Concrete cooling against heat of hydration

The strength of the concrete is closely related to the heating during curing (heat of hydration).
For smaller constructions, the phenomenon is negligible, but very significant in mass concrete,
e.g. for dam projects, or when the ambient tempreature is very high. The heat of hydration warms
up the concrete by up to 25 °C and causes the concrete to expand.

After curing, the concrete cools down and the volume decreases, which creates tensions that lead
to cracks in the concrete. Therefore, the mixing temperature must be lowered, so that a maximum
temperature as specified by the planners is not exceeded during the curing process.

The required concrete pouring temperatures vary from site to site and country (from +7 °C to
+30 °C maximum), hence there is always the need for a cooling system. Since investments and
operating costs for a concrete cooling system can be high, it is important for KTI’s clients always
to install an optimized system according to their needs.

Concrete Mixing Temperatures

Function of concrete mixing temperature in relation to water temperature and addition of ice
Concrete Cooling Systems

Components of concrete cooling systems can vary depending on customer requirements,

concrete mix design and/or required concrete temperatures. KTI supplies concrete cooling
systems, which range from cold water systems or ice water systems up to ice plants and towards
aggregate cooling systems. For very large projects, such as dams, KTI also offers the option of
concrete post-cooling systems – cooling the concrete after casting.

1. Cold water plants or ice water plants

The addition of water for mixing the concrete is self-evident. At the same time, here is the first
possibility to cool the concrete during the mixing process. The mixing water is pre-cooled to
either 1°C or 4°C. With this a temperature reduction of about 11K can be achieved.

The Containerized Cold Water Plants of KTI (CCWP) cool water at an inlet temperature of +30
to +45 °C down to +4 °C. For lower concrete temperatures, KTI offers Containerized Ice Water
Plants (CIWP), which cool water down to +1 °C. A CIWP is equipped with a special ice bank,
which stores the ice water around a tube or plate evaporator. Of course, KTI offers also solutions
that are designed for lower water inlet temperatures of +15 to +25 °C, such as those found in
Europe or North America.

In addition to the cold water systems, KTI offers prefabricated and insulated cold water tanks.
These can be installed beside or even under the cold water plants or ice water plants to save
space and installation costs.

2. Flake ice plants or plate ice plants

By replacing cold water with the corresponding amount of ice a further cooling of the concrete
can be achieved. In this case, a temperature reduction of another 14 °C is realised; the concrete
can therefore be cooled down by a total of 25 °C.
KTI ice plants produce flake ice (FLIP) or plate ice (PLIP). A part of the cold water from the
KTI cold water plants is used to produce the ice. All ice plants are pre-assembled and delivered
in 40-ft-containers. A daily production of 100 tons of flake ice (FLIP) or 200 tons of plate ice
(PLIP) is available in only one unit.

3. Combined plants - cold water & ice

A technical achievement of KTI are the combined plants that produce both cold water and flake
ice. These are available in a single container with a daily Output up to 42 tons of ice and 176 m³
of cold water.

4. Ice storage
Just as important as the production of ice, is its storage. This allows a constant production of ice
over the entire day and an immediate discharge and supply of the required amount of ice even
during load peaks.

The ice storages of KTI can be used for both flake ice and plate ice and are available for up to 90
tons holding capacity. They are included with a fully automated ice rake system and automatic
ice discharge system. Mobile Ice Storages (MIS) are manufactured in a heavy-duty steel frames
and are available between 18 and 90 tonnes.

Semi-automatic ice storages (MIS-sa) can hold up to 23 tons and are installed in a 40-ft-
container. The ice is discharged manually.

Furthermore, KTI manufactures bolted ice storages (MIS-b), which are prefabricated for quick
assembly, but dismantled for transportation. This variant of ice storage is available up to a
holding capacity of 250 tons.

5. Aggregate cooling
When cooling the concrete by adding cold water or even pure ice is not sufficient, the aggregates
must be cooled before mixing. This can be done by both either using cold air or cooled water.
Lowering the aggregate temperature by 2 °C allows the concrete temperature to be lowered by 1
°C. So the concrete can be cooled by at least another 10 °C only by aggregate cooling.

Aggregate cooling by cold air

Cooling the aggregates by air (CCAP), a large amount of cold air is blown through the silo. In
particular, under difficult conditions, the cooling aggregates by cold air is an extremely effective
method. In addition to saving energy, with cold air a much lower concrete temperature can be
achieved than only adding cold water or ice, as this does not affect the maximum allowed water
content.

The cold air flows through the silo from bottom to top and detracts heat of the aggregates. The
silo can be fed with aggregates through the inlet at the top by conventional conveyor belts. As
soon as the aggregates have arrived the silo outlet, they are cooled down depending on the dwell
time in the silo and are ready for feeding the batching plant.
To distribute the air evenly, KTI has developed special nozzles that are permanently installed in
the silo and ensure an optimal air flow around the units. Thus, an efficient utilization of the
expended cooling capacity is guaranteed.

The cold air plants are built extremely compact and are available up to 1200 kW cooling
capacity.

An installation of a cold air plant beside a concrete batching plant or aggregate silos can also be
done later to upgrade the system. So, cold air plants offer a perfect complement or even an
extension to an existing concrete cooling system.

Aggregate cooling by cold water

Aggregates can also be precooled by using cold water or ice water. This method represents a
very fast method of aggregate cooling, does not require any modification of the silos and is
independent of the size of the silo.

The aggregates are sprayed with cold water or ice water on a special conveyor belt, the wet belt,
after the silo. Depending on the length of the conveyor belt and the corresponding dwell time of
the Aggregates, they can be pre-cooled to very low temperatures. The returning water is “pre-
cleaned” in a sedimentation basin and then cooled down again.

For the application of a wet belt, KTI has developed special cold water plants and ice water
plants (CAC-w), which basically differ in the design from conventional cold water plants or ice
water plants (CCWP, CIWP) from KTI. Special falling film coolers are used which are specially
designed and produced for cooling contaminated water.

The cold water plants and ice water plants of KTI for aggregate pre-cooling with wet belt
systems are available in different sizes and are especially designed and manufactured according
to the requirements of our customers.

6. Post-Cooling
In the field of mass concrete, which is used for the construction of dams or other large structures,
it is very often necessary to cool the concrete even after pouring. This makes it possible to
dissipate the resulting heat of hydration from the interior of the structure and thus contributes to
the achievement of the required concrete quality.

Pipelines are integrated into the concrete, through which cold or ice water flows and dissipates
the heat. Here, the correct size and optimum distance of the pipes must be observed in order to
dissipate the required amount of heat.

For post-cooling, the cold or ice water systems (CCWP, CIWP) of KTI need only be slightly
modified. Due to the compact design of the systems, these can be shifted depending on the
construction progress in order to cool various segments of the construction.

7. Accessories
Of course, KTI has developed appropriate accessories for all systems as an integral part of the
portfolio. Likewise, the accessories are always found as one of the essential components of
concrete cooling systems. By adding original KTI accessories to the KTI ice plant or ice storage,
every system will be upgraded and even more efficient.

One of the most important accessory sets is in regards of ice transporation and ice weighing. The
handling of ice requires a lot of experience, because the behavior of ice can only hardly be
foreseen for certain circumstances. On the other hand, accurate weighing of ice is crucial to
achieve the required concrete quality. Therefore, KTI has done intensive developments with
various partners to provide customers with high quality and reliable products.

In addition to single or double screw conveyours, which are available in different lengths, and a
suitable load cells, KTI offers equipment for pneumatic transportation of ice. This enables to
transport the ice over longer distances. With so-called diverter valves, several stations can be
supplied with ice.
WHY CONCRETE COOLING IS NECESSARY FOR A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT

Companies having concrete work done may have heard the term ‘concrete cooling’ used before.
For some people who are unfamiliar with the concrete industry this term may have seemed
confusing or surprising. Many people may have been left wondering why concrete cooling was
necessary at all. Below is a discussion of why concrete cooling is important, what problems can
arise from concrete that is too hot, which projects may be most in need of cooled concrete, and
what factors can influence concrete temperature.

The Chemistry of Concrete

Though in casual conversation some people may use the terms “concrete” and “cement”
interchangeably, it is important to understand the distinction. Cement is the mixture that, when
combined with water, forms the material known as concrete. Concrete formation itself is
accomplished through a process known as cement hydration. This essentially refers to the
chemical bonding of cement aggregates with water. Concrete cannot harden and strengthen
without hydration.
All chemical processes can be classified as either endothermic, meaning they absorb heat and
thus lower the temperature of their surroundings, or exothermic, meaning they release heat and
thus raise the temperature of their surroundings. The process of cement hydration involves
mostly exothermic chemical reactions. Thus as hydration occurs the concrete gets hotter. In some
applications concrete temperatures may exceed 200°F.

Problems Associated with Hot Concrete

As concrete hardens the process is known as curing. Unfortunately high curing temperatures for
concrete can result in reduced tensile strength and performance. It is well documented that
concrete that cures at temperatures of 95°F or higher will have significantly less strength than
concrete that is cured at around 70°F.
Part of the problem is that concrete that is curing will expand at higher temperatures. This results
in a less dense setting, thereby reducing the strength of the concrete. This is especially a problem
in large-pour settings where the inner concrete may be significantly warmer than the outer
concrete, sometimes by as much as 10-20°F, resulting in non-uniform density and weak spots.
Another problem associated with hot concrete is related to water evaporation. As most people are
well aware, water evaporation occurs much more quickly at higher temperatures than at lower
temperatures. Thus as the temperature of the concrete rises, more and more water is evaporated.
Unfortunately since the process of cement hydration relies on water this can create serious
problems and may prevent some of the cement from ever fully hydrating.

Industrial Applications Are Particularly Vulnerable to High Concrete Temperatures

Industrial settings are among the most vulnerable to problems associated with high concrete
temperatures. This is because industrial settings often require large-pour applications, which as
discussed above often results in higher concrete temperatures and potentially non-uniform
density and reduced tensile strength and performance. Another reason that industrial settings are
particularly vulnerable to strength problems associated with high concrete temperatures is
because industrial settings require very strong concrete to begin with. Thus any weakness could
prove catastrophic in an industrial setting, whereas in lower-demand settings it may not prove
problematic. In industrial settings often the safety and integrity of the entire facility is dependent
on the performance and strength of its concrete.

Factors That Affect Concrete Temperature

The temperature of concrete is most significantly affected by the water used in the hydration
process. Thus concrete cooling methods often involve cooling the mixing water prior to
hydration. However, the temperature of the cement aggregates is also important and by pre-
cooling the aggregates lower hydration temperatures can also be achieved. Another method of
concrete cooling is drum cooling, which involves cooling the concrete mixtures as it hydrates.
Naturally many concrete cooling systems involve using these techniques in conjunction with
each other for maximum performance.
Semco is an industry leader in providing industrial cooling systems, including for the purpose of
cooling concrete. Our systems can be fully customized based on the particular needs and
preferences of each of our clients. Please contact us for more information about concrete cooling.

AN OVERVIEW OF A CONCRETE COOLING SYSTEM

As discussed in our article about Why Concrete Cooling is Necessary there are several important
reasons why cooling concrete is beneficial, particularly in relation to improving its strength and
durability. Thus for optimal results many large-pour cement projects require a comprehensive
concrete cooling system. The exact specifics of the concrete cooling system will of course vary
somewhat depending on the particular application and needs of the project. However, what
follows is a general overview of the main components likely to be found in most concrete
cooling systems.

Water Chilling Plant

The temperature of the water used in cement hydration is one of the single most important
factors in determining the concrete’s temperature. Thus using well-chilled, cool water is an
effective concrete-cooling strategy and most concrete cooling systems utilize a water chilling
plant. The water chilling plant is a water cooling system designed to lower water temperature
from its natural environmental temperature often to near freezing levels.
The water chilling plant itself is likely to contain various pieces of equipment which may vary
somewhat depending on the particular system. Common components include compressors, a
gauge and control panel, pumps, evaporative condensers, and heat exchangers. The efficiency of
the system may vary, but strides have been made in making modern water chilling plants much
more power efficient than older plants.
Cold Water Tank
Once the water has been chilled in the water chilling plant it will need to be stored in an
insulated tank to maintain its cold temperature. The tank will of course have a pump for
circulating the water into and out of other parts of the cooling system. Cold water tanks may
themselves be made of concrete or they may be made of steel or other materials. The size of the
tank will typically vary depending on the requirements of the cooling system. In all cases it is
important that the tank be well insulated to prevent the water from warming up again.

Ice Plant
In addition to cooling the water used in cement hydration, another common and effective
strategy for concrete cooling is to add ice, particularly flake ice, into the mixing drum to further
lower the concrete’s temperature. Flake ice is an especially good type of ice to use for this
application because its small size and high relative surface area ensure that it will pack the most
cooling punch while still melting quickly and thoroughly. Rapid melting is important because the
cement mixture needs to be uniform.
Thus, the ice plant is responsible for making the ice that will be used in the cooling process. Ice
production generally takes place in a refrigerated drum. Water is sprayed onto the drum’s surface
where it will freeze almost immediately. Next an ice removal tool will shear the ice off the
drum’s surface, allowing it to fall into a storage bin. For the best cooling properties the ice
should be relatively thin, roughly about 1.5mm thick. Good ice plants will also make ice that
remains crisp and does not stick together or clump into blocks, will melt rapidly, and that is easy
to convey to the blowing system.

Ice Storage Bin

Just as the cold water tank holds the chilled water that leaves the water chilling plant the ice
storage bin houses the completed flake ice. It is crucial that the ice storage bin be well-insulated
and many are thus double-walled. Some systems also include an air-cooling unit designed to
keep air temperatures low and prevent the ice from melting. A good ice storage bin will keep the
flake ice crisp and maintain its cooling integrity. Just as the cold water tank comes in various
sizes to fit the needs of the project, so too are different capacity ice storage bins available.

Ice Delivery and Weighing

The ice delivery and weighing component of the concrete cooling system plays an important role
in delivering the correct amount of ice to the mixing drum and batcher plant. It must also do so in
a consistent, reliable way that does not freeze up or compromise the integrity of the ice.
Typically the ice delivery system will utilize a blower, rotary valve, and cyclone receiver.

Aggregate Cooling With Water

For many concrete cooling projects chilling the mixing water and adding flake ice to the mixer
will be enough to sufficiently cool the concrete. However for other projects the application calls
for such significantly cooled concrete that it is also necessary to cool the cement aggregates. One
effective method is with the use of chilled water. The cooling rate of the aggregate will depend in
large part on the size of the aggregate, as well as on the temperature of the water. Depending on
these factors exposure to water may accomplish the necessary aggregate chilling in as little as
one minute to as long as an half hour or more.
Two methods of aggregate cooling with water include wet belt applications and flooded
aggregate silos. With wet belt applications the aggregates are placed on moving conveyor belts
and then flooded with chilled water. With the flooded silo method the aggregate silo itself is
completely flooded with chilled water. Both methods require a sediment basin and de-watering
system to re-separate the water from the aggregates.

Aggregate Cooling With Air

Water cooling the aggregate is an extremely effective method; however, it requires more space to
accomplish since it necessitates the use of a de-watering system. Thus for projects with limited
space, air cooling of the aggregates may be more desirable. This process involves blowing cool
air in a continuous stream through the aggregate silo. Typically the aggregates will be slightly
moistened since evaporative cooling holds much greater cooling potential. However, since the
moisture is evaporated no net moisture is added to the aggregates.

Other Cooling Systems: Sand Cooling & Post-Cooling

For some projects that need extremely thoroughly cooled concrete they may utilize another
cooling method in addition to chilled water, ice, and aggregate cooling: sand cooling. Sand
cooling is a much more demanding process that will generally require custom-designed systems
specialized to meet the needs of the particular project.
A final option is a post-cooling systems that runs chilled water through a network of pipes
throughout the concrete. This process may be used in dam construction to allow for very
thorough cooling. These final two options are not as common as other components of a concrete
cooling system.
Semco builds and delivers reliable, efficient concrete cooling systems that are custom-designed
for each of our clients with their cooling needs and capacity demands in mind. No matter the size
of the project we will create a state-of-the-art concrete cooling system that will get the job done.

INTRO

MANY new concrete structures are designed to include long spans and carry heavy loads. The
sizes of the necessary components—drilled shafts, foundations, footings, and columns— often
push the envelope of standard construction practices. A greater emphasis on durability also has
led to higher cementitious material contents, lower waterto-cementitious-material ratios, and
deeper cover over reinforcing steel. These requirements have resulted in more concrete
placements that are subject to high internal temperatures. The problem with high internal
temperatures is the increase in the potential for thermal cracking that can decrease concrete’s
longterm durability and ultimate strength. Thermal cracking negates the benefits of less
permeable concrete and deeper cover by providing a direct path for corrosion-causing agents to
reach the reinforcing steel. To deal with these issues, designers and owners are treating more
concrete placements as “mass concrete,” traditionally defined as any placement greater than 3
feet thick. While there are numerous ways to control the internal temperature in mass concrete
placements, using liquid nitrogen is one of the most effective. Specifications typically limit
concrete temperatures to a maximum of 160° F due to durability concerns related to delayed
ettringite formation (DEF). DEF is an uncommon form of internal sulfate attack that can result
from concrete being cured at high tem peratures.

Precooling the concrete can reduce the peak temperature. Maximum temperature differences
within the concrete are also usually specified to minimize the likelihood of thermal cracking.
Historically, a maximum difference of 35° F (from the center of the concrete placement to the
face nearest to the form) has been specified based on experience with unreinforced concrete
dams. Insulation of the forms to keep the concrete from cooling too rapidly can limit the
temperature difference. Other specifications, such as a maximum initial concrete temperature or
cooling rate, can indirectly limit the maximum temperature or temperature difference. The
easiest and most cost-effective way to limit concrete temperatures is often with a properly
engineered lowheat concrete. But when mix design changes are not practical, the concrete can be
precooled. There are several ways to precool concrete.

■ Evaporative cooling: Often overlooked, evaporative cooling of coarse aggregate (sprinkling) is

the most economical, cooling method. Sprinkling water can reduce the stockpile temperature by
10° F or more. Use only enough water to keep the stockpile wet, not saturated. Using chilled
water is unnecessary, as the heat loss is simply a result of evaporation.

■ Ice: The most common, yet perhaps least understood, cooling method is replacing mix water
with ice. This cools concrete in two ways: It first lowers the mix-water temperature and then
lowers the mix temperature by extracting heat during the phase change from ice to water. This
distinction is important, because ice is five times as effective for cooling as water chilled to 40°
F. Ice can be added directly to the ready-mix truck or premixer. When a large project requires
large quantities of ice, a dedicated ice production plant may be justified. Ice can be substituted
for about 80% of the batch water, which limits the cooling that can be achieved with ice to about
20° F.

■ Chilled water: Chilled water can be used in the concrete mix to lower the temperature. Chilled
batch water alone generally will not lower the concrete more than 8° F, depending on the water
temperature and the water/aggregate ratio. If ice is used, then the reduction of mix water makes
the use of chilled water ineffective. Where an ample supply of chilled or cool water and a way to
drain the pile is available, inundation can be an economical way to cool coarse aggregates.

■ Liquid nitrogen (LN2): When concrete needs to be precooled more than about 20° F, or where
ice is not available, the most effective method usually is liquid nitrogen

Advantages of liquid nitrogen

 Liquid nitrogen is produced by compressing and cooling nitrogen gas below its evaporation
point of about –320° F. The main advantage of LN2 is its versatility. LN2 can be used to chill the
aggregates or mix water but most commonly is injected directly into the readymix truck drum.
LN2 can cool concrete as little as 1° F or as much as is needed. LN2 equipment runs on power
from small field generators, so neither an external power connection nor a large-capacity
generator is required. When injected directly into the concrete, LN2 has the advantage of
changing the concrete temperature directly. All other concrete cooling methods rely on cooling
materials before or during batching. LN2 is the only cooling method that allows field
readjustment of the concrete. It requires fewer workers than are needed to add ice at the batch
plant. LN2 injection does not require any plant or truck modifications.

Mix proportioning and batch procedures are not affected by LN2 use in the field. The potential
drawbacks of LN2 primarily relate to cost. Equipment and unit materials costs can be higher than
for other cooling methods, depending on material availability and related local costs. Setting up
and administering the field operation require extreme care and add to the LN2 costs. Liquid
nitrogen is extremely cold—at normal atmospheric pressure it reverts from liquid to gas, and its
temperature is about –320° F. Therefore, operators and maintenance personnel must wear proper
protective clothing and safety gear and must be trained in its safe use and handling. On the other
hand, unless the project is large enough to justify aggregate inundation, LN2 is the only practical
way to cool concrete by more than 20° F. On some projects, LN2 has been used to precool the
concrete mix to 35° F. How it’s done The liquid nitrogen supply system consists of one 11,000-
or 13,000-gallon cryogenic vessel, one optional additional small cryogenic vessel, and a
vaporizer. The small cryogenic vessel supplies nitrogen gas for pneumatic controls and maintains
constant pressure in the large cryogenic vessel throughout the cooling process. The need for it
depends on the withdrawal rate of LN2 from the supply vessel.

The pressure of the liquid nitrogen supply vessel and the size of the nozzle determine the flow
rate of the liquid nitrogen. A variable timer allows for close control of the final concrete
temperature. The liquid nitrogen injection station consists of a liquid nitrogen lance, which is
moved in and out of the readymix truck drum using a pneumatic cylinder. From the control
panel, the lance can be moved right or left and up and down, allowing the operator to position the
lance correctly. A pneumatically operated ball valve controls the flow of liquid nitrogen through
each lance, and the entire process is sequenced from a pushbutton control panel. A bank of lights
helps the driver and operator to position the truck properly and lets them know when cooling is
complete.

Precooling procedures

To meet the 122° F maximum temperature limit, the contractor opted to precool the footing
concrete before placement. The column concrete also was precooled for convenience and
economy. Liquid nitrogen in conjunction with ice was used for cooling because it was able to
adequately cool the 570 truckloads of concrete for each footing, and it worked quickly enough to
maintain the hourly supply. Air Liquide Industrial U.S. designed and operated the precooling
system at the jobsite and supplied and dispensed the liquid nitrogen, to help ensure that concrete
would be 50° F when placed. This setup also allowed for recooling any concrete that migh

Concrete placement during hot weather can lead to problems if precautions are not taken to
control placement temperatures. Such problems include: decreased compressive strengths and
durability when fully cured; plastic and thermal cracking; and lack of uniformity in surface
appearance. One traditional approach to lowering concrete temperatures is to use ice to
supplement a portion of the batch water. However, this at times leads to operating and quality
control problems. An alternative to ice for providing necessary cooling is to use liquid nitrogen
(LIN), an inert liquid with a temperature of -320 degrees F.

LIN is delivered to the batch plant and is stored on site/used as needed. LIN can be used to cool
the batch water, produce an ice-and-water slush mixture, and/or cool the cement. When LIN
comes in contact with another material such as batch water, it cools the material rapidly,
evaporates, and simply returns back into the air. For cooling cement, LIN is used as the cement is
off-loaded from the bulk transport to the storage silo. With this system the LIN flow is activated
when the cement starts flowing. The mixing action created by the LIN injection ensures efficient,
uniform cooling, which is capable of reducing cement temperatures by as much as 45 degrees,
with concrete temperature reductions of as much as 5 degrees F.

If greater temperature reductions are required, all three systems (cooling batch water, producing
ice-and-water slush mixture, and cooling the cement) could be used together to reduce the
concrete temperature by as much as 23 degrees F. For many projects, LIN cooling can prove to
be more economical than ice cooling, as the operating cost is based mostly on nitrogen used.
With ice, operating costs include the cost of ice, labor for handling ice, and maintenance of the
ice handling equipment. Many concrete producers have selected liquid nitrogen systems to
obtain better quality control, improved operation, and overall reduction in project costs

Although cooling concrete ingredients is an effective means of lowering the fresh temperature of

concrete, there are several limitations to the cooling procedures in terms of their efficacy, cost,

and effects on concrete properties. In terms of cost, several of the methods employ large pieces
of equipment that require an initial capital expenditure.
The largest disadvantage to cooling aggregates by evaporation is that it can only be performed in

dry climates. Many of the warm weather climates around the world are relatively humid, thereby
limiting this method to a few select regions or to specific conditions.

Chilled water is a common method of cooling concrete but has severe limitations in terms of

cooling potential. Even if all of the mixing water is replaced with chilled water, the temperature
reduction that can be expected may be not enough to reach the required initial temperature .

In spite of its popularity, cooling with ice has many disadvantages. Many hours are required to

break bags of ice open and/or crush the ice, and add it into the mixing trucks. Unfortunately, no

automated system exists to perform this simple task, and there is a high-injury rate associated

with these jobs. Ice bags are manually dumped into crushers and workers occasionally are

injured by becoming caught in the machinery. A more significant problem is that it is difficult to

difficult to ensure homogeneous distribution and complete melting. Ice cubes or flakes that do

not completely melt are covered with mortar and are indistinguishable from similarly sized

aggregate particles also covered with mortar. If the ice melts when the concrete has already

hardened, then large voids will be left in the concrete mass, thereby creating weak zones.

Unmelted ice may also affect fresh concrete properties prior to setting by increasing the water-to-

cement ratio in localized areas. Furthermore, it is very difficult to precisely control the

temperature of fresh concrete when using ice. Cooling concrete mixtures to a specific

temperature is a trial-and-error process that depends on the concrete volume, initial concrete

temperature, outside temperature, relative humidity, and ice temperature. If the resulting concrete

does not comply with the temperature specification, no additional ice may be added since it will
increase the water content of the mixture.

LIQUID NITROGEN
Recently, some concrete producers have turned to LN as a viable cooling method for fresh

concrete. Typically, the concrete is cooled inside the ready-mix truck by direct injection of LN

(lance technology), which is maintained at a temperature of (-196°C) in a special storage tank

(Dewar) that can endure cryogenic temperatures. In one of the most common systems, once the

ready-mix trucks are charged with concrete, they drive under a simple frame and pull all the way
through until the rear of the truck is aligned with the frame, as shown in the article cover photo .

The injection lance attached to the top of the frame is then activated and inserted into the rear of

the mixing drum. As the drum spins at full speed, LN is injected into the mixture. For a relatively

short time (milliseconds), the nitrogen is in liquid form but quickly turns to gas under normal

atmospheric conditions. The nitrogen gas, however, is supercooled and has an extremely high
cooling potential.

The biggest advantage of the use of LN is that it allows for precise temperature control. The

batch operator can use as much LN as is needed to achieve the desired temperature without

having to make any adjustments to the water-to-cement ratio. Additionally, concrete can be

chilled to even lower temperatures with LN than is possible with ice or chilled water. In fact,

liquid nitrogen cooled concrete (LNCC) can be cooled to near-freezing temperatures without

affecting the workability significantly. An alternative to cooling concrete directly in the ready-
mix trucks is to cool it in the central mixer.

In my point of view the injection of LN into the Concrete mixer (lances Technology) is not the
best method for cooling because of these reasons.

-Its not economic comparing to chilled water and/or ice because the low heat capacity of LN

1.08 at 1 atm compared to the heat capacity of water 4.1 which effect on the amounts of LN

required to perform cooling process (in gulf area cooling 1 cubic meter of concrete using these
method will almost double the price of the cubic meter )
-The steel drums of ready-mix trucks are also sensitive to the extreme temperatures of LN. Most

mixing drums are made of scrap steel that are durable enough to withstand abrasive stresses from

concrete but not sufficient to endure thermal shock from LN. Steel undergoes a ductile-to-brittle

transition at low temperatures, which increases the likelihood of cracking from thermal shock
induced stresses.

Thermal image (picture A) of a steel mixing drum during liquid nitrogen dosing. (Picture B
indicates the area on a mixing drum that the image is capturing)

-The effect that it may have on concrete properties. Concrete that comes in contact with LN

may freeze in localized areas and temporarily halt hydration in these locations. The course of
cement hydration may be altered so that concrete will not develop strength optimally.

Changes in hydration can also have implications on fresh properties such as slump and setting

time, and hardened properties that are related to microstructure such as drying shrinkage and

chemical durability. Cement particles start to dissolve when mixed with water. Within the first

few minutes of hydration, a layer of calcium silicate hydrate and ettringite form around cement

grains to protect them from further immediate hydration. These initial hydration products are the

reason for the induction period in concrete, a period of relative inactivity in concrete that allows

for mixing and transport. Localized freezing with LN may interrupt these processes, with short-
term or long-term implications on performance.
For example, it is possible that LN may interfere with the initial formation of ettringite, a
hydration product that prevents flash set in concrete and has long term durability implications.

-The interaction of LN cooling with chemical admixtures. Many of these admixtures, such as

high range water reducers and air-entraining admixtures, are sensitive to the time of addition and

the temperature. LN dosing could interfere with the mechanisms of water reduction or air-
entrainment

New LN technology called "The cement silo cooling units" .

In this method you inject the LN into a special cement silo to cool down the cement before
mixing with other ingredients turning the cement itself to a cooling agent .

The cement is kept cooled up to 24 hours in the isolated silo (special one).

Fresh concrete can be cooled by more than 20˚C

Higher volumes of concrete can be cooled in less time

Higher cooling rates and heat capacity transfer

These technology is great but the biggest challenge facing it that the cost of the equipment is
very high.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

It is common practice to cool concrete during hot weather or for mass placements. In hot

weather conditions, solar radiation and elevated temperatures preheat concrete mixing materials
and the drums of ready-mix trucks, increasing the placement temperature of the concrete.

Furthermore, a combination of extreme temperatures, low relative humidity, and wind may result

in conditions that are adverse to the placement and finishing of concrete. Since cement hydration

reactions are accelerated by higher temperatures and are exothermic, the rate at which heat is

produced is therefore accelerated, further increasing the temperature of the concrete. This

cyclical development of heat produces a “self-stoking” process causing hydration reactions to

accelerate and the concrete to become hotter. This will certainly result in a reduced working time
for the fresh concrete, and may also cause other problems as discussed next.

Temperature related issues are particularly a problem with mass concrete placements. In

relatively small structural elements, the heat produced by cement hydration is easily dissipated to

the surrounding environment because of the large surface-to-volume ratio. However, in mass

concrete, the surface-to-volume ratio is smaller, thereby restricting the amount of heat loss into

the environment. The insulating effects of the surrounding concrete cause thermal gradients

between the hot interior and the colder exterior surface (Fig. 1.1). The hot interior of these

structural elements will have a larger thermal expansion than the cooler exterior. This mismatch

in thermal expansion may result in thermal cracking if the difference in strain between two

adjoining regions exceeds the tensile strain capacity of the concrete. Furthermore, restricted heat

dissipation near the core of concrete elements may result in excessively high temperatures, which

may increase the susceptibility of the concrete to delayed ettringite formation (DEF) and lead to
future durability related problems.

Reducing the placement temperature of concrete can result in many improvements. Cooler

starting temperatures slow the hydration reactions, increase working time, reduce the maximum

temperature in the concrete member, and reduce thermal gradients. Furthermore, cooler concrete

achieves better long-term strength and microstructural development. Concrete suppliers have
been using multiple methods of reducing the placement temperature of concrete, such as cooling
the mixtures with ice or chilled water, shading the aggregate piles, placing concrete at night, and
using evaporative cooling of aggregate piles.

More recently, concrete producers have turned to liquid nitrogen (LN) for cooling fresh concrete.

The effects of this cooling method on concrete hydration, microstructural development, and

performance have not been investigated. Since the process of cooling 3 with LN is very different

from the more traditional methods, it is not known whether or not LN can impact hydration,

concrete performance, and durability in more ways than are simply achieved by the reduction in

temperature alone. Furthermore, the interactions between LN cooling and the mechanisms of

chemical admixtures (e.g. water reducers and air-entraining agents) are unknown. Additionally,

LN presents the opportunity to change the temperature of the concrete at any time during mixing,

allowing for delayed cooling. This cannot be achieved with the other cooling methods, and the

effects of delayed cooling on the hydration and resulting properties have never been investigated.
The research presented in this dissertation addresses these questions.