MODULE 1 Level

MATHEMATICS A B1 B2
1.1 Arithmetic
Arithmetical terms and signs,
methods of multiplication
and division, fractions and
decimals, factors and
multiples, weights,
1 2 2
measures and conversion
factors, ratio and
proportion, averages and
percentages, areas and
volumes, squares, cubes,
square and cube roots.
1.2 Algebra
(a) Evaluating simple
algebraic expressions,
addition, subtraction, 1 2 2
multiplication and division,
use of brackets, simple
algebraic fractions;
(b) Linear equations and their
solutions;
Indices and powers, negative
and fractional indices;
Binary and other applicable
- 1 1
numbering systems;
Simultaneous equations and
second degree equations
with one unknown;
Logarithms;
1.3 Geometry
(a) Simple geometrical - 1 1
constructions;
(b) Graphical representation;
nature and uses of graphs,
2 2 2
graphs of
equations/functions;
(c) Simple trigonometry;
trigonometrical
relationships, use of tables - 2 2
and rectangular and polar
coordinates.

Basic Terms and Signs

Numbers
 A number is a mathematical object used for counting, labeling and measurement. Numbers written in the form of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and so on are known
as Hindu-Arabic numerals, and the numbers written in the form of I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X and so on are known as Roman numerals. The following are the
fundamental number systems.
Natural number: This refers either to a member of the set of positive numerals 1, 2, 3, 4 ... or the set of non-negative numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4... And a set of natural
numbers is denoted by N.
Integer: An integer is a number that can be written without a fractional or decimal component and is denoted by Z. It can be a positive number or a negative number.
For example, 5, 12, –398 and –898 are Integers, whereas 9.75, 5½ and √2 are not Integers.

-1 0 1 2 ( INTEGER )

Prime number: A prime number is a positive integer, greater than 1 that can be divisible only by 1 and the number itself. For example an integer 5 can be divided by
only by 1 and 5 without a remainder. Number 6 is not a prime number because 2 and 3 can divide it. The prime numbers list: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19…

Composite number: A composite number is a positive integer that has at least one positive divisor other than one or itself. For example number 6 is a composite
number because 2 and 3 other than 1 and 6 can divide it. The composite numbers list: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22...

Rational number: It is a number that is expressed as a fraction with a numerator and a denominator. The fraction a/b represents ‘a’ parts of a whole divided into ‘b’
equal parts. The symbol is denoted by Q.

Real number: It is the limit of a convergence sequence of rational numbers and includes all the measuring numbers. They are usually represented with decimal points
and is denoted by R.

Complex number: It is the combination of real and imaginary numbers and is denoted by C. It can be expressed as ‘a + bi’ or ‘a+ ib’, where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are real
numbers.

Bracketed Terms
Brackets are symbols used in pairs to group expressions together in mathematics. Brackets exist in various shapes and are identified as parentheses ( ), square brackets [
], and braces { }. Typically a mathematical expression may be enclosed in an open bracket ‘(’ and a matching closing bracket ‘)’. Brackets within a bracket are permitted
when using brackets in an expression.

Basic Operations
The four elementary operations of arithmetic are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Addition: It is a mathematical operation that represents the total amount of objects together in a collection. It is indicated by the plus sign (+). Addition rules are as
follows.
Rule 1: (+a) + (+b) = (+ sign)
Rule 2: (+a) + (-b) = (– sign)
Rule 3: (-a) + (-b) = (– sign)
Examples
 (+10) + (+5) = (10 + 5) = (+15)
 (+4) + (-9) = (4 – 9) = (-5)
 (-4) + (-9) = (-13)

Subtraction: It is a mathematical operation that represents the operation of removing objects from a collection. It is signified by the minus sign (–). Subtraction riles are
as follows.
Rule 1: (+a) – (+b) = (takes the sign of higher number)
Rule 2: (+a) – (-b) = (+ sign)
Rule 3: (-a) – (-b) = (if ‘a’ is greater than ‘b’, then it takes negative sign; if ‘b’ is greater than ‘a’, then it takes positive sign)
Examples
 10 - 5 = 5
 (+4) – (+9) = (4 – 9) = (-5)
 (+4) – (-9) = (4 + 9) = (13)
 (-9) – (-4) = (-9) + 4 = (4 – 9) = (-5)
 (-4) – (-9) = (-4) + 9 = (9 – 4) = (5)

Multiplication: The multiplication of two whole numbers is equivalent to the addition of one of them with itself as many times as the value of the other one.
 (5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5) = 35 = (5 x 7)
 (4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4) = 20 = (4 x 5)
Rule 1: (+ sign) x (+ sign) = (+ sign)
Rule 2: (+ sign) x (– sign) = (– sign)
Rule 3: (– sign) x (– sign) = (+ sign)
Examples
 6 x 6 = 36
 52 x 12 = (52 x 10) + (52 x 2) = (520 + 104) = 624
 (+4) x (+8) = 32
 (+4) x (-8) = -32

Division: It is the process of determining the number of times one number (the DIVISOR) is contained in a second number (the DIVIDEND), the result being known as
the QUOTIENT.
 12/3 = 4
12 – DIVIDENT
3 – DIVISOR
TOTAL - QUOTIENT

569/4 = 142 AND REMINDER 1

Rule 1: (+ sign) ÷ (+ sign) = (+ sign)

Rule 2: (+ sign) ÷ (– sign) = (– sign)
Rule 3: (– sign) ÷ (– sign) = (+ sign)

Examples
 (+8) ÷ (+4) = (+2)
 (+8) ÷ (-4) = (-2)
 (-8) ÷ (-4) = (+2)

Sequence of Mathematical Operation

The order of operation in a mixed mathematical expression is known as BODMAS, which is expanded as follows.
1. Brackets
2. Order
3. Divide
4. Multiply
5. Add
6. Subtract

2+5-3 * 6/2(3-1)
2+5-3 * 6/2(2)
2+5-3 *3*2
2+5-18
7-18=-11

Although the bracket is a useful device for grouping terms or quantities, care must be exercised when removing brackets. To remove brackets, multiply out the
expression as stated in the following examples.
 5(2 + 5) = (5 x 2) + (5 x 5) = 10 + 25 = 35
 -3(a – 5) = (-3)(a) – (-3)(-5) = (-3a – 15)

Types of Fractions
Simple Fraction: One full object can be sliced into so many portions and that portion ratio in relation to the whole object can be represented in fraction. For example,
when you slice a pizza into five equal pieces, then two pieces of the pizza can be represented by a fraction of 2/5. The following images shows the graphical
representation of simple fractions.

Simple fractions can be positive or negative, proper, or improper. In a fraction, the number above the line is known as the Numerator and the number below the line is
known as the Denominator. A simple or common fraction where one integer is divided by another integer (a/b) is called vulgar fraction. As with other fractions, the
denominator (b) cannot be zero.

Proper Fraction: Proper fraction has the numerator smaller than denominator. An absolute value of a proper fraction is strictly less than one. Examples of proper
fractions are 2/5, -3/4, and 4/7.

Improper Fraction: Improper fraction has the numerator same or greater than the denominator. An absolute value of an improper fraction is always greater than or
equal to 1. Examples of improper fractions are 9/2, -4/3, and 2/2.
 Mixed Fraction: Mixed fraction is the sum of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction. Example is stated below.

Fraction Operations
Addition of Fractions
Rule 1: When adding fractions having same denominator, first express them with the same common denominator and simply add the numerators. An example is stated
below.

Rule 2: When adding fractions having different denominator, first find a Least common denominator (LCD) and express the fractions in LCD and add the numerators. An
example with sequential steps is stated below.

 To solve the above problem, first find the LCD of 6 and 9.

6 = 6, 12, 18, 24
9 = 9, 18, 27

 Now convert both fractions to a common denominator ‘18’.

 To convert the fraction 5/6 with the denominator 18, multiply denominator and numerator by 3.

 To convert the fraction 7/9 with the denominator 18, multiply denominator and numerator by 2.

 Now add the two fractions (same as adding common denominator fractions).

 Since 44/18 is an improper fraction, simplify it to a mixed fraction.

Rule 3: When adding mixed fractions, we can add whole numbers separately and rewrite the fractions as stated in the example below.

Subtraction of Fractions
Rule 1: When subtracting fractions having same denominator, first express them with the same common denominator and simply subtract the numerators. An example is
stated below.
 Rule 2: When subtracting fractions having different denominator like the below example, follow the same rules as stated in addition operation with different
denominators.

Multiplication of Fractions
Rule 1: Follow the three steps below, when multiplying common fractions.
 Multiply the numerators.
 Multiply the denominators.
 Simplify the fraction, if required.
Example 1

Example 2

Rule 2: Follow these steps, when multiplying mixed fractions.

 Change all mixed fractions to improper fractions.
 Multiply the numerators.
 Multiply the denominators
 Simplify the fraction, if required.
Example

Division of Fractions
Follow the steps below, when dividing fractions.
 Exchange the numerator and denominator in the second fraction.
 Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal fraction.
 Simplify the fraction, if required.
Example
 Decimals
A decimal numbering system uses base 10 as the representation of a fraction or real number. A fraction can be expressed in a decimal form, as in the following example.

Decimal Point
Decimal point determines the place value of a number.

Pure Decimal
Decimal fraction such as 0.02, 0.004, and 0.0009 without a whole number is called pure decimal.

Mixed Decimal
Decimal fraction combined with a whole numbers such as 2.3, 3.5 and 24.68 is called mixed decimal. For example, a mixed decimal 23.156 can be written as follows.

= 23 + 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.006

Decimal Operations
Addition of Decimals
The fundamental rule for adding decimals is to position the decimal points in-line. For example, if you want to add 0.5, 2.4, and 15.52, then organize the numbers as
shown below where the decimal points are in-line

Subtraction of Decimals
The Subtraction is carried out as the same manner as addition by aligning decimal points in-line. An example is stated below.

Multiplication of Decimals
Follow the simple steps to multiply decimal numbers as stated below.
 Ignore the decimal points and multiply the whole numbers.
 Count the total digits on the right side of the decimal point on both the numbers being multiplied.
 In the answer, position the decimal point from right at the digits equal to the total count.
Example
Solve 100 x 6.7365
= 100 x 67365 (Ignore the decimal point)
= 6736500
Count the decimal places right of the decimal point in the question and place it from the right; in this example it is 4
= 673.6500 (Answer)
 Division of Decimals

Rule 1: When you divide decimals by a whole number, ignore the decimal point and divide as usual. Then place the decimal point at the same point as the dividend.
Example
22.6 ÷ 2
= 113 (ignore decimal)
= 11.3 (place the decimal point as the dividend; 2 digits from the left)

Rule 2: When you divide decimals by a decimal number, convert the divisor to a whole number by shifting the decimal point and place the decimal point as the dividend.

Example
225.62 ÷ 2.1
= 2256.2 ÷ 21 (Convert the divisor to a whole number by moving the decimal point to 1 decimal place)
= 107.43 (Place the decimal point as the dividend; 3 digits from the left)

Rounding off Decimals

Rounding off a decimal is applied to estimate approximate values. Mostly the rounding is used to limit the number of digits after decimal point, instead of having long
string of decimal places. For example, a decimal 45.2598239831 can be rounded off to 45.26 or 45.3 or 45.

Rounding up the Decimals

Increase the decimal place value by 1 and drop the rest if the digit value next is more than or equal to 5.
 23.567, when rounded up to 2 decimals will be 23.57
 23.567 when rounded up to 1 decimal will be 23.6

Rounding down the Decimals

If the number next to the desired decimal place value is less than 4, leave the number as it is and disregard the rest on the right.
 23.4425 when rounded down to 2 decimals will be 23.44 (drop 2 and 5)
 23.4425 when rounded down to 1 decimal will be 23.4 (drop 4, 2 and 5)
 23.4425 when rounded down to whole number will be 23 (drop 4, 4, 2, and 5)

Factors
A factor is a whole number that divides exactly into a whole number, leaving no remainder. For example, 3 is a factor of 9 because when you divide 9 by 3 (9 ÷ 3 = 3
remainder 0), it divides exactly into itself leaving no remainder. So 3 is one of the factors of 9.
 In simple terms, a number can be made by multiplying two or more numbers. The numbers that are multiplied together to make that number are called factors of the
final number. In the following example, 2 and 3 are the factors of 6.

 Some numbers will have more than 2 factors. For example, consider 12
1 x 12 = 12
2 x 6 = 12
3 x 4 =12
Here the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.

 When you multiply any number by one, it will produce the same number. So number 1 is the factor of any given number.
For example, 1 x 15 = 15
1x6=6

 Since all numbers can be divided by the number itself to produce 1, usually we ignore 1 and the number itself as the useful factors of a number.
For example, 15/15 = 1 and 4/4 = 1

Facts about Factors

 Any even number will have factor 2.
 Any number ending in 5 will have factor 5.
 Any number above 0 that ends with 0 (such as 10, 20, 100…) will have factors two and five
Prime Factorization
Prime factorization of a positive integer is the determination of prime factors that divide that integer exactly. In simple terms, to find multiplication of prime numbers that
make the original number. It is also known as prime decomposition.

Prime Factorization of Odd Numbers

Prime Factorization of Large Numbers

Multiples
Multiple is a product of any quantity and an integer. In mathematical terms, y is a multiple of x; if y = nx where n is an integer.
For example, multiples of 3 are … -9, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9…
3 x -3 = -9
3 x -2 = -6
3 x -1 = -3
3x0=0
3x1=3
3x2=6
3 x 3 = 9 (and so on)
Positive multiples of 3 are: 3(1), 3(2), 3(3), 3(4) and so on
= 3, 6, 9, 12….

Ratios and Proportions

Ratios
A ratio is a comparison of one quantity in relation to another of a same kind. Note that the word ‘is to’ in the ratio has the same meaning as the colon ‘:’.
For example, if we have 10 apples and 2 oranges, then we can say that the ratio of apples to oranges is 10 to 2. It means that for every 10 apples we have 2
oranges (10:2) or scale it down and say, for every 5 apples we have 1 orange (5:1) or scale it up and say, for every 20 apples we will have 4 oranges (20:4). Thus the
ratio of apples to oranges is ‘ten is to two’ and can be written as 10:2 or 10/2 or 10 to 2.
For example, the pressure to altitude ratio of 2:1 would indicate that for every foot increase in altitude, the pressure would increase by 2 PSI.
Ratio between two quantities
Example 1
In a basket there are 12 red balls and 4 blue balls. What is the ratio of red balls to blue balls?
Red balls : Blue balls (order is important)
12 : 4
12/4 : 4/4 (General practice to simplify)
3:1
This answer can be written as 3:1 or 3/1 or 3 to 1.

Example 2
In a basket there are 12 red balls and 4 blue balls. What is the ratio of blue balls to red balls?
Here notice that the question is asking the ratio of blue balls to red balls.
Blue balls : Red balls
4 : 12 (notice 4 comes first)
4/4 : 12/4 (General practice to simplify)
1:3
This answer can be written as 1:3 or 1/3 or 1 to 3.

Ratio between more than two quantities

Example
In a hangar there are 20 Helicopters, 40 Engines and 60 Propellers. What is the ratio of helicopters to propellers to engines?
Helicopters : Propellers : Engines
20 : 60 : 40
20/20 : 60/20 : 40/20
(to simplify, find the largest number that can divide all three and in this case it is 20)
1 : 3 : 2
The answer is 1:3:2.
Note: Based on the answer given, if you are required finding the ratio of Engines to Helicopters to Propellers. Then the ratio order is written as 2:1:3.

Simplifying ratios
In general, the ratios are expressed in a simplified form. The ratio numbers are scaled down to smallest possible numbers. To scale down the ratio, divide both the sides
by the largest possible number. Let us look at some of the examples to understand better.
Example 1
A ratio 25:50 can be scaled down to 1:2 (divide both sides by 25)

Example 2
A ratio 12:16 can be scaled down to 3:4 (divide both sides by 4)

Example 3
To simplify the ratio 15:86, it is acceptable to scale it down to 1 and other as a whole numbers and decimals. Because in this case, it is not possible to find a
common number that can scale it down resulting whole numbers.
The scaled down ratio of 15:86 is
15/15 : 86/15 (divide both sides by 15)
1 : 5.73
Answer = 1:5.73

Ratio to quantities
If we know the ratio, then the following steps will explain on how to find the quantity (numbers).
Example 1
The ratio of files to hammer in a toolbox is 2:3. How many files would be there if there are total of 25 tools?
The ratio 2:3 shows that for a group of every 5 tools (2 + 3) there are 2 files and 3 hammers. In total there are 25 tools, which means that there are 25/5= 5
group of tools.
Each group has 2 files. So in a group of 5 there should be 5 x 2 = 10 files.

Example 2
The ratio of serviceable to unserviceable engines in a hangar is 1:4. The total number of engines is 120. Determine how many engines are serviceable?
Serviceable : Unserviceable
1 : 4
Total engines in a group = 1 + 4 = 5
Total number of groups = 120/5 = 24
Each group has one unserviceable engine. So, the total number unserviceable engines = 24 x 1 = 24 engines
 Proportions
A proportion is a term used to state that two ratios are equal.
 If a/b = c/d, then the ratio ‘a/b’ is proportionate to a ratio ‘c/d’. The equal ratios can be written as ‘a/b = c/d’ or ‘a:b = c:d’.
 When two ratios are equal, then the cross product of the ratios are equal. Thus the proportion ‘a:b = c:d’ is equal to ‘a x d = b x c’.
 Cross product of ratios is also used to find a missing term.
Example
Find a value of ‘n’ in the following proportion
2/3 = n/9
2 x 9 = n x 3 (cross multiply)
18 = 3n
3n = 18
n = 18/3 = 6
Answer: 6

Directly proportional
Two variables are directly proportional if a change (increase or decrease) in one variable always accompanies the other variable. So if one variable increases, the other
too will increase and vice versa.
Example
Consider two variables Temperature (T) and Pressure (P), where the temperature is directly proportional (α) to pressure. That means the pressure increases
corresponding to the temperature increase or the pressure decreases corresponding to the temperature decrease.
TαP
This can be written as T = kP (Where k is a constant)

Inversely proportional
Two variables are said to be inversely proportional to each other, if one value decreases at the same rate that the other increases.
Example
Consider two variables Volume (V) and Pressure (P), where the pressure is inversely proportional to volume. That means the volume increases corresponding to the
pressure decrease or the volume decreases corresponding to the pressure increase.

Averages and Percentages

Averages
Average is a mean value of multiple quantities, items or functions. Average values are used to compare or estimate values. We often hear and use the word average in
our day to day activities such as average rainfall, average speed of an aircraft, average marks obtained by the students, average height of Australian women and so on.
Some examples to determine the average value are given below.
Percentages
 Powers and Logarithms

Powers and Roots

Powers
The power of a number is a method of indicating how many times a number is multiplied by itself. For example, 5 4means “5 to the power of 4.” That is, 5 multiplied by
itself 4 times. The 5 is the base number and 4 is the power.
Example
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
Read “two to the fourth power equals sixteen.”

Squared powers: When a number has a power of 2, it is commonly referred to as “squared.” For example, 52 is read as “five squared” or “five to the second power.”

Cubed powers: When a number has a power of 3, it is commonly referred to as “cubed.” For example, 63 is read as “six cubed” or “six to the third power.”

Negative powers: It means how many times to divide by the number.

Example

Powers of zero: Any number raised to the zero power always equals 1.
Examples
40 = 1
(-69)0 = 1

Powers of ten: The scientific notation and various day-to-day applications use power of ten.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company

Roots
A root is a number that when multiplied by itself a specified number of times will produce a given number.
Square roots: The common application in mathematics is finding the square roots. The symbol √ is called a radical sign. The square root of 81 (written as √81) equals 9.
In other ways, when the number 9 is multiplied by itself, it produces the number 81.
The collection of numbers whose square roots are whole numbers are called perfect squares. The first ten perfect squares are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 and
100. And the square root of each of these numbers is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 respectively. The estimation method is commonly used to find the square root of a
number that is not a perfect square.
Example
Find the square root of 41.
 The number 41 cannot be reduced and it falls between the two perfect roots 36 and 49. We know that √41 must be between √36 and √49.
 Therefore, √41 must be greater than 6 and less than 7 because √36 = 6 and √49 = 7.
 Estimate the square root of 41 at 6.5, which is closest to the correct answer. The square root of 41 is actually 6.403.
In the fractional method, the square root of a number is written with a 1⁄2 as the exponent instead of a radical sign. For example, √31 = 311⁄2

Cube roots: The cube root of 64 (written as 3 √64) equals 4. That is, when the number 4 is cubed (4 multiplied by itself then multiplying the product (16) by 4 again), it
produces the number 64. The clarification for ‘cube’ and ‘cube root’ confusion is given below.
 The cube of 27 = 273 = 27 × 27 × 27 = 19,683
 The cube root of 27 = 3√27 = 3
In the fractional method, the cube root of a number is written with an exponent of 1⁄3. For example, 3√125 = 1251⁄3
 Law of Exponents
 Rule 1: When multiplying numbers with powers, the powers can be added if the bases are the same.
Example
42 × 44 = (4 × 4) × (4 × 4 × 4 × 4)
=4×4×4×4×4×4
= 46 or 42 × 44
= 4(2+4)
= 46
 Rule 2: When dividing numbers with powers, the powers can be subtracted if the bases are the same.
Example:

or
106 ÷ 103 = 10(6 − 3) = 103

Common Logarithms (logs)

The common logarithm is the logarithm to base 10. The use of common logs made the process of multiplication and division simpler and is widely used by engineers. The
numbers used with common logarithms should have the same base of 10 and raise to some power value. It can be represented in any of the following ways.
10000 = 104 or ‘log of 10000 is 4’ or ‘log1010000 = 4’
The log and anti-log tables are used to convert the values between their number form and exponent form.

or
106 ÷ 103 = 10(6 − 3) = 103