Mathematics 55 LE3 Thirdie Tips WFQ - AY1516S2

SEQUENCES AND SERIES for some S ∈ R. Otherwise, the series is said to be divergent.

+∞ +∞ +∞
I. Sequences X X X
an bn (an + bn )
{an }+∞
n=1 = {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . } n=1 n=1 n=1
1. Convergence. A sequence {an }+∞
n=1 is convergent if and only if lim an = L for
n→+∞ convergent convergent convergent
some real number L. Otherwise, the sequence is said to be divergent.
2. Increasing/Decreasing/Monotone Sequence. A sequence {an }+∞
n=1 is said to
convergent divergent divergent
be
divergent divergent can either be convergent or divergent
(a) increasing if an ≤ an+1 ,
(b) decreasing if an ≥ an+1
+∞
(c) monotone if the sequence is either increasing or decreasing.
X
3. Absolute and Conditional Convergence. A convergent series an is said to
How to show that a sequence is increasing using other ways? (swap the inequalities n=1
be
for decreasing)
+∞
X
(a) an+1 − an ≥ 0 (a) absolutely convergent if |an | is convergent,
an+1 n=1
(b) ≥1
an +∞
X
(c) if an = f (n), consider f (x) on [1, ∞), show f 0 (x) ≥ 0. (b) conditionally convergent if |an | is divergent.
n=1
3. Bounded Sequence. A sequence {an }+∞
is bounded if it is bounded above and
n=1
below by constants, that is, there are constants m and M such that m ≤ an ≤ M . 4. Tests for Convergence. See handout on convergence tests. Includes tips.
4. Monotone Convergence Theorem. If {an }+∞
n=1 is monotone and bounded, then (a) THE SERIES COMMANDMENTS.
{an }+∞
n=1 is convergent.
When you are using convergence tests, be sure to show that all as-
II. Series sumptions hold!
+∞
X
an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
If one assumption fails to hold, use another test!
n=1

1. Partial Sum. The mth partial sum of a series is given by the sum of the first m Be sure to know the BEST test to use depending on the given!
m
X
terms, that is, Sm = an . DO NOT MIX THE TESTS. e.g. Alternating Integral Test
n=1
(b) Divergence Test only tests divergence. Walang convergent by divergence test.
+∞
X The series is still divergent even if the limit of terms approaches +∞ (in general,
2. Convergence. The series an is convergent if and only if its sequence of DNE).
n=1
(c) For Integral Test, Comparison Test, Limit Comparison Test: These tests only
partial sums {Sm }+∞
m=1 converges, that is,
work for series with nonnegative terms.
+∞
If a series with nonnegative terms is convergent, then it follows that
X
lim Sm = an = S
m→+∞
n=1
the series is absolutely convergent.
 (d) DO NOT MISUSE THE COMPARISON TEST. 2. Study known power series expansions of functions, especially the geometric, ln and
tan−1 .
For convergence, given series ≤ known convergent series.
For divergence, given series ≥ known divergent series. 3. Know how to obtain new series using known series. (Example: Find power se-
ries representation for tan−1 x2 from the representation of tan−1 x..., differentiation,
DO NOT SWAP THE INEQUALITIES. IF YOU DO, THEY WON’T MAKE definite integral, etc. Check our examples! We did a lot!)
SENSE. The series to compare USUALLY LIES IN THE GIVEN.
(e) For Alternating Series Test: This is only used to show convergence. Walang
divergent by AST. In some instances, kapartner niya yung Limit Comparison
Test to show conditional convergence. TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES
(f) For Ratio and Root Test: Be careful of your ratios and nth roots. (−1)n -like
+∞ (n)
terms just disappear when you use these tests. X f (a)
1. Taylor Series about a. (x − a)n
5. Known Series. n=0
n!
+∞
Note: f (n) (a) – nth derivative of f evaluated at a, f (0) = f
X
(a) Geometric Series. The geometric series arn is convergent if |r| < 1. It is
n=0
To find Taylor series of some functions, usually the derivatives and constants have
divergent if |r| > 1.
+∞
patterns.
X 1
(b) Harmonic Series. The harmonic series is divergent. 2. Maclaurin Series. Taylor series about 0.
n=1
n
+∞
X 1 3. MEMORIZE KNOWN MACLAURIN SERIES: ex , cos x, sin x. See table.
(c) p-Series. The p-series is convergent if p > 1. It is divergent if 0 < p ≤ 1.
n=1
np
4. Know how to obtain new Maclaurin series using known Maclaurin series. (Example:
Find Maclaurin series representation for cos(x2 ) from the Maclaurin series of cos x...,
POWER SERIES differentiation, definite integral, etc. Check our examples! We did a lot!)

5. *** Approximation by Taylor Polynomials.

Notes. (See handout on definitions.)
+∞
X (a) Find the k th Taylor polynomial of f about a using the sum of first k terms of
n
1. Steps for finding the ROC and IOC. Given cn (x − a) . the Taylor series of f .
n=0
k
(a) Use the Ratio Test or the Root Test to Find R. Kapag nag-simplify tapos may
X f (n) (a)
Pk (x) = (x − a)n
katabing number yung x, divide by that number. You should get a form like: n=0
n!
|x − a| < R. R here is the radius of convergence.
(b) Initially you will get (a − R, a + R). (b) To approximate constants, use values of x VERY NEAR to a. (Example: To
approximate f (1.01), it’s better to use the k th Taylor polynomial of f about
Check the convergence of the series at the endpoints by substituting them to
1.)
the original power series. If the resulting series converges, it is included in the
IOC (closed) otherwise, it’s not included (open). f (x) ≈ Pk (x)

For the endpoints, usual tests used are Divergence, Comparison, LCT, AST, (c) Larger k or higher degree of the Taylor Polynomial, BETTER APPROXIMA-
p-series. TION!

GOOD LUCK! Thirdie P.