrO24 Borate ion BO33
Ferricyanide
Nitrite ion NO2 Dichromate ion Cr2O72 [Fe(CN)6]3–
ion
Permanganate Hydrogen
MnO4 HPO24
ion phosphate ion
Acetate ion CH3COO– Oxalate ion C2O24
Cyanide ion CN–
Hypophosphite
H 2PO2 – 4 Charge
ion
Meta aluminate
AlO2 Carbide ion C4–
ion
Ferrocyanide
+1 Charge [Fe(CN)6]4–
ion
Ammonium ion NH4
Rules for writing chemical equation:

Certain rules have to be followed while writing a chemical equation.
1. The reactants taking part in the reaction are written in terms of their symbols or
molecular formulae on the left-hand side of the equation.
2. A plus (+) sign is added between the formulae of the reactants.
3. The products of reaction are written in terms of their symbols or molecular formulae on
the right-hand side of the equation.
4. A plus (+) sign is added between the formulae of the products.
5. In between the reactants and the products an arrow sign () is inserted to show which
way the reaction is occurring.
A + B  C + D
In this chemical equation, A and B are the reactants, and C and D are the products. The
arrow indicates that the reaction proceeds towards the formation of C and D.
Steps in Balancing of Chemical Equations:

A number of steps are involved in balancing a chemical equation, e.g.,
Na + H2O  NaOH + H2
Step-1: Examine the number of atoms of different elements present in unbalanced
equations.
Number of atoms Number of atoms in

in reactants products

Na 1 1
H 2 3
O 1 1
Step-2: Pick an element to balance the equation. In the above equation Na and O are
balanced, Hydrogen is not.
Step-3: To balance Hydrogen on both sides we need to multiply H2O by 2 which makes
Hydrogen atoms equal to 4 on the reactants' side. To make Hydrogen 4 on the products'
side, multiply NaOH by 2. Now oxygen has become 2 on both side. But Sodium atoms has
become two on the products' side. Multiply Na by 2 on the reactants side so that they
become equal on both side. The steps are as follows:
(i) Na + 2 H2O  NaOH + H2
(ii) Na + 2 H2O  2NaOH + H2
(iii)2 Na + 2 H2O  2NaOH + H2
The equation is now balanced.
Example: Fe + H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
Step-1:
Number of Number of
Element atoms in atoms in
reactants products
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
Step-2: Pick up the compound which has the maximum number of atoms whether a
reactant or a product, and in that compound select the elements which has the highest
number of atoms, e.g., we select Fe3O4 in the above equation:
To balance oxygen atoms,
In reactants In products
Initial 1 (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)
To balance 1×4 4×1
To equalise the number of atoms, we put the coefficient on the left side of the formula.
A coefficient is a small whole number, like coefficients used in algebraic equations.
You must keep in mind that we can put coefficients but we cannot change the subscripts in
the formula, i.e., to balance Oxygen atoms, we can put the coefficient 4 as 4 H2O and not
H2O4 or (H2O)4. Now the partly balanced equation becomes as follows:
Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + H2(g)
(Partly balanced)
Step-3: Pick up the second element to balance this partly balanced equation. Let us try to
balance hydrogen atoms.

In partly balanced equation. Atoms of Hydrogen.

Initial 8 (in 8 H2O) 2 (in H4)
To equalise the number of Hydrogen atoms, we use 4 as the coefficient of H2 in the products.
Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + 4 H2
Step-4: Pick up third element to be balanced. The element which is left to be balanced is Fe.
Initial 1 (in Fe) 3 (in Fe3O4)
To equalise, we use 3 as coefficient of Fe in reactants.
3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2
Atoms In reactants In products
Fe 3 3
H 8 8
O 4 4
The equation is balanced because atoms of all the elements are equal on both sides.
This method of balancing equation is known as hit and trial method.
Balancing of Ionic Equations:

In these equations, charge balancing of atoms on both sides of the equation, e.g.,
Initial Cu2+(aq.) + H2S  CuS (s) + H+ (aq)
Balanced Cu2+ (aq.) + H2S  CuS (s) + 2H+ (aq)
We have balanced the charges. It was + 2 on LHS and we have made + 2 on RHS. Number of
Hydrogen atoms, Cu and Sulphur atoms are also balanced on both sides.
Ions
Compound Formula
involved
Sodium chloride NaCl Na+ and Cl–
Magnesium
MgCl2 Mg2+ and Cl–
chloride
Magnesium oxide MgO Mg2+ and O2–
Calcium chloride CaCl2 Ca2+ and Cl–
Calcium oxide CaO Ca2+ and O2–
Ammonium
NH4Cl NH4 and Cl-
chloride
Barium chloride BaCl2 Ba2+ and Cr

Potassium nitrate KNO3 K+ and NO3
Ammonium NH4 and

(NH4)2SO4
sulphate SO 24
Cu2+ and
Cupric sulphate CuSO4
SO 24
Cupric chloride CuCl2 Cu2+ and Cl–
Important Equations
Types of Reactions:
S.No Name & Definition Example

In a combination reaction,
1 two or more reactants combine
to give single product.
In a decomposition
reaction, a single reactant
2
breaks down into two or more
simpler products.
When decomposition reaction
is carried out by heating, it is
3
called thermal
decomposition reaction.
When decomposition reaction
is carried out in the presence of
4 sunlight, the process is called
photochernical
decomposition.
Electrolysis: When
decomposition reaction is
5 carried out with the help of
electric current, the process is
called electrolysis.
In a displacement reaction,
a more reactive element
6
displaces a less reactive
element from a less compound.
Those reactions in which the
different atoms or groups of
atoms are displaced by other
atoms or groups of atom, i.e.,
7
two compounds exchange their
ions and one of the products
formed is insoluble, are said to
be double displacement

reactions.
The reactions in which acid or
acidic oxide reacts with the
8 base or basic oxides to form
salt and water are called
neutralization reactions.

2. Acids, Bases and Salts

 Those substances which turn blue litmus solution red are called acids. Acids are sour in
taste. They give H+ ions in aqueous solution. Example:
HCI, H,SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH
 Those acids which dissociates into ions completely are called strong acids, e.g. H2S04,
HCl.
 Those acids which do not dissociates into ions completely are called weak acids, e.g.,
citric acid, acetic acid.
 The reaction in which base or basic oxide reacts with acid or acidic oxide is called
neutralization reaction. Example: NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H20
 Hydrated salts which are white in colour:
Reaction of different solutions with different indicators:

Name of the Colour change (if any) Colour change (if any) Blue
S.No
solution Phenolphthalein litmus
1 Sodium carbonate tunis pink no change

2 Hydrochloric acid no change turns red
3 Sodium chloride no change no change
Important Equations:
Baking Soda
The chemical formula of baking soda is NaHCO3.
It is prepared by using sodium chloride.

On heating:
Green Vitriol:
Plaster of Paris:
Washing Soda and its Properties:
Chemical name is Sodium carbonate hydrated
It is a basic salt because when dissolved in water it gives a strong base NaOH.
It is used as a cleaning agent, in paper and glass industry.
Bleaching Powder and its Properties:
The common name of CaOCI2 is bleaching powder.
By passing chlorine into dry slaked lime Ca(OH)2, bleaching powder is obtained.

Two uses:
(i) Used for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry and wood pulp, paper industry etc.
(ii) It is used for disinfecting drinking water.
 Some of the naturally occurring substances that contain acids are given in Table.
Substance Acid present
1. Orange, lemon Citric acid, ascorbic
acid (vitamin C)
2. Apple Malic acid
3. Tamarind (imli), Tartaric acid
grape
4. Vinegar Acetic acid
5. Curd Lactic acid
6. Tomato Oxalic acid
7. Gastric juice Hydrochloric acid
8. Tea Tannic acid
9. Red ants Formic acid
 Examples of a few acids with their basicities are given in the table below.
Acid Basicity
HCl 1
HNO3 1
H2SO4 2
H3PO4 3
 The following table shows the uses of some organic and inorganic acids.
Acid Uses
Organic acids
1. As a preservative for food
Citric acid
2. As a flavouring agent
Ascorbic acid In the treatment of bone marrow and scurvy
(also called vitamin C) diseases
Acetic acid Added to pickles to make them sour
A component of baking power (baking powder is
Tartaric acid a mixture of sodium hydrogencarbonate and
tartaric acid)

Inorganic acids
1. Its presence in the gastric juice helps digestion of
food we eat.
Hydrochloric acid
2. As a bathroom cleaner
3. In the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
1. Nitric acid present in rainwater forms nitrates in
the soil which are then used by plants to obtain
nitrogen.
Nitric acid 2. In the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium
nitrate
3. In making explosives like TNT and dynamite
1. In storage batteries
2. In the manufacture of fertilizers, paints and

Sulphuric acid pigments, detergents and artificial fibre
3. In the manufacture of hydrochloric acid and
alum
Phosphric acid In fertilizer and detergent industries
1. In the manufacture of glass, glazes and enamels,

leather, paper, adhesives and explosives
Boric acid
2. Widely used in detergents
3. As a grain preservative
Setup which shows acid solution in water conducts electricity:
 Some of the bases are listed here in Table.
Oxides Soluble hydroxides Insoluble hydroxides

Sodium monoxide
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3).
(Na2O)
Aluminium hydroxide
Calcium oxide (CaO) Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
(Al(OH)3)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Cupric oxide (CuO)
Ammonium hydroxide
ZnO
NH4OH
 Table lists some of the common bases and their uses.
Bases Uses
1. In the manuacture of soaps, textile, paper,
Sodium hydroxide medicines
2. In the refining of petroleum
1. As a reagent in the laboratory
Ammonium hydroxide
2. In making fertilizers, rayon, plastics and dyes
1. In making cement and mortar
2. In making bleaching powder
Calcium hydroxide
3. In whitewashing
4. In removing acidity of soils
 Some of the most commonly used acid-base indicators that change colour as follows.
Indicator Acid solution Basic solution Neutral solution
Blue litmus solution Red No change in colour No change in colour
Red litmus solution No change in colour Blue No change in colour
Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange
Phenolphthalein Colourless Red Colourless
 The following table lists uses of some salts.
Salts Uses
1. An essential requirement of our food

2. In the preservation of food
Sodium
3. In curing fish and meat
chloride
4. In making a freezing mixture which is used by icecream vendors
5. In the manufacture of soaps
1. As washing soda for cleaning clothes
Sodium 2. Used in the manufacture of glass, paper, textiles, caustic soda, etc.
carbonate 3. In the refining of petroleum
4. In fire extinguishers

1. Used as baking soda

Sodium
2. In fire extinguishers
bicarbonate
3. As an antacid in medicine
Potassium 1. To make gunpowder, fireworks and glass
nitrate 2. As a fertilizer in agriculture
1. Commonly called 'blue vitriol', used as a fungicide to kill certain germs
Copper
2. In electroplating
sulphate
3. In dyeing
1. Used to purify water; makes suspended particles in water settle down
Potash alum 2. As an antiseptic
3. In dyeing
pH Indicator:
The acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a solution is usually expressed in terms of a function of
the H+ ion concentration. This function is called the pH of a solution.
The pH of an aqueous solution is the negative logarithm of its H+ ion concentration. That is,
pH = –log [H+].
pOH = –log [OH–].
 The pH of a neutral solution is 7.

 The pH of an acidic solution is less than 7.
 The pH of an alkaline solution is more than 7.
Rules for pH scale (at 298 K)
1. Acidic solutions have pH less than 7.
2. The lower the pH, the more acidic is the solution.
3. Neutral solutions or pure water has pH equal to 7.
4. Basic solutions have pH greater than 7.
5. The higher the pH, the more basic is the solution.
The pH values of some common solutions:
Substance pH
Gastric juice 1.0

Lemon juice 2.5
Vinegar 3.0
Wine 3.5
Tomato juice 4.1
Acid rain 5.6
Urine 6.0
Milk 6.5
Pure water 7
Blood 7.4
Lime water 11.0
Point to Remember:
 Everything that tastes sour contains an acid.
 Acetic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid are a few organic acids. Sulphuric acid, nitric acid and
hydrochloric acid are examples of inorganic acids.
 Acids turn blue litmus red, whereas bases turn red litmus blue.
 When a solution of an acid contains larger amount of the acid, it is said to be concentrated,
while that containing smaller amount of the acid, is said to be dilute.
 Metals like sodium, potassium and calcium react with an acid to liberate hydrogen gas.
 Acids react with bases to produce salts and water.
 Acids react with the carbonates and the hydrogencarbonates to give carbon dioxide gas.
 The hydrogen atoms of an acid which can be partially or completely replaced by an atom or a
group of atoms are called replaceable hydrogen atoms. They are also called acidic hydrogen.
 The number of replaceable hydrogen atoms present in a molecule of the acid is known as the
basicity of the acid.
 A compound that reacts with an acid to form a salt and water is called a base.
 Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis. All alkalis are bases, but all bases are not
alkalis.
 The reaction between an acid and a base is called neutralization reaction. In such a reaction,
the acid and the base destroy the properties of each other.
 The number of hydroxyl groups (OH) present in a molecule of the base is called the acidity of
the base.
 A salt is a compound formed by the reaction of an acid with a base.
 Na2SO4, CaSO4 and Na3PO4 are normal salts, whereas NaHSO4, NaHCO3, Na2HPO4 are acid
salts.
 A strong acid is one which gets almost completely dissociated when dissolved in water to
give hydrogen ions, whereas a weak acid gets only partially dissociated in water to give
hydrogen ions.

 A strong base gets almost completely dissociated when dissolved in water to give hydroxide
ions (OH–), whereas a weak base, when treated as such, gets only partially dissociated to
provide hydroxide ions.
3. Metals & Non-Metals

 Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals.
 Electronic configuration of some metals and non-metals:
Properties of Ionic Compounds:

 Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat hard because of the strong force of
attraction between the positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle
and break into pieces when pressure is applied.
 Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
 Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents
such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state.
Electronic Configuration of elements and classification as Metals and Non-metals:

Electronic
Atomic configuration Valence Metal/Non-
S.No Element Symbol
number electrons metal
KLMNO
1. Hydrogen H 1 1 1 Non-metal
2. Helium He 2 2 2 Non-metal
Non-metal(noble
3. Neon Ne 10 2, 8 8
gas)
4. Boron B 5 2, 3 3 Non-metal
5. Carbon C 6 2, 4 4 Non-metal
6. Nitrogen N 7 2, 5 5 Non-metal
7. Oxygen O 8 2, 6 6 Non-metal
8. Fluorine F 9 2, 7 7 Non-metal
9. Sodium Na 11 2, 8, 1 1 Metal
10. Magnesium Mg 12 2, 8, 2 2 Metal
11. Aluminium Al 13 2, 8, 3 3 Metal
12. Potassium K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1 Metal

13. Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2 2 Metal
Distinctions between metals and Nonmetals:

(A) Distinctions based on physical properties
Metals Non-metals
Non-metals do not possess any metallic luster.
1. Metals have lustre called metallic
lustre. Exceptions: Iodine and graphite possess
metallic lustre.
Nonmetals are generally electronegative.
2. Metals are generally electropositive Exception: Hydrogen is a non-metal but it is
electropositive.
Non-metals are generally bad conductor of heat and
electricity.
3. Metals are generally good conductors of
heat and electricity. Exception: Graphite is a non-metals but it is a
good conductor of electricity. Hydrogen, though
a nonmetal, is a good conductor of heat.
4. Metals are usually solids at ordinary Nonmetals are gases or solids at ordinary
temperature. temperature.
Exception: Mercury is a metal but it is a Exception: Bromine is a non-metal but it is a
liquid at ordinary temperature. liquid at ordinary temperature.
5. Metals are malleable and ductile, have

high density, and reflect light. Non-metals are not malleable and ductile, have
Exception: Sodium and potassium are low density, and do not reflect light.
metals but their densities are less than Exception: Plastic sulphur is ductile.
that of water
6. Metals when hammered emit a

Nonmetals do not emit metallic sound.
characteristic sound called metallic sound
(B) Distinctions based on Chemical properties

Metals Non-metals
1. Metals form positive ions. Example: Na+, Nonmetals form negative ions. Example: Cl–
K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, etc. , S2–, N3–, etc.
2. Oxides of metals are basic in nature, i.e., Oxides of nonmetals are acidic in nature,
the oxides of metals react with water to i.e., the oxides of nonmetals react with water
give bases or alkalis. to give acids.
Na2O + H2O  2NaOH CO2 + H2O  H 2CO3
carbonic acid
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
SO2 + H2O  H 2SO 3
sulphurous acid

SO3 + H2O  H 2SO 4

sulphuric acid
3. Metals dissolve in dilute acids to produce Nonmetals generally do not dissolve in

hydrogen gas. dilute acids.
Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
Exceptions: Some metals do not produce
hydrogen when treated with an acid under
ordinary circumstances.
4. Metals in general do not combine with Nonmetals combine with hydrogen to form
hydrogen. stable compounds.
Exception: Some metals (Na, Ca, Li, Be,
etc.) combine with hydrogen to form non-
volatile unstable hydrides.
5. Metallic chlorides are generally not Chlorides of nonmetals are usually
hydrolyzed by water, or are only partially hydrolyzed by water.
hydrolyzed. PCl3 + 3H2O  3HCl + H3PO3
NaCl + H2O  No hydrolysis SiCl4 + 4H2O  Si(OH)4 + 4HCl
AlCl3 + 3H2O  Al(OH)3 + 3HCl
Activity Series:
Important Equations
Chemical Properties of Metals:

Condition Chemical Equation
Metals are burnt in air
Metals react with water
Metals react with acids
Metals react with

solutions of other
metal salts
Formation of Sodium Chloride:

(Chloride anion)
Formation of Magnesium Chloride:
(Chloride anion)
Metal Extraction:
Scenario Example
Low in the activity

series
Middle in the activity

series
Top in the activity series

During Electrolysis

Some important balanced equations usually asked:
Electron dot structure:
Activity Series and related metallurgy:
Minerals and Ores:

Metal Minerals Places of occurrence in India
1. Sodium Tincal, borax Ladakh (Kashmir)
2. Magnesium Dolomite, magnesite Tamil Nadu
3. Calcium Gypsum Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir

4. Aluminium Bauxite UP, Maharashtra,'MP, Orissa

5. Copper copper pyrites, malachite Jharkhand, Orissa, MP
6. Zinc Zincblende Rajasthan
7. Manganese Pyrolusite Maharashtra, Karnataka and Jharkhand
8. Iron Haematite Jharkhand and Karnataka
Thermite Reaction:
Extraction of metals from ores:
Alloy Composition Uses
1. Brass Cu = 80%, Zn = 20% Harder than pure Cu and Zn ; used

for making utensils, cartridges, etc.
2. Bronze Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For making statues, medals, ships,

coins, machines, etc.
3. Solder (common) Sn = 50%, Pb = 50% For joining metals, soldering wires,

electronic components, etc.

Al = 95.5%, Cu = 3% In bodies of aircraft, kitchenware,
4. Duralumin
Mn = 1% Mg = 0.5% automobile parts, etc
5. Babbit metal Sn = 90%, Sb = 7%, Cu = 3% In antifriction lining

6. German silver Cu = 60%, Zn = 20%, Ni = 20% For making utensils, ornaments, etc.
7. Gun metal Cu = 60%, Sn = 10% Gears, castings, etc.
8. Bell metal Cu = 78%, Sn = 22% Bells, gongs, etc.
9. Magnalium Al = 90%, Mg = 10% Balance beams, light instruments,

etc.
10. Pewter Sn = 75%, Pb = 25% Cups, mugs, etc.
11. Type metal Pb=82%, Sb = 15%, Sn = 3% Casting type
Alloy steels
Name Composition Properties Uses
Extremely hard, Grinding machines,
1. Manganese Mn = 10 – 18%
resistant to wear safes, etc.
Highly tensile,
2. Chrome- Axle and other parts
Cr = 1-10%, V = 0.15% resistance to stress and
vanadium of automobiles
torsin
3. Nickel- High tensile strength,
Ni = 1-4%, Cr = 0.5-2% Armour plates
chromium hard and highly elastic
4. 18–8 Cr = 18%, Ni = 8% Resistance to corrosion Cutlery, instrument
Powerful permanent
5. Alnico Co = 5% Highly magnetic
magnet
Point to Remember:
 Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile and have high density.
 Metals are generally good conductors of heat and electricity.
 Metals form positive ions by losing electrons.
 All metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
 Metal oxides are basic in nature.
 Metals react with chlorine to form electrovalent chlorides of metals.
 Metals like Li, Na and Ca form hydrides with hydrogen.
 There are metal-bearing substances below the earth's surface which are called minerals.
 The minerals from which metals can be obtained profitably are called ores.

 A flux is a substance which is added to the furnace charge to remove nonfusible impurities
present in the ore.
 Flux combines with the nonfusible impurity to convert it into a fusible substance known as
slag.
 Nonmetals are generally bad conductors of heat and electricity.
 All nonmetals are electronegative.
 The function of limestone in the extraction of iron is to provide calcium oxide (CaO) for the
formation of the slag CaSiO3.
 Alloy steels are prepared by adding a small quantity of nickel, cobalt, chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum, manganese or silicon to steel.
 The heating of steel to redness and then cooling it slowly is called tempering of steel.
 Rusting of iron is an oxidation reaction which occurs in the presence of air and water.
 Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust.
 The process of extracting metals from their ores and refining them for use is called
metallurgy.
 The unwanted materials present in an ore are called gangue.
 Froth floatation is a method used for the concentration of some ores.
 Calcination is the process of heating an ore strongly so that volatile impurities are removed.
 Roasting is the process of heating an ore in a controlled supply of air at a controlled
temperature.
 Smelting is the process of obtaining metals from their compounds.
 Bauxite is an ore from which aluminium metal is commercially obtained.
 The most important are of aluminium is bauxite (Al2O3  2H2O).
4. Life Processes
Function of blood vessels:

S. No. Blood vessels Function
They carry blood away from the heart to various organs of the
1 Arteries
body.
They collect the blood from different organs and bring it back
2 Veins
to the heart
Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells
3 Capillaries
takes place across the thin walls of capillaries.
Arteries and Veins:

S. No. Arteries Veins
1 They are thick walled. They are thin walled.

2 Arteries have no valves. They have valves.
Carry oxygenated blood except Carry deoxygenated blood except

3
pulmonary artery. pulmonary vein.
Glands and their Secretions:

S.No Name of the Glands Name of Secretions
1 Salivary glands Saliva contains enzyme named ptyalin.
2 Gastric glands Secretes gastric juice, HCI, mucus and pepsin.
3 Liver Bile juice.
4 Intestinal glands Instestinal juice.
5 Pancreas Pancreatic juice which contains trypsin, lipase and amylase.
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration:

S.No. Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1 It takes place in the presence of oxygen. It takes place in the absence of oxygen.
Products obtained are ethanol and CO2 or
2 Products obtained are CO2 and H20. lactic acid.
3 More energy is produced. Less energy is produced.
In human air takes the following path:
Important Equations
Photosynthesis Process:
Glucose Breakdown:

Blood Groups:
Blood Antigen present Antibody Can receive
Can donate to
group in RBC present plasma from
A A B A and AB A, O
B B A AB, B B, O
AB A, B None AB B, AB, A, O
O None A and B O, A, B, AB O
Open and Closed Stomatal Pore:
The opening and closing of stomata depend upon the turgid or flaccid state of the guard
cells. When guard cells are in turgid state the stomatal aperture opens and when guard cells are
in flaccid state the stomatal aperture closes. The inner wall of guard cells (towards pore) is thick
and outer wall (towards other epidermal cells) is thin. When the turgor pressure of the guard
cells is increased the outer thinner wall of the guard cell is pushed out (towards the periphery)
due to which a tension is created on the inner thicker wall thus pulling the inner thicker wall
towards the periphery thus leading to the opening of stomatal aperture. On the contrary when
the guard cells are in a flaccid state the outer thinner wall of guard cells returns to original
position (moves towards pore) due to which tension on the inner wall is released which also
returns to its original position and stomatal aperture gets closed again.

Leaf Cross-Section:
Human Heart Cross-Section:
Excretory Unit of Human Kidney:

Human Alimentary Canal:
Structure and Function of Kidney in Human:

A pair of kidney is the main excretory organ in human. There are two bean shaped, dark
red coloured kidney placed just below the stomach, one on each side of the mid dorsal line. The
depression is called hilus from where the ureter originates and the renal artery and renal vein go
in and out here.
Ureter entering through hilus expands. Medula on inner side has cone like structure called
renal pyramids. Each kidney contains about one million nephrons. The functional unit of the
kidney is the nephron.
Adrenal gland
Inferior Renal gland
Vena cava
Renal vein
Pelvis
Medulla Kidney
Cortex
Dorsal aorta
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Figure : HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM

Respiratory System:
Epiglottis
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Cut end Pleural

of rib membranes
Alveoli
Lung Pleural fluid
Bronchiole
Diaphragm
Figure : HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The mammalian respiratory system consists of nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and alveoli.
Nostril: It is also called external nares.
Nasal Chamber: Nasal septum divides nasal cavity into two nasal chamber by the nasal
septum.
Internal nares: There are posterior opening of nasal chambers that leads into pharynx.
Pharynx: The pharynx provides passage to both air and food.
Laryngopharynx: It is the lower part of pharynx and has a slit like aperature called glottis,
which can be closed by a leaf like bilobed cartilage epiglottis, during swallowing of food bolus.
Larynx: It is also called voice box or adam's apple or pomas adami.
Vocal cord: In larynx, 2 pairs of vocal cord is found outer pair is false vocal cord whereas,
inner pair is true vocal cord when air is forced through the larynx it cause vibration of true vocal
cords and sound is produced.
Trachea (Wind pipe): It is long, tubular structure which runs downward through the neck in
front of oesophagus. It is supported by cartilage to prevent collapse.
Primary bronchi: These are one pair of small thin walled tubular structure formed by the
division of trachea. It further divides and end at alveoli.
Lungs: lungs are present in thoracic cavity on either side of heart covered by pleural
membrane.

Human Excretory System:
5. Control and Co-ordination

 Control and co-ordination are the functions of the nervous system and hormones in our
bodies.
 The responses of the nervous system can be classified as reflex action, voluntary action
and involuntary action.
 Hormones produced in one part of an organism move to another part to achieve the
desired effect.
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

(CNS) (PNS)
Brain Spinal Cord Voluntary Nervous System Involuntary or

Autonomic Nervous
System
Cranial Nerves (12 pair) Spinal Nerves (31 pair)
Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic

System Nervous System

Human Brain:
BRAIN
Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain
Olfactory Cerebrum Diencephalon Pons Cerebellum Medulla

Lobes (2) (2 Cerebral) Oblongata
hemispheres Cerebral Corpora
Peduncles Quadrigemina
Structure of Neuron:
Neuron or nerve cell is a structural and functional unit of nervous system that is
specialised to receive, conduct and transmit impulses. It is very long, sometimes reaching 90-
100 cm. A neuron has three parts— cell body, dendrites and axon. The term neurites is used for
both dendrites and axon.

Endocrine Glands in Human Beings:
Endocrine System:
Glands Secretion Functions
1. Pitutary
Controls growth of somatic cells influences
(A)Adenohypophysis (i) GH or STH
protein, carbohydrate and metabolisms
Regulates the growth of thyroid gland and
(ii) TSH
secretion of thyroxine
Stimulates adrenal contex to grow and
(iii) ACTH
secrete its hormones
Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles in
(iv) FSH ovary of female and controls
spermatogenesis in males
Stimulates ovary to produce estrogen in
(v) ICSH or LH female and testis to produce androgens in
male
Controls development of mammary glands
(vi) Prolactine and stimulates corpus luteium to secrete
progestrone
(vii) MSH Stimilate melanocytes
Controls uterine contraction during
(B) Neuro
(i) Oxytocin parturition, stimulates lactation to increase
hypophysis
milk secretion
(ii) Vasopressin Controls tubular reabsorption of water in
(ADH) kidney, also increases blood pressure

2. Thyroid
(i) Thyroxine Controls metabolism
(ii) Thyrocalcitonin Deposit calcium over bones.
3. Parathyroid PTH Maintain blood calcium.
4. Adrenal
Mineralocorticoid
(A) Cortex Salt retention
(Aldosterone)
(B) Medulla Adrenaline Emergency hormone
5. Gonads
Controls spermatogenesis and
(A) Testis (Cells of Androgens
development of secondary sexual charaters
leydig) (Testosteron)
of males
(B) Ovaries
(a) Graafian follicle (i) Estrogen Development of female sexual organs.
(b) Corpus luteum (i) Progesterone Maintain pregnancy

6. Thymus Thymosin Strenthens immune system
7. Pineal Melatonin Control skin colour.
Table: Summary of digestion enzymes of various glands with their secretions and end products
of digestion in man.
Name of
S.No. Secretion Site of action Enzymes Food acts upon End product
gland
1 Salivary glands Saliva Buccal cavity Salivary amylase Starch Maltose
2 Gastric glands Gastric Juice Stomach Pepsin Proteins Peptones & proteoses
Renin Casein of milk Paracasein
HCl Stomach — Pepsinogen Pepsin
3 Liver Bile Duodenum — Fats Emulsification of fats
4 Pancreas Pancreatic Duodenum Amylase Starch & Glycogen Maltose & Isomaltose
Juice Trypsin Proteins Peptones & peptides
Lipase Emulsified fats Fatty acids & glycerol
5 Intestinal Intestinal Samall Amino acids
Erepsin Peptones & Peptides
glands Juice intestine Glucose
Maltase Maltose
Glucose & fructose
Sucrase Sucrose
Glucose & galactose
Lactase Lactose
Monoglycerides & fatty
Lipase Triglycerides
acid
Lubrication of faecal
Mucous Large intestine — —
matter

6. Electricity
 Coulomb’s Law: The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is (j)
directly proportional to the product (q1 q2) of the two charges and (ii) inversely
proportional to the square of distance (r) between them.
Mathematically,
The value of K depends on the nature of the medium between the two charges and the system of
units chosen. For charges in vacuum K = 9 x 109Nm2/C2.
 The quantity of electric charge flowing through cross section of a given conductor in one
second is called current. Thus, if Q is the charge which flows through a conductor in time
t, then the current (I) is given by
Charge (Q)
Current (I) =
Time( t )
 Ohm’s law: This law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions
like temperature, density etc., remain unchanged.
 Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends: The resistance R of a

conductor depends on its length L, area of cross-section A and the nature of its material.
It is given by

The proportionality constant ρ is called resistivity of the conductor.
 Joule’s law of Heating: It states that the heat produced in a conductor is directly
proportional to (i) the square of the current I through it, (ii) its resistance R and (iii) the
time t, for which current is passed.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as
Quantities and Units:
Quantities S. I. Units
Charge Coulomb
Electric Current Ampere
Potential Difference Volt
Resistance Ohm
Resistivity Ohm metre
Heat Joule
Electric Power Watt
Schematic Diagram of an electric circuit:
Flow of Current in Metal

Metals show a very different kind of bonding called metallic bonding. According to this
bonding, the outermost electrons are not bound to any particular atom, and move freely inside
the metal randomly as shown in fig. So, these electrons are free electrons. These free electrons
move freely in all the directions. Different electrons move in different directions and with

different speeds. So there is no net movement of the electrons in any particular direction. As a
result, there is no net flow of current in any particular direction.
Metallic wire
Electrons move randomly,
so no flow of current
Fig. Flow of electrons inside a metal wire when no potential is applied across its ends
Electrons move from low

potential to high potential
+Battery–
High potential Low potential
Fig. Flow of electrons inside a metal wire when the two ends of a wire are connected to the
two terminals of a battery
Classification of Material on Basis of Resistivity:

Substances showing very low resistivity: The substances which show very low resistivities
allow the flow of electric current through them. These type of substances are called conductors.
For example, copper, gold, silver, aluminium and electrolytic solutions are conductors.
Substances having moderate resistivity: The substances which have moderate resistivity
offer appreciable resistance to the flow of electric current through them. Therefore, such
substances are called resistors. For example, alloys such as nichrome, manganin, constantanand
carbon are typical resistors.
Substances having very high resistivity: The substances which have very high resistivities
do not allow electricity to flow through them. The substances which do not allow electricity to
pass through them are called insulators. For example, rubber, plastics, dry wood, etc. are
insulators.
Combination of Resistances:
When two or more resistances are joined end-to-end so that the same current flows
through each of them, they are said to be connected in series. When a series combination of
resistances is connected to a battery, the same current (I) flows through each of them.

R1 R2 R3
I I
–
Key + Battery
When a series combination of resistances is connected to a battery, the same current (I) flows
through each of them.
Law of combination of resistances in series: The law of combination of resistances in

series states that when a number of resistances are connected in series, their equivalent
resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. Thus, if R1, R2, R3 ..., etc. are
combined in series, then the equivalent resistance (R) is given by,
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... .... (i)

Derivation of mathematical expression of resistances in series combination: Let, R1,
R2 and R3 be the resistances connected in series, I be the current flowing through the circuit, i.e.,
passing through each resistance, and V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across R1, R2 and
R3, respectively. Then, from Ohm’s law,
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ... (ii)
If, V is the potential difference across the combination of resistances then,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ... (iii)
If, R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, then V = IR ... (iv)
Using Equations (i) to (iv) we can write,
IR = V = V1 + V2 + V3
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
or, IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3)

or, R = R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore, when resistances are combined in series, the equivalent resistance is higher than each
individual resistance.
Parallel Combination:
When two or more resistances are connected between two common points so that the same
potential difference is applied across each of them, they are said to be connected is parallel.

R1
I1
I I
I2 R2
When such a combination of resistance is connected to a battery, all the resistances have the
same potential difference across their ends.
Derivation of mathematical expression of parallel combination:

Let, V be the potential difference across the two common points A and B. Then, from
Ohm’s law
Current passing through R1, I1 = V/R1 ... (i)
Current passing through R2, I2 = V/R2 ... (ii)
Current passing through R3, I3 = V/R3 ... (iii)
If R is the equivalent resistance, then from Ohm’s law, the total current flowing through the
circuit is given by,
I = V/R ... (iv)
and I = I1 + I2 + I3 ... (v)
Substituting the values of I, I1, I2 and I3 in Eq. (v),
V V V V
= + + ... (vi)
R R1 R2 R3
Cancelling common V term, one gets
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination of resistance is less than each of all the
individual resistances.
Components of electric circuit:

S.No Components Symbols
1 An electric cell
2 A battery or a combination of cells

3 Plug key or switch (open)
4 Plug key or switch (closed)
5 A wire joint
6 Wires crossing without joining
7 Electric bulb
8 A resistor of resistance
9 Variable resistance or rheostat
10 Ammeter
11 Voltmeter
7. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Magnetism: The property due to which a substance attracts iron pieces towards it, is called
magnetism. The substance having property of magnetism, is called magnet.
Right Hand Thumb Rule: Hold the wire carrying current in your right hand, such that the
thumb indicates the direction of current, then the folded fingers will indicate the presence of
magnetic field (lines) surrounding the wire.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
Fleming’s left–hand rule is used to find out the direction of motion of a current–carrying
conductor when placed in a magnetic field. This rule states as follows.
Stretch out the thumb, the forefinger, and the second (middle) finger of the left hand so
that these are at right angles to each other. If the forefinger gives the direction of the magnetic
field (N to S), the second (middle) finger the direction of current (+ to –), then the thumb gives
the direction of the force acting on the conductor.
Since the conductor will move in the direction of the force acting on it hence the thumb
gives the direction of motion of the conductor.
Faraday’s Law: The rate at which the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, produces the
induced emf or current. More the rate, more the current and vice-versa.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force:
N S

1. They start from a north (positive) pole and end at a south (negative) pole.
2. Two lines of force do not intersect each other.
3. They tend to contract longitudinally (longitudinal contraction).
4. They tend to expand laterally (lateral repulsion) so as to exert lateral pressure on
neighboring lines.
5. (The above two properties are similar to that of a stretched rubber band).
6. The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally per unit area about a point, gives
the intensity of the magnetic field at the point.
Electric Motor and Generator:

S.No Electric Motor Generator
Motor converts electrical energy into Converts mechanical energy to electrical
1
mechanical energy. energy.
Works on the principle of Fleming’s left Works on the principle of Fleming’s right
2
hand rule. hand rule.
Uniform Magnetic Field:
Magnetic Lines around a bar magnet:

Magnetic Lines due to a current carrying loop:
Magnetic field in a solenoid:
Magnetic Lines around two magnets:
Magnetic Lines Produced Around a current carrying conductor:

Common Domestic Circuit:
Points to Be Remember:
 A freely suspended magnet always stays north–south.
 The region around a magnet in which its magnetic force can be detected is called the
magnetic field.
 Magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines.
 The tangent at any point of a magnetic field line represents the direction of magnetic field
at the point.
 The number of lines of force passing through a unit area represents the strength of the field.
If the lines of force are closer, the magnetic field is stronger.
 The magnetic field lines around a current–carrying straight conductor are concentric circle
around the conductor.
 The direction of magnetic field due to a current–carrying straight conductor is given by
Fleming’s right–hand rule.
 The magnetic field due to a current–carrying solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet. The
magnetic field inside a solenoid is nearly uniform and is parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
 A magnet formed due to the magnetic field of a current is called an electromagnet. An
electromagnet essentially consists of a soft iron core wrapped around with an insulated
copper wire coil.
 An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is
based on the principle that: When a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, a
torque acts on it.
 When a conductor moves perpendicular to a magnetic field, an emf is induced across its
ends. The direction of induced emf or the induced current is determined by the Fleming’s
right–hand rule.
 Generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic field, with a continuous change in
flux due to which an emf is induced.
 Power is transmitted from the power station to cities at high voltage and low current to
minimize power loss.
 A fuse is a wire of high resistance and made up of a material of low melting point.

8. Sources of Energy
 Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can
be transformed from one form to another.
 Energy sources which are used traditionally for many years and are to deplete over a
period of time are called conventional or non-renewable sources. e.g.,Coal, Petroleum,
Natural gas etc.
 Energy sources which do not deplete and are scarcely used by the population are called
non- conventional or renewable sources of energy, e.g., Solar energy, Wind energy etc.
 A good source of energy would be one, which would do a large amount of work per unit
volume or mass, be easily accessible, easy to store and transport, and Economical.
Important Equations
 The flow of energy to run a turbine in power station is:
Fossil Fuels—Heat Energy—Mechanical Energy—Electrical Energy
Solar Cooker:
sun ray being

Mirror
reflected
Glass sheet
A black surface absorbs more heat as compared to a white or a reflecting surface under
identical conditions. Solar cookers and solar water heaters use this property in their working.
Some solar cookers achieve a higher temperature by using mirrors to focus the rays of the Sun.
Solar cookers are covered with a glass plate.
Hydroelectricity Generation:
Reservoir
Sluice
gates Power house Power lines
Generator
To river

Hydro power plants convert the potential energy of falling water into electricity. Since
there are very few water-falls which could be used as a source of potential energy, hydro power
plants are associated with dams.
In order to produce hydel electricity, high-rise dams are constructed on the river to
obstruct the flow of water and thereby collect water in larger reservoirs. The water level rises
and in this process the kinetic energy of flowing water gets transformed into potential energy.
Biogas Plant:
Slury
Gas outlet
Manure
Soil
Soil Fertiliser
Gas tank
Digester
Bio-gas plant
Plant and animal products are said to be bio-mass. These fuels, however, do not produce
much heat on burning and a lot of smoke is given out when they are burnt. Therefore,
technological inputs to improve the efficiency of these fuels are necessary.
When wood is burnt in a limited supply of oxygen, water and volatile materials present
in it get removed and charcoal is left behind as the residue. Charcoal burns without flames, is
comparatively smokeless and has a higher heat generation efficiency.
Similarly, cow-dung, various plant materials like the residue after harvesting the crops,
vegetable waste and sewage are decomposed in the absence of oxygen to give bio-gas. Since the
starting material is mainly cow-dung, it is popularly known as ‘gobar-gas’.
Nuclear fission:
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses
(after bombardment with a energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.
Fission reaction of U235
92U
235 + 0n1  92U236 
(Unstable nucleus)
141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + Q
56Ba

Ba
Energy
Energy
Slow
235 235
Neutron 92U 92U
Energy
Energy
Kr
Nuclear Fusion:
It has been observed that under special conditions, it is possible for the nuclei of light
elements to combine and form a nucleus of a high atomic number. When two or more light
nuclei moving at very high speed are fused together to form a heavy nucleus, then the process is
known as nuclear fusion.
2
1H + 2
1H  3
1H + 1
1H + 4.0 MeV
Deuteron Deuteron Triton Proton Energy
The triton so formed can further fuse with a third deuteron to form an –particle (Helium–
nucleus).
3
1H + 12 H  4 1
2 He + 0 n + 17.6 MeV energy
S.No NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION
Two or more light nuclei join together

A heavy nucleus disintegrates to give
1 to form a heavy nucleus with the release
lighter nuclei with the release of energy.
of energy
Nuclear fission is a chain reaction-the

fission of one nucleus leading to the
2 Nuclear fusion is not a chain reaction.
production of neutrons, which cause
more nuclei to disintegrate.
Nuclear fission requires thermal

neutrons neutronswith sufficient energy Nuclear fusion requires high
3
to split a nucleus. But it does not require temperatures in the range of 106K.
very high temp.
Fusion cannot be carried out in any

Fission process can be carried out in a container, as the temperature is very
4
reactor. high. Scientists hope to contain matter
in a magnetic field

Controlled nuclear fusion has so far not

been achieved. Only uncontrolled
Controlled nuclear fission is possible
5 fusion reactions in the thermonuclear
and takes place in a nuclear reactor.
devices such as the hydrogen bomb
have been achieved.
Nuclear fission produces radioactive Nuclear fusion does not produce

6 wastes, which pose the problem of waste radioactive wastes and, therefore, does
disposal. not cause pollution.
TERM-1
1. Real Number
Fundamentals:
Real Numbers
Rational no. Irrational no.
If remainder = 0 If remainder  0 If remainder  0

& rem. = devidend & rem.  any devidend
Terminating Non terminating Non terminating
& & non repeating
Non repeating repeating (recurring)
18 1
Eg:  3.6 Eg:  0.33.... .. Eg: 0.671234…..
5 3
 If a is a real number, modulus a is written as |a|; |a| is always positive or zero.

 All natural number which cannot be divided by any number other than 1 and itself is called a
prime number.
 A non-negative integer 'p' is said to be divided by an integer 'q' if there exists an integer 'd'
such that: p = qd
 ±1 divides every non-zero integer.
 0 does not divide any integer.
Euclid's Division Lemma: Let a and b be any two positive integers, then there exists
unique integers q and r such that: a = bq + r, 0 ≤r<b

Euclid's Division Algorithm: Let a and b be any two positive integers such that a>b and
'q' and ‘r’ as quotient and remainder
Take a as dividend and b as divisor a = bq + r, 0 <r <b
Then every common divisor of a and b is a common divisor of b and r.
 Finding HCF of two positive integers using Euclid's Division Algorithm:
Step 1: Apply Euclid's lemma to a and b: a = bq1 + r1

Step 2: If r1 = 0, then HCF = b.
Step 3: If r1 ≠ 0, then again apply Euclid's lemma: b = q1r1 + r2
Step 4: If r2 = 0, then HCF = r1.
Step 5: If r2 ≠ 0, then again apply Euclid's lemma till remainder rn = 0, then the divisor is
HCF.
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Every composite number can be expressed as a product of primes, and this factorisation is
unique except for the order in which the prime factors occur.
Important Theorems:
1. Let p be a prime number and a be a positive integer. If p divides a2, then p divides
2. Consider two positive integers a and b, then LCM × HCF = a × b.
3. Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then we can express x
p
in the form , where p and q are co-prime and the prime factorisation of q is of the form
q
2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers.
p
4. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is of the form
q
2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which
terminates.
p
5. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is not of the form
q
2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is
non-terminating repeating.
2. Polynomials
Fundamentals:
 An algebraic equation of the form,
p(x) = a0xn + a1xn-l + a2xn-2 + ……… + an-1x + an
is called polynomial, provided it has no negative exponent for any variable.
Where a0, a1, a2, ……an-1, an are constants (real numbers); a0≠0.

 Remainder Theorem:
1. Remainder obtained on dividing polynomial p(x) by x – a is equal to p(a) .
2. If a polynomial p(x) is divided by (x + a) the remainder is the value of p(x) at x = –a.
3. (x – a) is a factor of polynomial p(x) if p (a) = 0
4. (x + a) is a factor of polynomial p(x) if p (–a) = 0
5. (x – a) (x – b) is a factor of polynomial p(x), if p(a) = 0 and p(b) = 0.
 Degree of polynomial: n is called the degree (highest power of variable x). If n = 1
then polynomial is called linear polynomial.
General form: ax + b = 0 (a≠ 0)
If n = 2 then polynomial is called quadratic polynomial.
General form: ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a≠0)
If n = 3 then polynomial is called cubic polynomial.
General form: ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 (a≠0)
Zeroes of Polynomial: For polynomial p(x), the value of x for which p(x) = 0, is called
zero(es) of polynomial.
Linear Polynomial can have at most 1 root.
Quadratic Polynomial can have at most 2 roots.
Cubic Polynomial can have at most 3 roots.
Types of Polynomials:
(A) Based on degree:
If degree of polynomial is
Examples
1. One Linear x + 3, y – x + 2, 3 x –3
1
2. Two Quadratic 2x2 –7, x2+y2 –2xy, x2 +1+ 3y
3
3. Three Cubic x3 + 3x2 –7x+8, 2x2+5x3+7,
4. Four bi-quadratic x4 + y4 + 2x2y2, x4 + 3,…

(B) Based on Terms:
If number of terms in polynomial is

Examples
7 16
1. One Monomial 7x, 5x9, x , xy, ……
3
2. Two Binomial 2 + 7y6, y3 + x14, 7 + 5x9,…
3. Three Trinomial x3 –2x + y, x31+y32+ z33,…..
Relationship between zeroes and coefficient of polynomial:

b (constant term)
Zero of linear polynomial ax + b = 0 is given by x = = .
a (coeffient of x)
 If α and β are zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c = 0, then

b (coeffient of x)
Sum of zeroes α+β = =
a (coeffient of x 2 )
c (constant term)
Products of zeroes αβ = =
a (coeffient of x 2 )
 If α , β and γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, then
b (coeffient of x 2 )
Sum of zeroes α+β+γ = =
a (coeffient of x3 )
c (constanat of x )
Product of zeroes αβ + βγ + γα = =
 d (constant term)
αβγ = =
Division algorithm for polynomials:

If p(x) and g(x) are two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find q(x) and r(x) such
that
p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x),
In simple words: Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Tips:
1. Graph of linear polynomial is a straight line, while graph of quadratic equation is a
parabola.
2. Degree of polynomial = maximum number of zeroes of polynomial.
3. If remainder r(x) = 0, then g(x) is a factor of p(x).

4. To form quadratic polynomial if sum and product of zeroes are given
p(x) = x2 - (Sum of zeroes) x + (Product of zeroes)
3. Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

Fundamentals:
 The general form of linear equation in one variable is: ax + b = 0, a≠0.
 The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line
 A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions
 Slope of the line ax + by + c = 0 is – a/b
 Equation of x-axis is y = 0 and equation of y-axis is x = 0
 The graph of the line x = a is parallel to y-axis.
 The graph of the line y = b is parallel to x-axis.
 Every point on the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a solution of the
equation.
 The general form of linear equation in two variables is: ax + by + c = 0. where a, b, c are
real coefficients; a≠0,b≠0
 Two linear equations which are in the same two variables x and y simultaneously are
called pair of linear equation in two variables.
 The general form of pair of linear equation in two variables is :
a 1 x + b1 y + c 1 = 0
and a2x + b2y +c2 = 0
Where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2 ,c2 are all real coefficients
 A pair of values of x and y satisfying each one of the equations is called solution of the
system.
Graphical representation of pair of linear equations:

Let the system of pair of linear equations be
a 1 x + b1 y + c 1 = 0 .... (1)
and a2x + b2y +c2 = 0 .... (2)
We know that given two lines in a plane, only one of the following three possibilities can happen
(i) The two lines will intersect at one point.
(ii) The two lines will not intersect, however far they are extended, i.e., they are parallel.
(iii) The two lines are coincident lines.

Y Y 1 and 2 Y
1 1 2
2
P()
0 X 0 X X' 0 X
Y'
Graphical and Algebraic Interpretation:
Pair of Linear Algebraic Graphical Algebraic

Consistency
Equations Condition Interpretation Interpretation
a1 b Intersecting
≠ 1 Unique solution Consistency
a2 b2 lines
a2x + b2y + c1 = 0 a1 b c Infinitely many Dependent

= 1= 1 Coincident lines
a2x + b2y + c2 =0 a2 b2 c2 solutions Consistent
a1 b c
= 1≠ 1 Parallel lines No solution Inconsistent
a2 b2 c2
Methods of Solving Pair of Linear Equations:

1. Graphical Method
2. Algebraic Method
3. Substitution Method
4. Elimination Method
5. Cross-Multiplication method
Graphical Method:
Step 1: Plot the both linear equations on the same graph.
Step 2: Find the intersecting point on graph, if the lines are intersecting.
Step 3: Intersecting point is the required solution.
Step 4: In step 2, if the lines are coincident, then there are infinitely many solutions-each
point on the line being a solution.
Step 5: In step 2, if the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution.
Substitution Method:
Step 1: From one equation, find the value of one variable in terms of other variable.
Step 2: Substitute the value of variable obtained in step 1 in the other equation, you will get
the equation in one variable.

Step 3: Solve the equation in one variable and find the value of variable.
Step 4: Substitute the value of the variable so obtained in step 3 in any equation, you will get
equation in unknown variable.
Step 5: Solve this equation in one variable and find the value of this variable.
Elimination Method:
Step 1: First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make the
coefficients of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
Step 2: Then add or subtract one equation from other so that one variable gets eliminated
and resultant equation will become an equation in one variable.
Step 3: Solve the equation in one variable and find the value of the variable.
Step 4: Substitute the value of the variable so obtained in step 3 in any equation, you will get
equation in unknown variable.
Step 5: Solve this equation in one variable and find the value of this variable now.
Cross Multiplication Method: For two pair of linear equations,
a 1 x + b1 y + c 1 = 0
and a2x + b2y +c2 = 0, make an array as below:
From this, you will get:
b1c2  b2c1 c a c a
x and y = 1 2 2 1 , a1b2  a2b1 ≠ 0
a1b2  a2b1 a1b2  a2b1
Equations Reducible to A Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables: There are several
situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations that are not linear to
start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a pair of linear equations.
4. Triangles
Fundamentals:
Similar figures: Two figures of same shape are said to be similar if:
1. Their corresponding angles are equal.

2. Their corresponding sides are proportional.
Examples:
a) All circles

b) All squares
c) All equilateral triangles
d) All congruent triangles.
Similar triangle and their properties:

Two triangles are said to be similar, if their
(i) Corresponding angles are equal and,
(ii) Corresponding sides are proportional.
Two triangles ABC and DEF are similar, if
(i) A = D, B = E, C = F and,
AB BC AC
(ii) = =
DE EF DF
D
A
B C
E F
Theorem 1: If two triangles are equiangular, prove that the ratio of the
corresponding sides is same as the ratio of the corresponding medians.
Given: Two triangles ABC and DEF in which A = D, B = E, C = F, AP and DQ are
their medians.
D
A
B P C E Q F
Figure (i) Figure (ii)
BC AP
To Prove: =
EF DQ
Proof: Since equiangular triangles are similar.
 ABC ~ DEF
AB BC AB 2BP
   =  =
DE EF DE 2EQ
 P and Q are mid  point s of BC 

 and EF respectively 
 BC  2BP and EF  2EQ 

AB BP
     = .... (ii)
DE EQ
Now, in ABP and DFQ, we have
AB BP
= [From (ii)]
DE EQ
and, B = E [Given]
So, by SAS-criterion of similarity, we have
     ABP ~ DEQ
AB AP
     = .... (iii)
DE DQ
From (i) and (iii), we get
BC AP
=
EF DQ
Hence, the ratio of the corresponding sides is same as the ratio of corresponding medians.
Statement of Theorems
1. Basic Proportionality Theorem: If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to
intersect the other two sides in distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same
ratio.
2. Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem: If a line divides two sides of a triangle
in the same ratio, the line is parallel to the third side.
3. Ratio of The Areas of Two Similar Triangles: The ratio of the areas of two similar
triangles is equal to the ratio of the squares of their corresponding sides.
4. Pythagoras Theorem: In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
5. Converse of Pythagoras Theorem: In a triangle, if the square of one side is equal to
sum of the squares of the other two sides, the angle opposite to the first side is a right
angle.
6. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the
hypotenuse, the triangles on each side of the perpendicular are similar to the whole
triangle and to each other.
Criterion for Similarity of Two Triangles

 SSS Similarity: If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then
triangles are similar.
 AAA Similarity: If the corresponding angles of two triangles are equal, then triangles
are similar.
 SAS Similarity: If the pair of one corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional
and the included angles are equal, then triangles are similar.

Proof of Theorems:
Basic Proportionality Theorem (Thales Theorem):

Statement: If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
Given: A ∆ ABC and line ‘' parallel to BC intersect AB at D and AC at E
AD AE
To Prove: =
DB EC
Construction: Join BE and CD. Draw EL  AB and DM  AC.
Proof: We know that areas of the triangles on the same base and between same parallel lines
are equal, hence we have
area ( BDE)  area ( CDE) …. (i)
Now, we have
1
×AD×EL
area (Δ ADE) AD
= 2 = .… (ii)
area (Δ BDE) 1
×DB×EL DB
2
Again, we have
1
×AE×DM
area (Δ ADE) 2 AE … (iii)
= =
area (Δ CDE) 1
×EC×DM EC
2
Put value from (i) in (ii), we have
area (Δ ADE) AD
= …. (iv)
area (Δ CDE) DB
On comparing equation (ii) and (iii), we get

AD AE
= Hence Proved.
DB EC
Corollary:
AB AC DB EC AB AC
(i)  (ii)  (iii) 
DB EC AD AC AD AE
DB EC AD AE
(iv)  (v) 
AB AC AB AC
Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem:

Statement: If a line divides any two sides of triangles in the same ratio, the line must be
parallel to the third side.
Given: A ∆ ABC and line ‘' intersecting the sides AB at D and AC at E such that:
AD AE
=
DB EC
To Prove:  BC.
Proof: Let us suppose that the line l is not parallel to BC.
Then through D, there must be any other line which must be parallel to BC.
Let DF BC, such that E ≠ F.
Since, DF BC (By supposition)
AD AF
= … (i) (Basic Proportionality Theorem)
DB FC
AD AE
= … (ii) (Given)
DB EC
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get

AF AE
=
FC EC
Adding 1 to both sides, we get
AF AE
+1 = +1
FC EC
AF+FC AE+EC
 =
FC EC
AC AC
 =
FC EC
1 1
 =
FC EC
 FC=EC
This shows that E and F must coincide, but it contradicts our supposition that E ≠ F and
DF BC. Hence, there is one and only line, DF BC, i.e.
 BC Hence Proved.
Ratio of the Areas of Two Similar Triangles

Statement: The ratio of the areas of the two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of squares of
their corresponding sides.
Given: ∆ ABC ~ ∆ DEF
area (Δ ABC) BC2 AB2 AC2

To prove: = = =
area (Δ DEF) EF2 DE 2 DF2
Construction: Draw AG  BC and DH  EF.

1
×BC×AG
area (Δ ABC) 2 BC AG
Proof: = =  … (i)
area (Δ DEF) 1
×EF×DH EF DH
2
( area of Δ = 1 ×base×height )
2
Now in triangle ABG and DEH, we have
B  E (since, ABC DEF)

 AGB   DHE (each 900 )
Therefore, ABG DEG (by AA criterion)
AB AG
Hence, = ... (ii) (Using property of similar triangles)
DE DH
AB BC
 = ... (iii) (since, ABC DEF)
DE EF
Comparing (ii) and (iii), we get
AG BC
= … (iv)
DH EF
Using (i) and (iv), we get

= = = … (v)
BC AB AC
= = ... (vi) (since, ABC DEF)
EF DE DF
Using (v) and (vi), we get

= = =
Hence Proved.
Corollary:
1. The ratio of the areas of the two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of squares of their
corresponding altitudes.
2. The ratio of the areas of the two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of squares of their
corresponding medians.

Pythagoras Theorem (Baudhayan Theorem)

Statement: In a right triangle, the square of one side (longest side, i.e. hypotenuse) is equal to
the sum of squares of other two sides (i.e. base and perpendicular).
Given: ∆ ABC is right angled at B.
To Prove: AC2 = AB2 + BC2
Construction: Draw BD  AC
Proof:
Taking ∆ ADB and ∆ ABC
 B =  ADB (each 900 )

A=A (common)
Therefore, ADB ABC (by AA criterion)
AD AD
Hence, =
AB AB
 2
AB = AD×AC ... (i)
Now taking ΔCDB and ΔCBA

 B =  BDC (each 900 )
C=C (common)
Therefore, CDB CBA (by AA criterion)
CD BC
Hence, =
BC AC
 2
BC = CD×AC ... (ii)

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

 AB 2 +BC2 = AD×AC + CD×AC
 AB 2 +BC2 = AC  (AD + CD)
 AB 2 +BC2 = AC  AC
AC 2 = AB2 +BC 2 Hence Proved
Converse of Pythagoras Theorem

Statement: In a right triangle, if the square of one side (longest side, i.e. hypotenuse) is equal
to the sum of squares of other two sides (i.e. base and perpendicular), then the angle opposite to
the first side is the right angle.
Given: AC2 = AB2 + BC2 … (i)
To Prove: ∆ ABC is right angled at B.
Construction: Draw right ∆ PQR such that AB = PQ, BC = QR and  Q = 90°.
Proof: Using Pythagoras theorem in ∆ PQR, we get
PR 2 = PQ2 + QR 2 … (ii)
By construction, AB = PQ
BC = QR, substituting these values in (ii), we get
PR 2 = AB2 +BC 2 ... (iii)
comparing (i) and (iii), we get
AC 2 = PR 2
 AC = PR ... (iv)
In ABC and PQR

AB = PR (by construction)
BC = QR (by construction)
AC = PR (Proved above in (iv))

 ABC = PQR (by SSS congruence rule)

 B=Q (by cpct)
But  Q = 900 (by construction)
Hence,  B = 900
ABC is right angled at B. Hence Proved.
5. Introduction to Trigonometry
 Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics dealing with the relations of the sides and angles
of triangles and with the relevant functions of any angles.
 Trigonometric Ratios: The values of the ratios of the sides of any right triangle with
respect to any angle (other than 90°) are called trigonometric ratios of that angle. For
example: In right triangle ABC, the ratios of the sides of the triangle with respect to  A are
called trigonometric ratios of  A.
There are six different trigonometric ratios as follows:
Opposite side to angle A BC Perpendicular

1. Sine A = = =
Hypotenuse AC Hypotenuse
Adjacent side to angle A AB Base
2. Cosine A = = =

3. Tangent A = = =
4. Cosecant A = = =

5. Secant A = = =
6. Cotangent A = = =
Tips:
1. sin A is written for sine A.
2. cos A is written for cosine A.
3. tan A is written for tangent A.
4. cosec A is written for cosecant A.
5. sec A is written for secant A.
6. cot A is written for cotangent A.

Short way to learn above ratios:
Just learn first three, because if you see other three are reciprocals of first three respectively. Let
P denotes perpendicular, B for base and H for hypotenuse.
sin cos
tan
PANDIT (P) BADRI (B) PRASAD (P)

HAR (H) HAR (H) BOLE (B)
Similarly:
cosec sec cot

HAR (H) HAR (H) BOLE (B)
PADNIT (P) BADRI (B) PRASAD (P)
Relation between Trigonometric Ratios:

1 1
sin θ = OR cosec θ =
cosecθ sin θ
1 1
cos θ = OR sec θ =
secθ cosθ
1 1
tan θ = OR cot θ =
cot θ tan θ
sin θ cosθ
tan θ = OR cot θ =
cot θ sin θ
Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles:
In this part, we will put values of angles as 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°, hence we will find ratios.
θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

Sin 0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1
Cos 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0
Tan 0 1/ 3 1 3 ∞
Cosec ∞ 2 2 2/ 3 1
Sec 1 2/ 3 2 2 ∞
Cot ∞ 3 1 1/ 3 0
 How to remember trigonometric ratios of some specific angles?

1. First of all learn only sin row. If you can't learn then follow the step to find sin θ row
θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
0 1 2 3 4
Sin θ
4 4 4 4 4
0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1
2. For cos θ row, write all the values of sin θ row in inverse order, i.e. from right to left.
sin θ
3. For tan θ =
cot θ
1
4. For cosec θ =
sin θ
1
5. For sec θ =
cos θ
cos θ
6. For cot θ =
sin θ
Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles:

In ∆ ABC,  B = 90°, Let  A = θ, hence  C = 90° - θ.
Thus angles θ and (90° - θ) are complementary angles.

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities:
6. Statistics
Fundamentals:
1. The word statistics is used in both singular as well as plural.

2. In singular, it means "science of collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
numerical data".
3. In plural, it means "numerical facts collected with definite purpose".
4. The number of times an observation occurs in the given data is called the frequency.
5. Frequency distribution is of two types :
i. Discrete Frequency distribution
ii. Continuous or Grouped Frequency distribution
6. Classes/class intervals are the groups in which all the observations are divided.
7. Suppose class-interval is 10-20, then 10 is called lower limit and 20 is called upper limit of
the class.
8. Mid-value of class-interval is called Class-mark
lower limit  upper limit

Class-mark =
2

1
Class-mark = lower limit +
2
9. If the frequency of first class interval is added to the frequency of second class and this
sum is added to third class and so on then frequencies so obtained are known as
Cumulative Frequency (c.f.).
10. The commonly used measures of central tendency are as follows :
Arithmetic Mean (MEAN), Geometric Mean, Harmonic Mean, Median and Mode.
Acc. to course, we will study mean, median & mode
Relation between mean, median and mode:
3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean
Mean Of Grouped Data: If x1 , x2 , x3 , ....... xn , are observations with respective frequency

f 1 , f 2 , f3 , ....... fn , it means observation x1 occurs f 1 times, observation x 2 occurs f 2 times and so
on. Mean is denoted by x . There are three different ways to find the mean of a grouped data
which are:
1. Direct Method.
2. Assumed Mean Method.
3. Shortcut Method (Step-Deviation Method).
1. Direct Method:
Sum of all the observations
Mean (X) =
No. of observations
f1 x1  f 2 x2  ............  f n xn
x
f1  f 2  ...........  f n
fx i i
x i 1
n
f
i 1
i
2. Assumed Mean Method: The formula used in the assumed mean method is given as below:
n
fd
i 1
i i
Mean (x ) = a+ n
f
i 1
i

Where a is any arbitrary value, chosen as assumed mean (somewhere in the middle of xi ), and
di  xi  a .
3. Step-Deviation Method (Shortcut Method): The formula used is given below:
  fi ui 
(x ) = a + 
 f   h ,
 i 
Where a is any arbitrary value, chosen as assumed mean (somewhere in the middle of xi ).
h = class-size
xi  a
and ui 
h
Combined Mean: If x1 and x2 are the means of two groups having same unit of measurement
computed from n1 and n2 values.
n1 x1  n2 x2
Mean (x) 
n1  n2
Arithmetic mean of raw data (when frequency is not given): The arithmetic mean of a
raw data is obtained by adding all the values of the variables and dividing the sum by total
number of values that are added.
x1  x 2  ... x n
n
x
1
Arithmetic mean (x)= = i
n n i 1
Median of Grouped Data:
Condition I: When the data is discrete.
Step 1: Arrange data in ascending order.
Step 2: If the total frequency n is odd:
 n 1 
th
Then,   , observation is the median.

 2 
Step 3: If the total frequency n is even:
th
n th n 
Then, mean of and   1 , observations the median.
2 2 
Condition II: When the data is continuous and in the form of frequency distribution:

n 
 2 c
Then, Median = l   h
 f 
 
N
Median class = the class whose cumulative frequency is greater than (nearest to) .
2
Where, l = lower limit of median class

f = frequency of median class
h = class-size
n = number of observations
c = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class.
Mode of Grouped Data: The class with maximum frequency is called the modal class.
 f1  f 0 
Mode  l   h
 2 f1  f 0  f 2 
Where, l = lower limit of the modal class

h = class-size
f1 = frequency of the modal class
f 0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f 2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

OGIVE or Cumulative Frequency Curve: The term ogive is derived from the word ogee.
An ogee is a shape consisting of concave arc flowing into a convex arc.
An OGIVE of less than type: It is drawn for less than type cumulative frequency distribution.
Here we mark upper limit of class interval on horizontal axis while respective cumulative
frequency is marked on vertical axis and plot the corresponding points and join them by a free,
hand curve. Cumulative frequency is counted up to down.
An OGIVE of more than type: It is drawn for more than type cumulative frequency
distribution.
Here we mark lower limit of class interval on horizontal axis while respective cumulative
frequency is marked on vertical axis and plot the corresponding points and join them by a free
hand curve. Cumulative frequency is counted down to up.
Note: Intersecting point of less than ogive and more than ogive gives median.
N
Note: The median of the grouped data can be obtained on any one of the ogive by locating on
2
the y-axis. Locate corresponding point on the ogive, x-coordinate of that point determines the
median of the data.

TERM-2
1. Carbon and its Compounds

Key Points and Concepts:
Covalent and Ionic Compounds:
S.No Covalent Compounds Ionic Compounds
They are not soluble in organic
1. They are readily soluble in organic solvent.
solvent.
2. They do not ionise. They ionise in organic medium.
They are bad conductors of heat and They are good conductors of heat
3.
electricity. and electricity.
They have weak force of attraction between They have strong force of attraction
4.
the molecules. between the molecules.
Formation of molecules:
Hydrogen Molecule: When two atoms of hydrogen share one electron each, a single covalent
bond is formed as shown below:
Fig. Formation of Hydrogen
Oxygen Molecule: When two oxygen atoms share two electrons each to complete their octet,
double covalent bond is formed.
Fig. Formation of Oxygen

Chlorine Molecule: Chlorine has 7 valence electrons. It can share one electron with other
chlorine atom to form Cl2.
Fig. Formation of Chlorine
Nitrogen: Nitrogen has five valence electrons. It needs three more electrons to complete its octet. It
shares three electrons with other atom of nitrogen to form triple covalent bond.
Fig. Formation of Nitrogen
Ammonia: Nitrogen has five valence electrons. It shares one electron with each of the three
hydrogen atoms to form NH3.
Fig. Formation of Ammonia
Methane: Carbon has four valence electrons. It needs four electrons to complete its octet. It
shares four electrons with four hydrogen atoms and forms four single covalent bonds.

Fig. Formation of Methane
Water: In formation of H2O, each hydrogen atoms shares one electron with oxygen atom so that
oxygen completes its octet and hydrogen acquires nearest nobles gas configuration.
Fig. Formation of Water
Carbon dioxide: Carbon has four valence electron. It shares two electron with one of the
oxygen and two electrons with other atom of oxygen to form double covalent bond.
Fig. Formation of Carbon dioxide
Classification of Hydrocarbons:

IUPAC Nomenclature:
Some Common Alkanes:
ALKANES ALKYLS
methane CH4 methyl CH3
ethane C2H6 ethyl C2H5
propane C3H8 propyl C3H7
butane C4H10 butyl C4H9
pentane C5H12 propyl C5H11
hexane C6H14 hexyl C6H13
heptane C7H16 heptyl C7H15
octane C8H18 octyl C8H17
nonane C9H20 nonyl C10H19
decane C10H22 decyl C10H21
Homologous Series of Alkene:

Alkyl group Derived from Alkane Name Of Alkyl Group
-CH3 Methane methyl
-C2H5 Ethane ethyl
-C3H7 Propane propyl
Homologous Series of Alkene:

No. of carbon
Name of the Alkene Molecular formula
atoms
2 Ethene C2H4
3 Propene C3H6
4 Butene C4H8
5 Pentene C5H10

Homologous Series of Alkyne:

Molecular
No. of carbon atoms Name of the Alkene
formula
2 Ethyne C2H2
3 Propyne C3H4
4 Butyne C4H6
5 Pentyne C5H8
Graphite, Diamond and Fullerene:
Diamond:
1. It is hardest substance known and its density is 3.5 g/ml.

2. Its crystals are octahedral, colourless and transparent
3. In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms along
four corners of regular tetrahedron. This pattern extends in three dimensions. Diamond
is hard due to strong covalent bonds present in it.
4. Diamond is non-conductor of electricity
5. The standard heat of formation of diamond is 29 kJ mol–1.
Graphite:
1. Graphite is soft and slippery with density of 2.3 g/ml

2. It is black coloured, opaque and has hexagonal crystals.
3. In graphite, carbon atoms are bonded together in flat layers by strong covalent bonds in
a regular hexagon. These layers are held together by much weaker van der Waal’s forces,
therefore the crystals of graphite are soft and slippery.
4. Graphite is conductor of electricity.
5. It is thermodynamically most stable.

Common Functional Group:
Some Common Alcohols:

Methanol (CH3OH)
1
CH3OH
Ethanol (C2H5OH)
2
CH3CH2OH
Propanol (C3H7OH)
3
CH3CH2CH2OH
Some Common Aldehydes:

Formaldehyde (CH2O)
1
HCOH

Ethanal (C2H4O)
2
CH3COH
Some Common Carboxylic Acids:

Methanoic Acid (CH2O2)
1
HCOOH
Ethanoic Acid (C2H4O2)

2
CH3COOH
Propanoic Acid
(C3H6O2)
3
CH3CH2COOH
Some Common Ketones:
2-Propanone (C3H6O)
1 CH3COCH3
2-Butanone (C4H8O)
2
CH3CH2COCH3
3 2-Pentanone (C5H10O)
CH3CH2CH2COCH3
Point to Remember:
1. Carbon always forms covalent bonds.
2. Carbon is present in all substances of animal and vegetable origin
3. The ability of carbon to unite with an indefinite number of carbon atoms in straight,
branched or cyclic chains is known as catenation.
4. Caron and hydrogen combine together indifferent proportions to form a large number of
compounds called hydrocarbons.
5. There are two types of hydrocarbons-saturated and unsaturated

6. Alkanes are represented by the general formula CnH2n+2

7. Alkenes are represented by the general formula CnH2n
8. Alkynes are represented by the general formula CnH2n-2
9. Organic compounds having the same functional group and common properties, but
differing in molecular formula from the next member by one CH2 group, form a
homologous series and such compounds are called homologues.
10. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are
known as isomers.
11. The decomposition of alkanes on heating in the absence of oxygen is known as cracking.
12. Methane is prepared by heating a mixture of sodium acetate and soda lime.
2. Periodic Classification of Elements

Characteristics of Dobereiner's triads:

1. Properties of elements in each triad were similar.
2. Dobereiner showed that when three elements in a triad were written in the order of their
increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the
average of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
Dobereiner's triad:
Triad 1 Triad 2 Triad 3
Lithium (Li) Calcium (Ca) Chlorine (Cl)
Sodium (Na) Strontium (Sr) Bromine (Br)
Potassium (K) Barium (Ba) Iodine (I)
Limitation of Dobereiner's triads: Dobereiner could identify only three triads. He was not
able to prepare triads of all the known elements.
Newlands' Octave: John Newlands arranged the elements in order of their increasing atomic
mass. It states that whenever the elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic
mass, the properties of the eighth element are a kind of repetition of the first, just like the notes
of music.

Limitations of Newlands law of octaves:

 The law was applicable to elements upto calcium (Ca) only.
 It contained only 56 elements. Further it was assumed by Newlands that only 56
elements existed in nature and no more elements are going to be discovered in the
future.
 In order to fit these elements into the table, Newlands adjusted two elements in the same
slot and also put some unlike elements under the same note. For example, cobalt and
nickel are in the same slot and these are placed in the same column as fluorine, chlorine
and bromine which have very different properties than these elements. Iron, which
resembles cobalt and nickel in properties, has been placed differently away from these
elements.
Characteristics of Mendeleev's periodic table:

 Mendeleev arranged all the 63 known elements in increasing order of their atomic
masses.
 The table consists of vertical columns called 'groups' and horizontal rows called 'periods'.
 The elements with similar physical and chemical properties came under same groups.
Limitations of Mendeleev's periodic table:

 He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in the periodic table.
 Positions of isotopes of all the elements were not certain according to Mendeleev's
periodic table.
 Atomic masses did not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the
next. So it was possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between the
two elements.
The Modern Periodic table:

 The Modern Periodic table consists of 18 groups and 7 periods.
 Elements present in any one group have the same number of valence electrons. Also, the
number of shells increases as we go down the group.
 Elements present in any one period, contain the same number of shells. Also, with
increase in atomic number by one unit on moving from left to right, the valence shell
electron increases by one unit.
 Each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.
Modern Periodic Law: ‘‘Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers, i.e., the number of protons or electrons present in the neutral atom of an element.’’
Long form of Periodic Table: Arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers. The
prediction of properties elements and their compounds can be made with precision. All
drawbacks of Mendeleev's Periodic Table vanish when the elements are arranged on the basis of
increasing atomic numbers.
Main Features of the Long Form of the Periodic Table:
1. It shows arrangement of elements based on modern periodic law.

2. There are 18 vertical columns known as groups.

3. There are 7 horizontal rows known as periods.
4. Elements having similar outer electronic configurations, i.e., having same valence
electrons have been placed in same groups
Properties of Metals:
1. They are malleable.
2. They are ductile.
3. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
4. They have generally 1 to 3 valence electrons.
5. They have the same or less number of electrons in their outermost shell than the
number of shells.
6. They are mostly solids.
Properties of non-metals:
1. They exist in solid, liquid or gaseous state.
2. Non-metals are generally brittle.
3. They are non-conductors.
4. They have 4 to 8 valence electrons.
Periodic Table:

3. How Do Organisms Reproduce?

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction:

S. No. Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
1. It produces new organism from two It produces new organism from a single
parents. parent.
2. It involves sex cells or gametes. It does not involves sex cells or gametes.
3. Offspring's are not identical to the Offspring7 s are identical to the parents.
parents.
Why avoid frequent pregnancies?
1. It has adverse effect on the health of a woman.

2. It increases the rate of the population of our country.
Method of Contraception:
1. Barrier method: In this method, a device is used to prevent the entry of sperms in the
female genital tract during sexual intercourse.
Example: Condom, diaphragm and cervical cap.
2. Chemical method: It involves the use of specific drugs by females.
Example: Oral pills, vaginal pills, OC.
3. Surgical method : Surgical removal or ligation of vas deferens in males and the
fallopian tube in females, thereby preventing production of male and female gametes.
STD (Sexually Transmitted Diseases):

 Disease caused by virus—AIDS, Genital Warts.
 Disease caused by bacteria—Gonorrhea, Syphilis.
Prevention of Diseases:
 By use of devices made of plastic, metal or a combination of the two which is inserted
into uterus.
 By using contraceptive devices.
 By educating people and maintaining hygiene.
 By avoiding multiple sexes.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:

1. Plants raised by vegetative reproduction can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.
2. This process helps those plants to propagate that have lost the capacity to reproduce.

DNA Copying:
 Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the
DNA in a reproducing cell. DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional
cellular apparatus to facilitate the DNA copies to separate with its own cellular
apparatus.
 DNA copying gives rise to some inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction which
is the basis for evolution.
Longitudinal Section of a flower:
Sepals: Sepals are green outermost leaf-like floral organs which protect the flower in the bud
stage. In the mature stage they provide support to other floral organs.
Petals: Petals are coloured accessory floral organs which lie above the sepals. Petals attract
insects to flowers for pollination.
Stamens: Stamens are the male reproductive organs of the flowers. Each Stamen has a slender
stalk called filament.
Regeneration in Planaria:
1. It is the ability of an organism to replace its lost body parts.

2. A special case of regeneration is fragmentation, in which a parent multicelluar organism
on maturing breaks up naturally to produce two or more daughter organisms.
3. Among plants, filamentous algae like spirogyra reproduce by this method.
4. Hydra, Planaria & Sponges exhibit regeneration.

Budding in Hydra:
1. In budding a small part of the body of the parent organism grows out as a ''bud'' which
then detaches and become new organism.
2. The nucleus of the parent divides and one of the daughter nuclei passes into the bud.
3. The bud detaches itself from the parent body & becomes a new individual after growing
to full size.
4. In plants, budding takes place in yeast and in animals budding is seen in hydra &
sponges.
Germinated Seed:
Germination of pollen on stigma:

Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants.
 After reaching the stigma, the pollen grain develops the pollen tube.
 This pollen tube grows through the style and reaches the ovary where ovules are located.
 The pollen tube enters the ovule through a small opening called micropyle, where it
releases two male gametes into the embryo sac.
 One male gamete fuses with the egg contained in the embryo sac of the ovule; and this
fusion of male and female gametes is called syngamy and its product is the zygote.
 The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei and this process is called triple
fusion, where three nuclei are involved in the fusion process, one male gamete and two
polar nuclei.
 The process of double fertilisation occurs inside each embryo sac, in which two fusions,
syngamy and triple fusion take place.
 After fertilisation, ovary develops into the fruit and ovules develop into the seeds.
Human Female Reproductive System:
The human female reproductive system consists of the following organs:
Ovaries: Ovaries are a pair of small and oval-shaped organs, located in the abdominal cavity
near the kidney. Ovaries are the female primary reproductive organs which perform dual
functions of production of female gamete or ovum and the secretion of female sex hormones,
estrogen and progesterone.
Fallopian Tube or Oviduct - are a pair of long convoluted tubes that carry ovun or eggs from
the ovary to the uterus. The fallopian tube has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary. These
tubes from both the sides open into a muscular structure, the Uterus.
Uterus or womb - is a hollow, pear-shaped organ within which the embryo develops. Its upper
portion is broader, while its lower portion is narrower, called cervix.

Vagina - The cervix opens into the vagina which is a tubular structure and also called ''birth
canal'' or canal for menstrual flow. Vagina receives sperms from the male and also serves as the
passage through which the fully developed foetus is born.
Human Male Reproductive System:
The human male reproductive system consists of the following organs:
A pair of testis lies in a small sac-like muscular structure outside the abdominal cavity called
Scrotum. The function of testis is to produce sperm and male sex hormone called testosterone.
The scrotum provides the optimal temperature for formation of sperms.
Epididymis is a coiled tube-like structure firmly attached to the testis and serves as the
storehouse of sperms. Inside the epididymis, sperms become mature and develops motility.
Vas deferens: The sperms are carried by a long tube called vas deferens or sperm duct into
organs called seminal vesicles, where the sperms get nourished and stored.
Seminal vesicle is a glandular structure which joins vas deferens to form ejacuatory duct.
Ejaculatory duct enters prostate gland and joins urethra to form common urino-genital duct.
Penis is a copulatory organ at the tip of which urinogenital duct opens.
4. Heredity and Evolution

 Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next with the help of
genes.
 Variation is the degree of difference found in morphological, physiological & other traits
found among individuals belonging to the same family race & species.
 Most of the variation are due to mutations caused by error in DNA replication.
 Variation appear during reproduction whether organisms are multiplying asexually or
sexually. Each generation provides the next generation with a common basic body design
and some subtle changes or variations

 The variations accumulate and pass on to more and more individuals with each
generation.
 The diversity is small in case of asexually reproducing organism as it is caused by only
errors of DNA copying mechanism.
Acquired and Inherited Traits:

S. No. Acquired Traits Inherited Traits
The traits develop during the lifetime of an The traits are obtained from the
1.
individual. parents.
They are somatic variations and die with They are genetic variations which
the passes on
2.
death of the individual. to the next generation.
e.g., Muscular body of wrestler. e.g., Fused and free ear lobes.
 Genetic drift and natural selection could lead to the rise of new species.
 In case of monohybrid cross with pure variety of plants, the phenotypic ratio obtained in
F2 generation is 3 : 1.
 In case of di-hybrid cross involving two pairs of contrasting characters, the phenotypic
ratio obtained in F2 generation is 9 : 3 : 1 : 1.
 Genes carry information for producing proteins, which in turn control the various body
characteristics.
 Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
 Females have similar sex chromosomes XX, whereas males have an imperfect pair i.e.,
XY. All eggs carry X chromosome.
 The sex of the child depends on whether the egg fuses with the sperm carrying X
chromosome (resulting in a girl) or with the sperm carrying Y chromosome (resulting in
a boy).
Sex Determination:
It is a process by which the sex of a person is determined. Genetics is involved in the
determination of the sex of a person, which is explained as follows:
 A male has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, i.e., half of the male gamete or
sperms will have X chromosome and the other half will have Y chromosome.
 A female has two X chromosomes, i.e., all the female gametes or ova will have only X
chromosomes.
 Sex of a child depends on what happens at fertilisation.
 If a sperm carrying X chromosome fertilises an ovum which carries X chromosome, then
the child born will be a girl.
 If a sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilises an ovum which carries X chromosome, then
the child born will be a boy. Thus, the sperm determines the sex of the child.
 Sex determination is also controlled by the environmental factors in some animals.

 For example, in some reptiles like turtle, high incubation temperature leads to the
development of female offsprings, while in case of lizard, high incubation temperature
results in male offsprings.
Father's
Mother's Sperms
Ova
Gametes x Y
Zygote
Offsprings xx xy
Female Child Male Child

(Girl) (Boy)
Determination of Sex in Humans
Mendel's law of Dominance: According to this law, if a cross is made between plants with
contrasting pair of charactess, the character that appears in the first generation is dominant and
the other is recessive.
Parents
×
Red (RR) White (rr)

Dominant Recessive
F1 generation
Red (Rr)
Mendel's monohybrid cross between a homozygous red flowered (RR) and a homozygous white
flowered (rr) plant to show that red colour is dominant over white (recessive)
Determination of sex of a child:

Inheritance of two characters over two generations by making a cross between round and
yellow seeded plant (RRYY) with wrinkled green seeded plant (rryy).
Work Done by Mendel: Ratio of tall to short in F2 generation is 3:1

5. Reflection and Refraction

1 1 1
 Mirror Formula : 
v u f
1 1 1
 Lens Formula :  
v u f
v h
 Linear Magnification: m= or (in lens)
u h1
v h
m=- or - (in mirror)
u h1
h = Height of object
h1 = Height of image
v = Image distance
u = Object distance
Law of refraction of light:

 First Law: The incident ray, the normal to the transparent surface at the point of
incidence and the refracted ray, all lie in one and the same plane.
 Second Law: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant and is called refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium.
sin i
=µ
sin r
Sign Convention:
Description: It is a convention which fixes the signs of different distances measured. The sign
convention to be followed is the New Cartesian sign convention. It gives the following rules :
1. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.

2. The distances measured in the same direction as the direction of incident light from
pole are taken as positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction on incident light from
pole are taken as negative.
4. Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis, are taken as
positive.
5. Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis, are taken as
negative.

Sign Convention in Mirror
Sign Convention in Lens:
1
 Power of a lens P =
f (m)
 The unit for power is Dioptre (D).
Characteristics of Image formation by a concave mirror:

Characteristics of Image formation by a convex mirror:
Characteristics of Image formation by a concave lens:
Characteristics of Image formation by a convex lens:

Image Formation by Concave Mirror
Image Formation by Convex Mirror

 When the object is placed at infinity

In convex mirror if the object is present at infinity then the image is formed behind the mirror at
the principal focus, which is highly diminished, virtual and erect.
 When the object is placed anywhere between pole and infinity
Image is formed behind the mirror, between the pole and the principal focus, which is
diminished, virtual and erect.
Refraction through glass slab:

When a ray of light passes through a rectangular glass slab, ¡t gets bent twice at the air- glass
interface and at the glass- air interface. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray and ¡s
displaced through a distance.

Image Formation in Convex Lens Using Ray Diagrams

Image Formation in Concave Lens Using Ray Diagrams

6. Human Eye and the Colourful World

 The ability or the property of the eye lens to adjust its focal length in order to be able to
focus both near and distant objects is known as the power of accommodation. ,
 The minimum distance at which objects can be seen most distinctly without strain is
called the least distance of distinct vision.

 Retina contains light sensitive cells known as rod and cones. These cells get activated
upon illumination and generate electrical signals or pulses.
 The electrical signals are sent to the brain through optic nerves. .
 In the brain, the signals are processed, interpreted and the objects in front of the eye are
perceived.
 The process of splitting up of white light into its constituent colour as it passes through a
refracting medium is known as dispersion of light.
 The phenomenon of scattering of white light by colloidal particles is known as Tyndall
effect.
 The sky appears blue due to atmospheric refraction and scattering of light.
 Rainbow is formed due to dispersion and refraction.
 In the morning, the sunlight covers a larger distance and thick layers of atmosphere, so
except the red colour light, most of the other colours are scattered into the atmosphere.
As only red colour light reaches our eye, the morning sun appears to be red.
Important Graphs and Diagrams:
The Human Eye:
Refraction through a glass prism:

Myopia and its correction:
Hypermetropia and its correction:
Recombination of the spectrum of white light:
Explanation: It is due to different refractive index of different components of white light.

White light has seven colours, namely, violet indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red
(remembered by the word VIBGYOR). In air (strictly in vacuum) light waves of all colours have
same velocity (3 × 108 m/s).

But in a denser medium, their velocities become less and different. Red light waves,
being longest in length, travel fastest and have maximum velocity. Violet light waves, being
shortest in length, travel slowest and have minimum velocity in the denser medium.
The refractive index ()of a medium for a wave is given by the relation.
Velocity of Wave in air (or vacuum ) c

= =
Velocity of wave in the medium v
As is maximum for violet so it bends maximum

A
R V Red
R
White light O
Y
G
B
Violet I
V
B C
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism
When this dispersed white light is made to fall on a white screen, we get a seven coloured band
or light. This coloured band is called spectrum.
Rainbow Formation:

7. Management of Natural Resources

Advantages of Harvesting:
 It ensures water availability in non-rainy season.
 Water becomes available for drinking as well as irrigation.
The 3R's: Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.
Some examples of 3R's:

1. By switching off unnecessary lights and fans to save electricity.
2. By repairing leak taps to save water.
3. Recycling, plastic, paper, glass and metal items to make required things.
4. The used envelopes carfbe reversed and can be used again instead of throwing away.
Need of sustainable management:

Our natural resources are limited. With the rapid increase in human population, due to
improvement in health care, the demand for all resources is also increasing. Sustainable
management is necessary to provide the economic well-being to the present and the future
generations and to maintain a healthy environment and life support system.
Components of fossil fuels:

(i) Carbon, (ii) Hydrogen, (iii) Nitrogen, (iv) Sulphur.
Reason to reduce use of fossil fuel:

 These are non-renewable and causes pollution.
 They contribute to global warming.
Advantages of water stored in ground:

1. Water spreads to recharge wells.
2. Provides moisture to vegetation over a wide area.
3. Does not provide breeding ground to mosquitoes.
4. Protected from contamination.
5. Advantages of Dams : Irrigation, producing electricity:
Disadvantages of building dams:

1. Displace large number of peasants and tribals without adequate compensation or
rehabilitation.
2. They swallow up huge amounts of public money.
Forest Stakeholders:
1. The people living in or around the forests who are directly dependent on forest product.
2. The Forest Department of the government which owns the land and controls the
resources from forests.

3. The industrialists who use the forest produce, but are not dependent on the forest of a
particular area.
4. The wildlife and nature enthusiasts, who want to conserve nature in its present form.
Khadin System of Water Harvesting:
Coal and Petroleum

Coal: Coal is a blackish solid fossil fuel that occurs in seams inside earth.
Uses:
 Fuel for domestic and commercial establishments.

 Production of electricity in thermal plants.
 Manufacture of coke
 Gasification and liquefaction yields fuel gas and synthetic petrol.
 A number of organic compounds can be obtained from coal-benzene, toluene, phenol,
anilines, naphthalene.
Petroleum: Petroleum is a dark coloured liquid fuel that is taken out from various depths of
earth both on land and sea shore. It is called mineral oil or rock oil. Petroleum extracted from
earth is called crude oil. With the help of fractional distillation
Uses:
 LPG is liquefied petroleum gas. It is used in cooking and heating.

 Petrol, diesel and kerosene are used as a fuel for internal combustion engines of
transport vehicles.
 Lubricating oils provide lubrication to machinery.
 Paraffin wax is used in candles, Vaseline and water proofing
 Asphalt is source of several chemicals and dye. It is also used in carpeting of road.
Pollution: Fossil fuels are formed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. On burning they
produce carbon dioxide, water, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. In the presence of insufficient
oxygen, carbon monoxide is produced instead of carbon dioxide.
Carbon Monoxide: It readily combines with haemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin. The

latter is unable to combine with oxygen. Therefore, carrying capacity of blood is reduced. In

closed rooms, it may cause death due to asphyxiation. This is common in winter when coal fired
heating device is used.
Carbon dioxide: Being a green house gas, it adds to global warming.
Nitrogen Oxides: They cause necrosis and killing of plant parts. Internal injuries, eye
irritation and loss of smell are produced in human and animals. Corrosion occurs in metals.
They are also component of acid rain.
Sulphur Oxides: They kill lichens, damage metals, marble and other articles, cause eye
irritation, damage to respiratory tract and cause acid rain.
Fly ash: Burning of coal also produces particulate matter called fly ash it contains toxic
ingredients.
Management of Fossil Fuels: The management of fossil fuels is mainly based on better use
through use of more and more efficient machines. The internal combustion engines used by
vehicles employed in transportation are concentrating on ensuring complete combustion. It will
reduce air pollution and increase efficiency. 5-10% ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is being added to
petrol to reduce consumption of the latter. Hybrid engines using hydrogen and gasoline are also
being developed.
8. Our Environment
How non-biodegradable substance affect:

 They produce foul smell during decomposition process.
 They may produce harmful gases such as ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide. .
Some eco-friendly activities:

 Gardening and planting trees.
 Use of gunny bags / paper bags in place of polythene.
 Use of compost and vermi-compost in place of fertilizers.
 Separation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
10% Law: There is only 10% flow of energy from one trophic level to the next higher level. Due
to this energy loss, only4 or 5 trophic levels are present in each chain. It is known as Ten Percent
law. Example:
Grass —> Grasshopper —> Frogs —> Snakes
(4000 J) (400 J) (40 J) (4 J)
Significance of food chain:

 It helps in understanding the food relationship and interactions among various
organisms in an ecosystem.

 It helps in following the basic mechanism of transfer of food energy and nutrients
through various components of nature.
 It helps to understand the movement of toxic substances in an ecosystem and the
problem of their biological magnification.
Ozone Depletion: The amount of ozone in ozonosphere began to drop in 1980s. A spring time
ozone hole (area of extreme thinness of ozone) was discovered over Antarctica in 1985 by
Farman et al. Its area has been spreading subsequently. An ozone reduction of 1% increases the
amount of high energy UV–B radiations reaching the earth by 2%. It means that there has been
increase in UV–B radiations reaching the earth by 15–20%.
ODS: Ozone depleting substances or ODS are those substances which react with ozone present
in the stratosphere and destroy the same. The main ozone depleting substances are
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, nitrous oxide, methane, carbon tetrachloride and chlorine.
Chlorofluorocarbons are highly stable, odourless, synthetic gaseous substance used as aerosol
propellants, coolants, refrigerants, blowing agents, etc.
Effects of Ozone Depletion:
1. Cancers – The incidence of skin cancer and herpes would increases.

2. Eye Sight – There will be dimming of eye sight, photoburning and higher incidence of
cataracts.
3. Immune system – It will be impaired resulting in increasing number of diseases.
4. Mutations – More mutations will occur. Most of them would be harmful.
5. Photosynthesis – 10–25% decline in photosynthesis would occur.
6. Global warming – Reduced photosynthesis will increase CO2 concentration causing
global warming.
7. Damage to Articles
Sample Food Web:

Sample Food Chains:
 Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.

O2 
U-V
 O+O
O + O  O3
 Due to ozone layer depletion, the ultraviolet rays reaches the earth and causes certain ill-
effects which are bad for us and for crops. Exposure to U-V rays can lead to greater
incidence of skin cancers, cataracts and damages the eye and immune deficiency.
 Four appliances which releases Chlorofluorocarbon:
(a) Aerosol spray (b) Air conditioner (c) Refrigerator (d) Coolant
Trophic Levels:

Flow of energy in an ecosystem:
TERM-2
1. Quadratic Equations
Fundamentals:
 General form of quadratic equation is : ax  bx  c = 0, Where a ≠ 0.
2

2
a is coefficient of x , h is coefficient of x , c is called constant term.
 Equation of the form ax2 + c = O is called pure quadratic equation.
 The value of variable satisfying equation is called root.
 Quadratic equation has two roots.
In order to solve the given Quadratic Equation:
1. Clear the fractions and brackets, if given.
2. By transfering each term to the left hand side; express the given equation as; ax2 + bx + c
= 0 or a + bx + cx2 = 0
3. Factorise left hand side of the equation obtained (the right hand side being zero).
4. By putting each factor equal to zero; solve it.
Methods of Solving Quadratic Equation:
 Factorisation Method (splitting the middle term)
 Completing the Square Method
 Quadratic Formula Method (Sridharacharya Formula)
Factorisation Method:
Step 1: Resolve the equation in factor using splitting the middle term methods,

i.e. ax 2  bx  c   Ax  B  Cx  D 
Step 2: Put both factors equal to zero,
Ax + B = O and Cx + D = O
B D
Therefore x   and x   are two roots
A C
Completing the Square Method:

Step 1: Let the equation be: ax2  bx  c = O
Step 2: Make the coefficient of x2 unity by dividing whole equation by it, you will get:
b c
x2  x 0
a a
Step 3: Shift the constant term on RHS, you will get:
b c
x2  x
a a
Step 4: Add the square of half of the coefficient of x. On the both sides of the equation:
2 2
b  b  c b 
x  2  x        
2
 2a   2a  a  2a 
Step 5: Write LHS as the perfect square and simplify RHS:
b 2  4ac
2
b 
x  
 2a  2a
Step 6: Take square root on both sides:
b b2  4ac
x 
2a 2a
Step 7: Evaluate the values of x by shifting the constant term on RHS.
b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
Quadratic Formula Method:

b  b 2  4ac
Direct formula to calculate the roots is given as: x 
2a

Proof: Use steps given in completing the square method.
Discriminant: It is denoted by ‘D’ and given by: D = b2  4ac
Nature of Roots of Quadratic equation:

The nature of the roots depends on the value of b2 – 4ac. b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of
the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 and is generally, denoted by D.
  D = b2 – 4ac
If D > 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac > 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac is positive; the roots are real and unequal. Also,
(i) If b2 – 4ac is a perfect square, the roots are rational and unequal.
(ii) If b2 – 4ac is positive but not perfect square, the roots are irrational and unequal.
If D = 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac = 0; the roots are real and equal.
If D < 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac < 0; i.e., b2 – 4ac is negative; the roots are not real, i.e., the roots are
imaginary.
2. Arithmetic Progressions
Arithmetic Progression is defined as a series in which difference between any two
consecutive terms is constant throughout the series. This constant difference is called common
difference.
Sequence: An arrangement of numbers which has a pattern, which can suggest the successor
of every number in the arrangement. e.g.:
1. Arithmetic Progressions
3, 5, 7,9,11 ….
—8,—5,—2, 1, 4, 7 …….
6, 1, —4,—9,—14 ………
2, 8, 18, 32,
2, 2 2,3 2, 4 2,..........Yes it is Al because it can be written as below:
3  2,3  2 2,3  3 2,3  4 2,...........
2. Geometric Progressions (not in course)

3, 9, 27, 81 ……
6, 18, —54, 162, —486 ……..
2, 2, 2 2, 4, 4 2, 2,8.........
An Arithmetic Progression (AP): is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by

adding a fixed number to the preceding term except the first term.

This fixed number is called common difference, denoted by 1d’. It can be +ve, — ve or zero. So
general form of an AP is given by:
a, a + d, a +2d, a + 3d, a + 4d,+ …………, a + (n-1) d.
Where a = first term, d = common difference and a + (n-1) d = nth term.
Here t2 - t1  d
t3 - t2  d
t 4 - t3  d so on..........
Hence It can be written:
t2 - t1  t3 - t2
2t2  t1  t3
Conclusion: If three numbers a, h and c are in AP then:
2b = a + c.
th
 n 1
(i) If no. of terms in any series is odd then only one middle term is exist which is   term
 2 
where n is odd.
(ii) If no. of terms in any series is even then middle terms are two which are given by
th
 n  
(n/2)th and    1 term where n is even.
 2  
Some Standard Results:
(i) Sum of first n natural numbers

n (n  1)
n
 r 
r 1
2
(ii) Sum of first n odd natural numbers

n
  (2r  1) = n2
r 1
(iii) Sum of first n even natural numbers

n
 2r = n ( n+ 1)
r 1
(iv) Sum of squares of first n natural numbers

n
n (n  1) (2n  1)
r
r 1
2

6

(v) Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers

2
 n (n  1) 
n
r 1
r3  
 2 

(vi) If for an A.P. pth term is q, qth term is p then mth term is = p + q – m
(vii) If for an AP sum of p terms is q, sum of q terms is p, then sum of (p + q) term is: (p + q).
(viii) If for an A.P. sum of p terms is equal to sum of q terms then sum of (p + q) terms is
zero.
Important Formulae:
nth term of an AP Tn = a + (n — 1) d
n
Sum of the n terms of an AP is: Sn  [2a  (n  1)d ]
2
n
Also: Sn  [a  l ]
2
Where, l = last term, i.e. l = a  (n  1)d
Tips:
1. To an AP if we (i) add (ii) subtract (iii) multiply or (iv) divide each term by the same
number, the resulting sequence would always be an AP
2. If three numbers a, b and c are in AP then: 2b = a + c
3. Whenever you be asked to take three numbers which are in AI always take: a - d, a, a + d.
Proof of “Sum of n terms of an AP”

We know that general form of an AP is given by:
a, a  d , a  2d , a  3d , a  4d ,............, a  (n  a)d ..... (i)

 Sn  a  (a  d )  (a  2d )  (a  3d )  ..........  [a  (n  2)d ]  [a  (n  1)d ] .... (ii)
Now write the above equation in reverse order,
 Sn  [a  (n  1)d ]  [a  (n  2)d ]  ........  (a  3d )  (a  2d )  (a  d )  a .... (iii)
Adding the corresponding terms of eq (i) & (ii), we get
 2Sn  [2a  (n  1)d ]  [2a  (n  1)d ]  [2a  ( n  1) d ]  .......  [2a  ( n  1) d ]

 2Sn  n[2a  (n  1)d ]
n
 Sn  [2a  (n  1)d ]
2

n
Also, it can be written as: Sn  [2a  (n  1)d ] (where last term, l = a  (n  1)d )
2
n
Sn  [a  l ] Hence Proved.
2
Some important key points:

1. We know an  a   n  1 d
an  a  nd  d
an  a  d  nd
i.e. linear equation denotes general term where
(i) coefficient of n is common difference‘d’
(ii) Constant term is (a — d).
3. Circles (Tangents to a Circle)

Fundamentals:
1. Consider a circle C (O, r) and a line PQ. There can be three possibilities given below:
 Non intersecting line w.r.t circle

 A line intersects circle in two distinct points, this Line is called a Secant.
 A line which intersects circle exactly at one point is called a Tangent.
2. From a point P inside a circle, the number of tangents drawn to the circle = O.
3. From a point P on a circle, the number of tangents drawn to the circle = 1.
4. From a point P outside the circle, the number of tangents drawn to the circle = 2.
5. The distance between two parallel tangents drawn is equal to the diameter of the circle.
Theorem 1: The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point
of contact.
Given: A circle with centre O and a tangent AB at a point P of the circle.
To prove: OP  AB.

O
R
A P Q B
Construction: Take a point Q, other than P, on AB. Join OQ.
Proof : Q is a point on the tangent AB, other than the point of contact P.
 Q lies outside the circle.
Let OQ intersect the circle at R.
Then, OR < OQ [a part is less than the whole] ...(i)
But, OP = OR [radii of the same circle]. ....(ii)
 OP < OQ [from (i) and (ii)].
Thus, OP is shorter than, any other line segment joining O to any point of AB, other than P.
In other words, OP is the shortest distance between the point O and the line AB.
But, the shortest distance between a point and a line is the perpendicular distance.
 OP  AB.
Theorem 2(Converse of Theorem 1): A line drawn through the end of a radius and
perpendicular to it is a tangent to the circle.
Given : A circle with centre O in which OP is a radius and AB is a line through P such that
OP  AB.
A P Q B
To prove: AB is a tangent to the circle at the point P.
Construction: Take a point Q, different from P, on AB. Join OQ.
Proof: We know that the perpendicular distance from a point to a line is the shortest distance
between them.
  OP  AB  OP is the shortest distance from O to AB.
 OP < OQ.
 Q lies outside the circle

[ OP is the radius and OP < OQ].
Thus, every point on AB, other than P, lies outside the circle.
 AB meets the circle at the point P only.
Hence, AB is the tangent to the circle at the point P.

Theorem 3: The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the
point of contact.
Theorem 4: The lengths of two tangents from an external point to a circle are equal.
Given: A circle C (O, r) and two tangents say PQ and PR from an external point P.
To Prove: PQ= PR.
Theorem 4: If two tangents are drawn from an external point then
(i) They subtend equal angles at the centre, and
(ii) They are equally inclined to the line segment joining the centre to that point.
Given: A circle with centre O and a point A outside it. Also, AP and AQ are the two tangents to
the circle.
P
A O
To prove: AOP =AOQ and OAP = OAQ.
Proof: In AOP and AOQ, we have

AP = AQ [tangents from an external point are equal]
OP = OQ [radii of the same circle]
OA = OA [common]
 AOP AOQ [by SSS–congruence].
Hence, AOP = AOQ and OAP = OAQ.
4. Constructions
To divide a line segment internally in a given ratio m : n, where both in and n are positive
integers.
Steps of Construction:
Step 1. Draw a line segment AB of given length by using a ruler.
Step 2. Draw any ray AX making an acute angle with AB.
Step 3. Along AX mark off (m + n) points A1 ,A2 ,.........Am ,A m+1 , …… A m+n , such that
A A1 = A1 A 2 = A m+n-1 A m+n .
Step 4. Join B A m+n .
Step 5. Through the point A m , draw a line parallel to A m+n B by making an angle equal to A A m+n
B at A m .
Suppose this line meets AB at point P.
The point P so obtained is the required point which divides AB internally in the ratio m : n.
Alternative Method:

Y
B2
B1
A C B
A1
A2
A3 X
Steps of Construction:
1. Draw any ray AX making an acute angle with AB.
2. Draw a ray BY parallel to AX by making ABY equal to BAX.
3. Locate the points A1, A2, A3 (m = 3) on AX and B1, B2 (n = 2) on BY such that
AA1 = A1A2 = A2A3 = BB1 = B1B2.
4. Join A3B2.
Let it in intersect AB at a point C (see figure)
Then AC : CB = 3 : 2
Why does this method work ? Let us see.
Here AA3C is similar to AB2C. (Why ?)
AA3 AC
Then 
BB2 BC
AA3 3
Since by construction,  ,
BB2 2
AC 3
therefore, 
BC 2
In fact, the methods given above work for dividing the line segment in any ratio.
We now use the idea of the construction above for constructing a triangle similar to a given
triangle whose sides are in a given ratio with the corresponding sides of the given triangle.
Construction of triangles similar to a given triangle:
(a) Steps of Construction: when m < n,
Step 1. Construct the given triangle ABC by using the given data.
Step 2. Take any one of the three sides of the given triangle as base. Let AB be the base of the
given triangle.
Step 3. At one end, say A, of base AB, Construct an acute < BAX below the base AB.

(b) Steps of Construction: when m > n,
Step 1. Construct the given triangle by using the given data.
Step 2. Take any one of the three sides of the given triangle and consider it as the base.
Let AB be the base of the given triangle.
Step 3. At one end, say A, of base AB, construct an acute angle  BAX below base AB
i.e., on the opposite side of the vertex C.

To draw the tangent to a circle at a given point on it, when the centre of the circle is known.
Given: A circle with center O and a point P on it.
Required: To draw the tangent to the circle at P.
Steps of construction:
(i) Join OP.
(ii) Draw a line AB perpendicular to OP at the point P, APB is the required tangent at P,
To draw the tangent to a circle from a point outside it (external point) when its center is
known.
Given: A circle with center O and a point P outside it.
Required: To construct the tangents to the circle from P.
Steps of construction:
(j) Join OP and bisect it. Let M be the mid point of OP.
(ii) Taking M as centre and MO as radius, draw a circle to intersect C (O, r) in two points, say A
and B,
(iii) Join PA and PB. These are the required tangents from P to C (O, r).

5. Areas Related to Circles

Fundamentals:
Circle is defined set of all those points which are at constant distance from fixed point. The fixed
point is called centre.
The constant distance is called radius.
The longest chord passing through centre and whose end point lies on circle is called diameter.
Circles with same centers are called Concentric Circles.
Circumference: In simple words we can say perimeter of circle is called circumference. But
actually π is defined as the ratio of circumference and diameter of circle.
Circumference

Diameter
Therefore, Circumference = π x Diameter
If r is the radius of a circle, then

(i) Circumference = 2r or d, where d = 2r is the diameter of the circle.
(ii) Area = r2 or d2/4
r 2
(iii) Area of semi-circle =
2
r 2
(iv) Area of a quadrant of a circle =
4
Area enclosed by two concentric circles:

If R and r are radii of two con-centric circles, then area enclosed by the two circles
= R2 – r2 = (R2 – r2) = (R + r) (R – r)

r R
Some useful results:

(i) If two circles touch internally, then the distance between their centres is equal to the
difference of their radii.
(ii) If two circles touch externally, then the distance between their centres is equal to the
sum of their radii.
(iii) Distance moved by a rotating wheel in one revolution is equal to the circumference of
the wheel.
(iv) The number of revolutions completed by a rotating wheel in one minute
Distance movedin oneminute
= 
Circumference
Arc, Chord, Segment, Sector of a Circle
Arc: Any portion of circumference. e.g.: APB is minor arc while AQB is major arc.
Chord: The line joining any two points on the circle. e.g.: AB.
Segment: In figure chord AB divides the circle in two segments i.e., APBA (minor segment) and
AQBA (major segment).
Sector: The region bounded by the two radii AO and BO and arc AB is called sector of the circle.
Let  AOB = θ, where θ is called central angle.
Length of Arc: When sector angle  AOB = θ.


Perimeter of the sector = 2r + × 2r
360
Perimeter of Segment (shaded) of A Circle: AB + arc (APB)

6. Surface Areas & Volumes
Fundamentals:
1. If , b and h denote respectively the length, breadth and height of a cuboid, then -
(i) Total surface area of the cuboid = 2 (b+bh+ h) square units.
(ii) Volume of the cuboid
= Area of the base × height = bh cubic units.
(iii)Diagonal of the cuboid or longest rod
=  2  b 2  h 2 units.
(iv) Area of four walls of a room
= 2 ( + b) h sq. units.
2. If the length of each edge of a cube is ‘a’ units, then-

(i) Total surface area of the cube = 6a2 sq. units.
(ii) Volume of the cube = a3 cubic units
(iii)Diagonal of the cube = 3 a units.

3. If r and h denote respectively the radius of the base and height of a right circular cylinder,
then -
(i) Area of each end = r2
(ii) Curved surface area = 2rh
= (circumference) height
(iii)Total surface area = 2r (h + r) sq. units.
(iv) Volume = r2h = Area of the base × height
4. If R and r (R > r) denote respectively the external and internal radii of a hollow right circular
cylinder, then -
(i) Area of each end = (R2 – r2)
(ii) Curved surface area of hollow cylinder
= 2 (R + r) h
(iii) Total surface area = 2 (R + r) (R + h – r)
(iv) Volume of material = h (R2 – r2)
5. If r, h and  denote respectively the radius of base, height and slant height of a right circular
cone, then-
(i) 2 = r2 + h2
(ii) Curved surface area = r
(iii) Total surface area = r2 + r
1 2
(iv) Volume = r h
3
6. For a sphere of radius r, we have
(i) Surface area = 4r2
4 3
(ii) Volume = r
3
7. If h is the height, the slant height and r1 and r2 the radii of the circular bases of a frustum of
a cone then

(i) Volume of the frustum = (r 2 + r1r2 + r22) h
3 1
(ii) Lateral surface area = (r1 + r2) 
(iii)Total surface area = {(r1 + r2) + r12 + r22}
(iv) Slant height of the frustum = h 2  (r1  r2 ) 2
hr1
(v) Height of the cone of which the frustum is a part =
r1  r2

r1
(vi) Slant height of the cone of which the frustum is a part =
r1  r2
(vii) Volume of the frustum =

h
3
 
A1  A 2  A1A 2 , where A1 and A2 denote the areas of
circular bases of the frustum.
Tips:
7. Applications of Trigonometry
Angle of Elevation:
The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the object viewed
by the observer.
The angle of elevation of the point viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal.

When the point being viewed is above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head
to look at the object is also shown in diagram that we have to assume a horizontal level at our
eyes.
Angle of Depression:
The angle of depression of a point on the object being viewed is the angle formed by the line of
sight with the horizontal.
When the point is below the horizontal level, i.e. the case when we lower our head to look at the
point being viewed.
Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
Sin 0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1
Cos 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0
Tan 0 1/ 3 1 3 ∞
Cosec ∞ 2 2 2/ 3 1
Sec 1 2/ 3 2 2 ∞
Cot ∞ 3 1 1/ 3 0
8. Co-ordinate Geometry
Fundamentals:
1. Distance of any point from the y-axis is called x co-ordinate or abscissa.
2. Distance of any point from the x-axis is called y co-ordinate or ordinate.
3. Origin: (0, 0)
4. Point on x-axis: (x, 0).
5. Equation of x-axis is y = 0

6. Equation of y-axis is x = 0
7. Point on y-axis: (0, y)
8. There are four quadrants in a co-ordinate plane:
In the figure OX and OY are called as x-axis and
y-axis respectively and both together are known as axes of co-ordinates.
It has zero distance from both the axes so that its abscissa and ordinate are both zero. Therefore,
the coordinates of origin are (0, 0).
The axes divide the plane into four parts. These four parts are called quadrants. So, the plane
consists of axes and quadrants. The plane is called the cartesian plane or the coordinate plane or
the xy-plane. These axes are called the co-ordinate axes.
1
A quadrant is part of a plane divided by co-ordinate axes.
4
Rules of Signs of Co-ordinates:
(i) In the first quadrant, both co-ordiantes i.e., abscissa and ordinate of a point are positive.
(ii) In the second quadrant, for a point, abscissa is negative and ordinate is positive.
(iii) In the third quadrant, for a point, both abscissa and ordinate are negative.
(iv) In the fourth quadrant, for a point, the abscissa is positive and the ordinate is negative.
Y
II I
(–,+) (+,+)
X' III O IV X
(–,–) (+,–)
Y'

Quadrant x-co-ordinate y-co-ordinate Point

First quadrant + + (+,+)
Second quadrant – + (–,+)
Third quadrant – – (–,–)
Fourth quadrant + – (+,–)
Distance Formula:
Distance between two points A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) is:
d  ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 )2
Corollary: Distance of point A ( x, y ) from origin is: x2  y 2
Tips: Coordinates will form
1. Rhombus, if all the four sides are equal.

2. Square, if all the four sides and diagonals are equal.
3. Parallelogram, if opposite sides are equal.
4. Rectangle, if opposite sides and diagonals are equal.
5. Right triangle, if it follows Pythagoras theorem.
6. Colinearity condition. (Sum of two distances = Third distance.)
Section Formula:
Co-ordinates of the point P ( x, y ), dividing the line segment joining the points A ( x1 , y1 )
and B ( x2 , y2 ) internally in the ratio m : n are given by:
mx2  nx1 my  ny1

x ,y 2
mn mn
How to remember the section formula?
Corollary: If P ( x, y ) is the midpoint, therefore m : n = 1 : 1
x2  x1 y y
x ,y 2 1
2 2

Tips: If the ratio in which P divides AB is not given the then we take assumed ratio as k : 1.
Centroid Formula: Co-ordinates of the centroid G ( x, y ) of triangle having vertices

( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) is given by
x1  x2  x3 y  y  y3
x ,y 1 2
3 3
Area of Triangle: Area of triangle having vertices ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) is given by:
1
A  x1 ( y2  y3 )  x1 ( y2  y3 )  x3 ( y1  y2 )
2
Tips:
1. To prove three points to be collinear, Area of Triangle = 0

i.e.  x1 ( y2  y3 )  x1 ( y2  y3 )  x3 ( y1  y2 )  0
2. Area of Quadrilateral ABCD = Area of ∆ABC + Area of ∆ACD.
Or If A (x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3) and D(x4, y4) be the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD then area
of the quadrilateral ABCD
1
= [x1y2 –x2y1 + x2y3 –x3y2 + x3y4 – x4y3 + x4y1 – x1y4]
2
9. Probability
Fundamentals:
 Experiment: An operation which can produce some well defined outcomes.
 Sample Space: It is the total number of possible outcomes of a random experiment.
 Event: Any subset of sample space is called event.
 Elementary Event: Each outcome of any random experiment.
 Sure Event (Certain event): An event which always occurs whenever the random
experiment is performed.

 Impossible Event: An event which never occurs whenever the random experiment is
performed.
 Favourable Event: The cases which ensure the occurrence of an event.
Probability: Probability P (E) of an event E is defined as:
Number of favourable outcomes

P (E) 
Total Number of outcomes
Favourable Event
P (E) 
Sample Space
Note : It is obvious that 0 m n. If an event A is certain to happen, then m = n thus P (A) = 1.
If A is impossible to happen then m = 0 and so P (A) = 0. Hence we conclude that
0  P (A)  1
Further, if A denotes negative of A i.e. event that A doesn’t happen, then for above cases m, n;
we shall have
nm m
P (A ) =  1 = 1– P (A)
n n
  P (A) + P ( A ) = 1
Complement Events: An event associated with a random experiment denoted by P (not-E)

which happens only when E does not happen is called the complement of event E.
 
P E or P  notE   1  P  E 
Tips:
1. Sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.

P( E1 )  P( E2 )  P( E3 )  .......  P( En )  1
2. Probability of Sure Event is 1.
3. Probability of an Impossible Event is 0.
4. Probability of any event lies between 0 and 1 (including 0 and 1)
i.e., 0  P  E   1.
5. Playing Cards :
(i) Total: 52 (26 red, 26 black)

(ii) Four suits: Heart, Diamond, Spade and Club - 13 cards each
(iii) Court Cards: 12 (4 Kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
(iv) Honour Cards: 16 (4 aces, 4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)

6. Out of 52 cards 26 are red in colour and 26 are black in colour.

7. In each suit there is an Ace, a King, a Queen, a Jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2.
8. King, Queen and Jack are called face cards.
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Algebra:



Power series with real variables:
Integer series:

Physical Constants:
List of perfect Square roots:

√121 11 √441 21
√1 1
√144 12 √484 22
√4 2
√169 13 √529 23
√9 3
√196 14 √576 24
√16 4
√225 15 √625 25
√25 5
√256 16 √676 26
√36 6
√289 17 √729 27
√49 7
√324 18 √784 28
√64 8
√361 19 √841 29
√81 9
√400 20 √900 30
√100 10

√961 31 √1444 38 √2025 45
√1024 32 √1521 39 √2116 46
√1089 33 √1600 40 √2209 47
√1156 34 √1681 41 √2304 48
√1225 35 √1764 42 √2401 49
√1296 36 √1849 43 √2500 50
√1369 37 √1936 44

Perfect Cube Roots chart:
Surface Area and Volume Formulas:

SURFACE AREA (SA) of a:
PERIMETER (P) of a:
VOLUME (V) of a:
Equations:

* If you find any mistakes or want to add more content to this eBook, please mail
us at learncbse.in@gmail.com

Formulae Handbook For CBSE Class 10 Science and Maths

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Formulae Handbook For CBSE Class 10 Science and Maths

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Formulae Handbook for CBSE

Class 10 Science and Maths

1. Chemical Reactions and Equations ............................................................................................. 3

1. Real Number ............................................................................................................................. 48

1. Carbon and its Compounds ........................................................................................................ 71

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3. Circles (Tangents to a Circle) ................................................................................................... 110

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1. Chemical Reactions and Equations

 Oxidation: loss of electrons.

CaCO3  CaO  CO2

Valency 4 1 i.e., CCl4 is formula

Some more examples are:

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Some Common Monoatomic Ions

+1 Charge +2Charge +3 Charge

– 1 Charge – 2Charge – 3 Charge

Some Common Polyatomic Ions

– 1 Charge – 2Charge – 3 Charge

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Hydroxide ion OH– Sulphate ion SO 24 Phosphite ion PO33

Rules for writing chemical equation:

Steps in Balancing of Chemical Equations:

Number of atoms Number of atoms in

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NCERT Solutions CBSE Sample Papers RD Sharma Solutions

In partly balanced equation. Atoms of Hydrogen.

Balancing of Ionic Equations:

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Potassium nitrate KNO3 K+ and NO3

Ammonium NH4 and

Cupric chloride CuCl2 Cu2+ and Cl–

S.No Name & Definition Example

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NCERT Solutions CBSE Sample Papers RD Sharma Solutions

2. Acids, Bases and Salts

HCI, H,SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH

Reaction of different solutions with different indicators:

1 Sodium carbonate tunis pink no change

The chemical formula of baking soda is NaHCO3.

It is prepared by using sodium chloride.

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Washing Soda and its Properties:

Chemical name is Sodium carbonate hydrated

It is used as a cleaning agent, in paper and glass industry.

Bleaching Powder and its Properties:

The common name of CaOCI2 is bleaching powder.

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(ii) It is used for disinfecting drinking water.

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2. In the manufacture of fertilizers, paints and

1. In the manufacture of glass, glazes and enamels,

Setup which shows acid solution in water conducts electricity:

 Some of the bases are listed here in Table.

Oxides Soluble hydroxides Insoluble hydroxides

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1. An essential requirement of our food

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1. Used as baking soda

 The pH of a neutral solution is 7.

Gastric juice 1.0

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Lemon juice 2.5