NOISE

Pollution
(in reference to Environmental Science, M.Sc. Program, TU)

Sunil Babu Khatry

2010

© 2010. All rights reserved. This revised lecture note contains the vital information that is
the property of the instructor and institution. No part of the inside may be reproducible by
the unauthorized recipients in any versions without permission.
 Table of Contents
1. Basic Properties of Sound ________ 1
1.1 Wave Characteristics of Sound / Noise
(Sound Physics - Acoustics) _____________ 1
1.1.1 Law of Superposition _____________ 1
1.1.2 Diffraction ______________________ 2
1.1.3 Interference _____________________ 2
1.1.4 Inverse - Square Law ______________ 2
1.1.5 Doppler Effect ___________________ 2
1.2 Sound Pressure __________________ 3
1.2.1 RMS Nature of Sound _____________ 3
1.3 Sound Intensity__________________ 3
1.4 Sound Wave ____________________ 4
1.4.1 Waveform ______________________ 4
1.5 Categories of Waves ______________ 5
1.6 Noise __________________________ 6
1.6.1 Types of Noise ___________________ 6
1.7 Sound Pressure & Intensity ________ 7
1.8 Sound Pressure Level _____________ 7
1.9 Sound Intensity Level _____________ 7
1.10 Sound Pressure Level, Decibel
Approach ____________________________ 8
1.10.1 Sound Addition & Subtraction _______ 9
1.10.2 Other Units of Sound Pressure ______ 9
1.11 Psycho - Acoustics (Sound & Human
Ear Perception) ______________________ 12
1.12 Relationship between Indoor and
Outdoor Levels ______________________ 12
2.
Sound Propagation Characteristic _ 12
2.1 Geometrical Spreading __________ 13
2.2 Meteorological Parameters & Sound
Propagation _________________________ 13
2.2.1 Attenuation ____________________14
 Temperature Effect __________________14
 Distance Attenuation _________________14
 Ground Surface Effects _______________ 14
 Trees Attenuation ___________________ 14
 Topography Effect ___________________ 14
 Reflecting Surfaces and Noise Barriers ___ 14
3. Noise Measurements & Monitoring 15
3.1 Selection of Noise Descriptors _____ 16
3.2 Methods ______________________ 16
3.3 Acoustic Weighting Networks _____ 16
3.4 Measurement Objectives _________ 17
 General ___________________________ 17
 OSHA Concept ______________________ 17
3.5 General Noise Inspection Data _____ 17
3.5.1 General Information _____________ 17
3.5.2 Health Inspection Data ___________ 17
3.5.3 Machine and / or Process Data. ____ 18
3.5.4 Building Data ___________________ 18
3.5.5 Employer Data __________________ 18
3.5.6 Hearing Loss Data _______________ 18
3.5.7 Additional Information Requirement 19
 Preliminary Information ______________ 19
 Work Analysis Information ____________ 19
3.6 Selection of Measurement Positions 20
3.6.1 Outdoor Measurement ___________ 20
3.6.2 Measurement around the Building _ 20
3.6.3 Measurements inside the Building __ 20
3.6.4 Measurement in Work Environments 20
3.7 Instrumentation ________________ 20
3.7.1 Audiometry ____________________ 20
3.7.2 Noise Dosimeter ________________ 22
3.7.3 Sound Level Meter ______________ 25
3.7.4 Octave Band Analyzers ___________ 26
3.8 Instrumental Performance (Effects of
the Environment) _____________________ 27
3.8.1 Temperature ___________________ 27
3.8.2 Humidity ______________________ 27
3.8.3 Atmospheric Pressure ____________ 27
3.8.4 Wind or Dust ___________________ 27
3.8.5 Magnetic Fields _________________ 28
4. Environmental Noise Sources _____ 28
4.1 Transportation Noise ____________ 28
4.1.1 Road Vehicles __________________ 28
4.1.2 Railway ________________________ 28
 4.1.3 Aircraft ________________________28 7.5.1 Related Legislation ______________ 50

4.2 Industrial Noise ________________ 29 8. Health Effects of Noise __________ 53

4.3 Domestic Noise _________________ 30 8.1 Human Ear _____________________ 54
4.4 Construction and Other Activities __ 31 8.1.1 Hearing and Mechanism of Hearing
Loss 54
4.5 Parks & School Playing Fields ______ 31
8.1.2 Outer and Middle Ear Mechanism _ 54
4.6 Discotheque Noise ______________ 31 8.1.3 Cochlear Mechanism ____________ 54
5. Noise Analysis _________________ 31 8.1.4 Degrees of Hair Cell Injuries_______ 54

5.1 Equivalent Sound Pressure Level, (LAeq, 8.2 Noise - Induced Hearing Effect _____ 55
T) 31
8.3 Sensory Effects _________________ 56
5.2 Day - Night Average Sound Pressure
8.4 Interference with Speech
Level, (Ldn) __________________________ 32
Communication ______________________ 57
5.3 Sound Exposure Level, (SEL)_______ 32
8.5 Sleep Disturbance Effects _________ 59
5.4 Percentile Level, (L) _____________ 34
8.6 Psycho Physiological Effects _______ 59
5.5 Traffic Noise Index ______________ 34
8.7 Mental Health effects ____________ 60
5.6 Noise Pollution Level, (NPL) _______ 35
8.8 Performance Effects _____________ 60
5.7 Airport Noise Measurement ______ 35
8.9 Effects on Residential Behavior and
6. Noise Criteria (NC) Curves _______ 35 Annoyance __________________________ 60

7. Noise Control & Abatement Measures 9. Criteria for Continuous and

38 Intermittent Noise __________________ 61
7.1 Source Control _________________ 39 9.1 ISO 1999-1990 __________________ 61

7.2 Transmission Path Control ________ 42 9.2 Criteria for Impulse Noise _________ 62
7.2.1 Acoustic Barriers & Panels _________43 9.2.1 Control of noise exposure in
7.2.2 Mufflers and Silencers ____________45 workplaces. (Policy and guidance documents of
7.2.3 Absorbing Materials and Acoustic the International Labour Organization (ILO)): _ 62
Lining 45 9.2.2 Occupational Exposure Levels reported
7.2.4 Absorber _______________________46 and recommended by I-INCE ______________ 63
7.2.5 Damping _______________________46 9.2.3 Occupational Exposure Levels
7.2.6 Diffusion _______________________46 recommended by NIOSH __________________ 63
7.2.7 Anechoic Chamber _______________47 9.2.4 ACGIH Recommendation _________ 64

7.3 Receiver Control ________________ 47

7.3.1 Hearing Protectors _______________47

7.4 Traffic Noise Abatement _________ 49

7.4.1 Noise Barriers ___________________49
7.4.2 Land Use Planning Measures _______49
7.4.3 Alternatives to Noise barriers: _____49

7.5 Response of Noise Pollution Control in

Nepal through Legislation, Plan & Policies_ 49
 Noise Pollution, 513 - Page 1

1. Basic Properties of Sound surface, or turbulent fluid flow. Sound

propagates in the form of longitudinal (as
Community noise (called environmental opposed to transverse) waves, involving a
noise, residential noise or domestic noise) is
defined as noise emitted from all sources
except noise at the industrial workplace.
Main sources of community noise include
road, rail and air traffic; industries;
construction and public work; and the
neighbourhood. The main indoor noise
sources are ventilation systems, radio /
television media, office machines, home
appliances and neighbours.
In contrast to many other environmental
problems, noise pollution continues to grow
and an increasing number of complaints
accompany it from people exposed to the
noise. The growth in noise pollution is
unsustainable because it involves direct, as
well as cumulative, adverse health effects. It succession of compressions and rarefactions
also adversely affects future generations, and in the elastic medium. When a sound wave
has socio-cultural, aesthetic and economic propagates in air, the oscillations in pressure
effects. are above and below the ambient
When noise levels change 3dB(A) or less, the atmospheric pressure. Sound being to show
change is considered barely perceptible to
human hearing in a field situation. A 5dB(A)
change in noise level is clearly noticeable. A
10dB(A) change in noise levels is perceived as
a doubling or halving of noise loudness, and a
20dB(A) change is considered a dramatic
change in loudness1.

1.1 Wave Characteristics of

Sound / Noise (Sound
Physics - Acoustics)
Noise is defined as "disagreeable or
undesired sound" or other disturbance.
Sound and noise constitute the same
phenomenon of atmospheric pressure
fluctuations about the mean atmospheric
pressure where the differentiation is quietly
subjective matters, i.e. sound to one person
literally be noise to others. Sound (or noise)

the wave characteristics like law of

is the result of pressure variations, or
oscillations, in an elastic medium (e.g., air,
water, solids), generated by a vibrating
1
Highway Traffic Noise Assessment Summary State of
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, October 2006
superposition, diffraction, interferences,
inverse square law, etc.
1.1.1 Law of Superposition
 According to the law when two or more
sound waves may propagate in the same
space simultaneously, the resultant sound
pressure variation at any point being the
algebraic sum of the instantaneous

pressure variations of each component
wave. Two waveforms combine in a
manner, which simply adds their
respective amplitudes linearly at every
point in time. Thus, a complex spectrum
can be built by mixing different Sine
Waves of various amplitudes. Fourier
analysis is a reverse case of addition.
 Successive approximations of a saw tooth
wave by addition of harmonics with
amplitude inversely proportional to the
harmonic number.
1.1.2 Diffraction
 Diffraction of sound wave is a phenomenon
of sound wave movement around an object
whose dimensions are smaller than or
Diffraction Phenomenon
about equal to the wavelength. As a result
of their capability of diffraction, low
frequency sounds are difficult to localize or
contain in an environment
 High frequency sound (short wavelength)
do not diffracted around most obstacles
but are absorbed or reflected thereby
creating a sound shadow behind the object.
But, low frequency sounds have
wavelengths that are much longer than
most objects and barriers, and therefore
such waves pass around them undisturbed.
 When the wavelength is similar to the
dimensions of the object (as with low
frequencies and buildings, or mid-range
frequencies and the head), the wave
diffracts around the object, using its edges
as a focal point from which to generate a
new wave front of the same frequency but
reduced intensity.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 2
1.1.3 Interference
 When sound waves from two different
sources at the same frequency strike one
another, pressure displacements occur
that are the sum and the difference of the
amplitude of the two waves.
 Where the crests of one set of waves
coincide with the crests of another set, the
amplitude is increased. This is called
constructive interference (the lines
indicated by C on the diagram). Where the
crests of one set fall on the troughs of the
other, i.e. they are 180° out of phase, the
two will cancel one another and the
resulting amplitude is decreased. This is
called destructive interference or
cancellation (the lines indicated by D on
the diagram). Beats and phasing are
examples of interference results. The dead
spots occur when two waves of the same
frequency and amplitude travel in opposite
directions. Interference also causes ground
effect in outdoor situations.
1.1.4 Inverse - Square Law
 The law elucidates that the mean - square
sound pressure level varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the source. The
general rule of thumb is that, under ideal
conditions (no reflecting surfaces or other
background sound or interference), a sound
level drops 6 dB for every doubling of the
distance from the source. If the two
distances in question are d1 and d2, then the
decibel difference DD is:
2
∆D = 10 log (d1/d2) = 20 log (d1/d2)
1.1.5 Doppler Effect

In sound, a change of wavelength occurs when
the source has a translation motion.
For sound waves propagating in a medium,
the velocity of the observer and of the source is
relative to the medium in which the waves are
transmitted. The total Doppler effect may
therefore result from motion of the source,
motion of the observer, or motion of the
medium. The Doppler Effect is defined as “the
change in frequency of a wave that results
from an object‟s changing position relative to
an observer” (Gundersen). It states that “when
a sound is played, the precise sound that is
actually heard depends on if you are moving or
not” (Doppler Effect for Sound). This means
that in order to hear exactly the sound that is
being played, you must stand still and try not
to move. The second you move, the sound you
hear and the sound that is played will no
longer are the same thing. For the both cases
the same change of frequency for the same
speed of motion, provided this small compared
with the velocity of the waves.
1.2 Sound Pressure
 When a vibrating body moves in air, it
creates slight disturbances of the ambient
atmospheric pressure. The amplitude of
these pressure variations (i.e., their
maximum displacement from the ambient
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 3
atmospheric pressure) is called the sound
pressure variation, whereas the effective
pressure variation is 0.707. The oscillating
variations in sound pressure (called the
waveform of the sound) propagate in the
form of a sound wave.
 When the amplitude of the vibrating body
is greatest, its velocity is zero (that is, it
has reached its outer limit of displacement
and is shortly motionless before returning
in the opposite direction). If the velocity is
zero, so is the pressure it exerts on the
medium (e.g. air) around it. Velocity (and
therefore pressure) is greatest mid-way
between the maximum displacement of the
vibrating body, and we can graph the
resulting relationship between amplitude
and sound pressure in the following way:
1.2.1 RMS Nature of Sound
Most sounds are not purely sinusoidal (purely
sine wave) vibrations. They vary in both
frequency and magnitude over time. The
RMS sound pressure is applied to quantify
their magnitude over a measurement time T.
The RMS sound pressure is obtained by
squaring the pressure (amplitude) at each
instant in time, summing the squared values
over the measurement time T, dividing by T
and taking the square root of the total, i.e.,
P rms  P2
1 T
 1
   
2 2
P t dt
 T 0 
1.3 Sound Intensity
 The sound intensity is the energy
transmitted per unit time through a unit
area, thereby being a measure of the
magnitude of a sound. The unit of
measurement is the erg per second per
square centimetre, or the watt per square
meter. The threshold of hearing lies at 10 -12
watts/m2, whereas the threshold of pain is
about 1 watt/m2. W
I
2
4ππ
 The measurement of sound
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 4

intensity is its intensity level and is  Amplitude (A) : the maximum

measured logarithmically in decibels or minimum pressure.
because of the wide range of intensities
 Wavelength (λ) : the distance
involved.
 Sound intensity is proportional to the square
of the sound pressure, which, being easier to
measure is more commonly used as a basis
of sound measurement. Sound intensity in
free filed situations varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the sound
source.

1.4 Sound Wave

 Sound is a mechanical energy from a
vibrating surface which spreads as spherical between successive troughs or crests.
or plane wave forms and is transmitted by a
cyclic series of compressions are rarefactions  Period (T) : the time lapse between
of the sound transmitting media. The sound successive peaks.
results in a sound pressure longitudinal  Frequency (f) : the number of
wave that alternatively rises to a maximum complete pressure variations or
level. cycles/second.
 Waves may be of two sorts, transverse and
longitudinal. While solids will transmit both Relationship:
kinds, liquids and gases will transmit only
longitudinal waves and the study of sound
c
waves is thus largely concerned with this P 
1  
type where the amplitude variations are in f f
the direction of propagation. Nevertheless,
as transverse waves are easier to display Based on energy transmittance
graphically in two dimensions, sound waves characteristics they are categorized as
electromagnetic and mechanical waves. An

electromagnetic wave is a wave, which is
capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum whereas a mechanical wave is not
A
capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum.

Press The speed of propagation (c) of sound in air is

P At other temperatures (not too different from
are usually shown as if they were for
instance on an oscilloscope (transverse
compression) and drops to a minimum level
(rarefaction). On striking the ear, it may be
heard as sound waves.
 Sound pressure variation of a sine wave
showing the phase relationship between
pressure and particle displacement.
343m/s, at 20oC and 1 atmosphere pressure.
20oC), it may be calculated by using the
formula: C = 332 + 0.6T c. Sound / noise results
from periodic disturbances of the air at room
temperature are propagated in air at a speed
of approximately 340m/s. In water (1500m/s)
and steel (5000m/s), the speed is much
greater.
1.4.1 Waveform
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 5

 The pattern of sound pressure S variation,

usually displayed as a two-dimensional
graph of pressure or amplitude against time.
For periodic waveforms, a single cycle or
period defines the waveform (also called
sound pressure function), particularly when
represented digitally. The simplest
waveform is the sine wave, since it has only
one frequency associated with it. More
waveforms that are complex can be
constructed from sine waves of various
frequencies by the law of superposition.
Common waveforms used in sound synthesis
are the triangle wave, square wave, saw
tooth wave and pulse wave. These audio
waveforms are often termed fixed waveforms
because of their lack of variation, whereas
acoustic waveforms are constantly varying.
The waveform represents the behaviour of the
sound in the time domain, and since its shape
is indicative of the frequency content of the
sound, waveform is sometimes used
synonymously with timbre, although not all
contributing factors to timbre can be
understood simply in terms of the waveform.
Examples: sine wave saw tooth wave, square
wave, triangle wave at 100 Hz and pulse wave
with a 1:4 duty cycle

1.5 Categories of Waves

 On the basis of the direction of the
movement of the individual particles of the
medium relative to the direction, waves are
categorized as transverse waves,
longitudinal waves, and surface waves 2. A
transverse wave is a wave in which particles
of the medium move in a direction
perpendicular to the direction, which the
wave moves, i. e. they are characterized by
particle motion being perpendicular to wave
motion. A longitudinal wave is a wave in
which particles of the medium move in a
direction parallel to the direction, which the
wave moves, i.e. they are always
characterized by particle motion being
parallel to wave motion. A surface wave is a
wave in which particles of the medium
undergo a circular motion. They are neither
transverse nor longitudinal waves.
2
Henderson, T. The Nature of a Wave, 2004
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 6

1.6 Noise 1.6.1 Types of Noise

Noise may be classified as steady, non-steady
Noise can be defined as unwanted sound or
or impulsive, depending upon the temporal
sound in the wrong place at the wrong time.
variations in sound pressure level. All
Noise is undesirable because it interferes
sounds are categorized in three major
with speech and hearing, is intense enough
classes,
to damage hearing or is otherwise annoying.
The definition of noise as unwanted sound  Continuous sound (steady state)
implies that it has an adverse effect on  Intermittent sound
human beings and their environment,  Impulsive sound (impact)
including land structures, and domestic  A continuous sound is an uninterrupted
animals. It also disturbs natural wildlife and sound level that varies less than 5dBA
ecological systems. On the basis of acoustic during the period of observation. The noise
science, the sound level above 50dB (A) is
considered to be the noise. Under the basis of
various WHO reports, the observed sound
pressure levels are categorized according to
the following manner.
20 dB

Category Level, (dB

A)
Uncomfortable > 100
Very high quality sound 80 - 99
Medium Sound 50 - 70
Silent sound 40 Duration T

Daily maximum permissible noise 45 - 55

level of longer duration and low density such as
that from construction, traffic, a household
fan etc. are the typical examples of

Pressure

40 dB

Duration

continuous sound.
 A continuous noise, which occurs
intermittently and has duration of more
than several seconds but then is

interrupted for more than one second, is
intermittent noise, e.g., a dentist's drill.
 A noise consisting of one or more bursts of
sound energy having a very short
duration, i.e., noise of short duration and
high density such as explosions, sonic
booms, artillery fire, hammering noise, etc
is impulsive noise. A more rigorous
classification of impulse sound would
require a change of sound pressure of
40dB(A) or more within 0.5 second with
duration of less than one second.
1.7 Sound Pressure & Intensity
 Sound intensity is a vector quantity and is
a measure of the rate at which work is
done on a conducting medium by an
advancing sound wave and thus the rate of
power transmission through a surface
normal to the intensity vector. It is
expressed as watts per square metre
(W/m2). In a free-field environment (no
reflected sound waves & well away from
any sound sources), the sound intensity is
related to the root mean square acoustic
pressure.
where ρc is the density
of air (kg/m 3), and c is
the speed of sound
(m/sec). The quantity, ρc
is called the "acoustic impedance" and is
equal to 414 Ns/m³ at 20 oC and one
atmosphere, P is rms sound pressure level in
pa and I is the acoustic intensity in watts per
square meter.
 The rate at which energy transmitted by
sound waves is called the sound power (W)
and mathematically is obtained by
integrating the sound
intensity over an
imaginary surface
surrounding a source
in the specified frequency band.
 For a sound producing uniformly spherical
waves (radiating equally in all directions)
in a non dissipative medium, the intensity
becomes, W = 4πr2I. Literally, I is
equivalent to P2, i.e. P2 = [W/4πr2] W/m2.
The sound pressure level at doubling the
distance from a point source decreases by
6dB.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 7
1.8 Sound Pressure Level
 Sound pressure level measures the
magnitude of the sound. It is a relative the
ratio between the actual sound pressure
and a fixed reference pressure. This
reference pressure is usually that of the
threshold of hearing which has been
internationally agreed upon as having the
value 0.0002 dynes/cm 2. Sound pressure
level may be measured with a sound level
meter weighted according to a specific
frequency response pattern and termed as
sound level. Because the square of the
sound pressure is proportional to sound
intensity, SPL can be calculated in the
same manner and is measured in decibels.
P2
L p  10 log10 ;
P0
2
Prms
L p  20 log10
Pref
Lp = 20log10Prms – 20log10Pref.
After substituting the internationally agreed
value of reference pressure level of [20µPa =
2*10-5Nm-2]. The minimum acoustic pressure
audible to the young human ear judged to be
in good health, and unsullied by too much
exposure to excessively loud sound, is
approximately 20 x 10 -6Pa or 2 x 10-10
atmosphere [since 1 atm. = 101.3 x 10 3Pa],
Lp = 20log10Prms + 94dB
1.9 Sound Intensity Level
 The rate at which energy is transmitted by
sound waves is called the sound power (W)
measured in watts. The average sound
power per unit area normal to the
direction of propagation of a sound wave is
termed the acoustic or sound intensity (I).
So, the sound intensity level is defined as
Substituting an internationally agreed
reference intensity (Wo) of 10-12Wm-2 in the
above equation,
LI =10log10I + 120dB
LP  LW  10 log 2r
M
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 8

= hearing at 1000Hz. So, the sound pressure

P2 level indicates how much greater the
L p  10 log10 2
P = measured sound is than this threshold of
W / 4r0 2 hearing. Sound pressure levels cannot be
10 log10
W0 added or averaged arithmetically
W because they are measured on a
10 log 10  10 log10 4r 2
W0 logarithmic scale.
Sound pressure level (SPL) is the
logarithmic ratio of the sound pressure to a
= LW - 20 log r – 11, where, LW: sound power reference pressure (20µpa). The sound
level in dB for 10-12W. Similarly, for non pressure is converted to sound pressure level,
point sources, the reduction is 3dB for which is measured in decibel. The equation
doubling of distance. i.e, for sound pressure level is as follows:
The table below can be used to find the
correction for distance such as in the case of
LP  LW  10 log r  8
M distances quoted in noise measurement
LW specifications, assuming ideal conditions. Take
where, M
= Sound power per meter . the given distance on the left-hand column
and find the correction in the vertical column
under the distance for which the correction is
desired. Add the correction to the given level
1.10 Sound Pressure Level, to find the corrected level.
Decibel Approach
Table of sound levels L (loudness) and
Because the square of the sound pressure is
corresponding sound pressure and sound
proportional to sound intensity, SPL can be intensity
calculated in the same manner and is Sound
Sound Sound
measured in decibels (dB). The decibel is 1/10 Pressur
Sources Pressur Sound
th of Bel. e
Examples ep Intensity I
Level
Sound power doesn't provide practical units with
Lp
N/m2 = W/m2
for sound or noise measurement due to it's distance Pa
dBSPL
tremendous range and the human ear doesn't Jet aircraft, 50
140 200 100
m away
respond linearly to increase in sound
Threshold of 130 63.2 10
pressure. The human responses are pain
essentially logarithmic. The sound pressure Threshold of 120 20 1
level is a measure of the air vibrations that discomfort
Chainsaw, 1 m 110 6.3 0.1
make up sound. All sound pressures are
distance
referenced to a standard pressure that Disco, 1 m from 100 2 0.01
corresponds roughly to the threshold of speaker
Diesel truck, 10 90 0.63 0.001
m away
Kerbside of 80 0.2 0.0001
busy road, 5 m
Vacuum
70 0.063 0.00001
cleaner,
distance 1 m
Conversational 60 0.02 0.000001
speech, 1 m
50 0.0063 0.0000001
Average home

40 0.002 0.00000001
Quiet library

Quiet bedroom 30 0.00063 0.000000001

at night
Background in 20 0.0002 0.0000000001
TV studio
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 9

Rustling leaves 10 0.000063 0.00000000001 40dB sound pressure level. The number of
in the distance
sones to a phon was chosen so that a doubling
Threshold of 0 0.00002 0.000000000001
hearing of the number of sones sounds to human ear
like a doubling of the loudness, that also
A decibel (dB) is a unit of measurement, corresponds to increasing the sound pressure
which indicates the relative amplitude of a level by 10dB or increasing the sound pressure
sound (pitch & loudness). The zero on the by a factor 3.16
decibel scale is based on the lowest sound
level that healthy, unimpaired human ear
can detect. Sound levels in decibels are
calculated on a logarithmic basis. An
increase of 10dB represents a ten-fold
increase in acoustic energy, while 20dB is
100 times more intense and 30dB is 1000
times more intense, etc.

1.10.1 Sound Addition & Subtraction

Two SPL measurements in decibels may be
combined with the aid of the following chart.
The difference in decibels between the two
readings is found on the upper scale, and the
corresponding correction appears opposite it
on the lower scale. This correction is added to
the higher SPL to give the combined
measurement. Multiple readings may be
combined by repeating this process. For
example, equal SPL readings (0 on top scale)
produce a 3.0 increase when combined. A 5 dB
difference (say between 60 and 65 dB)
produces a 1.2 dB increase (66.2 dB for the
same example). A 10 dB difference requires a
0.4 dB correction, and so on.

Subtraction of sound pressure level can be

made for the calculation of sound due to
specific activities or machine operation at
certain background sound pressure level,
where background noise must be subtracted
from total noise to obtain the sound produced
by a machine alone. The method used is
similar to that described in the addition of
levels.

1.10.2 Other Units of Sound Pressure

For perceived loudness (N) a unit is prescribed
as sone such that loudness is a subjective
measure of the sound pressure. It is also the
frequency based unit. At a frequency of 1kHz,
one phone is defined to be equal to 1dB of
sound pressure level LP above the nominal
threshold of hearing (20μPa = 2 * 10 -5Pa). One
sone is equivalent to 40 phons which is defined
as the loudness level N L of a 1kHz tone at
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 10

Corrected Distance (ft)

Given
Distance 3 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(ft)
3 0 - 4.4 -10.5 -14.0 -16.5 -18.0 -20.0 -22.5 -24.4 -26.0 -27.4 -28.5 -29.5 -30.5
5 4.4 0 - 6.0 - 9.5 -12.0 -14.0 -15.6 -18.1 -20.0 -21.6 -22.9 -24.1 -25.1 -26.0
10 10.5 6.0 0 - 3.5 - 6.0 - 8.0 - 9.5 -12.0 -14.0 -15.6 -16.9 -18.1 -19.1 -20.0
15 14.0 9.5 3.5 0 - 2.5 - 4.4 - 6.0 - 8.5 -10.5 -12.0 -13.4 -14.5 -15.6 -16.5
20 16.5 12.0 6.0 2.5 0 - 1.9 - 3.5 - 6.0 - 8.0 - 9.5 -10.9 -12.0 -13.1 -14.0
25 18.0 14.0 8.0 4.4 1.9 0 - 1.6 - 4.1 - 6.0 - 7.6 - 8.9 -10.1 -11.1 -12.0
30 20.0 15.6 9.5 6.0 3.5 1.6 0 - 2.5 - 4.4 - 6.0 - 7.4 - 8.5 - 9.5 -10.5
40 22.5 18.1 12.0 8.5 6.0 4.1 2.5 0 - 1.9 - 3.5 - 4.9 - 6.0 - 7.0 - 8.0
50 24.4 20.0 14.0 10.5 8.0 6.0 4.4 1.9 0 - 1.6 - 2.9 - 4.1 - 5.1 - 6.0
60 26.0 21.6 15.6 12.0 9.5 7.6 6.0 3.5 1.6 0 - 1.3 - 2.5 - 3.5 - 4.4
70 27.4 22.9 16.9 13.4 10.9 8.9 7.4 4.9 2.9 1.3 0 - 1.2 - 2.2 - 3.1
80 28.5 24.1 18.1 14.5 12.0 10.1 8.5 6.0 4.1 2.5 1.2 0 - 1.0 - 1.9
90 29.5 25.1 19.1 15.6 13.1 11.1 9.5 7.0 5.1 3.5 2.2 1.0 0 - 0.9
100 30.5 26.0 20.0 16.5 14.0 12.0 10.5 8.0 6.0 4.4 3.1 1.9 0.9 0
Decibel corrections for variations in distance from source. An example: a sound source of 60 dB is measured at
50 feet; if the measurement were at 15 feet, the level would be 60 + 10.5 = 70.5 dB under ideal conditions.

-5

C
Relative Response, dB

- 20 B&C
B

- 45
A

20 100 500 2000 10000

Frequency, Hz

Response characteristics of the three basic ANSI weighting characteristics (networks)

Sone 1 2 4 8 16 32 24
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 11

Phon 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Sound
Pressure
Sound Presure, Loudness,
Sound Source Level, dB
(Pa) sone
reference to
μPa
Threshold of pain 100 134 ~ 676
Hearing damage during short term
20 120 ~ 250
effect
Jet, 100m distant 6 - 200 110 - 140 ~ 125 - 1024
Jack Hammmer 1m distance /
2 100 ~ 60
Discotheque
Hearing damage during long term
6 * 10-1 90 ~ 32
effect
Major road, 10m distance 2 * 10-1 - 2 * 10-1 80 – 90 ~ 16 - 32
Passenger car, 10mdistance 2 * 10-2 - 2 * 10-1 60 – 80 ~ 4 - 16
TV set at home level, 1m distance 2 * 10-2 60 ~4
Normal talking, 1m distance 2 * 10-3 - 2 * 10-2 40 - 60 ~1-4
Very calm room 2 * 10-4 - 6 * 10-4 20 – 30 ~ 0.15 - 0.4
Leaves' noise, calm breathing 6 * 10-5 10 ~ 0.02
Auditory threshold at 2kHz 2 * 10-5 0 0

Sones dBA Sones dBA

0.2 21.5 1.8 34.8
0.3 22.5 1.9 35.3
0.4 23.5 2.0 35.8
0.5 24.4 2.1 36.4
0.6 25.3 2.2 37.0
0.7 26.3 2.3 37.5
0.8 27.2 2.4 38.0
0.9 28.2 2.5 38.4
1.0 29.2 2.6 38.8
1.1 30.2 2.7 39.3
1.2 31.1 2.8 39.8
1.3 32.0 2.9 40.2
1.4 33.0 3.0 40.6
1.5 33.5 3.1 41.1
1.6 33.9 3.2 41.5
1.7 34.4 3.3 42.0
dBA = 33.22 × log (sones) + 28 with a possible accuracy of ± 2 dBA
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 12

conditions, as well as an approximate

1.11 Psycho - Acoustics
(Sound & Human Ear
Fig. 6.2: Comparison of Sound, Indoor /
Perception) Outdoor
Sound can be also defined as the pressure
variation that the human ear can detect.
The response of the human ear to sound /
noise depends on both the sound frequency
and the sound pressure level. The sounds of
a single frequency are pure tones. Most
environmental sounds consist of a large
number of frequencies. Generally, human
ears are less sensitive to low frequencies
(<250Hz) than mid frequency (500 – 1kHz).
The lowest frequency sound that can be
detected by human ear is at about 20Hz and
the highest for a young person, is up to
18kHz. With age, the ear is most receptive
to sounds between 500Hz and 4kHz of which
500Hz to 2kHz is the frequency range of
speech. The sound frequency less than 15Hz national average sound level reduction.
are not audible as they be felt as vibration Sample measurements of outdoor and indoor
only and commonly known as infrasonic, and noise levels during 24-hour periods are
is not considered damaging at levels below depicted in Figure 6.2. Despite the sound
120dB. Old listeners cannot hear the lower level reduction of buildings, indoor levels are
frequency sound greater than 15Hz and less often comparable to or higher than levels
than 20Hz. Sound characterized by measured outside. Thus, indoor levels often
frequencies in excess of 20kHz is called are influenced primarily by internal noise
ultrasound and is not considered damaging sources such as appliances, radio and
at levels below 105dB. television, heating and ventilating
equipment, and people. However, many
1.12 Relationship between outdoor noises may still annoy people in
Indoor and Outdoor their homes more than indoor noises do.
Indeed, people sometimes turn on indoor
Levels sources to mask the noise coming from
The contribution of outdoor noise to indoor outdoors.
noise levels is usually small. That pan of a
sound level within a building caused by an
outdoor source obviously depends on the Table: Typical Sound Level Reductions of
source's intensity and the sound level Buildings
reduction afforded by the building. Windows
Climates Windows Closed
Although the sound level reduction Opened
provided by different buildings differs Warm Climate 12dB 24dB
greatly, dwellings can be categorized into Cold Climate 17dB 27dB
two broad classes-- those built in warm
climates and those built in cold climates. 2. Sound Propagation
Further, the sound level reduction of a
building is largely determined by whether
Characteristic
its windows are open or closed. Table 6.2
 Sound travels through air in waves with
shows typical sound level reductions for
the characteristics of frequency and
these categories of buildings and window
wavelength. If a sound is created at a
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 13

point, a system of spherical waves by the degree of humidity and the

propagates from that a point outward frequency of the sound. It is of particular
through the air at certain speed. importance in a closed space, such as a
Geometric attenuation of sound has been concert hall, where the geometrical
taken place as the wave spreads; the spreading is almost eliminated. Here it
height of the wave or the intensity of becomes desirable from the musical and
sound at any given point diminishes due to speech intelligibility points of view to
the spreading amount of energy. The point introduce sound absorbing material or
source propagation of sound wave follows resonator devices at the walls or ceiling to
the inverse square law. This is applicable reduce the prolongation of a given sound,
to the sound waves emissions from aircraft i.e. to control the reverberation of the
and from a single vehicle. sound.
 When there is a continuous stream of
noise sources, line-source propagation 2.2 Meteorological
occurs. The propagation is no longer Parameters & Sound
characterized by a spherical or Propagation
hemispherical spreading of sound. The
Noise level is attenuated due to rain, mist,
reinforcement by the line of point sources
fog or snow, e.g., 0.5dB /km reduction in
makes the propagation field either a
cylindrical shaped or half-cylindrical
planes.
Warm air
2.1 Geometrical Spreading
For the geometrical spreading of sound from
a coherent source - an attenuation of 6dB
per doubling of distance for spherical
expansion from a point source, 3dB per Cool air
doubling of distance for cylindrical
expansion from an infinite line sources and
parallel loss free propagation from an Night Time [Bending of sound waves
infinite area source3. For sources of finite towards ground]
Cool air
size, there is a near field where the above is
approximately true and a far filed where the
expansion is spherical. In community noise,
however, incoherent sources are often more
important and the treatment of geometrical
spreading from incoherent sources has been
extended in recent years to cope with
Warm air
multivehicle problems, particularly road
traffic and railway noise.

 As the disturbance spreads geometrically
its effect will decrease with its distance
from the sound source but the diminution
in sound intensity will also be affected by
the damping of the sound waves by the
transmitting medium. This effect may
arise in the atmosphere and is influenced
3
A. Lara Saenz, R.W.B. Stephens, Noise Pollution,
Effects and Control, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester,
New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, 1986
Day time [ Bending away of sound wave]
fog. The variable temperature or wind
speed gradients can result in large
variations in noise levels at distances
greater than 100m from a noise source.
When upwind of the source or when the
temperature decreases with height, the
sound waves are refracted away from the

ground, resulting in decreased sound
levels. The opposite occurs when
downwind or when there is a temperature
inversion.
The effects of temperature inversions are
negligible for short distances but may
exceed 10dB at distances over 800m.
Typically, meteorological attenuations
range over ± 6dB up to a frequency at
0.5kHz and ± 10dB above 0.5kHz.
2.2.1 Attenuation
 The sound pressure level from a non-
directive (diffuse) source is attenuated
(reduced) by geometrical spreading and
environmental conditions between the
source and receptor. When sound travels
through a medium, its intensity
diminishes with distance. In idealized
materials, the spreading of the wave only
reduces sound pressure (signal amplitude).
Natural materials, however, all produce
an effect, which further weakens the
sound. This weakening results from
scattering and absorption. Scattering is
the reflection of the sound in directions
other than its original direction of
propagation. Absorption is the conversion
of the sound energy to other forms of
energy. The combined effect of scattering
and absorption is called attenuation. The
amplitude change of a decaying plane
wave can be expressed as. In this
expression Ao is the amplitude of the
propagating wave at some location. The
amplitude A is the reduced amplitude
after the wave has travelled a distance Z
from that initial location. The  is the
attenuation coefficient. The term e is
Napier's constant, which is equal to
approximately 2.71828.
 Temperature
Effect
Sound speed increase with temperature in
air. For moderate temperature differences,
this increase may be taken to be roughly
0.6m/s for each degree centigrade rise.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 14
 Distance Attenuation
The extent of geometrical spreading of sound
pressure depends on the type of source and
the existence of nearby boundaries.
Doubling of the distance gives 3dBreduction
for a line source or 6dB for a point source.
 Ground Surface Effects
Acoustically soft ground surfaces (grass,
cultivated land, gravel) absorb sound energy
and reduce the received sound levels.
Acoustically hard surfaces (concrete, water)
reflect sound waves and absorb little sound
energy. The extent of the sound attenuation
from acoustically soft surfaces varies with
frequency and the heights of the noise
source to the recipients. The attenuations
range from 0 to more than 20dB per 100m.
However, grass gives high attenuation
values at low frequencies (0.3 to 1kHz)
where noise control is usually difficult.
 Trees Attenuation
The little sound reduction is provided by
thin belts of trees. A wide (>50m) and dense
with foliage down to ground level is required
for significant sound absorption. A reduction
of about 0.1dB/m thickness may be achieved.
 Topography Effect
This varies with the closeness of the sound
waves to the ground surface; all ground
attenuation may be lost across a valley.
 Reflecting Surfaces and Noise
Barriers
The sound level near a hard smooth vertical
surface (building façade) is the result of both
direct and reflected sound waves.
Immediately at the surface the combined
effects give an increased sound level of 6dB,
reducing to about 3dB within about 1m of
the surface. The effect of the vertical surface
decreases as the measuring point is moved
away and become negligible than about 10m.
Practical attenuations from noise barriers
seldom exceed 10 to 15dB.

4 the
Sound Field Characteristic
Sound
Description
Field
 A region in space where
Free field
sound may propagate free
from any form of obstruction.
 The near field of a source is
the region close to a source
where the sound pressure and
acoustic particle velocity are
not in phase.
 The sound field does not
decrease by 6 dB each time
the distance from the source
Near field
is increased (as it does in the
far field).
 The near field is limited to a
distance from the source
equal to about a wavelength
of sound or equal to three
times the largest dimension
of the sound source
(whichever is the larger)
 Far field of a source begins
where the near field ends and
extends to infinity. Note that
the transition from near to
far field is gradual in the
transition region.
 In the far field, the direct
Far field
field radiated by most
machinery sources will decay
at the rate of 6 dB each time
the distance from the source
is doubled.
 For line sources such as
traffic noise, the decay rate
varies between 3 and 4dB.
 The direct field of a sound
source is defined as that part
Direct
of the sound field, which has
field not suffered any reflection
from any room surfaces or
obstacles.
 The reverberant field of a
Reverbera source is the sound field
nt field radiated by a source, which
has experienced at least one
reflection from a boundary of
4
ISO 12001
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 15
room or enclosure
containing the source.
3. Noise Measurements &
Monitoring
For noise measurements & monitoring
purpose, the emphasis should be given in
selection of appropriate noise descriptors
after that only it becomes easiness for the
data volume will be known.
Most commonly, environmental sounds are
described in terms of an average level that
has the same acoustical energy as the
summation of all the time varying events,
which is energy equivalent sound / noise
descriptor called as equivalent sound
pressure level (Leq). The most common
averaging period is either hour, twelve
hours or twenty-four hours. The selected
measuring instruments should generate
the output data within ± 1dB range.
Various computer models are used to
predict environmental noise levels from
sources (roadways, airports, etc). The
accuracy of the predicted models depends
upon the distance between the receptors
and the source. Close to the noise source,
the models are accurate to with about plus
or minus 1 to 2 dB.
Since the sensitivity to noise increases
during the evening and at night because
excessive noise interferes with the ability
to sleep. So, twenty four hour descriptors
have been developed that incorporate
artificial noise penalties added to quiet-
time noise events.
 Community Noise Equivalent Level
(CNEL): It is a measure of the exposure of
the cumulative noise exposure in a
community, with a 5dB penalty added to
evening (7:00pm ~ 10:00pm).
 Day / Night Average Sound Pressure Level
(Ldn): It measures the average day – night
average sound pressure level with 10dB
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 16

night time penalty for (20:00hrs ~  Noise zoning (area monitoring): A noise
07:00hrs). map or zoning based on collected
timeframe noise data.
3.1 Selection of Noise
 HLPP: In order to conduct HLPP, the
Descriptors audiometric tests should be undertaken
• Traffic Noise: Equivalent Sound Pressure that covers baseline audiogram,
Level (Leq); Percentile Level (L min, L90, L50, monitoring audiogram, retest audiogram,
L10, Lmax); Traffic Noise Index (TNI) & Day confirmation audiogram followed by exit
Night Average (Ldn). audiogram.

• Industrial Noise: Equivalent Sound

Pressure Level (Leq); Day Night Average
(Ldn); Sound Exposure Level (SEL) – TWA;
Maximum Sound Pressure Level (L max);
Median Sound Pressure Level (L 50);
Background Sound Pressure Level (L 90).

• Aircraft Noise: Noise Number Index (NNI)

& Noise Exposure Forecast (NEF);
Equivalent Sound Pressure Level (Leq).

• Community Noise: Equivalent Sound

Pressure Level (Leq); Percentile Level
(Lmin, L90, L50, L10, L5,Lmax); Day Night
Average (Ldn); Community Noise
Equivalent Level (CNEL).
• Shipboard Noise: Equivalent Sound
Pressure Level (Leq); Median Sound
Pressure Level (L50)
• Impulsive Noise: Maximum Sound
Pressure Level (Lmax).

3.2 Methods 3.3 Acoustic Weighting

 Grab sampling (shortterm area monitoring
or spot measurement): by sound level
meter.
 Full day monitoring (for industrial
workers): Applicable for personal as well
as area monitoring through dosimeter
(attaching dosimeter on a worker to assess
the full working day exposure to noise).
The appropriate exchange rate should be
mentioned
 Frequency characteristic analysis: Sound
frequency spectral analysis should be
applicable for specified noise source.
Networks
 The human ear is not equally sensitive
to sound at different frequencies.
Acoustic weighting networks are
electronic filtering circuits built into the
meter to attenuate certain frequencies.
They permit the sound level meter to
respond more to some frequencies than
to other with a prejudice something like
that of the human ear. The acoustical
standards have established A, B and C
weighting characteristics. These
networks weight the contributions of the
different frequencies to the overall sound
level, so that sound pressure levels are
reduced or increased as a function of

frequency before being combined
together to give an overall level.
 The A - weighting is most commonly
used and is intended to approximate the
frequency response of our hearing
system. It weights lower frequencies as
less important than mid-and higher-
frequency sounds. C - Weighting is
common and is a nearly flat frequency
response with extreme high and low
frequencies attenuated. The main
difference among them is that very low
frequencies are filtered quite severely by
the A network, moderately by the B
network and hardly at all by the C
network.
3.4 Measurement Objectives
The type and the strategy of
measurement will depend strongly on the
objectives of the survey.
 General
 Investigating complaints
 Assessing the number of persons
exposed.
 Regulation compliance.
 Land use planning and environmental
impact assessments.
 Evaluation of remedial measures.
 Calibration validation of predictions.
 Research surveys.
 Trend monitoring.
Note: The sampling procedure, measurement
location, type of measurements and the
choice of equipment should be accord with
the objective of the measurements.
 OSHA Concept
Different objectives can be pursed for the
occupational survey systems. In order to
examine the different type of noise exposure,
it is necessary to precede systematic, taking
into consideration four activity related
factors: the principal task, job period,
activity location & work nature.
 Determination of the noise emission of a
given machine or ensemble of machines;
 Identification, characterization and
ranking of noise sources;
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 17
 Verification that a given worker is or is
not exposed to a noise level above the legal
limits (compliance);
 Prediction of the individual risk of hearing
loss
Note: If the objective is only compliance,
more measurements are made if the exposure
is around the OEL than when the exposure
level is below or even above the OEL.
3.5 General Noise Inspection
Data
3.5.1 General Information
The general information of the location are
to be collected including the height from the
ground, distance from the reference point
(road, river, walls, or other retaining
structures), major noise sources, physical
observed conditions, weather condition. The
general view is enclosed in the photograph
too as well as in the sketch map.
3.5.2 Health Inspection Data
In addition to collect the general
information, the health status of the
employee is collected as in the following
manner:
 Distance from the employee to the
primary noise source(s);
 Need for the employee to be present or in
close proximity to the noise field;
 Employee exposure time pattern;
 Existence of any known employee
auditory problems (e.g., ear infections,
ringing in the ears, or trouble with
hearing after the work shift);
 Employee's opinion of the practicality of
potential noise controls (considering
machine operation), where relevant;
 Hearing protection provided and any
problems with its use or acceptance.
(Octave band levels and/or dBC and
dBA data may aid in the evaluation of
hearing protectors.); and
 Time since the last audiometric
examination and frequency of such
examinations.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 18

3.5.3 Machine and / or Process  Employee's exposure level;

Data.
Population workers exposure brief
 Type of machine, and a brief description
of it and/or the process, including
identifying numbers, sketches, and
photographs whenever possible;
 Condition of the machine (e.g., age and
maintenance status);
 Machine operation (e.g., speed, cycle
times, parts/minute, and materials
used);
 Apparent existing noise and/or vibration
controls;
 Source(s) and characteristics of the noise
(e.g., fan noise--discrete and broad band
components, continuous or
noncontinuous). (Octave band analyzers,
real time analyzers, and narrow band
analyzers may be useful in determining
sources of noise); and
 Practical engineering and/or
administrative controls and estimated
costs of such controls

3.5.4 Building Data

 Size and shape of the room;
 Layout of equipment, work stations and
break areas;
 Surface materials (e.g., ceiling/steel;
walls/cinderblock; floor/concrete);
 Existing acoustical treatment;
 Potential acoustical treatment;
 Noise from other sources (spill-over
noise); and
 Presence of barriers or enclosures.

3.5.5 Employer Data

 What has been done to control the noise
 Frequency and duration of employee's
(e.g., have consultants been used, is plant
exposure;
noise monitored, and are controls
 Length of employment;
implemented)?
 Explanation of any follow-up measures
 What is planned for the future?
taken; and
 Are administrative controls utilized?
 Duration of audiometric testing
How are they enforced?
program.

3.5.6 Hearing Loss Data

Document the following when hearing loss is
used to support a citation:

 The amount of the threshold shift and

date it was recorded;
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 19

3.5.7 Additional Information  Worker's environment

Requirement  Noise type exposure (including
identification of rare acoustic events)
 Preliminary Information  Probability exposure to intense short
For general ambient monitoring assessment duration noises
purpose the secondary information like,
major noise sources (traffic, horns, activity Noise Type
related noise, etc.), geographical position,
When conducting the noise surveys it is
general weather conditions should be
important to establish the characteristic of
required.
the noise sources depending or in
Following completion of the initial tour, it is depending upon the environment under
advisable to obtain agreement with consideration. Prior knowledge of the
managers and employees that the conditions character of the noise being assessed is
encountered are normal/average for a day‟s
activity. This should form the basis for Information, Strategic Exposure Assessment
discussion in establishing the working
system seen during the tour and an analysis
of the working patterns; in particular, in
relation to those operators who have been
previously identified as being included as
subjects of the measurements for the noise
assessment. The information gathered can
be used for a variety of purposes such as:
 Area characteristics (noise hot or cold
stops);
 Individual noise sources and their
character identification;
 Identifying of mechanized contributions
& population persons exposure;
 Study plan formulation details
(measurements protocol);
 Assessment status (individual,
representativeness, group assessment);
and
 Choice of the instrumentation to be used

 Work Analysis Information

The characteristics of the different
exposures should find out to identify those
factors responsible for any variations in the
noise exposure.

 Situation of the operators (fixed post,

critical when selecting the most
mobile post inside fixed zone, no fixed
appropriate measuring instrumentation.
post, etc.);
However, noise can be characterized by the
 Nature of the tasks carried out by each following components:
worker (or group of workers), and the
temporal
 Breakdown of the assigned tasks;

 Steady-Continuous: Cotton/textile mills
where there is little variation in
perceived level.
 Non-steady fluctuating: Wood working
mill (particleboard process), where the
level rises sharply when boards are
being cut; concrete block machines.
 Impulsive and impact: Drop forge,
hammer mill, power press shop.
 Broadband: Constant energy content in
all frequencies (e.g. bottling plant)
 Narrow band: Energy confined to
discrete frequency
 Tonal: Discrete low or high frequency
 Sudden bursts: High energy and short
duration
 Infra sound: Sound at frequencies below
20 Hz.
 Ultra sound: Sound at frequencies above
20,000 Hz.
3.6 Selection of Measurement
Positions
Unless otherwise specified, the
measurement positions shall be selected as
follows:
3.6.1 Outdoor Measurement
For the general ambient noise, select
measurement positions shall, whenever
possible, at least 3.5m from any reflecting
structure such as building and 1.2 to 1.5m
above the ground. When measurements are
carried out on a street, measurement
positions shall be selected on the edge of
the sidewalk towards the carriageway in
the case where the sidewalk is provided,
and on the edge of the carriageway in the
case where there is no sidewalk at a height
1.2 to 1.5m above the ground for both
cases. If the influences of noise from
specific sources (e.g., factories, recreation
facilities, etc) are investigated, the
measurements shall be carried out at the
positions under consideration.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 20
3.6.2 Measurement around the
Building
When the influence of noise from external
sources on a building is considered, the
measurement positions shall be selected 1
to 2m apart from the façade of the building
and 1.2 to 1.5 m above each floor level of
interest. In the measurements of A-
weighted sound pressure level in front of
the window of the building, the
measurement position shall be 1m from the
window on its center line.
3.6.3 Measurements inside the
Building
When the A - weighted sound pressure level
is measured inside the building, the
measurement positions shall be selected 1.2
to 1.5m above the floor, and at least 1m from
the reflecting surfaces such as walls.
3.6.4 Measurement in Work
Environments
When the noise in a work environment such
as a factory and office is measured, the
measurement positions shall be selected at
the approximate positions of the worker‟s
ears. If the positions of the workers cannot
be specified, the measurements shall be
carried out at some representative positions
on line where they move, 1.2 to 1.5m above
the floor.
3.7 Instrumentation
Several sound measuring instruments
include noise dosimeters, sound level
meters, and octave-band analyzers. The uses
and limitations of each kind of instrument
are discussed below
3.7.1 Audiometry
 Audiometric tests shall be pure tone, air
conduction, hearing threshold
examinations, with test frequencies
including 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000,
6000 and 8000 Hz, and shall be taken
separately for the right and left ears.
 Audiometric tests shall be performed by
an audiologist, or by an occupational

hearing conservationist certified by the
Council for Accreditation in
Occupational Hearing Conservation
(CAOHC) working under the supervision
of an audiologist or physician.
 Audiometric tests shall be conducted
with audiometers that meet the
specifications of, and are maintained
and used in accordance with the
American National Standard
Specifications for Audiometers, ANSI
S3.6-1995 [ANSI 1995]. Audiometers
shall be given an annual comprehensive
calibration, a bimonthly acoustic
calibration check, and a daily functional
check whenever the audiometers are
used. The date of the last annual
calibration shall be recorded on each
worker's audiogram.
 Audiometric tests shall be conducted in
a room where ambient noise levels
conform to all requirements of the
American National Standard Institute
Maximum Permissible Ambient Noise
Levels for Audiometric Test Rooms,
ANSI S3.1-1991 [ANSI 1991b], when
measured by instruments conforming to
the American National Standard
Specification for Sound Level Meters,
ANSI S1.4-1983 and S1.4A-1985, Type 1
[ANSI 1983; ANSI 1985] and the
American National Standard
Specification for Octave-Band and
Fractional-Octave-Band Analog and
Digital Filters, ANSI S1.11-1986 [ANSI
1986]. For permanent, on-site testing
facilities, ambient noise levels shall be
checked at least annually. For mobile
testing facilities, ambient noise levels
shall be tested daily, or each time the
facility is moved, whichever is more
often. Ambient noise levels shall be
recorded on the worker's audiogram or
made otherwise accessible to the
professional reviewer of the audiograms.
Steps in Audiometric Analysis
Method
a. Baseline Audiogram
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 21
 For each worker in a HLPP, a baseline
audiogram shall be obtained prior to
employment or within 30 days of
enrollment in the HLPP.
 Because the baseline audiogram is
intended to be the best estimate of the
worker's hearing before any exposure to
potentially harmful noise, the worker shall
not be exposed to workplace noise for a
minimum of 14 hours before the baseline
audiometric test. The required quiet
period shall not be substituted by the use
of hearing protectors.
b. Monitoring Audiogram, Retest
Audiogram, and Significant
Threshold Shift
 On an annual basis, each worker's hearing
thresholds shall be monitored by an
audiometric test, which shall be conducted
during the worker's normal work shift. For
the purpose of this section, the audiogram
from this test is called the monitoring
audiogram.
 At the completion of this test, the worker's
monitoring audiogram shall be examined
immediately to determine whether it
indicates any threshold shift (higher
threshold) in either ear that equals or
exceeds 15 dB at 500, 1000, 2000, 3000,
4000 or 6000 Hz as evidenced by a
comparison of that audiogram with the
worker's baseline audiogram.
 If the monitoring audiogram indicates a
hearing threshold shift, a retest shall be
conducted immediately, following re-
instruction of the worker and refitting of
the earphones.
 If the retest audiogram shows a shift of 15
dB or more at the same frequency in the
same ear as in the monitoring audiogram,
the worker shall be considered to have met
the significant threshold shift criterion for
the purpose of this section and shall be
given a confirmation audiometric test
within 30 days. This confirmation test
shall be conducted under the same
conditions as in a baseline audiometric
test.

c. Confirmation Audiogram and Fellow
- Up Action
 If the worker's confirmation audiogram
shows a shift of 15 dB or more at the same
frequency in the same ear as in the
previous retest audiogram, the worker's
audiograms and other appropriate records
shall be reviewed by an audiologist or a
physician.
 If this review confirms that the significant
threshold shift is persistent, the
significant threshold shift shall be
recorded in the worker's medical record,
and the confirmation audiogram shall be
used for the calculation of any subsequent
significant threshold shift in future years.
 A worker whose significant threshold shift
is of any etiology other than noise, as
determined in this review, shall be
referred to the worker's physician. If the
probable etiology is of occupational noise
exposure, the employer shall take
appropriate action to protect the worker
from additional hearing loss due to
occupational noise exposure. Examples of
appropriate action include, but are not
limited to, re-instruction and refitting of
hearing protectors, additional training of
the worker on hearing loss prevention, and
reassignment of the worker to a quieter
work area.
d. Exit Audiogram
 An exit audiogram shall be obtained for a
worker who is leaving employment or is
permanently rotated out of an
occupational noise exposure at or above 82
dBA, 8-hour TWA. The audiometric test
shall be conducted following a minimum of
14 hours of quiet.
3.7.2 Noise Dosimeter
a. Introduction
A dosimeter is like a sound level meter
except that it stores intermittent or varying
sound level measurements and integrates
these measurements over time, providing an
average noise exposure reading for a given
period, such as an 8-hour workday. It
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 22
measures and stores the sound levels during
an exposure period and computes the
readout as the percent dose or TWA. With a
dosimeter, a microphone is attached to the
employee's clothing and the exposure
measurement is simply read at the end of
the desired time. A reader may be used to
read-out the dosimeter's measurements.
b. Personal Noise Monitoring
It measures noise levels in those locations
in which the employee travels from an
employee‟s worn dosimeter. A sound level
meter can also be positioned within the
immediate vicinity of the exposed worker to
obtain an individual exposure estimate.
Such procedures are generally referred to
as "personal" noise monitoring.
c. Area Monitoring
Area monitoring can be used to estimate
noise exposure when the noise levels are
relatively constant and employees are not
mobile. In workplaces where employees
move about in different areas or where the
noise intensity tends to fluctuate over time,
noise exposure is generally more accurately
estimated by the personal monitoring
approach.
d. Specifications
Many dosimeters available today can
provide an output in dose or TWA using
various exchange rates (e.g., 3, 4, and 5
dB), 8-hr criterion levels (e.g., 80, 84, 85,
and 90 dBA), and sound measurement
ranges (e.g., 80 to 130dBA). The choice of
FAST or SLOW meter response on the
dosimeter does not affect the computed
noise dose or TWA when the 3-dB exchange
rate is used, but it will when other
exchange rates are used [Earshen 1986].
ANSI [1996a] specifies that the microphone
be located on the midtop of the worker's
more exposed shoulder and that it be
oriented approximately parallel to the
plane of this shoulder.
The noise dosimeters used shall meet the
American National Standards Institute
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 23

(ANSI) Standard S1.25-1978, and time - intensity trade off. So, the
"Specifications for Personal Noise exchange rate is the increase or decrease in
Dosimeters," which set performance and decibels corresponding to twice (or half) the
accuracy tolerances. For OSHA use, the noise dose. This means that the sound level
dosimeter must have a 5 - dB exchange of 90 dB produces twice the noise dose that
rate, use a 90 - dBA criterion level, be set 85 dB produces (assuming that duration is
at slow response, and use either an 80 - held constant). The OSHA exchange rate is
dBA or 90 - dBA threshold gate, or a 5 dB. The exchange rate used by different
dosimeter that has both capabilities, organizations is different.
whichever is appropriate for the
evaluation.  Occupational Health and Safety
Association, OSHA exchange rate: 5dB
e. Dosimeter Calculation  US Department of Navy exchange rate:
4dB
The noise dose provided by dosimeters can
be used to calculate both the continuous  US Department of the Army and the
equivalent A-weighted sound level (L A) and Department of the Air Force exchange
the 8 - hour TWA for the time period rate: 3-dB.
sampled, using the following formulas  Instrument used by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and
D Health (NIOSH) and the Environmental
LA  16.61 log10  90
12.5t Protection Agency (EPA), as well as most
foreign governments also use a 3-dB
exchange rate ACGIH Physical Agents
D
TWA  16.61 log10  90 Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
100
Committee recently revised its noise
TLV to also use the 3-dB exchange rate.
where:
 The hypothetical exposure situations
LA : the continuous equivalent A- shown in table illustrate the relationship
weighted sound level in decibels for between criterion level, threshold, and
the time period sampled exchange rate and show the importance
of using a dosimeter with an 80-dBA
D : dosimeter readout in percent noise threshold to characterize an employee's
dose noise exposure. For example, an
instrument with a 90-dBA threshold will
t : the sampling time in hours
not capture any noise below that level,
TWA : the 8-hour time-weighted average in and will thus give readout of 0% even if
decibels, dBA the employee being measured is actually
being exposed to 89 dBA for 8 hours (i.e.,
f Exchange Rate to 87% of the allowable noise dose over
any 8-hour period).
The time / intensity relationship is referred
as the exchange rate. Sometimes it is also
referred as doubling rate, trading ratio,
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 24

Dosimeter Readout, In Percent of Measured Dose

Dosimeter with Dosimeter with

Exposure conditions threshold set at threshold set at
90 dBA 80 dBA

90 dBA for 8 hours 100.0% 100.0%

89 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 87.0%
85 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 50.0%
80 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 25.0%
79 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 0.0%
90 dBA for 4 hours plus 80 dBA for 4 hours 50.0% 62.5%
90 dBA for 7 hours plus 89 dBA for 1 hour 87.5% 98.4%
100 dBA for 2 hours plus 89 dBA for 6 hours 100.0% 165.3%
* Assumes 5-dB exchange rate, 90-dBA PEL, ideal threshold activation, and continuous sound
levels.
Conversion from Percent Noise Exposure or Dose To 8-Hour Time-Weighted Average Sound Level

Dose or percent TWA (dBA) Dose or percent TWA (dBA)

50 85.0 90 89.2
55 85.7 95 89.6
60 86.3 100 90.0
65 86.9 105 90.4
70 87.4 110 90.7
75 87.9 115 91.1
80 88.4 120 91.3
85 88.8 125 91.6
Assumes 5-dB exchange rate and 90-dBA PEL.
Source: 29 CFR 1910.95.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 25

3.7.3 Sound Level Meter noise exposure over a workday. If noise

levels fluctuate, the amount of time noise
The sound level meter is the basic
remains at each of the various measured
measuring instrument for intensity of
levels must be determined.
sound at a given moment, indeed noise
exposures. It consists of a microphone, a a. Frequency Weighting Networks
frequency selective amplifier, and an
indicator. At a minimum, it measures The responses of the sound level meter are
modified with frequency - weighting
sound level in dB SPL. An integrating
networks that represent some responses of
function may be included to automate the
the human ear. The A-scale, which
calculation of the TWA or the noise dose.
approximates the ears response to
Since sound level meters provide a moderate - level sounds, is commonly used
measure of sound intensity at only one in measuring noise to evaluate its effect on
point in time, it is generally necessary to humans and has been incorporated in many
take a number of measurements at occupational noise standards.
different times during the day to estimate
Relative Response of Sound Level Meter Weighting Networks*

*
Meters that are set to integrate or average sound do not use either the FAST or SLOW time constant; they will sample many times each
second. For a more detailed description of exponential time weighting, refer to Yeager and March [1991].

b. Exponential Time Weighting response compared with the FAST

A sound level meters response is generally
based on either a FAST or SLOW
exponential averaging. FAST corresponds
to a 125-millisecond (ms) time constant;
SLOW corresponds to a 1-s time constant.
The meter dynamics are such that the
meter will reach 63% of the final steady-
state reading within one time constant.
The meter indicator reflects the average
SPL measured by the meter during the
period selected. In most industrial
settings, the meter fluctuates less when
measurements are made with the SLOW
response. A rapidly fluctuating sound
generally yields higher maximum SPLs
when measured with a FAST response.
The choice of meter response depends on
the type of noise being measured, the
intended use of the measurements, and
the specifications of any applicable
standard. For typical occupational noise
measurements, NIOSH recommends that
the meter response on a sound level meter
be set at SLOW.*
c. Microphones for Sound Level
Meters

The correct use of the microphone is
extremely important in obtaining accurate
measurements. Microphones come in
many types and sizes. A microphone is
typically designed for use in a particular
environment across a specific range of
SPLs and frequencies. In addition,
microphones differ in their directionality.
For example, some are intended to be
pointed directly at the sound; and others
are designed to measure sound from a
"grazing" angle of incidence. Thus users
should follow the sound level meter
manufacturer‟s instructions regarding the
type and size of microphone and its
orientation toward a sound. Also, care
should be taken to avoid shielding the
microphone by persons or objects [ANSI
1996a]. When measuring a diffuse sound
field, the person conducting the
measurement should hold the microphone
as far from his or her body as practical 5.
d. Specifications
All sound level meters used shall meet
ANSI Standard S1.4-1971 (R1976) or
S1.4-1983, "Specifications for Sound Level
Meters," which set performance and
accuracy tolerances.
e. Purpose of Use
a. Sound level meters are used for the
following purposes:
 To spot - check noise dosimeter
performance;
 To determine an employee's noise dose
whenever a noise dosimeter is
unavailable or inappropriate;
 To identify and evaluate individual noise
sources for abatement purposes;
 To aid in the determination of the
feasibility of engineering controls for
individual noise sources for abatement
purposes; and
 To evaluate hearing protectors.
5
Earshen 1986
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 26
b. For practical purposes, this procedure
should be followed for all sound level
measurements:
 The microphone should be in the
monitored employee's hearing zone.
OSHA defines the hearing zone as a
sphere with a two-foot diameter
surrounding the head. Considerations
of practicality and safety will dictate
the actual microphone placement at
each survey location.
 When noise levels at an employee's two
ears are different, the higher level must
be sampled for compliance
determinations.
Note: Sound level readings in a non - reverberant
environment should be taken in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions.
3.7.4 Octave Band Analyzers
a. Introduction
Octave band analyzers are sound level
meters that has an octave or one - third
octave band filter attached or integrated
into the instruments. The assigned filters
are used to analyze the frequency content
of the noise. They are used to find out the
overall frequency content of noise in the
monitored area. Indeed they are also used
for the calibration of audiometers and to
determine the suitability of various types of
noise control.
 They also can be used to select hearing
protectors because they can measure the
amount of attenuation offered by the
protectors in the octave-bands responsible
for most of the sound energy in a given
situation.
 Octave - band analyzers segment noise
into its component parts. The octave-band
filter sets provide filters with the
following center frequencies: 31.5; 63;
125; 250; 500; 1,000; 2,000; 4,000; 8,000;
and 16,000 Hz.
 The special signature of a given noise can
be obtained by taking sound level meter
readings at each of these settings
(assuming that the noise is fairly constant
over time). The results may indicate those

octave-bands that contain the majority of
the total radiated sound power.
b. Calibration
In normal operation, calibration of the
instrument usually requires only checking.
Prior to and immediately after taking
measurements, it is a good practice to
check, using a calibrator, the ability of the
sound level instrument to correctly
measure sound levels. As long as the sound
level readout is within 0.2 dB of the known
source, it is suggested that no adjustments
to the calibration pot be made. If large
fluctuations in the sound level occur (more
than 1 dB) then either the calibrator or the
instrument may have a problem.
3.8 Instrumental Performance
(Effects of the
Environment)
Temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, and dust can all affect the
performance of noise-measuring
instruments and their readings. Magnetic
fields can also affect the performance of
instruments. Each of these factors is
discussed below.
3.8.1 Temperature
Sound - measuring equipment should
perform within design specifications over
an ambient temperature range of -20°F to
140°F ( - 29°C to 60°C). If the temperature
at the measurement site is outside this
range, refer to the manufacturer's
specifications to determine if the sound
level meter or dosimeter is capable of
performing properly. Sound-measuring
instruments should not be stored in
automobiles during hot or cold weather
because this may cause warm-up drift,
moisture condensation, and weakened
batteries, all of which can affect instrument
performance.
3.8.2 Humidity
OSHA noise instruments will perform
accurately as long as moisture does not
condense or deposit on the microphone
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 27
diaphragm. If excessive moisture or rain is
a problem in a given exposure situation, the
Assistant Regional Administrator (ARA) for
Technical Support should be consulted.
3.8.3 Atmospheric Pressure
 Both atmospheric pressure and
temperature affect the output of sound
level calibrators; atmospheric pressure is
the more important of these two factors.
When checking an acoustical calibrator,
always apply the corrections for
atmospheric pressure that are specified
in the manufacturer's instruction
manual.
 In general, if the altitude of the
measurement site is less than 10,000
feet above sea level, no pressure
correction is needed. If the
measurement site is at an altitude
higher than 10,000 feet, or if the site is
being maintained at greater-than-
ambient pressure (e.g., in underwater
tunnel construction), use the following
equation to correct the instrument
Air Pressure Correction reading:
 460  t 0.5 30 
C  10 log ( ) ( ) 
 528 B 
where:
C = correction, in decibels, to be added to
or subtracted from the measured
sound level
t = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
B = barometric pressure in inches of
mercury
3.8.4 Wind or Dust
Wind or dust blowing across the
microphone of the dosimeter or sound level
meter produces turbulence, which may
cause a positive error in the measurement.
A windscreen should be used for all outdoor
measurements and whenever there is
significant air movement or dust inside a
building (e.g. when cooling fans are in use
or wind is gusting through open windows).

3.8.5 Magnetic Fields
Certain equipment and operations, such as
heat sealers, induction furnaces,
generators, transformers, electromagnets,
arc welding, and radio transmitters
generate electromagnetic fields that can
induce current in the electronic circuitry of
sound level meters and noise dosimeters
and cause erratic readings. If sound level
meters or dosimeters must be used near
such devices or operations, the extent of the
field's interference should be determined by
consulting the manufacturer's instructions.
4. Environmental Noise Sources
One of the many by-products of our
modern, industrialized society is the noise
produced by technology, and the adverse
effects of excessive noise on individuals are
well documented. The various
environmental laws, policies and
regulations deal with various types of noise
sources. The various sources of noise can
affect a community.
 Transportation noise
 Domestic noise
 Industrial noise (other than motor
vehicles)
 Construction and other non-domestic
noise.
Note: It should be noted that equal values of L Aeq,T
for different sources do not always imply the same
expected effect.
4.1 Transportation Noise
Transportation noise is the main source of
environmental noise pollution, including
road traffic, rail traffic and air traffic. As a
general rule, larger and heavier vehicles
emit more noise than smaller and lighter
vehicles. Exceptions would include:
helicopters and 2- and 3-wheeled road
vehicles.
4.1.1 Road Vehicles
The noise of road vehicles (heavy vehicles,
light vehicles, two wheelers, three
wheelers, etc) is mainly generated from the
engine and from frictional contact between
the vehicle and the ground and air. The
major types of vehicular noises are exhaust
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 28
noise, cooling fan noise, aerodynamic noise,
and intake noise, tire noise, honking horn
noise and loose metallic parts vibration
noise. In general, road-contact noise
exceeds engine noise at speeds higher than
60 km/h. The exhaust noise constitutes the
predominant source for normal operation
below 55km per hour for automobiles.
Diesel trucks are 8 to 10dB noisier than
gasoline - powered ones. The two stoke
motorcycles exhibit more high frequency
spectra energy content.
4.1.2 Railway
Railway noise depends primarily on the
speed of the train, but variations are
present depending upon the type of
engine, wagons, and rails and their
foundations, as well as the roughness of
wheels and rails. Small radius curves in
the track, such as may occur for urban
trains, can lead to very high levels of high-
frequency sound referred to as wheel
squeal. Noise can be generated in stations
because of running engines, whistles and
loudspeakers, and in marshaling yards
because of shunting operations. The
introduction of high-speed trains has
created special noise problems with
sudden, but not impulsive, rises in noise.
At speeds greater than 250 km/h, the
proportion of high-frequency sound energy
increases and the sound can be perceived
as similar to that of over flying jet
aircraft.
4.1.3 Aircraft
 Aircraft operations generate substantial
noise near both commercial and military
airports. Aircraft takeoffs are known to
produce intense noise, including vibration
and rattle. The landings produce
substantial noise in long low-altitude
flight corridors. The noise is produced by
the landing gear and automatic power
regulation, and when reverse thrust is
applied, all for safety reasons. The main
mechanism of noise generation in the
early turbojet-powered aircraft was the
turbulence created by the jet exhaust
mixing with the surrounding air.

 In general, larger and heavier aircraft
produce more noise than lighter aircraft.
Multi-bladed turbo-prop engines can
produce relatively high levels of tonal
noise. The sound pressure level from
aircraft is, typically, predicted from the
number of aircraft, the types of airplanes,
their flight paths, the proportions of
takeoffs and landings and the
atmospheric conditions. Severe noise
problems may arise at airports hosting
many helicopters or smaller aircraft used
for private business, flying training and
leisure purposes. Special noise problems
may also arise inside airplanes because of
vibration. The noise emission from future
super jets is unknown.
 A sonic boom consists of two types of
shock wave (discontinuities existence) in
the air, generated by an aircraft when it
flies at a speed slightly greater than the
local speed of sound. At supersonic speed,
Tail wave
Bow wave
Sonic boom hearing
Overpressure
4.2 Industrial Noise
Industrial machinery and processes are
composed of various noise sources such as
rotors, stators, gears, fans, vibrating
panels, turbulent fluid flow, impact
processes, electrical machines, internal
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 29
the air in front of the aircraft is
undisturbed, and the sudden impulse at
the leading edge creates a region of
overpressure higher than atmospheric
pressure. This overpressure region
travels outward with the speed of sound
that creates a conically shaped bow wave.
A tail wave is produced by the tail of the
aircraft and is associated with a region
where the pressure is lower than the
atmospheric pressure due to the sideways
trailing of air behind the aircraft. An
aircraft in supersonic flight trails a sonic
boom that can be heard up to 50 km on
either side of its ground track, depending
upon the flight altitude and the size of
the aircraft (Warren 1972). A sonic boom
can be heard as a loud double-boom
sound. At high intensity it can damage
property.
combustion engines, etc. The mechanisms
Sonic boom hearing
Underpressure
of noise generation depend on the
particularly noisy operations and types of
equipments [crushing, riveting, blasting
(quarries and mines), shake out (foundries),
punch presses, drop forges, drilling, lathes,
pneumatic equipment (jack hammers,
chipping hammers, etc), tumbling barrels,
plasma jets, cutting torches, sandblasting,
electric furnaces, boiler making, machine
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 30

tools for forming, dividing and metal Plastic Industries, BID Molding 97
cutting, such as punching, pressing and Nebico Biscuit, BID Grinding 100 - 104
shearing lathes, milling machines and
Balaju Yantra Shala,
grinders as well as textile machines and BID
Cutting 104
print machines, pumps and compressors,
Bottlers Nepal, BID Filling 96
drive units, hand guided machines, self
propelled working machines, in plant Nepal Feed Industries,
Grinning 90 -95
BID
conveying systems and transport vehicles].
Him Plastic, BID Cutting 100 - 103
 Air jets: widely used , for example, for
cleaning, drying power tools and steam Eastern Textile, Birgunj Loom 102
valves can generate sound levels of Birgunj Sugar Mill,
Turbine 105
about 105dB. Birgunj

 Workers in a cigarette factory in Brazil Hulas Steel, Bara Galvanizing 94

involved in compressed air cleaning
were exposed to sound level equivalent Mechanized industry creates serious noise
to 92dB for 8 hours. problems. It is responsible for intense noise
 In the wood working industry the sound indoor as well as outdoors. This noise is due
level of saws can be as high as 106dB. to machinery of all kinds and often
 Average sound level range between 92 increases with the power of the machines.
dB and 96dB in industries such as The noise may contain predominantly low
foundries, shipyards, breweries, or high frequencies, tonal components, be
weaving factories, paper and saw mills. impulsive or have unpleasant and
The recorded peak values were between disruptive temporal sound patterns.
117dB to 136dB. Rotating and reciprocating machines
generate sound that includes tonal
 In most developing countries, industrial
components; and air-moving equipment
noise levels are higher than those in the
tends also to generate noise with a wide
developed countries.
frequency range.
Industrial Noise Level in Nepal
Ref.: Occupational Dafety & Health Project HMG /
Nepal, 2000/2001 & 2001/2002  The high sound pressure levels are
caused by components or gas flows that
Leq,
Industry Activity
dB(A)
move at high speed (for example, fans,
steam pressure relief valves), or by
Balaju Aluminum, BID Spinning 90 - 98
operations involving mechanical
Reliable Plastic, BID Molding 99 - 112 impacts (for example, stamping,
riveting, road breaking). Machinery
Sound Pressure Levels in manufacturing should preferably be silenced at the
Industries, Singapore, 1993 source.

4.3 Domestic Noise

 Noise from domestic premises includes
mechanical devices noise (heat pumps,
ventilation system, lawn movers, and
vacuum cleaners), music and party
noise, band and drum practice, trail
bikes, revving motor vehicles,
hammering, and other non-mechanical
construction noise. When it interferes
with the enjoyment of an area by any

person living in or otherwise using it,
the noise becomes environmental harm.
 Some types of indoor concerts and
discotheques can produce extremely
high sound pressure levels. Associated
noise problems outdoors result from
customers arriving and leaving.
Outdoor concerts, fireworks and various
types of festivals can also produce
intense noise. The general problem of
access to festivals and leisure activity
sites often adds to road traffic noise
problems. Severe hearing impairment
may also arise from intense sound
produced as music in headphones or
from children‟s toys.
4.4 Construction and Other
Activities
 Building construction and excavation
work can cause considerable noise
emissions. A variety of sounds come
from cranes, cement mixers, welding,
hammering, boring and other work
processes. Construction equipment is
often poorly silenced and maintained,
and building operations are sometimes
carried out without considering the
environmental noise consequences.
Street services such as garbage disposal
and street cleaning can also cause
considerable disturbance if carried out
at sensitive times of day. Ventilation
and air conditioning plants and ducts,
heat pumps, plumbing systems, and
lifts (elevators), for example, can
compromise the internal acoustical
environment and upset nearby
residents.
4.5 Parks & School Playing
Fields
Noise generated by several planned parks
and schools on the age and number of
people utilizing the respective facility at a
given time, and the type of activities they
are engaged in school playing field
activities tend to generate more noise than
those of neighbourhood parks, as the
intensity of school playground usage tends
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 31
to be higher. At a distance of 100ft from an
elementary school used by 100 students,
average and maximum noise levels of 60
and 75dB respectively, can be expected. At
organized events such as high school
football games with large crowds and public
address systems, the noise generation is
often significantly higher. As with service
commercial uses, the noise generation of
parks and school playing fields is variable.
4.6 Discotheque Noise
Mainly, 6discotheque noise is night
occurrence problem, and has arisen
largely through the advancing of the audio
equipment industry. This development
has meant that large dance – hall bands of
live music and the accompanying size of
hall are no longer necessary. The type,
size and location of the hall has changed
for whole musical equipment is easily
transportable and only three to six players
or just a disc- jockey is required. It is
evident with sound peak levels which can
reach 120dB(A) and halls with inadequate
acoustic insulation that a local noise
problem is created. Particularly, the
heavy low frequency beat will penetrate
deeply into the environment.
5. Noise Analysis
5.1 Equivalent Sound
Pressure Level, (LAeq, T)
Equivalent sound pressure level is the
logarithmic average steady state noise
level in a stated time period. According to
the equal energy principle, the effect of
combination of noise events is related to
the combined sound energy of those
events. So, the measure sums up the total
energy over same time period. Equivalent
continuous sound pressure level is gaining
widespread acceptance as a scale for the
6
Edt. Sanez, A. Lara & Stephens, R. W. B., Noise
Pollution, SCOPE, John Willey & Sons, Ltd.,
1986
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 32

measurement of long - term noise continuous sounds such as road traffic

exposure. It has been adopted for the noise, industrial noises, ventilation
measurement of both community noise system noise, environmental noise as well
exposure and hearing damage risk, i.e. as aircraft and railway noise.
LAeq,T should be used to measure

Calculation:

1 a1/10 a2/10 an/10 

 10 log  10  ... 10
L
(Aeq,T ) 10  n (10 )

dB(A)

Where,

L(Aeq, T) : Equivalent A - weighted sound pressure level for total time period T.

N : Total no of readings

a1 : Sound pressure level at first time interval

5.2 Day - Night Average Sound Pressure Level, (Ldn)

Day - night average sound pressure level (DNL) is the 24 hours average sound level, in
decibels, for the period from midnight to midnight, obtained after addition of 10dB to sound
levels in the nighttime from midnight to 7am and from 10pm to midnight. The nighttime
penalty is based on the fact that many studies have shown that people are much more
disturbed by noise at nighttime than at any time (Chanlet, 1973). This desicaptor is used for
impact assessment, noise zoning as well as in criteria development.

Mathematically,

L / 10 (L  10) / 10
L dn  10 log 10 [0.625 ( 10 d )  0.375 (10 n ]
dB (A)

Where,

Ld: Average Leq for the daytime (07.00 - 22.00hrs)

Ln: Average Leq for the nighttime (22.00 - 7.00hrs)

event under consideration is known as

5.3 Sound Exposure Level,
sound exposure level. This measure is
(SEL) applied for airport, railway and industrial
The value of A - weighted sound pressure noise measures. The sound exposure level
level of a steady state sound of one second shall be obtained from n values of A -
duration which has the same A - weighted weighted sound pressure level sampled
sound energy as that of a discrete noise
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 33

during the measurement period by following equation:

T 1 Lai/10 
dB(A)

SEL  10 log 10   10 
 To n  Where,

T : ∆T.n(∆T is interval of sampling in second, N= 1/n)

To : 1 second

The relationship between the A – weighted sound exposure and the A – weighted equivalent
continuous sound level, Leq,T is

Where, T is expose time interval (=8hrs)

A noise exposure level normalized to a nominal 8-hour working day may be calculated from
EA,8h by using following equation:

 Daily Personal Noise Exposure Level (L EP,d):

The daily personal noise exposure of a worker is expressed in dB(A) by using the following
formula:

Where,

T: Daily duration of a worker‟s exposure to noise (hours)

T0: 8hours

P0: 20µpa

PA: A – weighted instantaneous sound pressure in pascals to which is exposed, in air at

atmosphere pressure, a person who might or might not move from one place to another while at
work; it is determined from measurements made at the position occupied by the person‟s ears
during work, preferably in the person‟s absence, using a technique which minimizes the effect
on the sound field.

“Daily personal noise exposure of a worker LEP,d “ is the same as the term “ noise exposure
level normalised to a normal 8hr working day, LEX,8h

 Weekly average of the daily values (LEP,w): The weekly average of the daily values is found
using the following formula:
Where (LEp,d)k are the values of LEP,d for each of the m working days in the week being
considered.
If each work station "i" is exposed to a level L Aeq,Ti in dB(A) for a relative duration Di (in%),
the reconstituted noise level is:
5.4 Percentile Level, (L)
A widely used method of recording the
variations in sound pressure level is that
of level distribution analysis, sometimes
called statistical distribution analysis.
This yields a graph of the percentage of
the total time for which any given sound
pressure level is exceeded.
 When the A - weighted sound pressure
level that is exceeded for x% of the
measurement time interval, the level is
called as x percentile noise level. The
50-percentile level (L50) is called
median and 5 - percentile (L5) and 95-
percentile level (L95) are called the
upper limit and lower limit of the 90 -
percentile range respectively. L 95
represents the background sound
pressure level whereas L 10 represents
subjective annoyance. The various
measured sound pressure levels are
arranged in the increasing order and
the percentile position is calculated by
using the following formula:
(n  1)
a  x%
100
5.5 Traffic Noise Index
 The sound pressure level from traffic
can be predicted from the traffic flow
rate, the speed of the vehicles, the
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 34
proportion of heavy vehicles, and the
nature of the road surface. Special
problems can arise in areas where the
traffic movements involve a change in
engine speed and power, such as at
traffic lights, hills, and intersecting
roads; or where topography,
meteorological conditions and low
background levels are unfavorable (for
example, mountain areas). The traffic
noise index (TNI) is based on the
weighted combination of the sound
levels (in dBA exceeded for 10 %, 50 %,
and 90 % of the time) according to the
formula:
TNI  L 50  4 ( L 10 - L 90 )
This index reflects the conclusion that
traffic noise annoyance depends not only
upon the average or typical sound pressure
level (L50) but also upon the magnitude of
the fluctuation (L10 - L90). However, further
investigation revealed that, because of the
practical difficulties of predicting L 90 with
an adequate degree of confidence, the value
of TNI was susceptible to large errors. For
example, TNI - values decrease when the
traffic increases. Thus, TNI was
subsequently rejected in favor of L10 for
traffic noise compensation regulations7,
even though its correlation with annoyance
7 UK
Statutory Instrument, 1975
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 35

was shown to be inferior to that of TNI in Note: Four hours are missing for the
the original survey. nighttime that is arbitrarily calculated as

5.6 Noise Pollution Level,

(NPL)
Noise pollution level applies to any
environment, unlike those especially
concerned with aircraft and traffic.
However, it is incapable of determining
whether the noise being measured is
wanted or unwanted sound. The NPL level
is calculated by using following formula:
NNI nighttime * 3/2.
L NP  L eq  kσ

Where,
6. Noise Criteria (NC) Curves

Leq is the equivalent energy level measured  Noise Criteria Curves (NC-Curves)
in dB(A), k is a constant which is developed by ASHRAE (American
provisionally given the value 2.56, σ is the Society of Heating, refrigeration and
standard deviation of instantaneous levels Air conditioning Engineers) in 1957 are
in time. the most widely used values for gauging
indoor building noise. These are curves
which were often used in the past to
5.7 Airport Noise
assess steady industrial or community
Measurement noise. Machinery manufacturers to
Noise number index (NNI) and noise specify machinery noise levels currently
exposure forecast (NEF) are assigned for use them in some cases. The
airport noise measurement. These requirements are that the sound
parameters are calculated as follows: pressures measured at each octave
band must be below the specified NC
NNI  L  15 log N - 80
curve (within a 2dB tolerance) if they
eq. peak av. 10 are to meet the NC rating.
 Many specifications for target noise
NEF  L  10 log N - K
eq peak av. 10 levels and associated noise control
Where, N = number of aircraft generate measures are also written based on the
noise during measurement. K = 88 for Noise Criterion curves. The Noise
daytime exposure [6am to 6pm] = 76 for Criterion curves are octave band curves
nighttime exposure [10pm to 6am). with a single number rating attached to
each of them (see Figure 1). The
NNI Guidelines methodology of determining the NC
rating of a particular sound spectrum
NNI = 20  Little degree of annoyance
requires plotting the octave band
(Degree 1)
spectrum under assessment against the
NNI = 30  Little degree of annoyance NC curves and selects the lowest NC
(Degree 2) curve that has values that are higher or
equal to the ones assessed in all octave
NNI = 50  Moderate degree of annoyance bands. The NC curves provide both
(Degree 3) quantitative and qualitative analysis of
the indoor noise levels through a single
number rating. Unlike the A-weighted
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 36

sound level, the Noise Criterion the highest NC curve that has a
provides some spectral information as tangency point in any octave band with
its level is determined by the level of the sound spectrum under evaluation.

Figure no. 1
Fig2
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 37

The qualitative assessment of sound using

this criterion is not optimum as there are Building Occupancy Good Acceptable
many sound spectra that match the same
Residences NC25 NC35
NC level. From Figure 2 one can see that
Appartements NC25 NC35
three completely different sound spectra
(SPL1, SPL2 and SPL3) could have the Hotel Rooms NC30 NC35
same NC level (NC40 in this case). In terms Executive Offices NC22 NC30
of qualitative assessment SPL1 is similar to Conference Rooms NC22 NC30
the sound of a constant volume HVAC Individual Offices NC30 NC35
system; SPL2 is similar to the airflow noise Open Plan Offices NC38 NC42
through a diffuser while SPL3 shows a
Corridors NC40 NC45
strong tonal character at 500 Hz. The
criteria are not a good reflection of the total Hospital Rooms NC23 NC33
amount of sound energy in the spectrum Classrooms NC23 NC30
but rather of the energy in the tangency Auditoriums NC20 NC30
band. Generally speaking is difficult to Theaters NC18 NC25
compare two sounds based solely on their Concert Halls NC15 NC22
NC levels without knowing their spectral
Recording Studios NC15 NC18
components.
TV Studios NC18 NC26
Another short come of the Noise Criterion
is that it is defined for the octave bands
between 63 Hz and 8 kHz. This leaves un-
assessed the low frequency noise
components in 31.5 Hz and 16 Hz bands
that are usually associated with structure
borne noise and airflow turbulence noise in
ductwork systems that could induce
rattling of light fixtures, diffusers etc.

It is our experience that based on this

criterion, the threshold where the number
of complaints start to build-up is NC 42-43
for open plan offices. Whenever the noise
level in the space is above this limit, there
is a higher likelihood of complaints from
the people occupying the space. Based on
our experience and on data published by
others we found that the following NC
levels due to mechanical equipment
servicing the building, according to the type
of occupancy, provide good to acceptable
sound environments.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 38

7. Noise Control & Abatement Measures

In most countries, land - use planning and zoning is used to avoid conflicts between noise
sensitive buildings and noise - generating installation such as airports, road networks and
industrial plants. The planning involves decision on the future use of resources. Enforcement of
regulation is being made by supervision to ensure compliance with laws and regulations. The
source is the point at which noise originates, and the path is the line in air along with the noise
waves can be considered to the receiver or the ear. The final objective in noise control being to
reduce the noise reaching the receiver can be achieved by modifications at source, along path or
even the receiver or all the three.

Noise Control Measures

Source Control Transmission Path Receiver

Priority Order: I Priority Order: II Priority Order: III

(Source modification (Alteration and (Personal protection

by design) controlling) measure)

• Impact force reduction

 Separation
• Radiating area reduction
 Absorbing material  Work schedule
• Speed & pressure reduction  Acoustic lining alteration
• Frictional resistance  Barriers and panels  Ear Protection
• Noise leakage reduction  Transmission loss
 Enclosure
• Isolation & dampen vibration
elements
• Provide mufflers / silencers

Control technology should aim at reducing
noise to acceptable levels by action on the
work environment. Such action involves the
implementation of any measure that will
reduce noise being generated and / or will
reduce the noise transmission through the
air or the structure of the work place. Such
measures include modifications of the
machinery, the workplace operations, and
the lay out of the work room. In fact, the
best approach for noise hazard at its source
of generation, either by direct action on the
source or by its confinement.
Prior to the selection and design of control
measures, noise sources must be identified,
and the produced noise must be carefully
evaluated. To adequately define the noise
problem and set a good basis for the control
strategy, the following factors hould be
considered:
 Noise type
 Noise level and temporal pattern
 Frequency distribution
 Noise source characteristics
 Noise propagation pathway
 Room acoustics (reverberation)
Methods for prevention and control of
sources of noise emissions depend on the
source and proximity of receptors. Noise
reduction options that should be considered
include:
 Selecting equipment with lower power
levels.
 Installation silencers for fans
 Installation of suitable mufflers on
engine exhausts and compressors
components
 Improving the acoustical performance
of constructed buildings, apply sound
insulation.
 Installation of acoustic barriers without
gaps and with a continuous minimum
surface density (about 10kg/m2) in
order to minimize the transmission of
sound through the barrier. Barriers
should be located as close to the source
or to the receptor location to be
effective.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 39
 Installation of vibration isolation for
mechanical equipment.
 Limiting the hours of operation for
specific pieces of equipment or
operations, especiallymobile sources
operating through community
 Relocating noise sources to less
sensitive areas to take the advantage of
distance and shielding.
 Sitting permanent facilities away from
community areas if possible
 Taking advantage of the natural
topography as a noise buffer during
facility design
 Reducing project traffic routing
wherever possible
 Planning fight routes, timing and
altitude for aircraft flying over
community
 Development of a mechanism to record
and respond to complaints
 ISO 11690, Part 1: Noise control can be
implemented using various technical
measures. These measures are noise
reduction at the source, noise reduction
by preventing / attenuating its
propagation, noise reduction at specific
positions.
7.1 Source Control
 Source control normally is the best
method of control. The noise radiated
from a machine and transmitted through
structure - borne connections very much
depended upon the used materials. The
mechanics of sound wave generation may
differ in two main categories. One is the
surface motion of a vibrating solid and
other is turbulence in a fluid medium.
The main aim of control at the source is
to reduce driving forces, response and
area of vibrating surface and velocity of
fluid flow reduction. To control noise at
the source, it is first necessary to
determine the cause of the noise and
secondly to reduce it. Modification of the
noise generated often provides the best
means of noise control.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 40

 At the source noise can be controlled by alteration with selective demolition;

the appropriate design modification,  Replace pneumatic tools by
which can include reduction of changing manufacturing
mechanical shock between moving parts, methods, such as moulding
reduction of noise resulting from out-of- holes in concrete rather than
balance, friction between metal parts, cutting after production of
and vibration of large structures. concrete component

General Source Noise Control  Use remote control of noisy

equipment such as
Activities Control pneumatic tools
 Replacement or adjustment  Separate noisy workers in
of worn or loose parts time, but keep noisy
 Balancing of unbalanced operations in the same area,
Maintenance equipment separated from non-noisy
 Lubrication of moving parts processes
 Use of properly shaped &  Select slowest machine speed
sharpened cutting tools. appropriate for a job - also
select large, slow machines
 Replacement of steel
rather than smaller faster
Substitution sprockets in chain drives
ones
of materials with sprockets made from
flexible polyamide plastics.  Minimise width of tools in
contact with workpiece (2
 Electric for pneumatic (e.g.
dB(A) reduction for each
hand tools)
halving of tool width)
 Stepped dies rather than
 Woodchip transport air for
single-operation dies
woodworking equipment
 Rotating shears rather than should move in the same
Substitution square shears direction as the tool
of equipments  Hydraulic rather than  Minimise protruding parts of
mechanical presses cutting tools
 Presses rather than  Mechanical ejectors for
hammers pneumatic ejectors -hot for
 Belt conveyors rather than cold working
roller conveyors.  Pressing for rolling or forging
 Modification of gear teeth, by  Welding or squeeze rivetting
replacing spur gears with for impact rivetting
helical gears – generally
 Welding for rivetting
resulting in 10 dB of noise
reduction)  Use cutting fluid in
machining processes
 Replace straight edged Process
cutters with spiral cutters  Change from impact action
change (e.g. hammering a metal bar)
Substitution (e.g. wood working machines
- 10 dB(A) reduction) to progressive pressure
of equipment
action (e.g. bending metal
parts  Replace gear drives with belt
bar with pliers as shown in,
drives
or increase of time during
 Replace metal gears with which a force is applied)
plastic gears (beware of
 Replace circular saw blades
additional maintenance
with damped
problems)
 Replace mechanical limit
 Replace steel or solid wheels
stops with micro-switches
with pneumatic tyres.
Substitution  Electric motors for internal
Working  In building demolition,
of mechanical combustion engines or gas
method replace use of ball machine
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 41

power turbines
generation  Belts or hydraulic power
and transmissions for gear boxes
transmission
equipment
Replacement
 Replace new rolling element
of worn
bearings for worn ones
moving parts
Minimizing the number of noisy machine
running at any one time

7.2 Transmission Path
Control
Another step in noise reduction can be
obtained by increasing the distance
between people and the noise source. This
can be achieved by planning the location of
transport facilities and, in industry, by the
careful selection of work sites. Sound
transmission can also be controlled by the
use of partitions or barriers. Reverberant
noise levels can be reduced by sound -
absorbing materials.
Control Modality:
 Use of barrier (single walls), partial
enclosures or full enclosure of the entire
item of equipment
 Use of local enclosures for noisy
components on a machine
 Use of reactive or dissipative mufflers;
the former for low frequency noise or
small exhausts, the latter for high
frequencies or large diameter exhaust
outlets
 Use of lined ducts or lined plenum
chambers for air handling system
 Reverberation control – the addition of
sound absorbing material to reverberant
spaces to reduce reflected noise fields
 Active noise control – involves
suppression, reflection or absorption of
the noise radiated by an existing sound
source by use of one or more secondary or
control system
Airborne vs Structure – Borne Noise
Control
The solution for airborne noise is controlled
by enclosement of the source, sound
absorbing material employment or by
increasing the sound transmission path
through double wall construction or
replacement of exhaust muffler.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 42
Isolation of Noise & Transmission Loss
The noise generated by a source can be
prevented from reaching a receiver by
means of an obstacle to its propagation,
conveniently located between the source
and receiver by proper isolation. The
transimission loss is defined as TL =
log10Γ, where the transmission coefficient
is defined as the ratio of transmitted to the
energy If the receiving space is outdoors in
a "free" field, the noise reduction is equal to
the transmission loss. If the receiving space
is indoor, the noise reduction is given by
Transmission loss through a partition
depends on the type of material used and it
varies as a function of frequency. For usual
industrial noise, the transmission loss
through a partition increases by about 6 dB
for each doubling of its weight per unit of
surface area. Therefore, the best sound
isolating materials are those, which are
compact, dense, and heavy.
Enclosure
The approach of enclosure is applied to
control the structural borne noise to the
receiver. The wall of an enclosure may
consist of several elements, each of which
may be characterised by a different
transmission loss. Many enclosures require
some form of ventilation.
If a machine is enclosed, reverberant build-
up of the sound energy within the enclosure
will occur unless adequate sound
absorption is provided. The effect will be
an increase of sound pressure at the inner

walls of the enclosure over that which
would result from the direct field of the
source. A degradation of the noise
reduction expected of the enclosure is
implied.
If the sound source radiates predominantly
high-frequency noise, then an enclosure
with low resonance frequency panels is
recommended, implying a massive
enclosure. On the other hand, if the sound
radiation is predominantly low frequency in
nature then an enclosure with a high
resonance frequency is desirable, implying
a stiff but not massive enclosure.
Since the absorption coefficient of
absorbent lining is generally highest at
high frequencies, the high-frequency
components of any noise will suffer the
highest attenuation. Some improvement in
low-frequency absorption can be achieved
by using a thick layer of lining. However
the liner should, in many cases, be
protected from contamination with oil or
water, to prevent its acoustical absorption
properties from being impaired.
The enclosure walls should have a
transmission loss of about 20 dB, and the
most sound power reduction that can be
achieved is about 10 dB. However, noise
levels may in some cases be more greatly
reduced, especially in areas immediately
behind solid parts of the enclosure.
7.2.1 Acoustic Barriers & Panels
A sound shadow is created when a barrier
cuts the line of sight from a noise source to
a receiver. Sound waves tend to bend
around the top and the ends of a barrier.
The extent varies with frequency, the lower
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 43
the frequency the greater the diffraction
and the smaller the resulting attenuation.
The effective barriers must be as close as
possible either to the noise source or to the
receiver. They must be sufficiently high
and long to ensure that noise cannot get
around the ends. Sound transmission
through a barrier must also be minimized.
Typically, the barrier material requires a
minimum mass per unit area of about
10kg/m2. It is important to ensure that no
cracks or gaps are present in a noise
barrier. The steel pile and concrete panel
wall is American's standard noise wall.
 The noise control measures for roads or
highways include construction of
barriers to obstruct or dissipate sound
emissions, elevated or depressed
highways, and the absorption effects of
landscaping (trees, bushes, and shrubs).
Construction of barriers can be an
effective approach for reducing highway
noise. The important factors like
relative height of the barrier, the noise
and the effected area, and the
horizontal distances between the source
and between the barrier and the noise-
affected area are considered in
designing the barriers.
 The type of materials used in
construction of noise barriers and other
abatement measures should be an
engineering decision based on
economics, effectiveness and, to a
limited degree, visual impacts.
 The effects of barriers are complex
functions of the difference between the
direct and deflected noise path lengths
and of wavelengths of the sound. The
A  10 log 10 ( 3  20 N )
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 44

approximate attenuation from a point 6 36

source by an infinitely long thin barrier Cinder block
of sufficient mass to ignore direct 6 28
(hollow core)
transmission can be determined as
Brick 4 33
follows:
Granite 4 40
A: attenuation in dB d. Composites
Aluminum
¾ 21 - 23
faced plywood
path dif f erence
N   Aluminum
wav elength faced particle ¾ 21 - 23
board
Transmission Loss Values for common Plastic lamina
¾ 21 - 23
Barrier Materials on plywood
Plastic lamina
Thickness Transmission on particle ¾ 21 - 23
Material
(inch) loss, dB(A) board
a. Woods e. Miscellaneous
½ 17 Glass (safety 1/8 22
Fir 1 20 glass) ¼ 26
2 24 Fiber glass
1/8 20
½ 16 /resin

Pine 1 19 Polyester with

aggregate 3 20 -30
2 23 surface
½ 16 Noise barriers are non-porous, high density and
Redwood 1 19 usually non-fibrous materials, which are generally
2 23 flexible or damped. The effectiveness of noise
barriers is expressed as sound transmission class
½ 15
(STC).
Cedar 1 18 Ref.: US Department of Housing and Urban
2 22 Development, 1985
½ 20
Plywood Sound Transmission Class of
1 23 STC
Materials
Particle Board ½ 20
1 lb. density barrier material 26
b. Metals
1 lb. density transparent curtain 26
1/16 23
5/8" gypsum wallboard 30
Aluminium 1/8 25
3/16" steel wall 31
¼ 27
2" fiberglass curtain with 1 lb. barrier 29
24ga 18
2" thick metal panel (solid and
Steel 20ga 22 35
perforated)
16ga 15
4" thick metal panel (solid and
Lead 1/16 28 41
perforated)
c. Concrete Masonry, etc. 12" thick concrete 53
4 38 3/8" plasterboard 26
Light concrete
6 39 22 gauge steel 25
Dense concrete 4 40 Solid core wood door, closed 27
Concrete block 4 32 Concrete block wall, unpainted 44

STC: Single number rating derived from
decibel loss data at several frequencies.
7.2.2 Mufflers and Silencers
Mufflers and silencers are acoustic filters
through which the fluid noise is reduced.
They are either absorptive or reactive
mufflers. An absorptive muffler reduces
the noise due to the presence of fibrous or
porous material present. The priority is
given in reactive muffler where its shape
is especially designed geometry, which can
reflect or expand the sound wave with
resultant destruction.
Muffling devices may function in any one
or any combination of three ways: they
may suppress the generation of noise; they
may attenuate noise already generated;
and they may carry or redirect noise away
from sensitive areas.
Muffling devices based upon reflection are
called reactive devices and those based
upon dissipation are called dissipative
devices. A duct lined with sound
absorbing material on its walls is one form
of dissipative muffler.
 Muffling devices are commonly used to
reduce noise associated with internal
combustion engine exhausts, high
pressure gas or steam vents,
compressors and fans. Conclusively, a
muffling device allows the passage of
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 45
fluid while at the same time restricting
the free passage of sound. Muffling
devices might also be used where direct
access to the interior of a noise
containing enclosure is required, but
through which no steady flow of gas is
necessarily to be maintained.
 Insertion loss (IL) and transmission
loss (TL) are commonly used to describe
the effectiveness of a muffling system.
The insertion loss of a muffler is
defined as the reduction (dB) in sound
power transmitted through a duct
compared to that transmitted with no
muffler in place. Provided that the duct
outlet remains at a fixed point in space,
the insertion loss will be equal to the
noise reduction which would be
expected at a reference point external
to the duct outlet as a result of
installing the muffler. The
transmission loss of a muffler, on the
other hand, is defined as the difference
(in decibels) between the sound power
incident at the entry to the muffler to
that transmitted by the muffler.
7.2.3 Absorbing Materials and
Acoustic Lining
The sound absorbing materials are applied
in noise-transmitted ducts, pipe chases, or
electrical channels, which can be reduced
effectively. For high frequency noise, the
noise reduction in the order of 10dB/m is
achieved at a lining of 2.5cm thickness in
the ducts. For low frequency sound wave,
the thickness of acoustic lining thickness
should be doubled.
 The sound absorbing material like
acoustical tile, carpets, and drapes placed
on ceiling, floor, or wall surfaces can
reduce the noise level in most rooms by
about 5 to 10dB for high frequency
sounds, but only by 2 or 3 dB for low
frequency sounds. The different types of
absorbing materials are rated either by
their sabin absorption coefficient or by a
single number noise reduction coefficient.
The unit area of totally absorbent surface
is called a sabin.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 46

7.2.4 Absorber performance is expressed as a decimal

Absorber is used to reduce noise reflection value. A perfect absorber is rated at 1.00.
and to dissipate noise energy. The The higher the decimal value the more
absorber materials are porous fibrous and effective the absorber will be. The
sometimes covered with protective effectiveness of an absorber is expressed
membranes. Noise enters the absorber as noise reduction coefficient (NRC).
and is partly dissipated (absorbed) within 7.2.5 Damping
the material. Some is transmitted through
The damping treatment is applied to
reduce noise radiated from vibrating
Noise Reduction Coefficients
NRC8 surfaces. This treatment is sometimes
of Materials
combined with absorbers. The
Brick, unglazed 0.05
effectiveness is expressed as a loss factor
Concrete block 0.05 which is the damping / stiffness ration of a
1/8" pile carpet 0.15 material.
5/16" pile carpet and foam 0.35
Concrete floor 0.00
Plaster, smooth finish 0.05
Plywood paneling, 1/4" thick 0.10
Water surface (as in swimming
0.00
pool)
1" thick fiberglass curtain 0.70
3" thick "SONEX" wedge foam 0.86
4" thick smooth surface foam 0.89
4" thick metal panel 0.95

7.2.6 Diffusion
Diffusion treatment is applied in
industrial and commercial architectural
reduction of noise. This treatment is used

and some are reflected. Absorber

8
NRC: Percentage of acoustical energy absorbed calculated as
an average of laboratory test data at several frequencies.

to reflect sound waves off convexly curved
or uneven surfaces for the purpose of
evenly distributing and blending the
sound over a broad area. In critical
listening area, diffusion can eliminate
sharp echoes without eliminating the
sound by absorbing it.
7.2.7 Anechoic Chamber
The anechoic chamber is the enclosure
provided to compensate the noise danger
from the sources. The walls of the
chamber should be massive and air tight
and provided with absorbent lining in the
interior part that will reduce the
reverberant buildup of noise within it.
Structural contact between the noise
source and the enclosure must be avoided,
so that the source of vibration is not
transmitted to the chamber walls.
7.3 Receiver Control
Hearing protectors are the least desirable
option for preventive measures of noise.
However, if it is impossible to reduce noise
to a harmless level then some form of
hearing protecting devices (ear – plug, ear
– muffs, helmets) is required. Most of the
hearing protection devices reduce the
sound to 35dB. It should be noted that
protective ear devices do interfere with
speech communication and can also be
hazard in some situation. A correctly
selected hearing protector should provide
enough noise reduction to remove the risk
of hearing damage, and at the same time
allow communication with the
surroundings while ensuring the best
available of comfort.
7.3.1 Hearing Protectors
The best hearing protection for any
worker is removal of hazardous noise from
the workplace. Until that happens, the
best hearing protector for a worker is the
one he or she will wear willingly and
consistently. The hearing protector is a
device, which covers or fills the ears so
that the sound reaching the eardrum is
attenuated. Molded and pliable earplugs,
cup - type protectors and helmets are
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 47
commercially available hearing protectors.
The selected hearing protector should be
capable of reducing the noise exposure at
the ear to below 82 dBA, 8-hour TWA.
Hearing protectors should be used only
when engineering controls and work
practices are not feasible for reducing
noise exposures, or during the
implementation of engineering controls.
The best hearing protector is the one the
worker will wear all of the time because it
is comfortable, adequate noise reduction
(effective), and has minimal impact on
communication.
Different types and models of hearing
protectors are available for noise
protection. Mainly the foam type HP with
noise rating reduction, NNR 29dB,
premolded (NNR - 21 to 26dB), fiberglass
(NNR - 15 to 26 dB), custom (NNR - 15 to
24dB), semi aural (NNI - 19dB), earmuffs
(NNR - 23 to 25dB), Capmuffs (NNR - 21
to 23dB).
Estimation of A - weighted TWA for
hearing Protectors:
When dBA level is known:
 When using a sound level meter set to
the A-weighting network: The obtained
representative sample of the A -
weighted exposures is used to calculate
the employee's TWA by subtraction 7
dB from the NRR, and further
deducting the remainder from the A -
weighted TWA to obtain the estimated
A - weighted TWA under the hearing
protector.
 When using area monitoring procedures
and a sound level meter set to the A -
weighting network: The estimation A -
weighted TWA under the hearing
protector for the obtained
representative sound level data for the
area in question is done by subtracting
7 dB from the NRR, and finally
deducting the remainder from the A -
weighted sound level for that area.
 When using a dosimeter that is not
capable of C - weighted measures: The
first step is the conversion of A-
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 48

weighted dose to an 8 - hour TWA., discomfort due to their semi-solid

followed by deduction 7 dB from the
NRR. Further the remainder value is
subtracted from the A -weighted TWA
to obtain the estimated A -weighted
TWA under the hearing protector.
Hearing protection devices may be broadly
divided into three types and one special
type:
 Earmuffs which cover the outer ear
and act as an acoustic barrier
sealing it against the head.
 Earplugs which can be inserted into
the outer ear canal, thereby
blocking the propagation of
airborne sound to the middle ear.
 Canal caps (semi-aural) which are
basically earplugs connected by
flexible headband. Canal caps
generally seal the ear canal at its
opening and they are used
extensively in the food industries.
 Other special types are available
such as helmets with circumaural,
cups or muffs with communication.
Other brands are also now
available with electronic
amplification or with electronic
amplification or with active noise
reducing digital circuits.
Earplugs
Earplugs can be classified according to size,
shape and construction materials (custom
molded, premolded and expandable).
 Premolded earplugs are made of soft
plastic / silicone
rubber and are
available in different
sizes. Generally,
they are available
with an attached
cord to prevent loss.
The wearer of these types can
experience a feeling of pressure or
construction.
 Custom molded earplugs are made of
soft rubber material, which is molded
into the individual‟s outer ear canal.
Depending on each wearer, a high
degree of
attenuation is
obtained.
 Expandable
earplugs are
considered the most comfortable. Since,
they are porous
and soft and are
made from slow
recovery closed cell
foam. They offer
high attenuation
as their
expandable nature
against the outer ear canal and seal it
with less pressure.
Earmuffs
Ear muffs are made from rigid cups, are
mostly oval shaped, and are designed to
cover the external ear completely. The
effectiveness of ear muffs depends mainly
on the pressure exerted by the headband
and the cushion to head sealing. The
attenuation provided by ear muffs can be
greatly reduced when the muff seal is
displaced by the side arms of spectacles or
long hair.
Canal Caps (Semi – aural/ Banded Ear
Plugs)
Canal caps consist of flexible tips, made
from silicone, vinyl or foam in mushroom,
hollow bullet or conical shape, attached to a
lightweight plastic headband. They are
easily removed and replaced. They can be
used under the chin and behind the head.
Specific Types of Hearing Protectors
There are a number of hearing protectors
designed for special purposes. Active noise
control earmuffs have low frequency
nullification characteristics They provide

good attenuation at low frequencies (up to
20 dB) and also serve as classical passive
earmuffs with good attenuation at high
frequencies.
 Advanced Earmuffs: Phones and wired-
up or connection through radio.
Additionally, they can be fitted with
acoustic frequency band-pass filters to
provide speech communication between
wearers, providing that the noise is out
of the speech frequency band.
 Earmuffs: Reproduce music or
messages from external units. These
muffs have a peak limiting circuit (to
about 80 dB(A)) to avoid hazard.
7.4 Traffic Noise Abatement
7.4.1 Noise Barriers
As fences / vegetation have minimal
effectiveness, the most common method is
the construction of noise barriers (reflective
or absorptive). Because noise barriers are,
open to the air above and around them,
sound bends over just as light bends around
the obstructions – through the principle of
diffraction. Diffraction limits the
effectiveness of any barrier to a maximum
noise reduction of 10 to 15 decibels,
independent of the material used. Typical
reductions usually range from 5 to 10
decibels. Refelective barrieras can diminish
more reduction capabilities when barriers
are on both sides of highway and are spaced
closer than 100ft apart.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 49
7.4.2 Land Use Planning Measures
Another option for controlling traffic noise
is to use administrative controls (zonning
regulations). Residential developments can
also be planned with buffer zones between
highways and residential buildings. These
buffer zones can commercial, industrial or
undeveloped areas.
7.4.3 Alternatives to Noise barriers:
 Traffic management / speed Restriction:
Traffic noise levels depend greatly on
the type of vehicles on the highway and
their speeds. Trucks generate more noise
than cars, especially when accelerating
and decelerating. Restricting trucks
from certain roadways, enforcing speed
restrictions, and minimizing or
synchronizing traffic signals, can thus
minimize noise.
 Highway Design Options: Highway
design options to minimize traffic noise
include building road ways as far as
possible from noise – sensitive locations,
depressing roadways, and avoiding steep
inclines in roadways. Steep inclines in
roadways cause more noise to be
generated by vehicles, especially trucks,
as they accelerate uphill and decelerate
downhill. A level roadway elevation
avoids this extra noise generation.
Building highways ground level creates
natural barriers between the highways
and any noise sensitive locations.
 Building Insulation: Sound insulation in
buildings, in the form of replacing
windows and doors, providing central
ventilation systems, and adding
insulation to attics (top floors), are only
considered for public buildings and
nonprofits institutional structures on a
case by case basis.
7.5 Response of Noise
Pollution Control in Nepal
through Legislation, Plan &
Policies
In Nepal, there are no specific policies,
legislation or guidelines related to noise

pollution control. However, the need for
policies, plan and legislation of noise
pollution was clearly spelled out in Nepal
Environmental Policies and Action Plan
(NEPAP) in 1993. NEPAP was based on
Agenda - 21 that has addressed most of
the principles relevant to the country. It
refers to the declaration of principles by
United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED)
held in Rio de Janeiro (June, 1992).
Principles like 11, 13, and 17 of Agenda -
21 followed by the NEPAP are relevant to
noise pollution control, which states that:
"Nation shall enact effective
environmental laws and developmental
law regarding liability and compensation
for the victims of pollution and other
environmental damage. Nation shall
undertake the environmental assessment,
as a national instrument for proposed
activities that are likely to have a
significant adverse impact on the
environment."
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992 - 1997) has
strongly emphasized on the importance of
EIA in developmental sector for
investigating development - related
pollution and to adopt proper technology to
minimize such pollution. Subsequently, the
Environmental Protection Act, EPA (1997)
and Environmental Protection Rules, EPR
(1997) were enacted. Similarly, Ninth Five
Year Plan (1997 - 2002) has laid more
emphasis on Pollution Prevention Strategy.
In the current Tenth Five Year Plan (2002 -
2007), it spells out about the long term
goals for pollution control in a sustainable
manner as well as envisages the
visualization of legal and fiscal mechanisms
for controlling industrial pollution and
deliberates focuses on research on
environmental friendly technologies. The
working policies adopted in the Tenth Year
Five Year Plan has clearly spelled out
about air, water and sound pollution
standards determination and programs of
implementation giving emphasis to an
effective monitoring system. It was for the
first time in the sixth five - year plan (1980
- 1985) that environment problem was
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 50
recognized as national issue. Environment
was regarded as an integral part of
development in the Seventh Five - Year
Plan (1985 - 1990).
7.5.1 Related Legislation
• The Environmental Protection Act,
1997: Environmental Protection Act, 1997
and Environmental Protection Rules, 1997
have made provision dealing with Initial
Environmental Examination (IEE),
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA),
Prevention and Control of Pollution and
Protection of National Heritage and
Environmental Protection Area.
Section (7) - 1 of the Act refers to
"Prevention and Control of Pollution"
which states; "Nobody shall create
pollution or allow pollution to be caused in
such a manner which is likely to have
significant adverse impact on the
environment or likely to be hazardous to
human life and health, or shall not emits
sound, heat radioactive rays, wastes from
any mechanical devices, industrial
enterprises or any other places contrary to
the prescribed standard." Subsection (2-3)
of the section (7) of the Act has given full
authority to the concerned agency to
immediately penalize or prohibit activities
violating to section (7) - 1. The chapter (3)
of the Act has provided various provisions
under rules (15 - 20) for prevention and
control of pollution. Rule - 15 refers to
prohibition of emitting waste states that
"A person shall not emit or cause the
emission of noise, heat, radioactive
material and wastes from any mechanical
means, industrial establishment or any
other place in contravention of the
standard prescribed by the Ministry
through notification published in the
Gazette." Rule - 16 has enforced the
industries like chemical, food processing,
textile etc listed in Annex - 7 of the Act to
install equipment to reduce the pollution
under prescribed standard and to take
provisional or permanent certificate from
the concerned body (MoPE / MoEST). Rule
(17 - 20) has given provision of lodging
complained against pollution and

empowered the concerned body to issue
notice to control pollution and to carry out
sanitation and cleanliness activities.
• The Labor Act, 1991: The Labor Act,
1991 that is administrated by the
Ministry of Labor, is the main regulation
that regulates the working environment.
Chapter 5 of the Act deals with
occupational health and safety. Section 27
of chapter 5 requires the management to
make certain arrangements such as
reduction of noise pollution that would
adversely affect the health of workers.
Section 26 and 29 require for management
to provide protective clothing or devices to
workers handling excessive noise
producing equipment.
• Industrial Enterprises Act, 1992:
As provided in industrial policy, these
act mandates to take license for the
industries listed in the Annex - 2 of the
Act if it causes significantly adverse
effect on defense, public health and
environment. Section 11 clearly provides
that licenses or registration certificates
shall contain provision regarding
concession, exception, facilities that will
be given to enterprise and prescribed
condition to be fulfilled by them. Section
13 mandates the Industrial Promotion
Board established under the Act, Section
12 to direct the industries to make
arrangements for controlling
environment pollution. Section 15 (k)
provides permission to grant up to 50%
of taxable income for the investment of
an industry on process or equipment
with the objective of controlling pollution
or environment. Section 25 (l) empowers
Nepal government to punish any person
for establishing any industry without
complying the condition mentioned in
the license or certificate of registration.
• Motor Vehicle and
Transportation Management Act,
1993: Section 23 of the Act empowers
the Government of Nepal to fix
necessary standard to examine pollution
that vehicle may cause and also to
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 51
determine whether or not the vehicle is
road worthy. Section 17 (l) enforces the
vehicle owner to examine the vehicle
under the measures prescribed in section
23, before registration and for taking
owner roadworthiness certificate.
Section 118 of the Act mandates the
traffic police department to put
restriction to drive any vehicle at any
public place for public security and
welfare of the common people. Under
this Act, Traffic Police Department has
recently (2003) declared Horn
Restriction Zone from Shaidgate to
Jamal in Kathmandu City. For violation
of this law, under the section 164 of the
Act, traffic police can impose fine
immediately from Rs 25 to Rs 200.
• Local Self Governance Act, 1999:
Section 28(h) of chapter 4; part 2 of this
Act empowers the Village Development
Committee to take executive decision and
direction to make various programs
related to environmental protection.
Similar empowerments are given to
District Development Committees and
Municipalities in section 189(g) and
section 96(c) of chapter 1, part 3
respectively. Section 70 (h) of this chapter
8 of this Act clearly mandated the Village
Development Committee to punish any
person that carry out such activity as to
disturb peace in the neighboring place or
society by way of installing or through any
equipment or means of entertainment. A
similar mandate is also given to
Municipality under section 165(g).
• The Town Development Act, 1999:
Clause 9 of this Act empowers the Town
Development Committee to regulate,
control or to prohibit any act or activity
that has an adverse effect on public
health or aesthetic of the town, or in any
way pollutes the environment. It contains
penalty provision in the form of fines for
the violation of the Act.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 52

• National 9Transport

Management Plan and Policy

of Government, Long Term
Vision (Interim Plan
(2007/08-2009/10)): The long
term vision is to make the transport
system safe, affordable, organized,
non-polluting and service-oriented,
through qualitative increase in
vehicle and transport services,
thereby making a contribution
towards the overall development
and prosperity of the country.

9
Transport Management System of Nepal, Yuba Raj
Pandey, Ministry of Labour and Transport
Management, Kathmandu, Nepal February 2009
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 53

8. Health Effects of Noise

The health significance of noise pollution
specific effects are noise induced hearing
loss, sensory effects, speech intelligibility
effect, sleep disturbance effect,
psychophisiological effects, mental health
illness, performance effects and effects on
residential behavior and annoyance.

Sleep / clinical
Disorders

- Sleep apnoea
- Chronic Insomnia
Effects on Health

 Short Term
- Increased risk of accidents
Symptoms or Indicators of - Blood Pressure
disturbed sleep "Sleep - Stress of hormones
Disturbance"

- Don't be able to fall  Medium term

asleep - Cardiovascular
- Successive awakenings - Cognitive performance
- No –resting sleep  Long Term
- Mental
- Cardiovascular
Time - Immune system

Stressors

- Environment
- Psychological
- Life style
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 54

increases the impedance of the middle ear

8.1 Human Ear
resulting in an attenuated input of sound
8.1.1 Hearing and Mechanism of energy through cochlea.
Hearing Loss
Sound first enters the ear through the
8.1.3 Cochlear Mechanism
outer canal (external auditory meatus or
The sensory cells (having hair like
ear canal). The sound then falls on
projection - stereocilia) of the corti convert
eardrum (tympanic membrane). The
the pressure wave into ionic and electric
eardrum vibrates under the influence of
events, which constitute a nerve impulse.
the incident sound wave. These waves
The inner hair cells serves as the pre-
then connected through a series of bones
synaptic sensory receptors and the outer
(ossicles) that reduces the amplitude and
ones are believed to serve as an
increase the force upon inner round
amplification system due to their
windows. This transmits the waves to
contractile properties. The more hair cells
liquid borne pressure waves within the
are being activated when the sound
circular canal (cochlea). The pressure
intensity increases. There is an initiation
fluctuations within the liquid in the
of action potentials in the sensory nerve
cochlea excite small nerve cells (hair
endings when the stereocilia of the inner
cells). Each of these hair cells has its own
hair cells are bent. Finally, the brain
individual nerves and they are connected
interprets the impulses from the place of
together into the auditory nerves, which
then go off to the brain center.
8.1.2 Outer and Middle Ear
Mechanism
The outer ear collects sound waves
through the auricle (pinna) and the
external acoustic meatus that ends with
the tympanic membrane (eardrum). The
aural reflex is more responsive to
broadband sounds than to pure tones and
more responsive to lower frequencies than
to higher, and is most readily activated
and maintained by intermittent, intense

maximal stimulation of the organ of corti

as a particular pitch of sound.
8.1.4 Degrees of Hair Cell Injuries
The outer and middle ear is rarely
damaged by noise but there exists the
pulses. The middle ear muscle contraction possibility of rupturing of eardrum
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 55

through explosive noise. The neural Ultimately, there is absence of nerve

damage involves the injury to the hair fibers and corti organ in the stage of total
cells that results of hearing loss. The degeneration.
excessive shearing forces mechanically
damage the hair cells. The intense noise
stimulation forces the hair cells into high
metabolic activity, which overdrives them
to the point of metabolic failure and
consequent cell death. Once destroyed,
hair cells are not capable of regeneration.
The hair cells may be partially, severely
injured or totally degenerate at the
number of degrees of sound exposure. The
partial injury in corti is observed through
the distortion of pillar cells, swelling of
supporting cells and absence of hair cells.
In severely injury case, there is collapse of
corti, absence of hair cells and the
accessory cells swollen and distorted.
frequency range (3000 - 6000Hz). It is
8.2 Noise - Induced Hearing expected that environmental and leisure
time noise with a LAeq, 24h of 70 dB or
Effect
below will not cause hearing impairment
Hearing disability may be assessed in in majority of community people even
terms of difficulty in understanding after a lifetime exposure. But for shooting
acoustic signals and speech. From a noise with LAeq, 24h levels greater than
hearing-deficit point of view, noise is 80dB, there may be an increased risk for
primarily described in terms of equivalent noise-induced hearing impairment.
continuous sound pressure level over
 Noise-Induced Temporary Threshold
certain averaged period. It is generally
Shift (NITTS) is a reversible
believed that the damage of risk is
phenomenon in audiometric threshold
negligible at noise exposure levels of less
when a person entering a very noisy area
than 75dB(A) (LAeq, 8h). The available
may experience a measurable loss in
evidence indicates that the risk increases
hearing sensitivity. This may recover
when impulsive sound pressure reaches
some time after returning to a quiet
130 - 150dB (peak level) or when their
environment. But this may depend on the
noise emission level exceeds 115dB. The
severity of the hearing shift, individual
addition of impulsive noise on a steady
susceptibility and type of exposure.
noise may increase the risk for damage at
80 - 110dB (LAeq, 8h) and 100 - 130dB peak.  Noise - Induced Permanent
The noise-induced hearing loss Threshold Shift (NIPTS) is recognized
accompanied through hearing when the recovery from NIITS is not
impairment, temporary threshold shift complete before the next exposure; there
and permanent threshold shift. is a possibility that some of the loss will
become permanent. NIPTS usually
 Hearing impairment is typically
involves a maximum loss at around the
defined as an increase in the threshold of
frequency of 4000Hz. The first stages of
hearing. Hearing sensitivity diminishes
noise-induced hearing loss are often not
with age, a condition is known as
recognized because they do not impair
presbyacusis. Hearing deficits may be
speech communication ability in quiet. As
accompanied by tinnitus (ringing in the
the loss becomes more pronounced, there
ears). Noise - induced hearing
arise the difficulty in speech reception
impairment occurs in the higher
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 56

may be encountered, particularly in the

noisy environment. Hearing of important
sounds other than speech (door bells,
telephones, or electronic signals) may also
be impaired. With further advancement,
speech communication may be severely
affected.
 Acoustic Trauma is a permanent
hearing loss that results from very brief
exposure to a very loud noise. In this
case, the outer and middle ear rarely
damaged by intense noise. The explosive
sounds can rupture the tympanic
membrane or dislocate the ossicular
chain.
 Presbyacusis is the condition of hearing
loss especially ascribed to aging effects.
The greatest hearing loss takes place in
higher frequency. Study shows that this
phenomenon is more pronounced in man
8.3 Sensory Effects
rather than women for medium to high Physical ear discomfort of noise exposure
frequency sounds. The presbycusis curves starts from sound pressure level 80 -
for women and men show the average 100dB and up. Persons with some ear or
threshold shift for pure tones as a sensorineual hearing disorders and
function of age10. hearing - aid users may experience aural
pain on exposure at even lower levels.
Tinnitus and loudness conscription are
common sensory effects accompanying
temporary or permanent hearing
impairment. Both trends may be
experienced as the result of exposure to
very loud noise.
 Aural Pain: In abnormal hearing
(inflammation), pain may be caused in
the eardrum or middle ear by sound
pressure level of about 80 - 90dB. The
threshold of pain for sound exposures in
normal hearing persons is in the region of
the sound pressure level of 110 - 130 dB.
The threshold for physical discomfort
called loudness discomfort level (LDL) or
uncomfortable loudness level (ULL) is in
the region of 80 - 100dB SPL. In many
cases of sensorineual hearing disorders
(Meniere’s disease), dysacusis symptoms
Presbycusis curves for women and men (lowering of the threshold of aural
discomfort and pain) may appear.
 Some forms of Tinnitus are produced due
10 to the blood flow through the ear
ASA Subcommittee Z24-X-2, "The Relations of
Hearing Loss to Noise Exposure," New York, 1954, structures. Certain sensorineural
pp.16-17
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 57

disorders, and most frequently noise - as the noise levels increase, people tend
induced hearing losses, are accompanied to raise their voices to overcome the
by abnormal loudness perception masking effect. At a distance of 1m from
(loudness recruitment). the speaker, relaxed conversation occurs
at a voice level of approximately 54 -
8.4 Interference with Speech 56dB(A) and normal and raised voices at
levels of approximately 60 and 66dB(A).
Communication
The speech level should exceed the noise
Noise interference with speech bias level by 15 to 18dB(A) for 100% sentence
results in a great proportion of person intelligibility. When the speech level is
disabilities and handicaps such as equal to noise level, intelligibility falls to
problems with concentration, fatigue, 95%.
uncertainty and lack of self-confidence,
 So, for normal conversation at about 1m
irritation, misunderstandings, and
distances, the background noise should
decreased work capacity, problems in
not exceed 70dB(A). Shouted
human relations, and number of reactions
conversations at the same distance are
to stress. The higher the level of the
possible up to about 85dB(A). To permit
masking noise and more energy it
normal conversation at distances of about
contains at speech frequencies, the greater
5 meters would require a background
will be the percentage of speech sounds
noise level below 50dB(A). Satisfactory
that are undetectable to the listener.
telephone conversations need background
Many noises that are not enough intense
levels less than about 80dB(A). The
to cause hearing impairment can interfere
estimated sentence intelligibility, at
with speech communication. The
speaker-listener distances greater than
interference effect is a complicated
1m in the reverberant conditions found in
function of the distance between the
a typical living room. For 100% sentence
speaker and listener and the frequency
intelligibility, it is desirable for indoor
components of the spoken phonemes.
listening conditions, a background noise
 During relaxed conversation, the speech level of less than 45dB(A).
level is approximately 55dB(A) and that

120
high

Communication Impossible

100
Background
Noise, dB(A)

Max. Vocal Effort

Communication Difficult

Communication Possible Shout

Expected Voice Level

40
Low

3 6 9

Talker to Listener Distance, m

 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 58

Effects of Noise on People (Residence Land Use Only)

Speech Interference
a
Effects

Hearing Annoyance
Indoor Outdoor b Average
Loss
Day- Communit
Night Distance in y Reaction
d
Average meter for % of
% Sentence
Sound Qualitative 95% Population General Community
Intelligibilit
Level Description Sentence Highly Attitude Towards Area
y c
Intelligibilit Annoyed
y

Noise is likely to be the

may begin most important of all
to occur adverse aspects of the
75 98 0.5 37 very severe
community environment

Noise is one oft he most

will not likely important adverse
to occur aspects of the community
70 99 0.9 25 severe
environment.

Noise is one of the

will not important adverse
occur aspects of the community
65 100 1.5 15 significant
environment.

Noise may be considered

will not
an adverse aspect of the
occur moderate
60 100 2.0 9 community environment.
to slight

Noise is considered no
will not more important than
-
occur various other
55 100 3.5 4.0
environmental factors.

11
Notes: Research implicates noise as a factor producing stress-related health effects such as heart diseases,
high blood pressure and stroke, ulcers and other digestive disorders. The relationships between noise
and these effects, however, have not as yet been quantified.

a. Speech interference data are drawn from other US Environmental Protection agencies studies.
b. Depends on attitudes and other factors.
c. The percentage of people reporting annoyance to lesser extent is high in each case. An unknown small
percentage of people will report being highly annoyed even in the quietest surroundings. One reason is
the difficulty all people have in integrating annoyance over a very long time.
d. Attitudes or other non-acoustic factor can modify this. Noise at low levels can still be important problem,
particularly when it intrudes into a quiet environment.

11
Federal Interagency Committee on Urban Noise, 1980, p. D-2
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 59

sensitive as well as non - sensitive

8.5 Sleep Disturbance
Effects
If the equivalent continuous sound
pressure level during the sleeping period
exceed 30 - 50dB(A), Leq indoors, the
negative effects on rapid eye movement
sleep occurs. For isolated exposures as low
as 45dB(A, max), awakenings, changes of
sleep depth have been shown. Exposure to
noise cans disturbances of sleep in terms
of difficulty to fall asleep, alteration of
sleep pattern or depth, and awakenings.
The other primary physiological effects
that can be induced by noise during sleep
are vegetative reactions (increased blood
pressure and heart beating rate, finger
pulse amplitude, vascoconstriction, and
change in respiration and cardiac
arrhythmia as well as body movement).
Exposure to nighttime noise can also
induce secondary effects or aftereffects,
that is, effects can be measured in the
morning or the day after exposure. They
include perceived sleep quality, increased
fatigue, decreased mood, and decreased
performance.
 The time required to fall asleep is
considered as an important aspect of
noise - induced sleep disturbances. A movements at 45, 50 and 60dB(A, max)
longer time to fall asleep was found in
adults at sound pressure levels of 50
and 60dB(A, max) road traffic noise. A
reduction in the time need to fall asleep
was found among children who slept in
a more quiet room and among adults
who slept with closed windows as
compared to sleeping with open
windows.
 In young and middle aged persons,
awakening reactions start occurring
from at least 50 - 55dB(A, max) indoors,
probably at low levels (12.7% awakened
at 47dBA, max of road traffic noise).
Among one third of the exposed persons
(30.6% at 60dBA, max) about 10% of
the noise events would produce a wake
up at 65dB(A, max),
 Body movements have been registered
as an objective indication of
disturbances of noise during sleep.
Large body movements have been found
to be associated with the number of
awakenings or sleep-stage shifts and
sleep depth. The probability of noise-
induced body movements increased
with increasing maximum sound
pressure level in the same manner as
the probability of awakening reactions.
There was a threefold increase in body
noise levels at 16 events per night, and
slightly lower increase at 64 events per
night.
 Physiological reactions (effects on heart
rate, finger pulse and respiration rate)
have been observed during the exposure
to noise levels exceeding 40dB(A, max)
while sleeping. The heart beat rate
response (difference between
acceleratory and deceleratory phases)
during sleep to a single noise event can
be 20 to 30 beats.

8.6 Psycho Physiological

Effects
It has been postulated that noise acts as a
general stressor and as such may activate
physiological systems leading to changes
such as increases in blood pressure and
heart rate and vasoconstriction. Many

studies indicated that workers exposed to
high levels of industrial noise for 5 to 30
year duration have significantly increased
blood pressure compared to workers in
control areas. There has been a tendency
for blood pressure to be higher among
persons living in airport vicinity and on
streets with higher levels of traffic noise.
 Noise induced stress may increase the
excretion of magnesium which may
cause negative magnesium balance that
may produce progressive
vasoconstriction, vasospasm and
ischemia which may lead to
hypertension and coronary heart
disease.
 The overall evidence for the effects of
noise on cardiovascular functioning is
suggestive of weak to moderate effects of
community noise on blood pressure.
8.7 Mental Health effects
Exposure to high levels of occupational
noise has been associated with development
of neurosis and irritability. Actually, noise
might accelerate and intensify the
development of latent mental disorders.
The criteria have been classified for mental
health such as indices based on treatment
data, psychiatric signs and symptoms,
indicators of mood, well-being, satisfaction,
indices of functional effectiveness and role
performance, and indices derived from
notions of positive mental health. Anxiety,
emotional stress, nervous complaints,
nausea, headaches, instability,
argumentativeness, sexual impotency,
changes in general mood and anxiety, and
social conflicts, more general psychiatric
problems like neurosis, psychosis and
hysteria are the noise induced mental
health symptoms.
8.8 Performance Effects
Acute noise exposure appears to disrupt
tasks. The chronic noise exposure impacts
reading acquisition in children. Various
findings showed that impaired reading and
word list performance, and long term recall
of a text in children was found in nearby
uncontrolled airport side schools.
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 60
8.9 Effects on Residential
Behavior and Annoyance
Community reaction to noise may involve
considerably more than just annoyance.
People may feel a variety of negative
emotions when exposed to community noise
and may report anger, disappointment,
dissatisfaction, withdrawal, helplessness,
depression, anxiety, distraction, agitation
or exhaustion. Annoyance is a feeling of
displeasure associated with any agent or
condition known or believed by an
individual or a group to be adversely
affecting them.
 Annoyance generally increases with
sound pressure level; it has been found
that communities vary considerably in
their reaction to the same sound level.
Differences between reactions in
different cities may be as great as the
equivalent of a 15dB difference.
Annoyance is generally related to the
direct effects of noise on various
activities, such as interference with
conversation, mental concentration, rest,
or recreation.
 Sound environments produce a number
of social and behavioral effects on
residential behavior and annoyance
including: overt everyday behavior
patterns (opening windows, using
balconies, TV and radio use, writing
petitions, complaining to authorities),
human performance on specific test
tasks (school achievement, vigilance,
choice-reaction time, short-term memory,
air traffic control), social behavior
(aggression, unfriendliness, engagement
and participation), social indicators
(residential mobility, hospital
admissions, drug consumption, accident
rates), changes in mood (less happy,
more depressed mood, etc.)
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 61

The relationship between stress and strain with special regard to moderate variables

9.1 ISO 1999-1990

9. Criteria for Continuous and
The ISO 1999-1990 standard provides a
Intermittent Noise complete description of NIPTS for various
exposure levels and exposure times. The 85
The statement in the occupational exposure
dB(A) limit for 8 hours is recommended by the
limit that the proposed OEL (85 dB(A)) will
ACGIH and has found acceptance in most
protect the median of the population against a
countries. Because some countries still use 90
noise-induced permanent threshold shift
dB(A) or both for different steps of action and
(NIPTS) after 40 years of occupational
indeed the early OEL was at 90 dB(A), a short
exposure exceeding 2 dB for the average of 0.5,
review of the ACGIH recommending an A-
1, 2, and 3 kHz comes from ISO-1999-1990.
weighted 8-hour equivalent level of 85 dB(A) is
Today, A-weighted sound levels are in general
in order.
use in hearing damage risk criteria.

 85 dB(A) vs. 90 dB(A): Permanent noise-
induced hearing loss is related to the sound
pressure level and frequency distribution of
the noise, the time pattern and duration of
exposure, and individual susceptibility. The
zero settings on the audiometer are based on
response levels derived from the testing of
large groups of young people. There is
general agreement that progression in
hearing loss at frequencies of 500, 1000,
2000, and 3000 Hz eventually will result in
impaired hearing, i.e., inability to hear and
understand speech.
a. NIOSH, 1972 Criteria for a Recommended
Standard–Occupational Exposure to Noise
(National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health 1972) - Workers exposed for
more than 30 years to 85 dB(A)
b. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA 1974) - an 8-hour level of 75 dB(A)
was established as the level that would
protect "public health and welfare with an
adequate margin of safety.
c. AAOO (American Academy of
Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology), 1979
- TLV includes 3000 Hz. Using ISO-1999,
the median amount of NIPTS after 40
years of exposure to 90 dB(A) is 2 dB for
the average of 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz.
The same 40-year exposure at 85 dB(A) for
the average of 500, 1000, 2000, and 3000
also is 2 dB. Thus, everything else being
equal, inclusion of 3000 Hz will drop the 8-
hour criterion level from 90 dB(A) to 85
dB(A). The criterion are as follows:
1.The average of the hearing threshold
levels at 500, 1000, 2000, and 3000 Hz
should be calculated for each ear.
2.The percentage of impairment for each
ear should be calculated by multiplying
by 1.5 percent the amount by which the
average hearing threshold level exceeds
25 dB(A). The impairment should be
calculated up to 100 percent reached at
92 dB(A).
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 62
3.The impairment then should be
calculated by multiplying the percentage
of the better ear by five, adding this
figure to the percentage from the poorer
ear, and dividing the total by six.”
 3 dB(A) vs. 5 dB(A): If hearing damage is
proportional to the acoustic energy received
by the ear, then an exposure to a particular
noise level for one hour will result in the
same damage as an exposure for two hours
to a noise level which is 3 dB lower than the
original level. This is referred to the 3 dB(A)
trading rule and is generally accepted in
many parts of the world. However, 4 dB(A)
and 5 dB(A) rules exist in the USA.
Inclusion of 3000 Hz would dictate reducing
the 5 dB(A) trading relation to a lower
number. In some cases, this number might
even be slightly lower than 3 dB(A). In
summary, the equal energy rule (3 dB(A)
rule) appears to be a better predictor of noise
hazard for most practical conditions and is
strongly recommended by the TLV
Committee.
9.2 Criteria for Impulse Noise
Impacts or impulses referred to discrete noise
of short duration, less than 500 ms, where the
SPL rises and decays very rapidly. For
assessing impulse/impact noise was to allow
100 impulses or impacts per day at 140 dB(A),
or 1000 per day at 130 dB(A), or 10,000 per
day at 120 dB(A).
9.2.1 Control of noise exposure in
workplaces. (Policy and
guidance documents of the
International Labour
Organization (ILO)):
General Conference of the International
Labour Organization in 1977, provides that, as
far as possible, the working environment shall
be kept free from any hazard due to air
pollution, noise or vibration. Neither
Convention No. 148 nor the accompanying
Recommendation No. 156 concerning the
Protection of Workers against Occupational
Hazards in the Working Environment Due to
Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration, also
adopted in 1977, specify exposure limits for

noise at the workplace. As of June,1997, 39
countries have ratified the Convention No. 148
of which 36 have accepted its obligation in
respect of noise. The ratification of a
Convention by an ILO member State involves
the obligation to apply, in law and in practice,
its provisions. In the light of knowledge at the
time of publication, a warning limit value of 85
dB(A) and a danger limit value of 90 dB(A) are
recommended.
9.2.2 Occupational Exposure Levels
reported and recommended by
I-INCE
In 1997 the final report on “Technical
Assessment of Upper Limits on Noise in the
Workplace“ had been approved and published
by the International Institute of Noise Control
Engineering (I-
INCE). It comprises the results of a Working
Party started in 1992 to “review current
knowledge.
1. Limit of 85 dB(A) for 8 hour workshift for
jurisdiction desirable as soon as possible.
2. Maximum sound pressure level as limit of
140 dB for C-weighted peak..
3. Exchange rate of 3 dB per doubling or
halving of exposure time.
4. Efforts to reduce levels to the lowest
economically and technologically reasonable
values.
5. In the design stage consideration to sound
and vibration isolation between noisier and
quieter areas, significant amount of
acoustical absorption in rooms occupied by
people.
6. Purchase specifications for machinery
should contain clauses specifying the
maximum emission values.
7. A long-term noise control program at each
workplace where daily exposure exceeds 85
dB(A).
8. Use of personal hearing protection should
be encouraged when engineering noise
Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 63
control measures are insufficient to reduce
daily exposure to 85 dB(A), should be
mandatory when exposure level is over 90
dB(A).
9. Employers should conduct audiometric
testing of workers exposed to more than 85
dB(A) at least every three years, test
results should be preserved in the
employee„s file.
9.2.3 Occupational Exposure Levels
recommended by NIOSH
In 1972, NIOSH published Criteria for a
Recommended Standard: Occupational
Exposure to Noise, which provided the basis
for a recommended standard to reduce the risk
of developing permanent hearing loss as a
result of occupational noise exposure (NIOSH
1972). NIOSH has now evaluated the latest
scientific information and is revising some of
its previous recommendations (NIOSH
1998),as it is summarized in the foreword of
the new document.
 NIOSH recommended exposure limit
(REL) of 85 dBA for occupational noise
exposure.
 The excess risk of developing
occupational noise-induced hearing
loss (NIHL) for a 40-year lifetime
exposure at the 85 dBA REL is 8%,
which is considerably lower than the
25% excess risk at the 90 dBA
permissible exposure limit currently
enforced by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA)
and the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA).
 NIOSH previously recommended an
exchange rate of 5dB for the
calculation of time-weighted average
exposures to noise, but it is now
recommending a 3-dBexchange rate,
which is more firmly supported by
scientific evidence. The 5-dB exchange
rate is still used by OSHA and MSHA,
but the 3-dB exchange rate has been
increasingly supported by national and
international consensus.
 Sunil Babu Khatry, Noise Pollution, 513 -Page, 64

 NIOSH recommends an improved

criterion for significant threshold
shift, which is an increase of 15 dB in
hearing threshold at 500, 1000, 2000,
3000,4000, or 6000 Hz that is repeated
for the same ear and frequency in
back-to-back audiometric tests.

9.2.4 ACGIH Recommendation

American Conference of Government
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has
recommended threshold limit values (TLV) for
occupational noise. The OEL's refer to sound
pressure levels and exposure durations that
represent conditions under which it is believed
that nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed without adverse effect on their ability
to hear and understand normal speech.

Prior to 1979, the medical profession had

defined hearing impairment as an average
hearing threshold level in excess of 25 dB(A)
(ISO-7029-DIS) at 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz.
The limits that are given here have been
established to prevent a hearing loss at 3000
and 4000 Hz. The values should be used as
guidelines in the control of noise exposure and,
due to individual susceptibility, should not be
regarded as fine lines between safe and
dangerous levels. The proposed limits should
protect the median of the population against a
noise-induced hearing loss exceeding 2 dB(A)
after 40 years of occupational exposure for the
average of 0.5, 1, 2, and 3Hz.

a. LEX,8h < < OEL (OEL = 85 or 90 dB(A)): the

working conditions are acceptable legally.

b. LEX,8h > >OEL: the conditions are

unacceptable and control measures must
be implemented as soon as possible

c. LEX,8h OEL: additional measurements

are needed to determine whether L EX,8h is
lower or higher than the OEL.
 Sunil (a)

References
1. Acoustic Materials for Sound Insulation for industrial, commercial or architectural applications, Smock &
Schonthaler Industries, Insulation Sales Inc.
2. Birgitta Berglund, Thomas Lindvall (1995), Community Noise, Center for Sensory Research, Stockholm,
Sweden.
3. Brief Technical Notes on Sound & Noise Control, N9701: ESI Engineering, Inc.., Minnesota.
4. Brigitta Berglund, Thomas Lindvall, Dietrich H Schela, Guideline for Community Noise,
WHO/SDE/PHE/OEH.
5. Canter, MW., Environmental Impact Assessment.
6. Chawla Gr, Mehra ML, Katyal T, Satake M, Katyal Mohan, Nagahiro Himeji (1989): Environmental Noise
Pollution & its Control.
7. Corner O Leo (1991), Putting a lid on noise pollution: Mechanical Engineering Journal, USA.
8. Criteria For a Recommended Standard; Occupational Noise Exposure - Revised Criteria 1998, U.S. Department
Of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio
9. Cunnif PF (1977), Environmental Noise Pollution.
10. Davis, Cornwel, Environmental Engineering.
11. Garg, SK, Sewage disposal & air pollution engineering.
12. Gerard Kelly, Environmental Engineering.
13. Guideline Values for Community Noise in specific Environment (1999), WHO.
14. Jones DM, AJ (1984), Noise & Socity.
15. Lord P & Thomas, Noise Measurement & Control.
16. Manella R & Mc Clintock, Noise in non linear dynamical system; Contemporary Physics, Vol. 31, No. 3.
17. Monitoring Noise Levels Non – mandatory Informational appendix - 1910.95 App G: Regulations (Standards –
29CFR), US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety & Health Administration.
18. Monitoring Noise Levels Non-mandatory Information, Appendix1910.95 [Regulations standard - 29 CFR: app
G]: US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety & Health Administration 200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Wasihngton , DC 20210
19. NIOSH 919720, EPA (1973) & ISO (1971).
20. Noise & Health, Health Council of the Netherlands, 1994.
21. Noise Code (1998), Department of Environmental Protection, New York.
22. Noise Criteria (NC) Method: State of the Art Acoustics Inc., Ottawa, ON Canada K1J 9J3.
23. Noise Level Monitoring & Measurement: JIS C 1512/1983.
24. Noise Pollution, EPA Victoria, South Australlia.
25. Occupational Noise Exposure, Criteria For a Recommended, Standard Revised Criteria 1998: U.S.
Department Of Health And Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Cincinnati, Ohio.
26. Occupational Noise Exposure, Recommendations for a Noise Standard, NIOSH, CDC, USA.
27. Poleto, David MY, Cost – Benefit Handbook: A guide for New York State’s Regulatory Agencies, Government
Regulatory Reform.
28. Protection of the Human Environment, Guidelines for Community, WHO.
29. Recommendations for a Noise Standard, Niosh, CDC, 1999.
30. Rosenstock, Linda (1996), Criteria for a Recommended Standard Occupational Nosie Exposure, Revised
Criteria, DHHS (NIOSH), Publication No. 96
31. Sound Level Meters, JIS Z 8731/1983.
32. Young H. D. & Scars F. W.; University Physics.
33. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc 2007
34. Henderson Tom (1996 – 2004), The Nature of Sound
35. Allan D. Pierce, Acoustics: An Introduction to its Physical Principles & Application, 2007 The Acoustical
Society of America
36. Sapkota, Balkrishna (2004), Fundamentals of Noise Pollution, Department of Physics, Pulchowk Campus,
Lalitpur
 Sunil (b)

A. Annexure

Table 1: Guideline Values for Community Noise in Specific Environments

Time LAmax
LAeq
Specific environment Critical Health Effect(s) base fast
[dB(A)]
[hours] [dB]

Serious annoyance, daytime and evening 55 16 -

Outdoor living area
Moderate annoyance, daytime and evening 50 16 -

Dwelling, indoors Speech intelligibility & moderate

35 16
annoyance, daytime & evening
30 8 45
Inside bedrooms Sleep disturbance, night-time

Sleep disturbance, window open (outdoor

Outside bedrooms 45 8 60
values)

Speech intelligibility, disturbance of

School class rooms & pre-schools, during
information extraction, message 35 -
indoors class
communication

sleeping-
Pre-school bedrooms, indoor Sleep disturbance 30 45
time

during
School, playground outdoor Annoyance (external source) 55 -
play

Sleep disturbance, night-time 30 8 40

Hospital, ward rooms, indoors
Sleep disturbance, daytime and evenings 30 16 -

Hospitals, treatment rooms, indoors Interference with rest and recovery #1

Industrial, commercial shopping and

Hearing impairment 70 24 110
traffic areas, indoors and outdoors

Ceremonies, festivals and Hearing impairment (patrons:<5

100 4 110
entertainment events times/year)

Public addresses, indoors and

Hearing impairment 85 1 110
outdoors

Music and other sounds through

Hearing impairment (free-field value) 85 #4 1 110
headphones/ earphones

Impulse sounds from toys, fireworks Hearing impairment (adults) - - 140 #2

and firearms Hearing impairment (children) - - 120 #2

Outdoors in parkland and

Disruption of tranquillity #3
conservations areas
# 1: As low as possible.
# 2: Peak sound pressure (not LAF, max) measured 100 mm from the ear.
 Sunil (c)

# 3: Existing quiet outdoor areas should be preserved and the ratio of intruding noise to natural background sound
should be kept low.
# 4: Under headphones, adapted to free-field values.

Table 2: Noise Abatement Criteria

Hourly A - Weighted Sound Level in Decibels (dBA)

Activity
Leq(h) Description of Activity Category
Category

A 57 (Exterior)
B 67 (Exterior)
C 72 (Exterior)
D Not Applicable Undeveloped lands
E 52 (Interior)
Lands on which serenity and quiet are of extraordinary significance and serve
and important public need, and where the preservation of those qualities is
essential if the area is to continue to serve its intended purpose
Residences, churches, school, libraries, hospitals, motels, hotels, parks, picnic
and recreation areas, active sports areas and playgrounds
Developed lands, properties or activities not included in Categories A or B
Residences, motels, hotels, public meeting rooms, schools, churches, libraries,
hospitals and auditoriums

Table 3: South Australia Environmental Noise Policy

Maximum
permitted
Class of Machine Specified Times
Noise Level,
dB(A)*
Lawnmowers, poser equipment and their From 8pm on any night (except Saturday
drives (including saws, drills, tools, night) until 8am on the following morning.
45
compressors, pumps, swimming pool pumps From 8pm on Saturday night until 9am on
and filters, etc) the following Sunday morning.
From 10pm on any night (except Saturday
night) until 8am on the following morning.
Domestic air conditioners 45
From 10pm on Saturday night until 9am on
the following Sunday morning.
Some non – domestic noise sources are also controlled by this policy
From 8pm on any night until 7am on the
Bird scaring devices 45 following morning.

From 8pm on any night (except Saturday

Garbage collection units, street sweepers, night) until 7am on the following morning.
60
hoggerso From 8pm on Saturday night until 8am on
the following Sunday morning.
*: Measured at any place, other than the premises from which the noise emanates, where a person lives or
works.
O
: Mobile mulching machines
 Sunil (d)

Ref.: Environmental noise, October 2004, EPA South Australia

Table 4: Construction Equipment Noise Ranges

Noise Level at 50ft,

Equipments
dBA

Compactors (Rollers0 71 - 74

Front Loaders 72 - 83
Earth Moving

Backhoes 72 - 92

Tractors 78 - 94
Equipment Powered by Internal Combustion Engines

Scrapers, Graders 80 - 82

Pavers 87 - 89

Trucks 83 - 93

Concrete Mixers 74 - 85
Materials Handling

Concrete Pumps 81 - 82

Cranes, Movable 74 - 85

Cranes, Derrick 87 - 90

Pumps 69 - 71
Stationary

Generators 73 - 83

Compressors 76 - 87

Pneumatic wrenches 83 - 88

Impact Equipment Jackhammers and Rock Drills 82 - 96

Impact Pile Drivers Peaks 95 - 104

Vibrator 69 - 81
Others
Saws 73 - 81

Ref: US Environmental Protection Agency, 1972, P. 2-108

 Sunil (e)

Table 5: Long Term Health effects of Noise Exposure, Netherlands

Health Effects Observation threshold (levels above which effect starts)

Level in
Effect Situation Noise metric Inside/outside
dB(A)

1. Sufficient evidence

Work LAeq, 8hr 75 Inside

Hearing damage
Sport LAeq,24hr 70 Inside

Work LAeq,8hr <85 Inside

Hypertension
Home LAeq,6-22hr 70 Outside

Ischemic heart diseases Home LAeq,6-22hr 70 Outside

Annoyance Home Ldn 42 Outside

Awakening Sleep SEL 55 Inside

Sleep stages Sleep SEL 35 Inside

Self reported sleep quality Sleep LAeq, night 40 Outside

School performance School LAeq, day 70 Outside

2. Limited evidence

Birth-weight - - - -

Immune system - - - -

Psychiatric admission - - - -

3. Lack of evidence

Congenital effects - - - -

Immune system Sleep - - -

Ref.: Noise and Health, Health Council of the Netherlands, September 1994
 Sunil (f)

Table 6: Ldn Values that protect Public Health and Welfare with a Margin of
Safety

Effect Level Area

Hearing Leq(24) < 70 dB All areas (at the ear)
Outdoors in residential areas and farms and
Outdoor activity interference and other outdoors areas where people spend widely
Ldn < 55 dB
annoyance varying amounts of time and other places in
which quiet is a basis for use.
Outdoor areas where people spend limited
Outdoor activity interference and
Leq(24) < 55 dB amounts of time, such as school yards,
annoyance
playgrounds, etc.
Indoor activity interference and
Ldn < 45 dB Indoor residential areas
annoyance
Indoor activity interference and Other indoor areas with human activities such as
Leq(24) < 45 dB
annoyance schools, etc.
Ref.: www.avlelec.com, inc.; INTERNET MERCHANT SINCE 1997Protective Noise Levels Condensed Version of EPA
Levels Document

Table 7: OSHA Technical Manual for Dosimeter Readout, in Percent of

Measured Dose

Dosimeter with Dosimeter with

Exposure Conditions threshold set at threshold set at
90 dBA 80 dBA
90 dBA for 8 hours 100.0% 100.0%
89 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 87.0%
85 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 50.0%
80 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 25.0%
79 dBA for 8 hours 0.0% 0.0%
90 dBA for 4 hours plus 80 dBA for 4 hours 50.0% 62.5%
90 dBA for 7 hours plus 89 dBA for 1 hour 87.5% 98.4%
100 dBA for 2 hours plus 89 dBA for 6 hours 100.0% 165.3%
* Assumes 5-dB exchange rate, 90-dBA PEL, ideal threshold
activation, and continuous sound levels.
Ref.: NIOSH [1972], EPA [1973], and the International Standards Organization (ISO) [1971]
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Table 8: Estimated Excess Risk Percentage as a Function of Average Daily

Noise Exposure Over a 40 - year Working Lifetime Reported From Various
Organizations

Average Daily Noise

Reporting Organization Excess Risk
Exposure (dBA)
90 21
ISO 85 10
80 0
90 22
EPA 85 12
80 5
90 29
NIOSH 85 15
80 3
Ref.: NIOSH [1972], EPA [1973], and the International Standards Organization (ISO) [1971]

Table 9: Motor Vehicles Noise, New York City - USA

Column I
Vehicle Characteristics Speed limit of Speed limit of
35 mph or less more than 35 mph
1. Any motor vehicle with a manufacturer‟s gross vehicle rating of
eight thousand pounds or more and any combination of vehicles
86 dB(A) 90 dB(A)
towed by such motor vehicle
2. Any motorcycle other than a motordriven cycle
Before January 1, 1978 82 dB(A) 86 dB(A)
After January 1, 1978 78 dB(A) 82 dB(A)
3. Any other motor vehicle and any combination of vehicles towed by such motor vehicle
Before January 1, 1978 76 dB(A) 82 dB(A)
After January 1, 1978 70 dB(A) 79 dB(A)
Column II
4. Any motor vehicle with a manfacturer's gross vehicle rating of eight
thousand pounds or more and any combination of vehicles towed by 92 dB(A) 96 dB(A)
such motor vehicle
5. Any motorcycle other than a motor driven cycle
Before January 1, 1978 88 dB(A) 92 dB(A)
After January 1, 1978 84 dB(A) 88 dB(A)
6. Any other motor vehicle and any combination of vehicles towed by such motor vehicle

Before January 1, 1978 82 dB(A) 88 dB(A)

After January 1, 1978 76 dB(A) 85 dB(A)

Ref.: Noise Code, Department of Environmental Protection, New York City, March 1998
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Table 10: Ambient Noise Quality Zones, New York City - USA
Ambient Noise
S.N. Features
Quality Zone
Ambient noise quality zones are the classified zones for the entire geographical area of the city on the
basis of those conditions, which affect the ambient noise levels.
Low density residential areas RL presently designated as land-use
N-1
zones R - I, R - 2, and R - 3.
High density residential areas RH presently designated as land-use
N-2
zones R - 4, R - 5, R - 6, R - 7, R - 8, R - 9, and R - 10.
All commercial and industrial areas presently designated as land-
N-3 use zones C - I, C - 2, C - 3, C - 4, C - 5, C - 6, C - 7, C - 8, M - I, M -
2, and M - 3.
Other land-use zones be established, including special zoning
Other
districts.

Ref.: Noise Code, Department of Environmental Protection, New York City, March 1998

Table 11: Noise Standards for Various Ambient Noise Quality Zones, New York City
- USA
Day-time standards Night-time standards
Ambient Noise Quality Zone
(7am - 10pm) (10pm - 7am)
Noise quality zone N-1 (Low density residential RL; land-use zones
Leq, 1hr = 60 dB(A) Leq, 1hr = 50 dB(A)
R-1 to R-3)
Noise quality zone N-2 (High density residential RH; land-use zones
Leq, 1hr = 65 dB(A) Leq, 1hr = 55 dB(A)
R-4 to R-10)
Noise quality zone N-3 (All Commercial and manufacturing land-use
Leq, 1hr = 70 dB(A) Leq, 1hr = 70 dB(A)
zones)
Ref.: Noise Code, Department of Environmental Protection, New York City, March 1998

Table 12: OSHA Noise Exposure Limits for the Work Environment
Noise Exposure Level, dBA Permissible Exposure (Hours & Minutes)
85 16 hrs
87 12 hrs 6 min
90 8 hrs
93 5 hrs 18 min
96 3 hrs 30 min
99 2 hrs 18 min
102 1 hr 30 min
105 1 hr
108 40 min
111 26 min
114 17 min
115 15 min
118 10 min
121 6.6 min
124 4 min
127 3 min
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130 1 min
Note: Exposure above or below the 90 dB limit have been “time weighted” to give what OSHA believes are equivalent
risks to a 90 dB eight - hour exposure.

Ref.: Marsh, 1991, p 322

Table 13: Some Important International Regulations

1. Road Traffic Noise Regulations in Different Countries, Emission Values for

Residential Areas, dB(A)

Country Noise Index Type of Emission Values Daytime Rest time Nighttime

Target values for new roads 60 55

Australia L(10,18h)
Reduction measures at existing
65 -
roads

Planning values for new roads 50 - 55 40 - 45

Austria
Remedial measures at federal
65 -
roads

Canada L(A, eq) 55 50

Target values for new residential
areas
Denmark 55
-
Limiting values for noise reducing
France 60 -
programs

Planning values for new

50 - 55 - 40 - 45
residential areas

Lr = L(A, eq) + k; Limiting values for new and

Germany 59 49
k = 0 … 3dB considerably altered roads

Remedial measures at federal

70 60
roads

Target values for new dwellings 55 42

Strong presumptions against new

63 57
England L(A, eq); L10, 18h dwellings

Insulation regulations for new

68
roads

Planning values for new -

Hong Kong L10 70
residential areas

Italy L(A, eq) Limiting values in some towns 65

Japan L50 Environmental standards for roads 50 - 60 50 - 55 45 - 50

L(A, eq) Environmental standards 65 55

Republic of
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Country Noise Index Type of Emission Values Daytime Rest time Nighttime

Korea

Preferred values for new roads 55 50 45

Maximum allowable value for new

63 - 70 58 - 65 53 - 60
Netherlands roads

Maximum allowable level for

73 - 75 68 - 70 63 - 65
existing roads

Planning values for new roads 55 45

Switzerland Lr Emission impact threshold 60 - 50

Alarm value 70 65

No restrictions for new residential

USA Ldn 65
developments at roads

Ref.: Gottlob, 1994; Sapkota, Balkrishna – Fundamentals of Noise Pollution, 2004

2. Aircraft Noise Regulations in Different Countries

National Noise
Country L(Aeq, 24 h)dB Regulations
Index

< 20 < 53 No restrictions

Australia 20 > 25 … 53 … 58 New dwellings with appropriate insulation

25 >58 New dwellings not allowed

≤ 25 ≤ 57 No restrictions

Canada 28 … 30 60 … 62 New dwellings with appropriate insulation

> 35 > 68 New dwellings not allowed

Denmark ≤ 55 ≤ 51 No restrictions

> 55 > 51 No new dwellings

Support of insulation measures at Airport

> 60 > 56
Copenhagen

< 84 < 62 No restriction (at some airports

France
84 – 89 62 – 71 Insulation for existing dwellings

< 62 < 62 No restrictions in some federal states

Germany
67 … 75 67 … 75 New dwellings only with improved insulation
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National Noise
Country L(Aeq, 24 h)dB Regulations
Index

Noise level reduction (NLR) > 40 dB

No new dwellings, support of insulation at

> 75 > 75
existing dwellings (NLR > 45 dB)

≤ 57 ≤ 55 No restriction

57 … 66 57 … 64 No dwellings only with appropriate insulation

England > 66 > 64 Strong presumptions against new dwellings

> 72 > 70 No new dwellings are allowed

> 69 > 67 Insulation schemes at London airport

< 70 < 54 No restriction

Japan
> 85 > 69 Insulation measures

≤ 35 ≤ 50 No restriction

> 35 > 50 Generally no new residential areas allowed

> 40 > 53 Generally no new dwellings allowed

Netherlands
Support of insulation at existing dwellings
40 - 50 53 - 60
(NRL = 30 - 35dB)

50 - 55 60 - 64 NRL = 35 - 40dB

≤ 55 ≤ 52 No restriction

New Zealand 55 - 65 52 - 62 No dwellings only with appropriate insulation

> 65 > 62 No new residential areas allowed (<35 EPN)

≤ 60 ≤ 55 No restriction

Norway > 60 > 55 No dwellings only with appropriate insulation

60 … 70 55 … 65 Insulation measures

> 45 > 62 No new residential areas allowed

Switzerland
Support insulation: walls > 50dB, windows >
45 - 55 62 - 72
35

≤ 65 ≤ 62 No restriction
USA
New developments not recommended, NLR >
65 - 70 62 - 67
25dB
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National Noise
Country L(Aeq, 24 h)dB Regulations
Index

New developments strongly dis - encouraged,

70 - 75 67 - 72
NLR > 25dB

> 75 > 72 No new development allowed

Ref.: Gottlob, 1994; Sapkota, Balkrishna – Fundamentals of Noise Pollution, 2004

3. Noise Standards, Philippines

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Ref.: Estimation and mapping of vehicular traffic-induced noise along a. bonifacio avenue and sumulong
highway in Marikina City, Aileen U. Mappala , Sheila Flor T. Dominguez -Javier

4. New Zealand Standard 6803

In New Zealand, noise from most construction and maintenance, including roads, is managed in accordance with
New Zealand Standard NZS 6803:1999 ‘Acoustics – Construction Noise’. The NZTA manages and minimises
potentially unreasonable noise effects during state highway construction and maintenance, so far as is practicable,
in accordance with this standard. NZS 6803 provides the following guideline noise limits for construction and
maintenance works. These limits apply outside neighbouring buildings; one metre from the façades and 1.2 to 1.5
metres above the relevant floor level. Updated: Monday, March 1, 2010 - 10:29

Time of week Time period Duration of works at a location

less than 14 days less than 20 weeks more than 20 weeks
LAeq(t) LAFmax LAeq(t) LAFmax LAeq(t) LAFmax
Noise limits at residential neighbours
Weekdays 0630-0730 65 dB 75 dB 60 dB 75 dB 55 dB 75 dB
0730-1800 80 dB 95 dB 75 dB 90 dB 70 dB 85 dB
1800-2000 75 dB 90 dB 70 dB 85 dB 65 dB 80 dB
2000-0630 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
Saturdays 0630-0730 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
0730-1800 80 dB 95 dB 75 dB 90 dB 70 dB 85 dB
1800-2000 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
2000-0630 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
Sundays and public holidays 0630-0730 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
0730-1800 55 dB 85 dB 55 dB 85 dB 55 dB 85 dB
1800-2000 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
2000-0630 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB 45 dB 75 dB
Noise limits at commercial/industrial neighbours
0730-1800 80 dB - 75 dB - 70 dB -
1800-0730 85 dB - 80 dB - 75 dB -
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For each time period there are two noise limits: an average (L Aeq(t)) and a maximum (LAFmax) [acoustics terms]. For typical daytime
construction lasting less than 20 weeks, the guideline limits are 75 dB LAeq(t) and 90 dB LAFmax. The LAeq(t) noise limits for works
lasting less than 20 weeks

5. UK Special
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Ref.: Workers Compensation Board of BC, Vancouver, ARSC Ref. No. 0135-20, Februrary 2000
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Ref.: Highway Traffic Noise Analysis and Abatement Policy and Guidance, US DOT, 1995

NIGHT NOISE GUIDELINES (NNGL) , FOR EUROPE , WHO 2007

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