RESEARCH WRITING AND FORMATTING: A SEMINAR MODULE *

DR. CECILIA LIWANAG – CALUB

Professor, TSU College of Education
E-Mail Address: ceciliacalub@yahoo.com

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Enhance skills in paraphrasing, summarizing, and writing in-text-citations;

2. List down references following the APA style;
3. Write a publishable, properly formatted, error-free research paper; and
4. Exhibit an improved globally competitive research capability.

I. LECTURE – DISCUSSION

INTRODUCTION

Conducting scientific research is only the beginning of the scholarship of discovery. In order for the results of research to
be accessible to other professionals and have a potential effect on the greater community, it must be written and
published. Most scientific research data are published in peer‐reviewed journals, which are those that utilize a process by
which an author's peers, or experts in the content area, evaluate the manuscript. Following this review the manuscript is
recommended for publication, revision or rejection. It is the rigor of this review process that makes scientific journals the
primary source of new information that impacts decision‐making and practice.

The very process of writing can be a helpful tool for promoting the process of scientific thinking, and effective writing skills
allow professionals to participate in broader academic and scientific conversations. Peer review manuscript publication
systems requiring these technical writing skills can be developed and improved with practice.

A. COMMON PARTS OF A PUBLISHABLE RESEARCH PAPER

1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods and Materials
5. Results and Discussion (with Tables and Figures)
6. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
7. References
8. Acknowledgments

B. THE TITLE PAGE

The title page should contain the title of the manuscript, authors’ names and their affiliations (which also include the
corresponding author’s contact information)

C. HOW TO WRITE THE RESEARCH TITLE

1. Principles to Remember

 Condenses the paper’s content in a few words;

 Contains the main concept, focus, key words, or key variables;
 Highlights the research problem under investigation;
 May suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis;
 Reveals how the paper will be organized; and
 Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same subject area.

2. Tips in Writing the Research Title

1. Avoid including phrases such as, "A Study on.. An Investigation on ...," or "A Review of the...." They are
unnecessary and obvious.
2. Write research titles that may contain 10–15 substantive words that accurately highlight the core content of the
paper.
3. You may use catchy specific descriptive words or a subtitle appropriate to your concern.

Poor: Effects of Drug A on Schizophrenia Patients: Study of a Multicenter Mixed Group

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 Better: Psychosocial Effects of Drug A on Schizophrenia Patients: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial
Poor: Benefits of Meditation for the Nursing Profession: A Quantitative Investigation
Better: Nurses on the Move: A Quantitative Report on How Meditation Can Improve Nurse Performance
4. Do not compose a very long neither very short title. Short title usually suggests research topic which is broad
and does not tell the reader what is specifically being studied.
5. Compose title with style but with preciseness. Ex. Pride, Prejudice, and Ambivalence: Toward a Unified Theory
of Race and Ethnicity
6. Avoid acronyms, abbreviations, and jargon known only to specialized or local community.
7. Use correct grammar and capitalization, not only in the major title but also in the subtitle
8. Create an interesting title that is either in the form of a question or a phrase.
Examples:
 FEEDBACK ON CONTENT VERSUS FORM: WHICH MATTERS MOST?
 ARE SHORTER ARTICLE TITLES MORE ATTRACTIVE FOR CITATIONS? A CROSS-SECTIONAL
STUDY OF SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS

3. Writing the Sub-Title

a. Explains or provides additional context

a. Ex. "Linguistic Ethnography and Welfare Institutions as Social Practices: The Case of Residential Child
Care Paradoxical Institutions" [Palomares, Manuel and David Poveda. Text & Talk: An Interdisciplinary
Journal of Language, Discourse and Communication Studies 30 (January 2010): 193-212]
b. Qualifies the geographic scope of the research
a. Ex. "The Geopolitics of the Eastern Border of the European Union: The Case of Romania-Moldova-
Ukraine" [Marcu, Silvia. Geopolitics 14 (August 2009): 409-432]
c. Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular individual
a. Ex. "A Deliberative Conception of Politics: How Francesco Saverio Merlino Related Anarchy and
Democracy" [ La Torre, Massimo. Sociologia del Diritto 28 (January 2001): 75 - 98]
d. Identifies the methodology used
a. Ex. "Student Activism of the 1960s Revisited: A Multivariate Analysis Research Note" [Aron, William S.
Social Forces 52 (March 1974): 408-414]

4. Major Issues and Priority Research Areas as Basis for Research Titles/Topics

A. SOCIAL SCIENCES
1. Families And Communities Transition
 Labor migration
 Changing family structure,
 Evolution of social institutions in response to changes in family and community structures
2. Disaster
 Social antecedents of disaster
 Determinants of vulnerability to disaster
 Social response to disaster mitigation and adaptation
 Relief and developmental responses to disaster
 Consequences on individuals’ and communities’ well-being in disaster-stricken and vulnerable areas
3. Peace Process and Conflict Resolutions
4. ICT and Social Change
 Analysis of changes in social institutions (educ., governance, religious sects, financial/agricultural institutions)
 Adoption and utilization of ICT in individuals, organizations and communities
 Analysis of virtual communities and interactions
5. Education
 Factors shaping educational processes and policies at individual, institutional, community, and national levels
 Social processes and dimensions of educational management and reforms
 Technology and education
 Graduate tracer studies
 Academic, behavioral, physical/health-related, environment-related problems on institutional level
 School operational management issues
 Community – related factors influencing school processes, policy, and operation

B. NATURAL SCIENCES
1. Climate Change
 Physical oceanography
 Marine coastal geology
 Engineering geology
 Volcanology, hydrology, seismology
 Vulnerability of biodiversity

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2. Pollution
 Persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, mariculture -derived pollution
 Vulnerability of biodiversity
 Instrumentation(detection, analysis, robotics, atmospheric, environmental)
 Electronics application, catalysts, environmental remediation
 Nanotechnology
3. Conservation
 Systems biology
 Genetics
 Biodiversity
 3-domain scheme (morphoanatomy, physiology, behavior)
 Atmospheric/environmental instrumentation
4. Energy
 Molecular simulation/modeling
 Materials science (alternative energy, electronics application, environmental remediation)
 Natural products (biofuels)
 Materials research (energy, fuel cells, ICT/microelectronics, nanomaterials, functional materials)
 Greener technologies for minerals, coal
 Geothermal, petroleum
5. Health
 Bioassays, diagnostics, drug/cure discovery
 Biosensors
 Natural products (pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals, pesticides)
 Instrumentation (detection, analysis, robotics, medical physics)
 Innovative cure
 Development of vaccines and indigenous kits using indigenous materials
6. Food
 Natural products
 Biochemistry, Biotechnology
 Molecular biology
 Exploration of new resources and more efficient food production

Sources:

National Higher Education Research Agenda -2 (NHERA 20019 – 2018) CHED 2009 file: // E:/ RESEARCH%
20PRIORITY% 20AREAS.pdf
CMO No. 41,s. 2010
CMO No. 42, s. 2010

D. WRITING THE ABSTRACT

1. How Important is the Abstract

 The only part of the paper that is published in conference proceedings.
 The only part of the paper that a potential referee sees when he is invited by an editor to review a manuscript.
 The only part of the paper that readers see when they search through electronic databases.
 The abstract sets the tone for the rest of the paper
 Most readers look at only the titles of the contained papers. If a title interests them, they glance through the
abstract of that paper.

2. Content of an Abstract
 Usually in one paragraph of 250 words or less, which sequence:
 The overall objective and research problem(s) investigated;
 The basic design;
 Major findings; and
 Conclusion and a few important recommendations.

3. Tips in Writing the Abstract

a. Always use the past tense.

b. Your abstract must be consistent with what you reported in the paper
c. Correct spelling, clarity of sentences/phrases, and proper reporting of quantities (scientific units, numerical
figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are anywhere else.
d. Center the title ABSTRACT.
e. Do not indent the first line.
f. Include 5-10 important key words.

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 g. If your abstract is to be published in a journal and you want people to be able to find it easily online, try to use 5-
10 important words or phrases

Most journals provide clear instructions to authors on the formatting and contents of different parts of the manuscript.
These instructions often include details on what the sections of an abstract should contain. Authors should tailor their
abstracts to the specific requirements of the journal to which they plan to submit their manuscript.

Sample Abstract

LISTENING COMPREHENSION PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY SAUDI STUDENTS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

CLASSROOM

The present study investigated the listening problems encountered by a group of first year English major students of
Qassim University. Sixty students who took the listening course in 2012-2013 were selected for the study. Data was
gathered by means of questionnaires and interviews. The results of the study showed that accent, pronunciation, speed of
speech, insufficient vocabulary, different accent of speakers, lack of concentration, anxiety, and bad quality of recording
were the major listening comprehension problems encountered by EFL Saudi learners. Understanding students’ learning
difficulties may enable EFL teachers to help students develop effective learning strategies and ultimately improve their
English listening abilities. Suggestions were given to address problems regarding how teachers can help their students
overcome listening comprehension problems. The results of this study may be useful for those who are interested to look
into the listening problems of their students learning English as a second language.
Keywords: listening, listening comprehension, listening problems , English language classroom, accent, pronunciation,
speed of speech, text length

Source:
Hamouda, A. (2013). “An investigation of listening comprehension problems encountered by Saudi students in the EL
listening classroom.” International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development,
Vol. 2, No. 2.

E. WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM OR OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. A problem statement is:

a. A condition to be improved upon
b. A troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation
c. An explanation of the issues prevalent in a particular sector which drives the researcher to take interest in that
sector for in-depth study and analysis, so as to understand and solve them (Saunders et al. 2009).

2. Principles in Writing the Sub-Problem

 Should be a completely researchable unit

 Should constitute a logical sub-area of the larger research undertaking
 Should have solutions to the sub-problems leading to the resolution of the main problem
 Based on a topic of interest or controversy, or that is significant to the researcher

How to Construct a Researchable Topic

a. Broad topic: Medical marijuana

b. Narrower topic: Medicinal benefits of marijuana
c. Research problem/question: What are the medicinal benefits of marijuana?
d. Keywords: Marijuana, medicinal benefits
e. Thesis statement: Marijuana has multiple benefits when used for medicinal purposes including pain relief, relief
from nausea caused by chemotherapy, and relief from pressure caused by glaucoma

Pointers to Remember:

 A general problem usually contains two to six sub-problems which usually cannot be solved with easy answers
like “Yes” or “No.”
 A sub-problem is stated in the form of a question.
 The 5 W's can be used to spark the discussion about the problem.

Types of Research Problems

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 1. Descriptive
What kind of praise do teachers frequently use when teaching?
2. Relative /Correlational
To what extent is the result of the entrance test related to the achievement test of the students in the
college?
What is the relationship between child drug addiction and the socio-economic status of the family?
3. Causal (Non-Comparative)
What is the influence of peer bullying on the students’ social behavior in the school?
4. Causal (Comparative)
How effective is a delayed praise on the students’ performance in comparison with immediate praise?

4. Writing the Objectives of the Study

a. The General Objective

 States what the researcher expects to achieve in general terms
 Can be broken into small logically connected parts to form specific objectives.
 Should be met by accomplishing all the specific objectives.
b. The Specific Objectives
 Systematically address various aspects of the problem as defined under the ‘Statement of the Problem’ .
 Should specify what the researcher will do in the study, and where, and for what purpose.
 Objectives are usually headed by infinitive to plus action verbs
 Observe correct parallelism in writing the objectives. See example below:

F. WRITING THE HYPOTHESIS

1. Hypothesis
a. Scientific presupposition that is drawn from a theory and tests parts of that theory empirically.
b. A presupposition that is validated or invalidated tend to compare and verify variables:

Key Concepts:
a. Based on the research problem that must be formulated as declarative sentence.
b. Must express clearly and explicitly a relationship of at least two variables.
c. Hypotheses tend to compare and verify variables through appropriate terms:
 Differences (more often, better, more (or less) effective , different),
 Relationships (positive, negative relationship, correlation)
 Consequences (the more – the less, if – then

Examples:

Problem: How effective is a teaching style on student’s performance in English subjects ?

1. Causal-Correlational Research Problem:

H1: Elementary school students have better performance in English subject which is taught by a teacher with the non-
directive teaching style than in a subject taught by a teacher with the directive style.
H2: Non-directive teaching style have greater significant positive effect on the elementary school students than the
directive teaching style

2. Differences
H1: Schoolchildren in the second grade like language games more than the schoolchildren in the fifth grade.
3. Relationships
H1: There is a positive relationship between a children’s intelligence and the education of their parents.
4. Consequences:
H1: The more the teacher praises the students, the more the students learn.
H1: The more cohesive the group is, the bigger is its influence on individual members’ interaction..

G. WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information.

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 1. Start the section with a general background of the topic.
2. Contextualize, that is, in context, point out specific issues that are being addressed in the present work.
3. Write a few significant, relevant literature review.
4. Conceptualize by pointing the gap and state the information gap in the available literature associated with the
topic.
5. State clearly the rationale/purposes/objectives and/or hypotheses of the study
6. Resolve to address the problem by concluding with the potential outcomes/results to the field of study
7. Must not be too long, not too short. Introductions should not exceed two pages.
8. Make sure that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the articles cited in the intro and the articles
listed in the reference section.

“APA recommends that you use the most up-to-date research you can find on your topic. However, the
meaning of up-to-date will vary depending on the field. Some fields develop faster than others, and even
within a field, some information will remain relevant for a long time, whereas other information will become
outdated. For example, foundational works may be quite old but still worth citing when you are establishing the
context for your own work. There is no year-related cutoff where sources must be published within the past 5
years or longer to be used in a paper. Each source must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to determine
whether the information in it is timely and relevant.

Source: Lee, C. (April 2, 2015). “The Myth of the Off-Limits Source.” Retrieved at APA Style Blog http:// blog.
apastyle. org/ apastyle/research/).
H. WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1. Refer to the statement of the problem. Observe a one-to-one correspondence between the statement of the
problem and the significance of the study.
2. Write from general to specific contribution. Start off broadly then taper off gradually to a specific group or person.
( See sample below)

I. WRITING THE MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Materials
a. Give a general idea of the material and the purpose for which it is intended.
b. Each major part or characteristic of the material is described in a logical sequence. Describe the materials used
in the study, explain how the materials were prepared for the study, describe the research protocol.
c. Observe proper language, mechanics, conventions in writing.
d. In scientific writing, do not capitalize the names of chemicals (e.g., sodium chloride instead of Sodium Chloride or
Sodium chloride).
e. When writing formulae, be careful always to use the appropriate subscripts and superscripts ( subscript - a
number, character or symbol positioned next to and a little below another character; superscript - positioned
next to and above another character) for example: C44H62O6SSi2 not C44H62O6SSi2.
f. Do not use colloquial terms to avoid misinterpretation, e.g., wrote ‘hot’ when you meant ‘radioactive’.
g. When you are trying to describe actions, use the specific word, e.g., using the word ‘spin’ when you actually
mean ‘centrifuge’.
h. Use correct English.
i. Learn about the conventions of notation in your field. For example, human gene names should be written in
italicized capital letters (CTBP2, VCP) whereas mouse gene names should be written in italicized letters, with
only the first letter capitalized (Ctbp2, Vcp).

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 j. When writing species names of organisms, convention dictates that these are written in italics, with a capitalized
genus name and a species name that begins with a small letter; for example, Homo sapiens, Mus musculus,
Rattus rattus. After the first mention, you can abbreviate these to, e.g., H. Sapiens, M. musculus, R. rattus.
k. Always use internationally standardized units of measurement, with the correct abbreviation.
l. Be consistent about spacing between numbers and units, e.g., “The relation between the absolute units is as
follows: 1in = 2.54cm = 25.4mm = 72pt = 6pc.”
m. Local terms must be italicized and translated into English (or footnoted). Ex. chicharong baboy (pork crackling)
, mansanitas/aratiles (Muntingia calabura L. scientific name); apple cherry or Kerson fruit), saresa (Panama
berries)
n. State exactly which piece of equipment you used, because this may also affect your results - give the name,
model number, and manufacturer.
o. Make use of figures and tables, they are the most efficient way to convey bulky detailed information.

2. Methods

a. Report and describe the methodology completely and concisely.

b. Be specific. Report how procedures were done.
c. If well - documented procedures were used, report the procedure by name, perhaps with reference.
d. Use 3rd person.
e. Use the passive voice.
f. Use the past tense and the third person to describe what you did.
g. Do NOT use fragments. Use complete sentences

J. WRITING THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Results

 Present your findings in text and illustrate them, if necessary, with self-contained figures and tables. They speed
up the comprehension and interpretation of the study’s findings.

a. Text, Tables and Figures

a. Texts are written in sentences and paragraphs.
 Not all analyses or results warrant a Table or Figure. Some simple results are best stated in a single sentence,
with data summarized parenthetically.
 See if you can present your results clearly in a sentence or two. If so, a table or figure is probably unnecessary.
 If your data are too numerous or complicated to be described adequately in this amount of space, figures and
tables can be effective ways of conveying lots of information without cluttering up your text.

b. Tables
 Numerical values or text displayed in orderly columns and rows.
 Useful when you need to present a quantity of numerical data in an accessible format and you need to show
exact numbers.
 Do not write “the table above” or “the table below.”
 Italicize the table title. Do not italicize the table number.
 Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of all headings.
 Standard abbreviations and symbols, such as % or no. may be used in headings.
 Ensure each column has a heading.
 Notes are placed below the table. If the table is from another source, include a note below the table specifying
whether it is from another source or adapted from another source. e.g. “Note. From….” OR “Note. Adapted
from…” OR “Note. The data in column 1 are from…”
 Numbers. Number all tables with Arabic numerals sequentially. Do not use suffix letters (e.g. Table 3a, 3b, 3c);
instead, combine the related tables. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables, identify them with capital
letters and Arabic numerals (e.g. Table A1, Table B2).
 Titles. Like the title of the paper itself, each table must have a clear and concise title. When appropriate, you may
use the title to explain an abbreviation parenthetically.
 Headings. Keep headings clear and brief. The heading should not be much wider than the widest entry in the
column. All columns must have headings, even the sub- column.
 Body. In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals should be expressed to a consistent number of
decimal places that is determined by the precision of measurement. Never change the unit of measurement or
the number of decimal places in the same column.

c. Figures refer to graphs, flow charts, maps, drawings, photos, etc.

 Line graphs are effective at showing trends (how data changes over time) and relationships (how two
variables interact).

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  Bar charts/graphs are good when you want to compare discrete items. The bars can be vertical or
horizontal. Making them different colors can help the reader to differentiate each result.
 Pie charts show the proportion of the whole that is taken by various parts.
 Drawings and diagrams can be used to reinforce or supplement textual information, or where something is
more clearly shown in diagrammatic form.
 Photographs can be useful as illustrations that help to explain what is being discussed in the text.
 Number figures in the order they are first mentioned in text. Do not write “the figure above” or “the figure
below.”
 Figures should be large enough to read easily (between 8 point and 14 - point font )
 The preferred typeface in figures is 12-pt Courier.
 Ensure data are plotted accurately and the grid scale is proportioned.
 Place labels close to the identified item.
 Axis labels on graphs should be parallel to their axes.
 Captions include the figure title and a brief, but descriptive, explanation of the figure and placed below the
figure.
 The figure legend should be positioned within the borders of the figure.

2. Discussion

a. Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth. If your results differ from your expectations, explain
why that may have happened. If your results agree, then describe the theory/ previous findings that the evidence
supported.
b. Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply
dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
c. For generally accepted facts and principles use present tense.

J. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Summary of Findings

 The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data consisting of text and
numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or statistical measures woven.
 The findings are the answers to the problems presented in the previous section of the paper.
 No deductions, nor inference, nor interpretation should be made otherwise it will only be duplicated in the
conclusion.
 Use past tense to present the result of findings of the investigation.

2. Conclusions

 Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, general statements, and/or generalizations based upon
the findings.
 Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation in
the order they are given under the statement of the problem

3. Recommendations

 Recommendations are steps offered to solve or improve the negative findings of the study. They suggest
actions to be taken in response to the findings of a report. They seek to propose solutions.
 Put recommendations in a numbered or bulleted list format. If action is imperative, list them in order of priority so
that decision makers know which items need attention first.
 Write one-sentence recommendations, starting with actionable verbs and using concise language.
 A word of caution about writing recommendations: You should always consider your relationship with the reader
first. If you have no authority to make recommendations, the reader may be hostile to their presence.

K. WRITING THE ACKNOWLEDGMENT IN A REFEREED JOURNAL

a. There is no standard format for writing acknowledgements.

b. Give credit to funding bodies, departments and individuals who have been of help during the project.
c. Include a brief note indicating gratitude to those who have been of help.
d. Generally, acknowledgements contain the following elements:
 Full name of all individuals who are being thanked.
 A brief statement as to what kind of help the writer has received from each individual, group of people,
scholarship, etc.

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 e. In some disciplines, ethical clearance or some other kind of permission is needed, and it is often stated in the
acknowledgements that such permission has been granted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was made possible through the support [Name of Foundation, Grant maker, Donor]. We
thank our colleagues from [Name of the supporting institution] who provided insight and expertise that greatly
assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper.
We thank [Name Surname, title] for assistance with [particular technique, methodology], and [Name
Surname, position, institution name] for comments that greatly improved the manuscript.
We express our gratitude to the (Name Surname, title, institution) for sharing their wisdom with us during
the course of this research. We are also immensely grateful to (List names and positions) for their comments on the
preliminary draft of the manuscript, although any errors are our own and should not tarnish the reputations of these
esteemed persons.

L. GENERAL STYLE IN WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER

1. To make a paper readable:

 Print or type using a 12 - point standard font, such as Times, Arial, Calibri, Cambria, Courier New, etc. Be
consistent.
 Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper with 1 - inch margins
 Number pages consecutively/sequentially.
 Adhere to recommended page limits.

2. Mistakes to avoid:
 Placing a heading/sub-heading/table title at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page.
 Dividing a table or figure - confine each figure/table to a single page.
 Submitting a paper with pages out of order.

3. In all sections of your paper:

 Stay focused on the research topic of the paper.
 Use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the abstract).
 Indent the first line of each paragraph.
 Present your points in logical order.
 Use present tense to report well accepted facts , e.g., “The grass is green.”
 Use past tense to describe specific results , e.g., 'When weed killer was applied, the grass turned brown‘.
 Avoid informal wording. Don't address the reader directly, and don't use jargon, slang terms, or superlatives.
 Insert page numbers in the upper right corner.
 Do not mix tenses whenever necessary. Ex. Two guys rob a liquor store downtown. The robbery occurred at
midnight last night.
 Objectivity is absolutely essential.

4. Common Terms Used in Research

a. Limitations vs. Delimitations

Limitations include factors the experimenter cannot control, while delimitations are boundaries the
experimenter intentionally sets. Both affect methodology and research data.
With limitations an experimenter considers time constraints, nature of the experiment, instruments utilized and
the sample itself. Limitations are potential weaknesses in your study and are out of your control.

b. Participants vs. Respondents vs. Subjects

Participants, respondents and subjects are the people who the researchers select for their study
.
 Participants are usually in qualitative research (e.g. interviews). Participants participate and answer questions
in qualitative studies (e.g., interviews and focus groups). Because qualitative studies are more in-depth than
quantitative, the participant in qualitative studies contributes more (is more active) than respondents to a survey
or subjects in an experiment. The participant generally gives much more detailed answers than a respondent
would in a survey.

 Respondents answer (respond to) questionnaires - usually quantitative. Respondents answer (respond/reply
to) questionnaires - usually quantitative research, no more, no less.

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  Subjects are usually in experimental/scientific research (quantitative). Subjects is a term used more in science.
Subjects is generally a more passive term (Example: Ten subjects were given the behavior therapy.) A subject
may either be animal or human.

c. Instrument vs. Instrumentation

Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.).
The instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of developing, testing, and
using the device).

d. Adopted vs. Adapted

 Adopting an instrument is taking the instrument nearly verbatim. It links your study to all other research
studies that have used the same instrument. The reliability and validity research studies that have been
conducted on that instrument can be applied to your study, so you do not have to collect validity evidence.
Adopting also saves you time and energy in making significant changes.
 When an instrument is adopted, it is important to appropriately describe the instrument .
 Who developed the instrument
 Who validated the instrument
 Other studies that have used the instrument
 Adapting an instrument means the instrument has been significantly changed so the reliability and validity
evidence will not apply to your study. The researcher follows the general design of another instrument but adds
items, removes items, and/or substantially changes the content of each item. Adapting an instrument is similar to
developing a new instrument.
 When adapting an instrument, the researcher should report the same information as when adopting the
instrument, but should also include what changes were made to the instrument and why.

Whenever possible, it is best for an instrument to be adopted. When this is not possible, the next best
option is to adapt an instrument. If there are no other instruments available, then the last option is to develop
an instrument.
Whether adopting or adapting an instrument, it is always courteous to email the authors of the instrument
to ask permission. Simply state your institutional affiliation, the purpose of your study, and ask if it would be
acceptable for you to use their instrument in your study.

M. WRITING REFERENCES

1. Bibliography is listing all the materials that have been consulted while writing an essay or a book. References,
on the other hand, are those that have been referenced in your article or book.
2. Bibliography may not directly be included in the text. References are those that are directly included in your
actual text.
3. Both bibliography and references are arranged alphabetically. But a Reference List can also be arranged in
numeric style with superscript
4. The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is the leading style of documentation for literary research, as
well as academic papers in the humanities field. MLA is often called name-and-work style. Unlike the APA style,
the present tense of verbs is most commonly used in the MLA style.
5. The American Psychological Association (APA) style is, originally, a set of rules that authors use when
submitting papers for publications in the journals of the APA. APA is often called name-and-date style. APA
Format is widely used in psychology, business, education, engineering and the social sciences.

Writing a Reference List in the APA Style

a. References start on a new page. Center the word REFERENCES.

b. Arrange your list alphabetically according to surname.
c. Use & before the last author if there are 2 to 7 authors
d. When authors number 8 or more, include the first 6, then insert three ellipses, and add the last author.
Example: Krishnan, K. J., Reeve, A. K., Samuels, D. C., Chinnery, P. F., Blackwood, J. K., Taylor, R. W., . . .
Turnbull, D. M.
e. Use italics for:
 Titles of journals and volumes
 Book titles
a. Use indent on the second and subsequent lines in a reference.

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N. ALL ABOUT PLAGIARISM

1. Plagiarism is defined as the act of either intentionally OR unintentionally submitting work or a part of a work that
was written by someone else. If you turn in a paper that was written by someone else, or if you turn in a paper in
which you have copied material from any source without citing that source, you are guilty of plagiarizing.

Source: Harvard Guide to Using Sources: A Publication of the Harvard College Writing Program. (Feb. 2016).
Retrieved from http:// isites.harvard.edu/ icb/ icb.do? keyword= k70847& tabgroupid= icb.tabgroup 106849)

2. How to Avoid Plagiarism

a. Cite sources to give credit to other scholars for their ideas.

b. Use MLA or APA style in citing sources .
c. Paraphrase, summarize or quote correctly.

How to Paraphrase:

 Use different vocabulary with the same meaning.

Original Text: It can be difficult to choose a suitable place to study English."

Paraphrased: It is often a challenge to pick up a relevant school to learn English. or It is sometimes hard to select an
appropriate place to learn English.

 . Change the order of words.

Original Text: If they have some help, most people can paraphrase effectively. However, practice is important because
paraphrasing is difficult.

Paraphrased: Most people can paraphrase effectively, if they have some help. However, paraphrasing is difficult, so
practice is important.

 Change parts of speech.

Original Text: The most effective way to build your English skill is to study regularly.

Paraphrased: The most effective way of building your English skill is to do studying on a regular basis.

 . Change the voice of the verb.

Original Text: To improve English, you should learn new vocabulary on a daily basis. (Active Voice)
Paraphrased: To improve English, new vocabulary should be learned on a daily basis. (Passive Voice)

How to Quote for Short Quotations:

a. If you are directly quoting from a work, include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the
reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last
name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.
b. If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the
page number in parentheses after the quotation.

Samples:

 According to Palladino and Wade (2010), “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).
 In 2010, Palladino and Wade noted that “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).
 In fact, “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (Palladino & Wade, 2010, p. 147).
 According to Palladino and Wade’s (2010, p. 147) longitudinal study “A flexible mind is a healthy mind,”.
 Palladino and Wade’s (2010) results indicate that “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).

How to Quote for Long Quotations:

 Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit
quotation marks.
 Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the
quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin.
 The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.

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Sample:

Most beginners had a very challenging time doing their research work particularly when paraphrasing,
summarizing or quoting materials that they read. In relation to this, Jones' (1998) study revealed that::

Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when citing sources of data. This difficulty could
be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for
help. (p. 199).

*NOTE: A lecture delivered by Dr. Cecilia L. Calub (Professor, TSU – College of Education) on January 24 – 25,
208 at the Research, Extension, and Development Building, Lucinda Campus, Tarlac State University during the
Seminar on Research Writing and Formatting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.).
Washington: Author.

Balch T. How to Compose a Title for Your Research Paper. http://augmentedtrader. com/2012/02/07/how-to-compose-a-
titlefor-your-research-paper/ [Last accessed on Sept 26, 2015]

Bem DJ. Writing the empirical journal article. In MP Zanna& JM Darley (Eds.), The Complete Academic: A Practical Guide
for the Beginning Social Scientist (pp. 171-201). New York: Random House, 1987 .

Fathalla M and Fathalla M. A Practical Guide for Health Researchers. [Accessed: July 20, 2011] Available
from: http://www.emro.who.int/dsaf/dsa237.pdf.

Gerard Piel, "Science and the next fifty years", § "Applied vs basic science", Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, 1954
Jan;10(1):17–20.

Hamouda, A. (2013). “An investigation of listening comprehension problems encountered by Saudi students in the EL
listening classroom.” International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development,
Vol. 2, No. 2

Holtom, Daniel and Elizabeth Fisher 1999 Enjoy writing your science thesis or dissertation! London: Imperial Press.

University of Southern California. 2017. Organizing your social sciences research paper: choosing a title. Retrieved at
http:// libguides. usc. edu/ writingguide/title

Regoniel, Patrick A. (February 9, 2015). “Two Tips on How to Write the Significance of the Study.”In simplyeducate.me.
Retrieved from http://simplyeducate me/ 2015/ 02/ 09/ two-tips-on-how-to-write-the-significance-of-the-study/

Weissberg R. and Buker S. 1990 Writing up research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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INTRODUCTION

Conducting scientific research is only the beginning of the scholarship of

discovery. In order for the results of research to be accessible to other
professionals and have a potential effect on the greater community, it must be
written and published.

Most scientific research data are published in peer‐reviewed journals, which

are those that utilize a process by which an author's peers, or experts in the
content area, evaluate the manuscript. Following this review the manuscript is
recommended for publication, revision or rejection. It is the rigor of this review
process that makes scientific journals the primary source of new information that
impacts decision‐making and practice.

The very process of writing can be a helpful tool for promoting the process of
scientific thinking, and effective writing skills allow professionals to participate in
broader academic and scientific conversations.

Peer review manuscript publication systems requiring these technical writing

skills can be developed and improved with practice.

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